diff --git a/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.crossref.xml b/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.crossref.xml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4f1dda77fb --- /dev/null +++ b/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.crossref.xml @@ -0,0 +1,1215 @@ + + + + 20240608130016-f44e4e40f575cc0d4cab64ecf4a29f1d45d7e4c5 + 20240608130016 + + JOSS Admin + admin@theoj.org + + The Open Journal + + + + + Journal of Open Source Software + JOSS + 2475-9066 + + 10.21105/joss + https://joss.theoj.org + + + + + 06 + 2024 + + + 9 + + 98 + + + + GRFolres: A code for modified gravity simulations in +strong gravity + + + + Llibert Aresté + Saló + https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3812-8523 + + + Sam E. + Brady + https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5568-839X + + + Katy + Clough + https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8841-1522 + + + Daniela + Doneva + https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6519-000X + + + Tamara + Evstafyeva + https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2818-701X + + + Pau + Figueras + https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6438-315X + + + Tiago + França + https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1718-151X + + + Lorenzo + Rossi + https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9653-7088 + + + Shunhui + Yao + https://orcid.org/0009-0003-8207-0335 + + + + 06 + 08 + 2024 + + + 6369 + + + 10.21105/joss.06369 + + + http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ + http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ + http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ + + + + Software archive + 10.5281/zenodo.11500210 + + + GitHub review issue + https://github.com/openjournals/joss-reviews/issues/6369 + + + + 10.21105/joss.06369 + https://joss.theoj.org/papers/10.21105/joss.06369 + + + https://joss.theoj.org/papers/10.21105/joss.06369.pdf + + + + + + Evolution of Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet +gravity using a modified harmonic formulation + East + Phys. 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Grav. + 27 + 10.1088/0264-9381/27/11/114103 + 2010 + O’Connor, E., & Ott, C. D. +(2010). A New Open-Source Code for Spherically-Symmetric Stellar +Collapse to Neutron Stars and Black Holes. Class. Quant. Grav., 27, +114103. +https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/27/11/114103 + + + Numerical simulations of stellar collapse in +scalar-tensor theories of gravity + Gerosa + Class. Quant. Grav. + 13 + 33 + 10.1088/0264-9381/33/13/135002 + 2016 + Gerosa, D., Sperhake, U., & Ott, +C. D. (2016). Numerical simulations of stellar collapse in scalar-tensor +theories of gravity. Class. Quant. Grav., 33(13), 135002. +https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/33/13/135002 + + + What is the Fate of Hawking Evaporation in +Gravity Theories with Higher Curvature Terms? + Corelli + Phys. Rev. Lett. + 9 + 130 + 10.1103/PhysRevLett.130.091501 + 2023 + Corelli, F., De Amicis, M., Ikeda, +T., & Pani, P. (2023). What is the Fate of Hawking Evaporation in +Gravity Theories with Higher Curvature Terms? Phys. Rev. Lett., 130(9), +091501. +https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.130.091501 + + + Nonperturbative gedanken experiments in +Einstein-dilaton-Gauss-Bonnet gravity: Nonlinear transitions and tests +of the cosmic censorship beyond general relativity + Corelli + Phys. Rev. D + 4 + 107 + 10.1103/PhysRevD.107.044061 + 2023 + Corelli, F., De Amicis, M., Ikeda, +T., & Pani, P. (2023). Nonperturbative gedanken experiments in +Einstein-dilaton-Gauss-Bonnet gravity: Nonlinear transitions and tests +of the cosmic censorship beyond general relativity. Phys. Rev. D, +107(4), 044061. +https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.107.044061 + + + Canuda: a public numerical relativity library +to probe fundamental physics + Witek + 10.5281/zenodo.7791842 + 2023 + Witek, H., Zilhao, M., Bozzola, G., +Cheng, C.-H., Dima, A., Elley, M., Ficarra, G., Ikeda, T., Luna, R., +Richards, C., Sanchis-Gual, N., & Silva, H. (2023). Canuda: a public +numerical relativity library to probe fundamental physics. Zenodo. +https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7791842 + + + + + + diff --git a/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.pdf b/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4476215d5f Binary files /dev/null and b/joss.06369/10.21105.joss.06369.pdf differ diff --git a/joss.06369/paper.jats/10.21105.joss.06369.jats b/joss.06369/paper.jats/10.21105.joss.06369.jats new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..05dab127bd --- /dev/null +++ b/joss.06369/paper.jats/10.21105.joss.06369.jats @@ -0,0 +1,2043 @@ + + +
+ + + + +Journal of Open Source Software +JOSS + +2475-9066 + +Open Journals + + + +6369 +10.21105/joss.06369 + +GRFolres: A code for modified gravity simulations in +strong gravity + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3812-8523 + +Saló +Llibert Aresté + + + + +https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5568-839X + +Brady +Sam E. + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8841-1522 + +Clough +Katy + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6519-000X + +Doneva +Daniela + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2818-701X + +Evstafyeva +Tamara + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6438-315X + +Figueras +Pau + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1718-151X + +França +Tiago + + + + +https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9653-7088 + +Rossi +Lorenzo + + + + +https://orcid.org/0009-0003-8207-0335 + +Yao +Shunhui + + + + + +School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen Mary University of +London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom + + + + +Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics +(DAMTP), University of Cambridge, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, +Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, United Kingdom + + + + +Theoretical Astrophysics, Eberhard Karls University of +Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, Germany + + + +9 +98 +6369 + +Authors of papers retain copyright and release the +work under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC +BY 4.0) +2022 +The article authors + +Authors of papers retain copyright and release the work under +a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY +4.0) + + + +C++ +MPI +Open MP +vector intrinsics +gravity +general relativity +numerical relativity + + + + +

