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ch02-git-basics.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<title>Git Basics</title>
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<body class="article">
<div id="header">
</div>
<div id="content">
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="r_git_basics_chapter">Git Basics</h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Se você pode ler apenas um capítulo antes de começar a usar o Git, este é ele.
Este capítulo cobre cada comando básico que você precisa para fazer a maior parte das coisas com as quais eventualmente você vai se deparar durante seu uso do Git.
No final deste capítulo, você será capaz de configurar e inicializar um repositório, iniciar e interromper o rastreamento de arquivos, usar a área de <strong>stage</strong> e realizar <strong>commits</strong> das alterações.
Também mostraremos como configurar o Git para ignorar certos arquivos e padrões de arquivo, como desfazer erros de maneira rápida e fácil, como navegar no histórico do seu projeto e visualizar alterações entre <strong>commits</strong> e como fazer <strong>push</strong> e <strong>pull</strong> em repositórios remotos.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="r_getting_a_repo">Obtendo um Repositório Git</h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Você pode obter um projeto Git utilizando duas formas principais.
A primeira faz uso de um projeto ou diretório existente e o importa para o Git.
A segunda clona um repositório Git existente a partir de outro servidor.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_inicializando_um_repositório_em_um_diretório_existente">Inicializando um Repositório em um Diretório Existente</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Para você começar a monitorar um projeto existente com Git, você deve ir para o diretório desse projeto. Se você nunca fez isso, use o comando a seguir, que terá uma pequena diferença dependendo do sistema em que está executando:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Linux:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /home/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Mac:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /Users/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Windows:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /c/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>depois digite:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git init</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Isso cria um novo subdiretório chamado <code>.git</code> que contém todos os arquivos necessários de seu repositório – um esqueleto de repositório Git.
Neste ponto, nada em seu projeto é monitorado ainda.
(Veja <a href="ch10-git-internals.html#ch10-git-internals">ch10-git-internals.html</a> para mais informações sobre quais arquivos estão contidos no diretório <code>.git</code> que foi criado.)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Se você quer começar a controlar o versionamento dos arquivos existentes (ao contrário de um diretório vazio), você provavelmente deve começar a monitorar esses arquivos e fazer um <em>commit</em> inicial.
Você pode fazer isso com alguns comandos <code>git add</code> que especificam os arquivos que você quer monitorar, seguido de um <code>git commit</code>:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add *.c
$ git add LICENSE
$ git commit -m 'initial project version'</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Nós já veremos o que esses comandos fazem.
Mas neste ponto você já tem um repositório Git com arquivos monitorados e um <em>commit</em> inicial.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_git_cloning">Clonando um Repositório Existente</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Caso você queira obter a cópia de um repositório Git existente – por exemplo, um projeto que você queira contribuir – o comando para isso é <code>git clone</code>.
Se você estiver familiarizado com outros sistemas VCS, tal como Subversion, você vai notar que o comando é <code>clone</code> e não <code>checkout</code>.
Essa é uma diferença importante – em vez de receber apenas uma cópia para trabalho, o Git recebe uma cópia completa de praticamente todos os dados que o servidor possui.
Cada versão de cada arquivo no histórico do projeto é obtida por padrão quando você executa <code>git clone</code>.
De fato, se o disco do servidor ficar corrompido, em geral você pode usar qualquer uma das cópias de qualquer um dos clientes para reverter o servidor ao estado em que estava quando foi clonado (talvez você perca algumas configurações do servidor, mas todos os dados versionados estarão lá — veja <a href="ch04-git-server.html#r_git_on_the_server">ch04-git-server.html</a> para mais detalhes).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Você clona um repositório com <code>git clone [url]</code>.
Por exemplo, caso você queria clonar a biblioteca Git Linkable chamada libgit2, você pode fazer da seguinte forma:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git clone https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Isso cria um diretório chamado <code>libgit2</code>, inicializa um diretório <code>.git</code> dentro dele, recebe todos os dados deste repositório e deixa disponível para trabalho a cópia da última versão.
Se você entrar no novo diretório <code>libgit2</code>, você verá os arquivos do projeto nele, pronto para serem editados ou utilizados.
Caso você queira clonar o repositório em um diretório diferente de <code>libgit2</code>, é possível especificar esse diretório utilizando a opção abaixo:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git clone https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2 mylibgit</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Este comando faz exatamente a mesma coisa que o anterior, mas o diretório de destino será chamado <code>mylibgit</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>O Git possui diversos protocolos de transferência que você pode utilizar.
O exemplo anterior usa o protocolo <code>https://</code>, mas você também pode ver <code>git://</code> ou <code>user@server:path/to/repo.git</code>, que usam o protocolo de transferência SSH.
O <a href="ch04-git-server.html#r_git_on_the_server">ch04-git-server.html</a> vai apresentar todas as opções disponíveis com as quais o servidor pode ser configurado para acessar o seu repositório Git, e os prós e contras de cada uma.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="_recording_changes_to_the_repository">Recording Changes to the Repository</h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You have a bona fide Git repository and a checkout or working copy of the files for that project.
