This page is slowly becoming obsolete, as many tools have been ported to this new hardware. This page describes the potential and limitations of the hardware, many of the specific details regarding support are now dated.
Historically, Macintosh computers running macOS have been popular with brain imaging scientists. Since macOS runs Unix, users can often use the same tools on their laptop as the Linux workstations and super computers used for large datasets. However, this trend may change. First, the new Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) has allowed Windows computers to seamlessly run Unix tools. Second, recent Macintosh computers have switched from Intel x86-64 processors to the ARM-based M1 Apple Silicon. This new architecture must translate existing code, and optimal performance will require tools to be recompiled. These two factors may make scientists reconsider future purchases. This page examines the potential for Apple Silicon to be used in brain imaging.
Unless you are a developer, I would strongly discourage scientists from purchasing an Apple Silicon computer in the short term. Productive work will require core tools to be ported. In the longer term, this architecture could have a profound impact on science. In particular if Apple develops servers that exploit the remarkable power efficiency of their CPUs (competing with AWS Graviton) and leverage the Metal language and GPUs for compute tasks (competing with NVidia's Tesla products and CUDA language).
The infrastructure scientists depend on is not yet available for this architecture. Here are some of the short term limitations:
- Native R can use the unstable R-devel 4.1. However, RStudio will require gdb.
Julia does not yet natively support Apple Silicon.- Python natively supports Apple Silicon. However, some popular neuroimaging libraries like DIPY do not yet natively support this architecture.
Scientific modules of Python, R, and Julia require a Fortran compiler, which is currently only available in experimental form.- While Apple's C Clang compiler generates fast native code, many scientific tools will need to wait until gcc and gFortran compilers are available.
- Tools like VirtualBox, VMware Fusion, Boot Camp and Parallels do not support x86-64 operating systems on Apple Silicon. Many users rely on these tools for using Windows and Linux programs on their macOS computers. Parallels and VMware Fusion Tech Preview support ARM-based Windows and Linux.
- Docker can support Apple Silicon. However, attempts to run Intel-based containers on Apple Silicon machines can crash as QEMU sometimes fails to run the container. These containers are popular with many neuroimaging tools.
- MATLAB is used by many scientific tools, including SPM. While Matlab works in translation, it is not yet available natively (and mex files will need to be recompiled). Note that as of May 5, 2022 beta support for the M1 has been provided.
- FSL does not yet natively support this architecture. While code may work in translation, creating some native tools must wait for compilers and libraries to be updated. This will likely require months.
- The M1 only has four high performance cores, while the M1 Max and M1 Pro are have only eight. Most neuroimaging pipelines combine sequential tasks that only require a single core (where the M1 excels) as well as parallel tasks. Those parallel tasks could exploit a CPU with more cores (as shown in the pigz and niimath tests below). Bear in mind that this mixture of serial and parallel code faces Amdahls law, with diminishing returns for extra cores.
- The original M1 has a maximum of 16 Gb of RAM. Neuroimaging datasets often have large memory demands (especially multi-band accelerated functional, resting-state and diffusion datasets). The M1 Max resolves this issue, with up to 64 Gb of RAM.
- In general, the M1 and Intel-based Macs have identical OpenGL compatibility, with the M1 providing better performance than previous integrated solutions. However, there are corner cases that may break OpenGL tools. Here I describe four limitations. First, OpenGL geometry shaders are not supported (there is no Metal equivalent). Second, the new retina displays support wide color with 16 bitsPerSample that can cause issues for code that assumes 32-bit RGBA textures (such as the text in this Apple example code). Third, textures can be handled differently. Fourth, use of the GL_INT_2_10_10_10_REV data type will cripple performance (tested on macOS 11.2). This is unfortunate, as Apple advocated for this datatype once upon a time. In this case, code msut be changed to use the less compact GL_HALF_FLOAT which is natively supported by the M1 GPU. This impacts neuroimaging scientists visualizing DTI tractography where GPU resources can be overwhelmed.
