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<h2>Literature</h2>
<h3>Papers</h3>
<ul>
<li>McPhail, B., Clement, A., Ferenbok, J., and Johnson, A. (2014). <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6824321&isnumber=6824300" target="blank">"I'll Be Watching You."</a> <em>Technology and Society Magazine 33(2)</em> (53-63). IEEE.</li>
<li>McPhail, B., Clement, A., Ferenbok, J., and Johnson, A. (2013). <a href="downloads/McPhail et al ISTAS2013final.pdf" target="blank">I'll Be Watching You: Awareness, consent, compliance and accountability in video surveillance.</a> <em>Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society (ISTAS).</em></li>
<li>Ferenbok, J., McPhail, B., Dehghan, R., Cybulski, A., and Clement, A. (2013). <em><a href="downloads/Final Report July15_OPC_WHOISWATCHINGYOU.pdf" target="blank">Who is Watching You? And Why? What do Canadians know about their video/visual privacy?</a></em></li>
<li>Clement, A., Ferenbok, J., Dehghan, R., Kaminker, L., and Kanev, S. (2012). <a href="downloads/Clement_Ferenbok_etal_PrivateSectorVideoSurveillanceinToronto-NotPrivacyCompliant.pdf" target="_blank">Private Sector Video Surveillance in Toronto: Not Privacy Compliant!</a> <em>Proceedings of the 2012 iConference</em>, 354-362.</li>
<li>Ferenbok, J., and Clement, A. (2011).<a href="downloads/Chapter 13 - Ferenbok and Clement.pdf" target="_blank">Hidden Changes: From CCTV cameras to networked surveillant assemblages</a>. (Pre-publication proof). Chapter 13 in A. Doyle, R. Lippert & D. Lyon (Eds.), <em>Eyes Everywhere: The Global Growth of Camera Surveillance</em> (218-234). Routledge.</li>
<li>Clement, A., and Ferenbok, J. (2011). <a href="downloads/Chapter 19 - Clement and Ferenbok.pdf" target="_blank">Mitigating Asymmetric Visibilities: Towards a Signage Code for Surveillance Camera Networks</a>. (Pre-publication proof). Chapter 19 in A. Doyle, R. Lippert & D. Lyon (Eds.), <em>Eyes Everywhere: The Global Growth of Camera Surveillance</em> (309-332). Routledge.</li>
</ul>
<!-- <h3>Presentations</h3>
<ul>
<li><em>Private Eyes in Public Places: Signage and PIPEDA (Non) Compliance</em> (Presentation)</li>
<li><em>Private Eyes Video Surveillance </em>(Presentation)</li>
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-->
<h3>Related Projects and Websites</h3>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.sscqueens.org/projects/the-new-transparency">The New Transparency, Queens University </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.sscqueens.org/">Surveillance Study Center Queens University </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.ipc.on.ca/english/Home-Page/">Information and Privacy Commissioner, of Ontario Canada </a></li>
<li><a href="http://iprp.ischool.utoronto.ca/">Information Policy Research Program, University of Toronto </a></li>
<li><a href="http://library.queensu.ca/ojs/index.php/surveillance-and-society/index">Surveillance & Society </a> </li>
</ul>
<h3>Visual Surveillance References with abstracts (a work in progress)</h3>
<h3>CCTV</h3>
<h4>Beaumont, Ela. (2005). “Using CCTV to study visitors in The New Art Gallery, Walsall, UK.” Surveillance & Society 3 (2/3): 251-269.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The routine use of CCTV surveillance in new art galleries in the UK presents an opportunity for researchers to harness its potential as a powerful observational tool in visitor studies, and recent developments in video technology have created new possibilities for observational research. Recent studies using video observation methods in the UK, France and the US have demonstrated how powerful film data can be, but have also shown the difficulties in operationalising studies that use these techniques. The analysis of video data is in its infancy in the field of art gallery visitor studies, and this paper contributes to the theoretical, ethical and practical debate by discussing a recent observational visitor study using in-house CCTV cameras in the New Art Gallery, Walsall. The study demonstrates significant advances on previous observational visitor studies that have gathered ‘covert observational data’. It show how CCTV footage can be used to gather naturally occurring visitor activities in a highly structured way, without disrupting the gallery with extra cameras or microphones and yielding increasingly detailed, useful information. It opens up the prospect of a wider ideological debate about the use of CCTV in art galleries, and contributes to work in progress on a code of ethics for video observation in visitor studies.</p>
<h4>Cameron, Heather. (2004). “CCTV and (In)dividuation.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 136-144.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This essay draws on work of Freud and Foucault to understand emerging converging aspects of visual surveillance and tracking technology. It discusses some of the general problems with video surveillance – due to its reliance on a flattened version of the visual realm, its partial view, and assumptions about human vision. It then moves on to show how CCTV has changed from the monitoring of flows to identifying individuals and functioning as the human interface for new databank applications, using Foucault’s reflections on governmentality. The essay ends by detailing a controversial test of video surveillance and RFID tags which point out some new dangers for us to consider, and argues that we should resist the ‘flat fantasy’ offered by video surveillance.</p>