You need to make some changes and commit snapshots of those changes into your repository each time the project reaches a state you want to record.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Remember that each file in your working directory can be in one of two states: tracked or untracked.
Tracked files are files that were in the last snapshot; they can be unmodified, modified, or staged.
Untracked files are everything else – any files in your working directory that were not in your last snapshot and are not in your staging area.
When you first clone a repository, all of your files will be tracked and unmodified because Git just checked them out and you haven’t edited anything.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>As you edit files, Git sees them as modified, because you’ve changed them since your last commit.
You stage these modified files and then commit all your staged changes, and the cycle repeats.</p>
</div>
<div class="imageblock">
<div class="content">
<img src="images/lifecycle.png" alt="The lifecycle of the status of your files.">
</div>
<div class="title">Figure 1. The lifecycle of the status of your files.</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_checking_status">Checking the Status of Your Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The main tool you use to determine which files are in which state is the <code>git status</code> command.
If you run this command directly after a clone, you should see something like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
nothing to commit, working directory clean</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>This means you have a clean working directory – in other words, none of your tracked files are modified.
Git also doesn’t see any untracked files, or they would be listed here.
Finally, the command tells you which branch you’re on and informs you that it has not diverged from the same branch on the server.
For now, that branch is always ``master'', which is the default; you won’t worry about it here.
<a href="ch03-git-branching.html#ch03-git-branching">ch03-git-branching.html</a> will go over branches and references in detail.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s say you add a new file to your project, a simple README file.
If the file didn’t exist before, and you run <code>git status</code>, you see your untracked file like so:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ echo 'My Project' > README
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Untracked files:
(use "git add <file>..." to include in what will be committed)
README
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to track)</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You can see that your new README file is untracked, because it’s under the ``Untracked files'' heading in your status output.
Untracked basically means that Git sees a file you didn’t have in the previous snapshot (commit); Git won’t start including it in your commit snapshots until you explicitly tell it to do so.
It does this so you don’t accidentally begin including generated binary files or other files that you did not mean to include.
You do want to start including README, so let’s start tracking the file.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_tracking_files">Tracking New Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In order to begin tracking a new file, you use the command <code>git add</code>.
To begin tracking the README file, you can run this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add README</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If you run your status command again, you can see that your README file is now tracked and staged to be committed:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You can tell that it’s staged because it’s under the <code>`Changes to be committed'' heading.
If you commit at this point, the version of the file at the time you ran `git add</code> is what will be in the historical snapshot.
You may recall that when you ran <code>git init</code> earlier, you then ran <code>git add (files)</code> – that was to begin tracking files in your directory.
The <code>git add</code> command takes a path name for either a file or a directory; if it’s a directory, the command adds all the files in that directory recursively.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_staging_modified_files">Staging Modified Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s change a file that was already tracked.
If you change a previously tracked file called <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> and then run your <code>git status</code> command again, you get something that looks like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file appears under a section named <code>Changes not staged for commit'' – which means that a file that is tracked has been modified in the working directory but not yet staged.
To stage it, you run the <code>git add</code> command.
<code>git add</code> is a multipurpose command – you use it to begin tracking new files, to stage files, and to do other things like marking merge-conflicted files as resolved.
It may be helpful to think of it more as </code>add this content to the next commit'' rather than <code>`add this file to the project''.
Let’s run `git add</code> now to stage the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file, and then run <code>git status</code> again:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Both files are staged and will go into your next commit.
At this point, suppose you remember one little change that you want to make in <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> before you commit it.
You open it again and make that change, and you’re ready to commit.
However, let’s run <code>git status</code> one more time:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ vim CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>What the heck?
Now <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> is listed as both staged <em>and</em> unstaged.
How is that possible?
It turns out that Git stages a file exactly as it is when you run the <code>git add</code> command.
If you commit now, the version of <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> as it was when you last ran the <code>git add</code> command is how it will go into the commit, not the version of the file as it looks in your working directory when you run <code>git commit</code>.
If you modify a file after you run <code>git add</code>, you have to run <code>git add</code> again to stage the latest version of the file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_short_status">Short Status</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>While the <code>git status</code> output is pretty comprehensive, it’s also quite wordy.
Git also has a short status flag so you can see your changes in a more compact way.
If you run <code>git status -s</code> or <code>git status --short</code> you get a far more simplified output from the command:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status -s
M README
MM Rakefile
A lib/git.rb
M lib/simplegit.rb
?? LICENSE.txt</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>New files that aren’t tracked have a <code>??</code> next to them, new files that have been added to the staging area have an <code>A</code>, modified files have an <code>M</code> and so on.
There are two columns to the output - the left-hand column indicates the status of the staging area and the right-hand column indicates the status of the working tree.
So for example in that output, the <code>README</code> file is modified in the working directory but not yet staged, while the <code>lib/simplegit.rb</code> file is modified and staged.
The <code>Rakefile</code> was modified, staged and then modified again, so there are changes to it that are both staged and unstaged.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_ignoring">Ignoring Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Often, you’ll have a class of files that you don’t want Git to automatically add or even show you as being untracked.
These are generally automatically generated files such as log files or files produced by your build system.
In such cases, you can create a file listing patterns to match them named <code>.gitignore</code>.