There are some inherent weaknesses to using Macintosh for brain imaging:
- NVidia graphics cards and therefore the CUDA language are not supported. Tools like eddy, Probtrackx and Bedpostx are dramatically accelerated by this technology. Further, CUDA supports both single and double-precision computations, whereas Apple's competing Metal currently only supports single-precision computations. Single precision is sufficient for many tasks (e.g. probabilistic solutions like eddy, Probtrackx, Bedpostx), but is a limitation for some statistics.
- While Linux is open-source, Apple's software is not. While some of Apple's attempts to protect users computers may be well intentioned, they have had unintended consequences. A primary tenet of science is replication, and therefore transparent open source code has strong appeal. Scientists often share applications they develop with each other, and recent security features introduced by Apple can challenge this. Scientists, hobbyists and others who are not full time macOS developers will find it difficult and expensive to support the complex security features of macOS. Features like Gatekeeper Path Randomization, the requirement for all native Apple Silicon executables to be code signed (locally with
codesign -s - exename), quarantine of untrusted libraries (e.g. SPM and FSL both require calls likexattr -dr com.apple.quarantine *.dylib) and application notarization (which requires a $99 per year developer subscription) are all impediments for scientific applications. - Apple's Developer Tools are not competitive. Despite paying annual fees, 3rd party developers are treated unprofessionally: issues logged with the Feedback Assistant get no response, no work arounds are provided, developer documentation is poor, changes are not documented (so exisitng documentation is often inaccurate), major bugs are not documented and often left unfixed for years. In brief, the virtuous cycle of development and refinement that is seen in open source and other professional projects is absent. Despite being one of the worlds most profitable companies, Apple appears to have made virtually no investment in creating mutually beneficial relationships with developers and scientists. Specific examples described below include the hugely popular NumPy and SciPy projects, which have defaulted to functional but unoptimized solutions on Apple devices due to lack of support. Therefore, while artificial benchmarks may showcase the potential of Apple hardware, users will often being using inefficient solutions. This means that the theoretical potential of Apple systems is rarely realized in practice. Resolution requires Apple to refocus or expand their developer ecosystem engineering team. Recently (Nov 2021) there is sign of hope, with Apple's Developer Ecosystem Engineering suggesting patches for NumPy and NumPy 1.2.1 enabling Apple's Accelerate Framework.
- Recent changes to macOS mean it should be avoided for visual stimulation, DAQ digital/analog i/o, and running real time data collection. Therefore, scientists may find macOS computers are only suitable for specific niches, and are not good for all purposes.
- Apple has deprecated OpenGL encouraging developers to move to their modern Metal framework. Many scientific tools use OpenGL, and it is unrealistic to expect these developers to port their proven, robust tools. A few of the popular scientific tools that rely on OpenGL includes FreeSurfer, Connectome Workbench, AFNI, FSLeyes, Matlab, and Slicer 3D. It should be noted that OpenGL support for Apple Silicon is very good. It is unclear whether
deprecatedmeanswill not be updatedorwill be removed in an upcoming version of macOS. If OpenGL support is removed, the operating system is no longer viable for neuroimaging research. Without clarification, developers of scientific software must seriously consider the investment they should make in supporting this operating system.
Initial reviews have suggested Apple's M1 CPU has outstanding performance. It includes Rosetta2, that will translate most x86-64 programs to Apple Silicon (AArch64) instructions providing seamless operation and reasonable performance. Indeed, as illustrated below the compatibility and performance of Rosetta2 is very impressive. There are specific features that are appealing for neuroimaging.
- Of particular note for brain scientists is the incredible memory bandwidth and the ability of single cores to efficiently leverage this resource. Our field has large datasets that tend to be memory rather than computation bound (the memory wall).
- While some operations lend themselves to the CPU, others are ideal for the GPU. An analogy would be transport via jet plane (CPU: moving a small amount fast), or super tanker (GPU: moving a huge amount with longer latency). However, many operations require sharing data between the CPU and GPU so memory transfer can be the bottleneck. In contrast, the Apple M1 chip has unified memory, allowing the GPU and CPU to share memory without penalty.
Four computers were tested:
- MacBook Pro (2018) with Intel i5-8259u (28w) four-core, eight-thread, maximum bandwidth 37.5 GB/s, integrated GPU. Cache 64 kb/core L1, 256 kb/core L2, 6 mb shared L3.