<h4>Carroll-Mayer, Moira, Ben Fairweather & Bernd Carsten Stahl. (2008). “CCTV identity management and implications for criminal justice: some considerations.” Surveillance & Society 5(1): 33-50.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The UK Presidency of the European Union called for an expansive, mandatory policy of surveillance technologies aimed at the reduction of crime and the protection of citizens. Research indicates that the efficacy for this task of the technology, epitomised by CCTV, cannot be taken for granted. This paper asks whether the effects of the technological surveillance environment may be more problematic than currently posited in the literature to the extent that they render more vulnerable and undermine the identities of those they are pledged to safeguard. Much of the literature in surveillance studies debates whether surveillance technology, particularly CCTV, has the effects of crime reduction and prevention attributed to it by proponents. This paper goes one step further and through a process of critical analysis explores the import for individuals subjected to the process of surveillance technologies epitomized by CCTV. In particular the paper addresses the question as it is perceived through the postmodernist agenda. Accordingly in the process of critical analysis the paper considers the effects of transcarceration, the phenetic fix and the technological imperative.</p>
<h4>Cole, Mark. (2004). “Signage and surveillance: Interrogating the textual context of CCTV in the UK.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 430-445.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The UK is one of the most surveilled societies in the World. CCTV systems prevail in both private and public space. Since 2000, a Code of Practice has required that signage is clearly deployed to advise of the existence of those systems wherever they are in use. Throughout 2002, examples of that signage were captured photographically, culminating in an exhibition of this material in October of that year. While arguing that the signage works closely in conjunction with the technological systems to which it refers, this paper focuses on this textual superstructure, using a Foucauldian approach as a means of shaping the discussion. It concludes that the signage itself has a number of possible effects. Most significantly, it argues that these texts, outwith the technological structures to which they refer, actively and substantially facilitate the ‘automatic functioning of power’.</p>
<h4>Coleman, Roy. (2004). “Reclaiming the streets: Closed circuit television, neoliberalism and the mystification of social divisions in Liverpool, UK.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 293-309.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The normalisation of camera surveillance on the streets of the UK raises profound questions about the strategies of contemporary urban political rule and the material and ideological re-mapping of urban space. Firstly, this paper will argue that an understanding of street camera surveillance requires a consideration of the operation of neoliberalism at the local level [in this case Liverpool on the north west coast of England] through a myriad of ‘partnership’ arrangements that have shifted the terrain of local democracy and the meanings of both the public interest and social justice. Secondly, in using case material from a paradigmatic neoliberalising city, the paper argues that surveillance cameras are part of a social control strategy that seeks to hide the consequences of neoliberalisation in creating a particular ambience and exclusivity regarding ‘public’ spaces. Thirdly, the paper critically considers whether we can understand visual surveillance as a technique for the ‘exclusion of difference’ in urban space or as a tool that suppresses the reality of social divisions.</p>
<h4>Dubbeld, Lynsey. (2004) “Protecting Personal Data in Camera Surveillance Practices.” Surveillance & Society 2(4): 546-563.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper explores in which ways privacy (in particular, data protection principles) comes to the fore in the day-to-day operation of a public video surveillance system. Starting from current European legal perspectives on data protection, and building on an empirical case study, the meanings and management of privacy in the practice of Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) will be discussed in order to identify the ways in which data protection is addressed in the operation of a video surveillance system. The case study suggests that views expressed by actors involved in the use of CCTV and the organisational and technical measures that have been employed, are related to a number of data protection issues, in particular principles regarding data quality. In addition, the case shows that while regulations (consisting in particular of organisational procedures) pertaining to the permissibility of data processing can be discerned in the practice of centralised CCTV, few indications exist that mechanisms taking into account data subjects’ rights were established. Therefore, the system of video surveillance discussed in this paper suggests that different elements of data protection feature in different ways in the context of CCTV. This finding gives clues as to future research on privacy and camera surveillance.</p>
<h4>Fussey, Pete. (2007). “An interrupted transmission? Processes of CCTV implementation and the impact of human agency.” Surveillance & Society 4(3): 229-256.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper examines the processes that bring about the creation of new public-space CCTV schemes. Through an appraisal of the grounded activities of the practitioners who make decisions over CCTV, the role of agency is identified as a particularly strong, yet relatively neglected, influence on its implementation. Moreover, beyond dichotomised notions of central structures and local agency, an understanding is developed of the complex interaction between the individual actors involved in CCTV dissemination and the political context in which they operate. In doing so, public policy is identified as the vehicle through which camera surveillance systems become installed and disseminated throughout public space. Moreover, these various forces of structure and agency become filtered through identifiable networks of policy-makers, comprising ‘responsibilised’ actors who oversee the deployment of CCTV. This analysis is used to revisit a range of administrative and theoretical understandings of surveillance, including: citations of CCTV as an evaluated response to crime; the attribution of power- and interest-based agendas to its implementation; and accounts which locate CCTV expansion within various evolving societal processes. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork data gathered during doctoral research, the paper considers the activities of practitioners at a local level and identifies crucial contexts, drivers and negotiations on which expanding surveillance is contingent. Ultimately, it is argued that the process of CCTV installation – from conception to material implementation – is disrupted and mediated by a range of micro-level operations, obligations, processes, managerial concerns (particularly conflict resolution and resource issues), structures and agency, and the indirect influence of central government. These not only arbitrate over whether the CCTV becomes installed, but also generate a range of additional uses for the cameras, many of which are performed before they are even switched on. This emphasises the need to consider the processes that enable and constrain the actions of those making decisions over CCTV and demonstrates how no single interest becomes solely participant in the deployment of surveillance. Finally, because of the centrality and contingency of both human agency and the structural contexts in which it operates in determining the installation of CCTV, questions arise concerning the importance of integrative sociological theories in understanding the deployment of surveillance.</p>
<h4>Fussey, Pete. (2004). “New Labour and new surveillance: Theoretical and political ramifications of CCTV implementation in the UK.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 251-269.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper examines the implications of New Labour’s approaches to crime and disorder on CCTV implementation. It concentrates on the usage of CCTV as one of the government’s many initiatives, which are intended to address crime and disorder, including the fear of crime. In particular, the impact of the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act (CDA) – the cornerstone of this government’s approach to crime reduction – on the generation of such strategies is examined. The paper revisits neo-Marxist and Foucauldian analyses of the so-called surveillance society through an appraisal of the complex relationship between structure and agency in the formulation and implementation of anti-crime and disorder strategies. Drawing on fieldwork data the paper considers the activities of practitioners at a local level by focusing on the influence of central government, local communities and ‘common sense’ thinking based on certain criminological theories. It is argued that a myriad of micro-level operations, obligations, processes, managerial concerns (particularly conflict resolution and resource issues), structures and agency – as well as the indirect influence of central government – shape CCTV policy. Ultimately, the creation of new local policy contexts under the CDA emphasise the need to consider incremental and malleable processes concerning the formulation of CCTV policy. In turn, this allows a re-examination of theoretical accounts of surveillance, and their attendant assumptions of sovereign or disciplinary power.</p>
<h4>Gallagher, Caoilfhionn. (2004). “CCTV and human rights: the fish and the bicycle? An examination of Peck v. United Kingdom (2003) 36 E.H.R.R. 41. Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 270-292.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper analyses and considers the impact of a landmark decision by the European Court of Human Rights in January 2003 which highlighted the inadequacy of U.K. law in protecting the privacy of individuals captured on closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras in public places. The domestic and Strasbourg decisions in the Peck case are assessed. Analysis of the subsequent responses of Government, the Courts and the media demonstrates that the lessons of Peck have yet to be learnt, and the Human Rights Act 1998 has failed to ‘bring rights home’ when it comes to Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), which guarantees the citizen the right to respect for private life. Privacy in the U.K. is now at best a residual right: what’s left after each of an array of competing concerns have their say.</p>
<h4>Gras, Marianne L. (2004). “The legal regulation of CCTV in Europe.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 216-229.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper explores the recent history of CCTV system regulation in England and Wales questioning whether recent additions to the law can be regarded as providing for effective regulation, in particular, of camera numbers. It goes on to explore the legal landscape relating to public and private use of CCTV to subject publicly accessible space to surveillance in Germany as well as giving an overview of the regulatory systems in France, the Netherlands and Sweden. Drawing from this analysis, minimum standards for effective regulation are explored in terms of fulfilling both the letter and the spirit of laws across Europe.</p>
<h4>Groombridge, Nic. (2008). “Stars of CCTV? How the Home Office wasted millions—a radical ‘Treasury/Audit Commission’ view.” Surveillance & Society 5(1): 73-80.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper looks back on earlier pieces on CCTV in Britain by Groombridge and Murji and argues that the identified failures of CCTV, in terms of effectiveness and value-for money, have been consistently ignored both at the time and in more recent government evaluations.</p>