The following brief overview has been prepared as part of the +submission of the GRFolres code1 to +the Journal of Open Source Software.

+ + Summary +

Gravitational waves (GWs) are generated by the mergers of dense, + compact objects like black holes (BHs) and neutron stars (NSs). This + provides an opportunity to study the strong field, highly dynamical + regime of Einstein’s theory of general relativity (GR) at higher + curvature scales than previous observations + (Arun + & others, 2022; + T. + Baker et al., 2015; + Barack + & others, 2019; + Barausse + & others, 2020; + Gnocchi + et al., 2019; + Perkins, + Yunes, et al., 2021). It is possible that at such scales + modifications to GR may start to manifest. However, in order to detect + such modifications, we need to understand what deviations could look + like in theories beyond GR, in particular in the merger section of the + signal in near equal mass binaries, which are key targets of the + LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA network of detectors (and their future 3G + successors). Such predictions necessitate the use of numerical + relativity (NR), in which the (modified) equations of GR are evolved + from an initial configuration several orbits before merger, through + the merger period and the subsequent “ringdown”, during which the + gravitational wave signal can be extracted near the computational + boundary.

+

Current waveforms are tested for consistency with GR by measuring + parameterised deviations to the merger, inspiral and ringdown phases + (Abbott + & others, 2021; + Carson + & Yagi, 2020a; + Cornish + et al., 2011; + Krishnendu + & Ohme, 2021; + Maggio + et al., 2023), and not by comparison to any particular + theories. If we obtain predictions for specific models, we can check + whether such parameterised deviations are well-motivated and + consistent in alternative theories of gravity + (Arun + & others, 2022; + Carson + & Yagi, 2020b, + 2020c; + Johnson-McDaniel + et al., 2022; + Okounkova + et al., 2023; + Perkins, + Nair, et al., 2021; + Shiralilou + et al., 2022), and the potential to extract model parameters + from data.

+

There are many ways to modify GR, one of the simplest being to + couple an additional scalar degree of freedom, which may (if certain + conditions are satisfied) result in so-called “hairy” stationary black + hole solutions; that is, black holes with a stable, non trivial + configuration of the scalar field around them (see + (Doneva + et al., 2024) for a review). An example of this is the class of + Horndeski models + (Horndeski, + 1974). Cubic Horndeski theories have been studied in Figueras + & França + (2022) + and an implementation of this is included in GRFolres. Another more + general example within the Horndeski models is the four-derivative + scalar-tensor theory ( + + 4∂ST), + which is the most general theory with up to fourth powers of the + derivatives (but still second order equations of motion). Despite + their relative simplicity, they have lacked well-posed (and thus + numerically stable) formulations until relatively recently.