- Ubuntu 18.04 Intel i7-8700k (95w) six-core, twelve-thread, maximum bandwidth 41.6 GB/s, with NVidia GTX 1080 Ti (250w) GPU. Cache 64 kb/core L1, 256 kb/core L2, 12 mb shared L3.
- Ubuntu 20.04 AMD Ryzen 9 3900X (105w) twelve-core, twenty-four-thread, maximum bandwidth 47.68 GB/s, with NVidia GTX 1080 Ti (250w) GPU. Cache 64 kb/core L1, 512 kb/core L2, 64 mb shared L3. Tests were run on a RAM disk to maximize memory performance.
- MacBook Air (2020) with Apple Silicon M1 (~15w) with four fast cores plus four efficiency cores, maximum bandwidth 68.25GB/s, and integrated GPU (8 Gb RAM, 256 Gb SSD, 7 GPUs). Cache 320 kb/core L1, 12 mb shared L2. Note this configuration does not have active cooling, so performance is thermally constrained (for example, the Mac mini M1 is faster for sustained workloads).
AFNI is a popular software suite for brain imaging. It is a collection of executables written in C. It can be compiled to run natively on the Apple Silicon CPUs.
AFNI provides a Bigger Speed Test which a 1.67 GHz G4 PowerBook (released in 2005) laptop was able to complete in 3081 seconds (this is a nice reference, as it was the fastest non-Intel based laptop sold by Apple prior to the M1-based Macs). In contrast, the M1 completes this in 47 seconds. In the graph below, the computation time is presented on the vertical axis (with less time indicating faster performance) and the number of threads shown on the horizontal axis. In this test, the M1 shows very similar performance for using just the four performance cores versus also using the efficiency cores. All systems show diminishing returns for additional cores, presumably reflecting both Amdahl's law and that the memory bandwidth is being saturated. Despite this effect, the sheer number of cores in the 3900X yields the best performance.
The three cloud servers: the Ampere Altra, Intel 8358 and particularly the AMD 7551 do not show great scaling, as discussed separately.
The graph below shows the total time to compute the AFNI_data6 s01.ap.simple script. This is a complete pipeline, analyzing fMRI activity observed in 452 volumes of data. Some programs like 3dClustSim use OpenMP acceleration (where the 12 cores of the Ryzen help), while many stages are single-threaded. This is a nice demonstration of the real world performance of this architecture for a typical dataset.
dcm2niix is used to convert the complicated DICOM format used in medical imaging to the simple NIfTI format popular in scientific neuroimaging. While the DICOM format allows several forms of image compression, images are typically stored uncompressed. Image conversion typically only requires a small amount of time relative to the subsequent processing and statistics. However, since dcm2niix can be easily compiled for the M1, it is an easy tool to benchmark. Here we convert 1296 DICOM uncompressed images (1.6 Gb) to uncompressed NIfTI (dcm2niix can use pigz for compression, which we evaluate separately). The graph below shows conversion times, with lower values indicating faster performance.
As previously noted, many scientific tools require a Fortran compiler. An experimental build of the open source gFortran compiler has just been released. The preliminary performance for this nascent gFortran tool is described on a separate page.
fslmaths handles much of the internal processing for FSL, and is a popular stand-alone tool for computation. While FSL is not yet compiled for Apple Silicon, translations run seamlessly. On the other hand, the niimath clone can be compiled for Apple Silicon.
The graph shows the geometric mean for four computations (de-meaning, temporal filtering, Gaussian smoothing, image dilation) with lower values indicating faster performance. FSL denotes the performance of fslmaths. Serial is the performance of niimath using a single thread. Parallel is niimath using OpenMP. The native serial M1 code is faster than the translated code, but this is not the case for the parallel code. This might reflect that both are using the native pigz for compression, and note that gcc was used to compile the translated code while clang was used for the native code (perhaps OpenMP is not as finely tuned with clang).