<h4>Helton, Frank & Bernd Fischer. (2004). “Reactive attention: Video surveillance in Berlin shopping malls.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 323-345.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The paper examines the practice of use of video-surveillance in Berlin Shopping Malls. The video systems observed here do not seem to be an efficient instrument of social control and exclusion. They are used more on demand for various purposes such as the monitoring of daily tasks and the co-ordination of persons working inside the mall. The objectives publicly claimed by management – crime prevention and the like – could not be achieved because the everyday practice presents other tasks to the operators. The workplace, the personnel, their multiple tasks, their qualifications support more a reactive use of video surveillance than a proactive targeted observation of individuals, even if the equipment would allow for that. It may turn out that the CCTV infrastructure of Berlin shopping malls can be characterised best as test-beds – open for various applications. There are, however, obstacles to this in the form of data protection concerns and the lack of political and economic support to go further (tied of course to financial constraints). Finally, as shown in our study, the social practice in everyday life continues to resist one-dimensional expectations of the technological possibilities of CCTV.</p>
<h4>Hempel, Leon. (2006). “In the eye of the beholder? Representations of video surveillance in German public television.” Surveillance & Society 4(1/2): 85-100.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This article is based upon an analysis of the commonalities between CCTV and television. Although this article is not meant to contribute to media studies as a science, it will nonetheless use empirical data from diverse TV shows, time periods and regions to show the decisive role television plays in public acceptance and implementation of public surveillance technology, as well as in the construction of suspicion. Additionally, this article considers the technological similarities of CCTV and television by using TV data as a source of ethnographic material to understand the discriminating nature of visual surveillance technologies.</p>
<h4>Klauser, Francisco. (2004). “A comparison of the impact of protective and preservative video surveillance on urban territoriality: The case of Switzerland.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 145-160.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper focuses on a comparison between two forms of video-surveillance and their consequences for the territoriality of public space users: the preservative, which aims to preserve public order and to prevent ‘anti-social’ behaviour; and the protective, which protect specific risk-points like buildings or objects. The fundamental difference between preservative and protective surveillance is linked to the spatial logic of its functioning, that can be deduced both from the position of the cameras and the general orientation of its view. Following Lefebvre and Raffestin, it argues that these socio-spatial relationships of social players may be considered as an inherent part of public space. In consequence, their transformation directly affects the qualities of public space. These theoretical explored are illustrated with a cartographical study of the cameras within the city centre of Geneva and a study of public sensitivity and perception of video surveillance in the Swiss city of Olten.</p>
<h4>Lomell, Heidi Mork. (2004). “Targeting the unwanted: Video surveillance and categorical exclusion in Oslo, Norway.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 346-360.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The rise of video surveillance in the United Kingdom, in the form of the public installation of closed circuit television (CCTV), has been seen by several scholars as a contributing factor to the increasing exclusion of unwanted categories of people from city centers, a development often referred to as the ‘commercialization’ or ‘purification’ of the city. Drawing from field observations over three years in control rooms in Oslo, Norway, this article discusses whether CCTV systems in Oslo contribute to a similar process of exclusion. To do so, I compare the open street video surveillance system with two other CCTV systems – a shopping mall and a major transport center. The introduction of open street CCTV in Oslo in 1999 did not create social exclusion, but recent developments show the possibility remains. Although drug addicts and young people were the primary targets of surveillance in all three sites studied, ejections varied considerably from site to site. The shopping mall system had a higher ejection rate than the open street system, and was therefore the system with the clearest exclusionary effects. Reasons for the different ejection rates are discussed, in particular the social structure of the site under surveillance and the organizational relationships of CCTV operators to the policing agents connected to the surveillance system.</p>
<h4>Macnish, Kevin (2012). “Unblinking eyes: the ethics of automating surveillance.” Ethics and Information Technology 14(2): 151-167.</h4>
<p>Abstract: In this paper I critique the ethical implications of automating CCTV surveillance. I consider three modes of CCTV with respect to automation: manual (or non-automated), fully automated, and partially automated. In each of these I examine concerns posed by processing capacity, prejudice towards and profiling of surveilled subjects, and false positives and false negatives. While it might seem as if fully automated surveillance is an improvement over the manual alternative in these areas, I demonstrate that this is not necessarily the case. In preference to the extremes I argue in favour of partial automation in which the system integrates a human CCTV operator with some level of automation. To assess the degree to which such a system should be automated I draw on the further issues of privacy and distance. Here I argue that the privacy of the surveilled subject can benefit from automation, while the distance between the surveilled subject and the CCTV operator introduced by automation can have both positive and negative effects. I conclude that in at least the majority of cases more automation is preferable to less within a partially automated system where this does not impinge on efficacy.</p>