Here is an example <code>.gitignore</code> file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cat .gitignore
*.[oa]
*~</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The first line tells Git to ignore any files ending in <code>.o'' or </code>.a'' – object and archive files that may be the product of building your code.
The second line tells Git to ignore all files whose names end with a tilde (<code>~</code>), which is used by many text editors such as Emacs to mark temporary files.
You may also include a log, tmp, or pid directory; automatically generated documentation; and so on.
Setting up a <code>.gitignore</code> file before you get going is generally a good idea so you don’t accidentally commit files that you really don’t want in your Git repository.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The rules for the patterns you can put in the <code>.gitignore</code> file are as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Blank lines or lines starting with <code>#</code> are ignored.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Standard glob patterns work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can start patterns with a forward slash (<code>/</code>) to avoid recursivity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can end patterns with a forward slash (<code>/</code>) to specify a directory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can negate a pattern by starting it with an exclamation point (<code>!</code>).</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Glob patterns are like simplified regular expressions that shells use.
An asterisk (<code><strong></code>) matches zero or more characters; <code>[abc]</code> matches any character inside the brackets (in this case a, b, or c); a question mark (<code>?</code>) matches a single character; and brackets enclosing characters separated by a hyphen (<code>[0-9]</code>) matches any character between them (in this case 0 through 9).
You can also use two asterisks to match nested directories; <code>a/</strong>*/z</code> would match <code>a/z</code>, <code>a/b/z</code>, <code>a/b/c/z</code>, and so on.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Here is another example .gitignore file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code># no .a files
*.a
# but do track lib.a, even though you're ignoring .a files above
!lib.a
# only ignore the TODO file in the current directory, not subdir/TODO
/TODO
# ignore all files in the build/ directory
build/
# ignore doc/notes.txt, but not doc/server/arch.txt
doc/*.txt
# ignore all .pdf files in the doc/ directory
doc/**/*.pdf</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock tip">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<div class="title">Tip</div>
</td>
<td class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>GitHub maintains a fairly comprehensive list of good <code>.gitignore</code> file examples for dozens of projects and languages at <a href="https://github.com/github/gitignore" class="bare">https://github.com/github/gitignore</a> if you want a starting point for your project.</p>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_git_diff_staged">Viewing Your Staged and Unstaged Changes</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If the <code>git status</code> command is too vague for you – you want to know exactly what you changed, not just which files were changed – you can use the <code>git diff</code> command.
We’ll cover <code>git diff</code> in more detail later, but you’ll probably use it most often to answer these two questions: What have you changed but not yet staged?
And what have you staged that you are about to commit?
Although <code>git status</code> answers those questions very generally by listing the file names, <code>git diff</code> shows you the exact lines added and removed – the patch, as it were.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s say you edit and stage the <code>README</code> file again and then edit the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file without staging it.
If you run your <code>git status</code> command, you once again see something like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
modified: README
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>To see what you’ve changed but not yet staged, type <code>git diff</code> with no other arguments:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 8ebb991..643e24f 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -65,7 +65,8 @@ branch directly, things can get messy.
Please include a nice description of your changes when you submit your PR;
if we have to read the whole diff to figure out why you're contributing
in the first place, you're less likely to get feedback and have your change
-merged in.
+merged in. Also, split your changes into comprehensive chunks if your patch is
+longer than a dozen lines.
If you are starting to work on a particular area, feel free to submit a PR
that highlights your work in progress (and note in the PR title that it's</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>That command compares what is in your working directory with what is in your staging area.
The result tells you the changes you’ve made that you haven’t yet staged.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If you want to see what you’ve staged that will go into your next commit, you can use <code>git diff --staged</code>.
This command compares your staged changes to your last commit:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff --staged
diff --git a/README b/README
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03902a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+My Project</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>It’s important to note that <code>git diff</code> by itself doesn’t show all changes made since your last commit – only changes that are still unstaged.
This can be confusing, because if you’ve staged all of your changes, <code>git diff</code> will give you no output.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>For another example, if you stage the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file and then edit it, you can use <code>git diff</code> to see the changes in the file that are staged and the changes that are unstaged.
If our environment looks like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ echo '# test line' >> CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Now you can use <code>git diff</code> to see what is still unstaged:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 643e24f..87f08c8 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -119,3 +119,4 @@ at the
## Starter Projects
See our [projects list](https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2/blob/development/PROJECTS.md).
+# test line</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>and <code>git diff --cached</code> to see what you’ve staged so far (<code>--staged</code> and <code>--cached</code> are synonyms):</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff --cached
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 8ebb991..643e24f 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -65,7 +65,8 @@ branch directly, things can get messy.
Please include a nice description of your changes when you submit your PR;
if we have to read the whole diff to figure out why you're contributing
in the first place, you're less likely to get feedback and have your change
-merged in.
+merged in. Also, split your changes into comprehensive chunks if your patch is
+longer than a dozen lines.
If you are starting to work on a particular area, feel free to submit a PR
that highlights your work in progress (and note in the PR title that it's</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock note">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<div class="title">Note</div>
</td>
<td class="content">
<div class="title">Git Diff in an External Tool</div>