MRIcroGL is a used for visualization of neuroimaging data supporting volume rendering. It is available for Linux, Windows and macOS. For macOS, a universal binary is provided that runs natively on both x86-64 and Apple Silicon. For Windows and Linux, OpenGL is used for visualization and some compute. For macOS versions are available for both OpenGL and Metal. The latter was used here (while deprecated on macOS, OpenGL performs well, albeit a bit slower). Testing involved a digimorph desert iguana that used two 512mb textures of GPU memory.
The first test examines the CPU performance, looking at the loading, scaling and transformation of the image data. Two times are reported for native code on the M1: code generated by the beta release of FPC with optimization disabled (due to known optimization bugs), the second using Apple's mature LLVM/Clang with optimization enabled.
The second test examines the GPU compute performance, looking at generation of the intensity gradients. While many have been critical of Intel integrated graphics, the i5-8259u includes the Iris Plus Graphics 655 with 128 MB eDRAM and 48 execution units (whereas most contemporary Intel GPUs had no eDRAM and half the number of execution units). The 8700K and 3900X both use the powerful 250w NVidia GTX 1080 Ti. In this light, the combination of the Metal compute language and the M1 GPU provides compelling performance.
NiBabel is a collection of neuroimaging related Python scripts and utilities. It provides benchmarks for performance and regression testing.
Python natively supports the M1 including native support for many popular libraries including numpy and scipy (though not DIPY). Users will want to ensure that they install numpy 1.23 or later to exploit SIMD optimizations).
Note that many Python libraries do not yet support this hardware, so in practice you will have to disable this version for many tasks (conda deactivate). It does seem like packages that do not install with pip can be installed using commands of the form conda install opencv.
The graph shows the geometric mean for the benchmarks with lower values indicating faster performance. This graph includes performance for two cloud-based ARM CPUs: the Amazon Graviton Neoverse-N1 and the Oracle cloud Ampere Altra A1.
Many computational tasks can be run in parallel, leveraging the fact that modern CPUs and GPUs have many independent cores. OpenMP is a popular library for enabling parallel computation (e.g. afni, freesurfer, FSL and niimath). Here we test a simple benchmark that simulates computing a 1D Gaussian blur for a large 4D resting-state dataset. While Apple does not provide OpenMP with its compilers, it is simple to add this library (as described here). For the Intel and AMD CPUs, both the gcc and Clang/LLVM compilers were tested. They performed similarly, so Clang times are provided for all computers.
The graph shows the geometric mean for the benchmarks with lower values indicating faster performance. Serial shows the performance for a single core, while parallel uses all available threads (24 for the 3900X and 8 for the 8259U and M1). One can also explicitly specify the number of threads. This reveals that SMT (for the 8259U and 3900X) and the efficiency cores (for the M1) provide little benefit (not shown). The main message here is that the M1 performance cores show good parallel scaling.
The GZip compression format is a staple of neuroimaging, with NIfTI images often stored in GZip format. The compression is slow (relative to decompression), but the pigz tool can use multiple threads to accelerate compression. Indeed, popular tools like AFNI and dcm2niix can use pigz. A previous review of the Apple M1 CPU examined pigz, however that review only examined the conventional version. Here we compare both conventional pigz with an accelerated version using the CloudFlare zlib which leverages dedicated hardware in both Intel and ARM computers. Here we tested compression of the Silesia compression corpus using a simple script.
The graph shows compression performance as megabytes per second, with higher values indicating faster performance. The horizontal axes shows the number of threads, with actual values for 1..4 and 5 representing the use of all available threads (e.g. 8 threads for the M1 but 24 for the 3900X). The shaded color for each line illustrates the performance difference between the standard pigz (bottom of shaded region) and the CloudFlare pigz (top of shaded region). The M1pro entry refers to the base model M1 Pro CPU (with 6 performance cores and 2 efficiency cores).
POSIX Threads is a low-level method for handling parallel threads. Here we test C-Ray a simple raytracing benchmark by John Tsiombikas that provides a measure of parallel floating point CPU performance. The small size means it can be contained in cache, so it is not a great measure of typical performance with real world datasets. On the other hand, it is very portable and has been used for many years. This allows us to make historical comparisons. Specifically, here we provide data for SGI Depot Test 3 where the scene 'sphfract' is rendered at 1024x768 with 8X oversampling. This allows you to compare the Apple M1 to vintage CPUs like the IBM POWER3, Sun UltraSPARC IIIi, DEC Alpha 21164, Intel Itanium, and the vaunted SGI Origin350. The table below only includes the performance for the M1, 3900X and SGI O2. In many ways, the O2 can be seen as the M1 of its day: unified memory shared for compute and graphics with vertical integration of software and CPU. The M1 is 192 times faster than the fastest O2 and 962 times faster than the base model.