<h4>Martinals, Emmanuel & Christophe Betin. (2004). “Social aspects of CCTV in France: The case of the city centre of Lyons.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 361-375.</h4>
<p>Abstract: Inaugurated a few days after the municipal elections in spring 2001 as a result of a campaign strongly formatted by security issues, the operation of CCTV in the centre of Lyons can be seen today as part and parcel of the security-oriented policies of the new socialist local government. Through responding in part to the concerns and interests of those social groups which are more exposed to the problems posed by crime (particularly shopkeepers and residents), implementing such a policy contributes to the social construction of deviance. It not only acts to consolidate dominant social representations in the field of security, but the ways in which it is used lead to reformulation of the rules and social norms construing everyday practices and deviant behaviour in public space.</p>
<h4>Minnaar, Anthony. (2007). “The implementation and impact of crime prevention / crime control open street Closed-Circuit Television surveillance in South African Central Business Districts.” Surveillance & Society 4(3): 174-207.</h4>
<p>Abstract: The use and implementation of public open street Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance systems in Central Business Districts (CBDs) in South Africa solely for the purpose of crime control (reducing street crime) or crime prevention (deterrence) has in South Africa been a relatively new intervention within the broader context of crime prevention programmes. One of the drawbacks to its implementation for this purpose has been its costs and the inability of the South African Police Service to fund such implementation in the light of other more pressing priorities and demands on its finances and resources. However, the initiative to start implementing and linking CCTV surveillance systems in CBDs in the major metropolitan cities of South Africa to local police services was taken in the mid-1990s by Business Against Crime of South Africa (BACSA). This article, using case study overviews from four South African CBD areas (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Pretoria (Tshwane) and Durban), traces CCTV use as crime control or prevention surveillance, how they were implemented, the rationale behind their implementation and the operationalising of them in terms of preventing street crime and its uses in other surveillance. In addition it also looks at this initiative from the perspective of the growth and commercialisation of the management of these services, and the co-operation and co-ordination structures in partnership with the South African Police Service (SAPS). Furthermore, it reviews the purported impact on the reduction of crime of these systems in CBDs and finally the application of public crime surveillance by the CCTV control room operators (private security) in co-operation with the police (response team) and the role it plays in the observation, recording, arrest and conviction of suspects.</p>
<h4>Muller, Christoph & Daniel Boos. (2004). “Zurich Main Railway Station: A typology of public CCTV systems.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 161-176.</h4>
<p>Abstract: Railway stations have become places between ‘public’ and ‘private’. In this exploratory case study, we are looking at the CCTV system at the Zurich main station, the largest railway station in Switzerland. This railway station is used by train passengers, by customers frequenting the station’s shopping area, and by persons trespassing in the station. Looking at different types of CCTV systems, we examine the motivations that have been leading to the installation of the cameras, about their functionality and their effects on passengers and customers. Based on our observations, we are going to present a typology of different uses of CCTV systems: (1) access control, (2) conduct control, (3) registering evidence, (4) flow control and the planning of deployment. As a conclusion, we will have a look at some future trends in the use of CCTV in railway stations, focussing on (a) individualization, (b) automation, and (c) commodification. In the last part of our presentation, we are going to ask about the limits of the spreading of CCTV systems in railway stations, focussing on the efficiency on one hand and on several possibilities for opposition on the other hand.</p>
<h4>Norris, Clive, Mike McCahill & Dave Wood. (2004). “The growth of CCTV: a global perspective on the international diffusion of video surveillance in publically accessible space.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 110-135.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This editorial surveys the growth of video surveillance or Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) throughout the world, setting the scene for this special double issue of Surveillance and Society, on the politics and practice of CCTV, and provides a brief introduction to the contents of the issue.</p>