+

An important breakthrough was made in 2020 by Kov'acs and Reall, + who showed that Horndeski theories are indeed well-posed in a modified + version of the harmonic gauge + (Kovács + & Reall, 2020b, + 2020a) + – a particular coordinate system already used in NR. Subsequently, + several specific theories within these classes were probed in their + highly dynamical and fully non-linear regimes + (Corman + et al., 2023; + East + & Pretorius, 2022; + East + & Ripley, 2021b, + 2021a). + The extension of the results of + (Kovács + & Reall, 2020b, + 2020a) + to the alternative “singularity avoiding” coordinates in + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2022, + 2023; + Doneva + et al., 2023) offers an alternative gauge in which to probe + questions of hyperbolicity, and may offer stability advantages for + certain cases such as unequal mass ratios, as studied in + (Corman + et al., 2023). Numerical work on these theories is still in the + early stages of development and many technical details on their + numerical implementation need to be further investigated. Equally, + many scientific questions, concerning our accurate understanding of + binary—black-hole phenomenology in alternative theories of gravity and + their implications for tests of GR, also remain unanswered.

+

The goal of GRFolres is to meet this need for further research, and + to provide a model code to help others develop and test their own + implementations. The code is based on the publicly available NR code + GRChombo + (Andrade + et al., 2022; + Clough + et al., 2015), which itself uses the open source Chombo + framework + (Adams + & others, 2015) for solving partial differential equations + (PDEs).

+

In the following sections we discuss the key features, motivations, + and applications of the code.

+ + + Key features +

GRFolres inherits many of the features of GRChombo and Chombo. Here + we list the key features.

+ + +

Stable gauge evolution - The code implements the modified + moving puncture gauge that ensures a well-posed evolution in the + weak coupling regime, as proposed in + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2022). The precise form of the gauge and its + parameters can be changed and the standard moving puncture gauge + is safely recovered by setting certain parameters to zero.

+ + +

Modified gravity theories - The currently available theories in + the code are 4 + + ∂ST + and cubic Horndeski. The code is templated over the theory (in the + same way that GRChombo is templated over a matter class) so that + it can easily be changed without major code modifications. The + code also provides an implementation of + 4 + + ∂ST + without backreaction onto the metric (but including the + possibility of using the new gauge), to enable comparison with + previous works using the decoupling limit approximation.

+ + +

Accuracy - The fields are evolved with a 4th order Runge-Kutta + time integration and their derivatives calculated with the same + finite difference stencils used in GRChombo (4th and 6th order are + currently available).

+ + +

Boundary Conditions - GRFolres inherits all the available + boundary conditions in GRChombo, namely, extrapolating, Sommerfeld + (radiative), reflective and periodic.

+ + +

Initial Conditions - The current examples use solutions that + approximately or trivially solve the modified energy and momentum + constraints of the theory. An elliptic solver for more general + configurations is under development, using a modified CTTK + formalism + (Aurrekoetxea + et al., 2023; + Brady + et al., 2023).

+ + +

Diagnostics - GRFolres has routines for monitoring the + constraint violation and calculating the energy densities + associated with the different scalar terms in the action, as + discussed in + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2022, + 2023; + Doneva + et al., 2023). Other diagnostics can be added as required. + We also extract data for the tensor and scalar gravitational + waveforms.

+ + +

C++ class structure - Following the structure of GRChombo, the + GRFolres code is also written in C++ and uses object oriented + programming (OOP) and templating.

+ + +

Parallelism - GRChombo uses hybrid OpenMP/MPI parallelism with + explicit vectorisation of the evolution equations via intrinsics, + and is AVX-512 compliant.

+ + +

Adaptive Mesh Refinement - The code inherits the flexible AMR + grid structure of Chombo, which provides Berger-Oliger style + (M. + J. Berger & Oliger, 1984) AMR with block-structured + Berger-Rigoutsos grid generation + (M. + Berger & Rigoutsos, 1991). Depending on the problem, + the user may specify the refinement to be triggered by the + additional degrees of freedom, i.e. the scalar field, or those of + the metric tensor.