This table includes an Intel Alder Lake 12900HK with 45w base power and 115w peak featured in a Dell Alienware x17 r2 laptop. Thanks to brainhack_cloud and Oracle we can also evaluate an 3.0 GHz Ampere Altra with access to 160 cores and 1 TB of RAM. The single threaded performance for this task is not impressive, but the low cost of usage and huge numbers of threads make this compelling for many applications.
Rank System/CPU (msec) Threads Tester Compiler System/OS/Compile Line Reference/etc.
Ampere Altra A1 3.0GHz 160-core 413 200 cr gcc 8.5.0 Oracle Linux 8.6
AMD EPYC 7551 32-core 2.0-2.55 GHz 865 200 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 22.04. Default make settings
Intel Xeon 8358 32-core 2.6-3.4 GHz 867 200 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 22.04. Default make settings
Ryzen 5950X 16-core 3.4-4.9GHz 1376 120 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 21.11. Default make settings
Apple M2 Pro 12-core (8 big) 3.7GHz 1640 64 cr clang version 14.0.0 macOS 13.3. Default make settings
Ryzen 3900X 12-core 3.8-4.6GHz 1908 120 cr gcc 9.3 Ubuntu 20.04. Default make settings
Intel i9 12900HK 2.5-5.0GHz 2320 120 lb
Apple M1 Pro 10-core (8 big) 3.2GHz 2712 64 cr clang version 13.0.0 macOS 12.0. Default make settings
Apple M1 Pro 8-core (6 big) 3.2GHz 3487 64 cr clang version 13.0.0 macOS 12.0. Default make settings
Apple M1 8-core (4 big) 3.2GHz 4588 64 cr clang version 12.0.0 macOS 11.2. Default make settings
Intel i5-8259u 4-core 2.3GHz 11827 64 cr clang version 11.0.0 macOS 10.14. Default make settings
Apple M2 Pro 12-core (8 big) 3.7GHz 14014 1 cr clang version 14.0.0 macOS 13.3. Default make settings
Intel i9 12900HK 2.5-5.0GHz 17301 1 lb
Ryzen 5950X 16-core 3.4-4.9GHz 19605 1 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 21.11. Default make settings
Apple M1 Pro 8-core (6 big) 3.2GHz 21334 1 cr clang version 13.0.0 macOS 12.0. Default make settings
Apple M1 Pro 10-core (8 big) 3.2GHz 21411 1 cr clang version 13.0.0 macOS 12.0. Default make settings
Apple M1 8-core (4 big) 3.2GHz 21816 1 cr clang version 12.0.0 macOS 11.2. Default make settings
Ryzen 3900X 12-core 3.8-4.6GHz 21981 1 cr gcc 9.3 Ubuntu 20.04. Default make settings
Intel Xeon 8358 64-core 2.6-3.4 GHz 34091 1 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 22.04. Default make settings
AMD EPYC 7551 32-core 2.0-2.55 GHz 34430 1 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 22.04. Default make settings
Ampere Altra A1 3.0GHz 160-core 34563 1 cr gcc 8.5.0 Oracle Linux 8.6
Amazon Graviton Neoverse-N1 41342 1 cr gcc 11.2 Ubuntu 22.04. Default make settings
Intel i5-8259u 4-core 2.3GHz 72753 1 cr clang version 11.0.0 macOS 10.14. Default make settings
...
O2 R12K/400 (2MB) 880381 1 mapesdhs - IRIX
O2 R5000PC/180 4415713 1 mapesdhs - IRIX
Users have been able to natively compile R and report good performance on benchmarks as well as noting that the translated R has some problems with the interpreter. Presumably, this user compiled R with the experimental gFortran. This suggests R may soon provide robust support for this architecture. In the short term, R users should be aware of R's expectations for NaN values. Until this situation is resolved, users should be wary of using R on this architecture.