<h4>Ruegg, Jean, Valerie November & Francisco Klauser. (2004). “CCTV, risk management and regulation mechanisms in publicly-used places: a discussion based on Swiss examples.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 415-429.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper focuses on the relations between different types of actors involved in both conceiving and using video-surveillance systems. More specifically, it deals with the reasons that support the growing use of video-surveillance systems, and the organisation structures and implementation schemes that are designed to cope with them. The analysis raises issues linked to the complexity of social and spatial relations that CCTV tends to produce. Based on four Swiss case studies chosen in function of different objectives (risks), different types of public spaces that are under surveillance (city centre, motorway, industrial zone, public transport), as well as different stages of completion of a CCTV project, the main results are to document new categories of actors: the definition of the relationship between CCTV-providers and end-users must be enlarged. Many more actors are playing important roles in terms of risk management and decision making while designing and implementing CCTV systems. Risks under surveillance: different types of risks are under surveillance. The study is underlining that different forms of surveillance must be distinguished, given the spatial characteristics of every risk (diffuse, located, specific and/or territorialized). The ‘distancing effect’: CCTV obviously creates distance between the object and the place where surveillance is actually made. To go a bit further, the paper claims that several kinds of distancing effects should be considered. These distancing effects modify both the quality of places under surveillance and the general context where mechanisms can be designed and implemented for a better public regulation of CCTV uses.</p>
<h4>Saetnan, Ann Rudinow, Heidi Mork Lormell & Carsten Wiecek. (2004). “Controlling CCTV in Public Spaces: Is privacy the (only) issue? Reflections on Norwegian and Danish observations.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 396-414.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper examines data from an observation study of four CCTV control rooms in Norway and Denmark. The paper asks whether issues other than privacy might be at stake when public spaces are placed under video surveillance. Starting with a discussion of what values public spaces produce for society and for citizens and then examining CCTV practices in terms of those values, we find that video surveillance might have both positive and negative effects on key ‘products’ of public spaces. We are especially concerned with potential effects on social cohesion. If CCTV encourages broad participation and interaction in public spaces, for instance by increasing citizens’ sense of safety, then CCTV may enhance social cohesion. But the discriminatory practices we observed may have the opposite effect by excluding whole categories of the populace from public spaces, thus ghettoizing those spaces and hampering social interactions. Though tentative due to limited data, our analysis indicates that structural properties of CCTV operations may affect the extent of discriminatory practices that occur. We suggest that these properties may therefore present ‘handles’ by which CCTV practices can be regulated to avoid negative effects on social cohesion.</p>
<h4>Smith, Gavin J.D. (2007). “Exploring relations between watchers and watched in control(led) systems: Strategies and Tactics.” Surveillance & Society 4(4): 280-313.</h4>
<p>Abstract: Using ethnographic observation within a number of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) control rooms as evidence, this paper documents the apparently trivial but subjectively meaningful types of technologically mediated interaction taking place between CCTV operators and those watched. It examines the operators’ interpretations of the various incidents, individuals and social realities observed. In so doing, the author suggests a number of interesting social-phenomenological processes are occurring. These include: the formation and existence of disembodied relationships between watchers and watched across distanciated CCTV surveillance networks; an operator gaze incorporating care, control and creativity; the existence of hermeneutical narrative constructions among the operators. The latter practice can be empirically demonstrated through the operators’ creation of ‘celebrity characters’, their attribution of pseudo-identities for cameo ‘guest stars’ and their playful characterisation of the framed action taking place in the spaces under observation. It is argued that such informal tactics, employed to both entertain and relieve pressure, are the unintended outcome of systemic strategies of control designed to induce conformity. They allow the operators to make sense of, bring meaning to and cope with relentless, often disjointed, imagery and with the emotional strain of the CCTV workplace culture. The paper also suggests that tactics are not limited to the watchers. The watched or Stars of CCTV appear to employ methods in a similar bid to manoeuvre themselves around the cameras. By considering the practices of watchers and watched, it is argued more generally that CCTV technology is a social medium, the people, places and objects watched functioning not simply as passive ‘objects of information’, but also as active ‘subjects of communication’.</p>
<h4>Smith, Gavin. (2004). “Behind the screens: Examining constructions of deviance and informal practices among CCTV control room operators in the UK.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 376-395.</h4>