+ + + + + Statement of Need +

As far as we are aware there is currently no other publicly + available code that implements the + + 4∂ST + theory of modified gravity or the cubic Horndeski theory in + (3+1)-dimensional numerical relativity.

+

There is at least one private code, based on the PAMR/AMRD and HAD + (East + et al., 2012; + Neilsen + et al., 2007) infrastructure, that was used in the first works + to successfully implement the modified general harmonic gauge for + + + 4∂ST + (Corman + et al., 2023; + East + & Pretorius, 2022; + East + & Ripley, 2021b, + 2021a). + Since this code uses a Generalised Harmonic Coordinates (GHC) + formulation, it necessitates excision of the interior of black holes, + which can be difficult to implement in practice. As a consequence, + many groups in the numerical relativity community have opted to use + singularity avoiding coordinates such as the BSSN + (Baumgarte + & Shapiro, 1998; + Nakamura + et al., 1987; + Shibata + & Nakamura, 1995), Z4C + (Bernuzzi + & Hilditch, 2010; + Bona + et al., 2003) or CCZ4 + (Alic + et al., 2012, + 2013) + formulations in the puncture gauge + (J. + G. Baker et al., 2006; + Campanelli + et al., 2006), which do not require the excision of the + interior of black holes from the computational domain. In GRFolres, we + use the results of + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2022, + 2023; + Doneva + et al., 2023) to extend the well-posed formulations of modified + gravity to singularity avoiding coordinates. This provides an + alternative gauge to the modified GHC one used by other groups. Not + only does this provide a valuable comparison to their work, but also + eliminates the need for excision.

+

There are also a number of (3+1)-dimensional codes that implement + the equations for the additional scalar degree of freedom in + Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet without backreaction onto the metric + tensor, including one implementation using GRChombo + (Evstafyeva + et al., 2023), which we have integrated into GRFolres to enable + comparison between the methods. In particular, Canuda + (https://bitbucket.org/canuda) + (Witek + et al., 2019, + 2023) + which uses the Einstein Toolkit (http://einsteintoolkit.org/), with + its related Cactus (http://cactuscode.org) + (Loffler + & others, 2012; + Schnetter + et al., 2004) and Kranc (http://kranccode.org) + (Husa + et al., 2006) infrastructure, was used in + (Elley + et al., 2022; + R. + et al., 2023; + Richards + et al., 2023; + Silva + et al., 2021; + Witek + et al., 2019). Another implementation is based on the Spectral + Einstein Code or SpEC (http://www.black-holes.org/SpEC.html) + (Pfeiffer + et al., 2003), as used in + (Okounkova, + 2020). A neutron star background was considered in + (Kuan + et al., 2023) with a modification of SACRA-MPI code + (Kiuchi + et al., 2017; + Yamamoto + et al., 2008). Whilst order-reduced methods like those in + (Doneva + et al., 2022; + Elley + et al., 2022; + Evstafyeva + et al., 2023; + Okounkova + et al., 2019, + 2020, + 2023; + Okounkova, + 2020; + R. + et al., 2023; + Richards + et al., 2023; + Silva + et al., 2021; + Witek + et al., 2019) provide an estimate of the scalar dynamics and + associated energy losses, they may miss information about the fully + non-linear impact on the metric and suffer from the accumulation of + secular errors over long inspirals.

+

In spherical symmetry several codes have been developed that + implement Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet (a subset of the + + + 4∂ST + theory that we include as an example in GRFolres). In particular, + using the NRPy framework (http://astro.phys.wvu.edu/bhathome) + (Ruchlin + et al., 2018) in + (Doneva + et al., 2022), and the private code of Ripley & Pretorius + in + (R + et al., 2023; + Ripley + & Pretorius, 2019a, + 2019b, + 2020a, + 2020b), + and a modification of the GR1D code + (Gerosa + et al., 2016; + O’Connor + & Ott, 2010). There is also the fully nonlinear spherical + code developed in + (Corelli + et al., 2023b, + 2023a). + Spherical codes provide a useful testing ground in which coordinate + ambiguities can be avoided + (R + et al., 2023), but lack the generality required to study + objects with angular momentum, or binary mergers.