SPM12 is one of the dominant tools used for brain imaging. It uses Matlab along with compiled C code (mex files), both of which must currently be translated. In addition, the macOS is wary of the downloaded mex files, which look like malware. Therefore, users must explicitly provide permission for these to be executed with a command like xattr -dr com.apple.quarantine *.mexmaci64. To evaluate the performance of SPM, I installed the Clinical Toolbox and timed the processing of the included tutorial dataset (tic; clinical_mrnorm('T1.nii','lesionT2.nii','T2.nii'); toc). Lower values indicate faster performance. The open source Octave is available natively for the M1, and SPM can compile native mex files. However, in limited testing native Octave was slower than Matlab in translation.
Surfice is a used for visualization of neuroimaging data supporting mesh rendering. It is available for Linux, Windows and as a universal binary for MacOS (supporting both Intel and M1 CPUs). Unlike volume rendering, mesh rendering requires that the raw voxel data from MRI and CT scans is converted to a mesh of triangles. Subsequently, we want to adaptively simplify the mesh, reducing the number of triangular faces while preserving curvature. For this task, Surfice provides a command for fast quadric mesh simplification. To examine performance of different CPUs, we will apply a 95% reduction to a brain mesh. The figure below shows the original mesh (left column, 1486759 triangles) and the simplified mesh (right column, 74326 triangles). The upper row shows the rendered meshes - note how similar the meshes look. The lower row shows the triangles, illustrating the dramatic reduction in triangles.
In this implementation, mesh simplification is a single-threaded test of CPU performance. The M1 dominates this test.
Tools like SPM use the value Not a Number to signify data that should be ignored (e.g. voxels outside the brain). Any computation (addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc) that includes a NaN will result in a NaN. Old timers will remember the launch of the Pentium 4 which had remarkable performance on paper, but exhibited poor performance with SPM. This was because the Pentium 4 floating point unit (FPU) had a huge penalty for any computation with a NaN. Users had to recompile their software to use the vectorized SSE instructions which did not exhibit this penalty. Testing of the C and Matlab code suggests that the M1 does not exhibit a NaN penalty, and indeed can be faster for NaNs (since no real computation needs to be done).
While 32-bit (FP32) computations are sufficient for most needs, some scientific tools demand double-precision floating-point format (FP64). Indeed, tools like Matlab use FP64 by default and are tuned for this datatype. FP64 has demands for speed, efficiency and bandwidth. It is common for consumer devices like video gaming graphics cards to devote fewer resources to FP64 than graphics cards used for industrial compute applications. Given the M1's heritage as a processor for consumer mobile phones, one might wonder if the FP64 performance has been compromised.
Floating-point performance was tested with a simple C program that compares classic scalar C code with code that explicitly uses vectorized SIMD (single instruction, multiple data). Note a smart compiler might be able to vectorize C code. In the graph below, the square-root is calculated independently for 808704000 voxels emulating a resting state dataset. Conducting a single computation on a huge array is cache inefficient, but typical behavior for many neuroimaging tools. Therefore, on many platforms this test may be constrained by memory bandwidth rather than computational power.
The x86-64 architecture provides 128-bit SSE instructions (which can handle x4 32-bit computations or x2 64-bit computations at once), 256-bit AVX (x8, x4), and (untested) 512-bit AVX-512 (x16, x8). Note that using these power-hungry instructions can lead to a reduction in clock frequency. The Apple M1 includes 128-bit Neon instructions, but not the upcoming Scalable Vector Extension (SVE) instructions.
The graph shows milliseconds to compute square-root for 808704000 voxels, with lower values indicating faster performance. The blue, orange and green bars are performance for FP32 computations (scalar, 128-bit and 256-bit SIMD respectively), and the red, purple and brown show FP64. The i5-8259u appears constrained by the bandwidth of its lower power memory, as explicit vector instructions do not improve performance (the increasing time for the first three bars may reflect thermal throttling, as these were run sequentially). Obviously, all systems show a penalty for 64-bit versus 32-bit precision. The Ryzen 3900X has outstanding floating-point abilities, combined with high-performance (albeit power hungry) memory. The M1 shows no benefit from explicit use of Neon instructions, suggesting either the compiler implicitly uses them or this task is memory constrained. While the M1 is slower for double-precision (64-bit) versus single-precision (32-bit) computations, this is a stunning performance considering the 10w power envelope.