<p>Abstract: Hitherto, limited empirical research has focussed on the micro-level dynamics and social interactions forming a typical CCTV control room’s everyday operational culture. As such, the ‘human element’ behind the monitoring of the cameras has been largely ignored in much CCTV analysis to date. Drawing upon ethnographic observation conducted within a privately funded CCTV control room, this paper questions the accuracy of a central assumption made in much of the general literature on CCTV, namely that surveillance cameras are not only controlled and monitored constantly, but also operated effectively and efficiently. A consideration of the types of person monitored, and why certain individuals attracted attention from the operatives, is also given. More specifically, and drawing on knowledge gleaned from studies of workplace culture, the article also identifies subtle forms of workplace resistance occurring in the observed control room’s informal organisation. This involved strategies such as time wasting and game playing being adopted by the operators, largely in response to the effects of tiredness, boredom, derision and the difficulty of effectively monitoring up to fifteen television screens simultaneously. Indeed, the findings from the research suggested that the operatives felt alienated from their job, due to the imprisoning confines of the CCTV control room, the long hours worked, the high expectation levels placed upon them and the low pay and lack of acclamation received from their employers. Reflecting on these findings, it is concluded that, taken together, the above factors seriously undermine the effectiveness of CCTV surveillance per se.</p>
<h4>Stedmon, Alex (2011). “The camera never lies, or does it? The dangers of taking CCTV surveillance at face value and the importance of human factors.” Surveillance & Society 8(4): 527-534.</h4>
<p>Abstract: How many of us question what we’re shown via closed circuit television (CCTV) as being the truth of a situation? Can clear and easily identifiable images be wrong? And if they are, how can you argue against the power of the recorded image from a legal standpoint? Can Human Factors help us improve surveillance for society? In this real example of improper CCTV surveillance, can CCTV always be taken at face value? The simple answer is no, but how many people accept what they’re shown without question and end up paying the penalties? This paper examines a case study where all that appeared on the CCTV image was not as it seemed. It then considers the underlying human factors issues of CCTV technologies for surveillance and the importance of understanding the fundamental human-machine interface.</p>
<h4>Sutton, Adam & Dean Wilson. (2004). “Open-street CCTV in Australia: The politics of resistance and expansion.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 310-322.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper summarizes the first systematic attempt to document and assess the extent of open-street CCTV systems in Australia. In addition to providing empirical data, this paper argues that it is tempting for Australian scholars, and those elsewhere, to view the UK ‘surveillance revolution’ as the harbinger of inevitable global trends sweeping across jurisdictions. However analysis of the Australian data suggests that the deployment of CCTV in other national contexts may follow substantially divergent patterns. While the Australian CCTV experience follows many trends exhibited in other nations, it is nevertheless significant that the diffusion of CCTV in Australia has been more restrained than in the UK. We suggest that the divergence between the UK and Australian experiences resides in contrasting political structures and the consequent variation in the strength of debate and resistance at the local level.</p>
<h4>Timan, Tjerk & Nelly Oudshoorn. (2012). “Mobile Cameras as New Technologies of Surveillance? How citizens experience the use of mobile cameras in public nightscapes.” Surveillance & Society 10(2): 167-181.</h4>
<p>Abstract: In Surveillance Studies the terms ‘sousveillance’ and ‘inverse surveillance’ describe forms of surveillance that have a bottom-up and democratic character. However, in this paper this democratic notion is questioned by looking into practices and experiences with both Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and mobile cameras by Dutch citizens. By interviewing in the nightlife district of the Rotterdam city centre, data has been gathered on both mobile- and CCTV camera confrontations. From this, an exploration is made into how mobile cameras are experienced in the nightlife landscape. Comparing these experiences with CCTV provides insight into new surveillance issues that emerge due to the mobile camera. The perspective of analyzing surveillance technologies as hybrid collectives that may take different shapes in different places, allows for a contribution that attempts to improve our understanding of the current changes in the surveillance technology landscape.</p>
<h4>Wakefield, Alison (2004). “The public surveillance functions of private security.” Surveillance & Society 2(4): 529-545.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper is concerned with arguably the most pervasive body of watchers in society, private security personnel. Set in the context of the rapid post-war expansion of both mass private property and private security, the contention of the paper is that the inter-dependency between these two industries is key to understanding the significance of surveillance as a form of governance in privatised urban spaces. Drawing on an empirical study of private security in three settings: a cultural centre, a shopping centre and a retail and leisure complex, it is argued that surveillance practices represented much more than an approach to policing and crime prevention in these venues, and were central to broader management strategies for the three centres. These surveillance practices also became the basis for collaborative working with the police. In the conclusion, a number of concerns are raised with respect to the policing aspects of surveillance, in relation to both commercial and public policing objectives and the human rights and civil liberties being eroded along the way.</p>
<h4>Walby, Kevin. (2006). “Little England? The rise of open-street Closed-Circuit Television surveillance in Canada.” Surveillance & Society 4(1/2): 29-51.</h4>