Matrix computations form the basis of many stages of neuroimaging processing and analysis. The command sysctl -a | grep amx reveals that the M1 supports AMX version 2 instructions which provides 512-bit double-precision and 1024-bit single-precision SIMD computations. While not documented, these instructions can be accessed via the Accelerate framework including vecLib, vImage, libBLAS, libBNNS, vDSP and LAPACK. The double-precision performance is particularly interesting, as Metal currently only supports single-precision. Since Apple uses the same function names (e.g. cblas_dgemm) as other Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms (BLAS) libraries available for Windows and Unix, one can exploit this new hardware by simpling compiling software linked to the Apple Accelerate framework.
However, developers and users should be aware that not all Accelerate functions perform identically to their BLAS counterparts. NumPy 1.2.1 enables Apple's Accelerate Framework. However, SciPy dropped support for Accelerate, despite supporting other non-open source BLAS libraries like Intel's MKL. Therefore, while Apple's Accelerate framework may yield excellent performance in simple benchmarks like those presented here, this may not predict typical performance of front line tools. Specifically, users with Intel/AMD CPUs can exploit the MKL with typical tools. In contrast, users of Apple's M1 may be limited to the openblas performance.
Apple also provides the GPU-based Metal MPSMatrixMultiplication function. However, this function has a series of limitations that make it unsuitable for many neuroimaging applications. Fortunately, AMX outperforms Metal for single precision, provides double precision support, and does not carry the crippling limitations.
Here we conduct a simple test of matrix multiplication (source code main_mmul.cpp), using a dataset designed to mimic the permutation thresholding provided by PALM and NiiStat. Specifically, we calculate the matrix multiplication C[m][n] = A[m][p] * B[p][n] where m = 485776, n = 16, p = 120. This simulates the main computation for a permutation thresholded general linear model analysis (specifically, a voxel-based morphometry analysis where 485776 voxels are in the brain, there are 120 participants and a model with one effect of interest and 15 nuisance regressors). Note that this computation will be conducted thousands of times.
The graph below shows time to complete this computation, with lower values illustrating better performance. The 32 and 64 labels show 32-bit single-precision and 64-bit double precision compuation. The scalar values use the popular and intuitive C solution without any common optimizations. The blas value shows performance for the optimized cblas_dgemm() function (using openblas). The accel refers to Apple's Accelerate framework (cblas_dgemm() and vDSP_mmulD() perform identiclly). Ryzen values are also shown for the free but not open-source Intel Math Kernel Library (MKL) and NVidia CUDA (cuda) libraries. The CUDA function uses the GTX 1080 Ti graphics card (see the cuda_mmul.cu source code). The timings for CUDA include the substantial memory transfer times between the CPU and GPU memory. Finally, the source code reports the maximum difference observed between the scalar and blas results, with negligible errors on the order of 1e-14 (one does not expect identical results, as optimized methods can use fused multiply-add operations that reduce rounding errors). The poor scalar performance of the M1 relative to the Ryzen presumably reflects the large L3 cache of the Ryzen, which can be addressed through the optimzation tricks of the dedicated libraries.
Beyond this floating point performance, the M1 shows impressive integer division performance that can be further accelerated using SIMD.
It is remarkable that the M1 CPU in the MacBook Air has no fan, yet holds its own in these neuroimaging benchmarks. The promise of this architecture is hard to deny.
Here is the status of a few tools I have evaluated. This selection is necessarily biased by my own tasks.
- Native support
- Translated Applications Appear to Function (
strikethroughindicates tools that offer native support in early 2023)- FreeSurfer
FSL- Slicer
- SPM12, native support in development release
Paraview- MRtrix mrview geometry shaders
In late 2021 Apple released the M1 Pro and M1 Max. These include 6-8 performance CPUs, 2 efficiency CPUs, and 14-32 GPU cores, more RAM bandwidth, faster disks, and allow for more RAM. Similar to more extensive tests by others, the single-threaded performance is relatively unchanged, while multi-threaded operations can see a dramatic boost. These new computers seem targeted for Apple's core markets of photography, audio and video production. This page now includes details of from a base model M1 Pro (with 6 performance cores).
Several core tools used in neuroimaging continue to run in translation, including FSL and Matlab 2021b. The GPU in the original M1 was already sufficient for visualization. The GPUs still do not support double precision calculations, and Apple does not support tools that aid in porting CUDA tools to Metal (e.g. AMDs GPUFORT). Therefore, neuroimaging tools can not harness the immense computational promise of the M1 Max GPU. If future hardware addresses these limitations, Apple Silicon would be well positioned for scientific applications.
Several tests now also include data for the Ryzen AMD 5950X, which does show improved per-thread performance relative its predecessors.
In the middle of 2022 Apple released the M2 CPU. While the M1 was based on the iPhone A14 CPU, the M2 is based on the A15. Reviews of the A15 suggest little improvement for the performance cores, substantial improvement for the efficiency cores, and dramatic improvement for the GPU. For neuroimaging, the main benefit is the increase of bandwidth from 68GB/s to 100GB/s, and improved multithreading performance. Note that the M1 Pro and Max already have more bandwidth and have a higher ratio of performance to efficiency cores than the original M1. Therefore, while the M2 is a meaningful improvement over the original M1, it does not threaten the larger M1 Pro and M1 Max. The M2 does not support Scalable Vector Extensions (SVE) and its GPU still does not support double precision. Therefore, it does not substantially change the original findings of this evaluation.
While Apple does not create cloud servers, both Amazon (Graviton CPUs) and Oracle (Altra CPUs) provide ARM-based instances. In theory, these provide much lower costs than x86-64 instances. The afni and posix sections above include the performance of three Oracle servers, using credits provided by brainhack_cloud: the x86-64 Intel Xeon 8358 32-core 2.6-3.4 GHz, x86-64 AMD EPYC 7551 32-core 2.0-2.55 GHz and the ARM-based Ampere Altra A1 3.0GHz 160-core instances. The Altra appears to hold its own with the direct competitors, suggesting reasonable bandwidth and floating point performance. The parallel AFNI test is really outside the niche of the cloud computers: server CPUs are run at low frequencies to maximize energy efficiency, and the Intel and AMD computers throttle substantially when many cores are loaded. An appropriate way for neuroimagers to use the cloud is to develop their scripts locally on single subjects (where time to process a single individual is the rate limiting factor) and then to process all of the data from many individuals in parallel on the cloud. The Apple M1 CPUs help fill developers have a local computer that uses the same conventions as the most financially affordable cloud solutions. However, more work will be required to bring all the tools used in neuroimaging to the ARM-based cloud instances.
The motivation for this page was to evaluate the M1 with the tools and datasets popular for neuroimaging. The pages linked below test the M1 for other tasks, including synthetic benchmarks. Experts like Francois Piednoel have raised concerns that some of the older synthetic benchmarks are unrealistic for modern tasks, and are biased by the large L1 cache found in the M1.
- AnandTech provides a deep dive into the workings of the new M1 chip and its performance.
- Arstechnica reviews M1 performance.
- Forbes provides a more tempered review, noting issues that early adopters may face.
- Phoronix explores native and translated M1 performance on many benchmarks.
- PugetSystems examines M1 laptops versus x86-64 workstations. The professional applications leverage multiple threads and modern GPUs to the hilt.
- Suhun Han investigates M1 Java performance, including the SciMark (and also uses the AMD 3900X as a reference).
- Tuh Do evaluates the M1, Ryzen 3900X and more latest 5800X CPUs.
- Dario Radeč compares Intel and M1 MacBooks.
- Dimitrios Kechagias describes Perl performance on the M1
- Will Usher explores ray tracing performance on the M1.
- Yining Karl Li provides notes and benchmarks for adapting his Takua Renderer to the M1, see part 1 and part2