<p>Abstract: Social monitoring is often explained in terms of top-down or hierarchal forms of power, which is reflected in the reliance on neo-Marxist and disciplinary society analytical frameworks in contemporary studies of open-street closed-circuit television (CCTV) surveillance. Established surveillance theories cannot account for instances when citizens themselves seek out regulatory measures in their own communities. Community schemes can precede and inform police policy. Drawing from developments in the sociology of governance, I examine media coverage, government document and questionnaire data regarding the rise of open-street CCTV schemes in Canadian cities, demonstrating empirically how regulation through CCTV surveillance can be generated from above (e.g. police, state), the middle (e.g. business entrepreneurs), and below (e.g. moral entrepreneurs and civic governance). Offering four suppositions that act as a pragmatic framework for understanding the rise of open-street CCTV in Canada, this article is a partial corrective to the reigning theoretical explanations regarding how regulatory projects like open-street CCTV are generated.</p>
<h4>Webster, William R. “The diffusion, regulation and governance of closed-circuit television in the UK.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 230-250.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This article explores the introduction and diffusion of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance systems in public places across the UK. In particular, it seeks to examine the diffusion of CCTV alongside the emergence of regulation and governance structures associated with its provision. By doing so, it is argued here, that the processes of diffusion, regulation and governance are inherently intertwined, that they have evolved together over time, and that we must place CCTV within its institutional and policy setting in order to have a good understanding of the reasons for its diffusion. Initially, it appears that the CCTV policy arena is relatively unregulated. This is surprising given the nature of the technology and its potential to be used as a tool for surveillance and control. However, a closer examination of its diffusion points to a variety of regulatory mechanisms emerging from within the CCTV policy environment and evolving alongside the development of policy networks. It is argued here, that whilst it may appear that regulation has emerged from within these networks, government, despite limited legislative intervention, remains the dominant actor in the policy process through its ability to shape and influence networks.</p>
<h4>Zurawski, Nils & Stefan Czerwinski. (2008). “Crime, maps and meaning: Views from a survey on safety and CCTV in Germany.” Surveillance & Society 5(1): 51-72.</h4>
<p>Abstract: In researching CCTV, it must be examined how people assess CCTV measures against the background of their individual knowledge about the technology in question. Research on visual surveillance needs to ask how they sense and perceive cameras. As cameras impact on spatial images and social perceptions, such as security, people’s confidence will not be explained solely by showing that cameras do or do not work in reducing crime. For that it is necessary to look at what expectations people have regarding CCTV and its possible shortcomings. These assumptions provided the research frame for a qualitative study that focused on the assessment of visual surveillance in an urban environment. The study examined what knowledge people actually had about the technology and what meaning was ascribed to the cameras themselves. It seems that knowledge does not inform the meaning, but that the ascribed meaning is generated independently of this knowledge or the lack thereof. The results permit the conclusion that forms of spatial perception that socially produce ‘dangerous spaces’ have gained prominence. Hazard is then directly ascribed to the spatial context itself. Thus, CCTV seems to be a suitable measure for safeguarding these ‘crime hot spots’ and is being used as a projection screen for fears and felt insecurities. Although an expansion of CCTV is mostly rejected in our study, CCTV measurement is seen as a suitable means to counter crime in particular spatial settings. The study indeed revealed many contradictions in the individual assessment of cameras in relation to actual knowledge and the meaning of these in relation to personal safety and spatial perception.</p>
<h3>Facial Recognition</h3>
<h4> Introna, Lucas & David Wood. (2004). “Picturing Algorithmic Surveillance: The politics of facial recognition systems.” Surveillance & Society 2(2/3): 177-198.</h4>
<p>Abstract: This paper opens up for scrutiny the politics of algorithmic surveillance through an examination of Facial Recognition Systems (FRSs) in video surveillance, showing that seemingly mundane design decisions may have important political consequences that ought to be subject to scrutiny. It first focuses on the politics of technology and algorithmic surveillance systems in particular: considering the broad politics of technology; the nature of algorithmic surveillance and biometrics, claiming that software algorithms are a particularly important domain of techno-politics; and finally considering both the growth of algorithmic biometric surveillance and the potential problems with such systems. Secondly, it gives an account of FRS’s, the algorithms upon which they are based, and the biases embedded therein. In the third part, the ways in which these biases may manifest itself in real world implementation of FRS’s are outlined. Finally, some policy suggestions for the future development of FRS’s are made; it is noted that the most common critiques of such systems are based on notions of privacy which seem increasingly at odds with the world of automated systems.</p>
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