+ + + Research projects to date using GRFolres +

So far the code has been used to study a range of fundamental + physics problems, as listed here.

+ + +

The test field case was used in + (Evstafyeva + et al., 2023) to model the scalar waves produced during the + ringdown stage of binary black hole coalescence in + Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet, and quantify the extent to which + current and future gravitational wave detectors could observe the + spectrum of scalar radiation emitted.

+ + + +

Contour plot of network signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for + the scalar ringdown of a binary black hole (BBH) in + Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet gravity at 1 Gpc as observed by the + Virgo, Livingston and Hanford network of detectors at design + sensitivity. Taken from + (Evstafyeva + et al., + 2023).

+ + + + +

The regime of validity of effective field theory in collapse + and binary evolutions in cubic Horndeski theories were studied in + (Figueras + & França, 2020, + 2022). + It was found that the mismatch of the gravitational wave strain + can be as large as 10%–13% in the Advanced LIGO mass range for + such theories.

+ + + +

Energy density (in blue) of the scalar field surrounding + the binary black holes for the Horndeski theory at a representative + instant of time during the inspiral phase. The apparent horizon of + the black holes is shown in orange. The region where the weak + coupling conditions are larger than one is depicted in brown. Taken + from + (Figueras + & França, + 2022).

+ + + + +

In + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2022), the code was developed and tested, with + waveforms for shift-symmetric theories of + Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet gravity produced for equal mass + binaries.

+ + + +

Modified gravity waveforms in + + + 4∂ST + with a shift-symmetric coupling. Taken from + (Aresté + Saló et al., + 2022).

+ + + + +

In + (Aresté + Saló et al., 2023), the studies were extended to binary + mergers in theories with spin-induced scalarisation. The clouds + formed are dumbbell-like in shape.

+ + + +

The time evolution of the density of the scalar cloud + that develops in Einstein-scalar-Gauss-Bonnet gravity with an + exponential coupling, resulting in spin-induced scalarisation. Taken + from + (Aresté + Saló et al., + 2023).

+ + + + +

In + (Doneva + et al., 2023), the dependence of the conditions for + hyperbolicity and weak coupling were studied for spin-induced + scalarisation, and the critical thresholds found for a number of + cases.

+ + + +

The time evolution of the determinant of the effective + metric in a case of spin-induced scalarisation. When the determinant + is negative (in black) outside the apparent horizon (depicted with a + dashed white line), the theory has become ill-posed. Taken from + (Doneva + et al., + 2023).

+ + + + + Acknowledgements +

We thank the entire GRChombo (www.grchombo.org) collaboration for + their support and code development work. PF and KC are supported by an + STFC Research Grant ST/X000931/1 (Astronomy at Queen Mary 2023-2026). + PF is supported by a Royal Society University Research Fellowship + No. URF\R\201026, and No. RF\ERE\210291. KC is supported by an STFC + Ernest Rutherford fellowship, project reference ST/V003240/1. LAS is + supported by a QMUL Ph.D. scholarship. SB is supported by a QMUL + Principal studentship. DD acknowledges financial support via an Emmy + Noether Research Group funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) + under grant no. DO 1771/1-1. LR is supported by a Royal Society + Renewal Grant, No. URF\R\201026, and a Research Expenses Enhancement + Award, No. RF\ERE\210291. TE is supported by the Centre for Doctoral + Training (CDT) at the University of Cambridge funded through STFC. SY + acknowledges the support from China Scholarship Council.

+

Development of the code used in this work utilised the ARCHER2 UK + National Supercomputing Service (https://www.archer2.ac.uk) under the + EPSRC HPC project no. E775, the CSD3 cluster in Cambridge under + Projects No. DP128. The Cambridge Service for Data Driven Discovery + (CSD3), partially operated by the University of Cambridge Research + Computing on behalf of the STFC DiRAC HPC Facility. The DiRAC + component of CSD3 is funded by BEIS capital via STFC capital Grants + No. ST/P002307/1 and No. ST/ R002452/1 and STFC operations Grant + No. ST/R00689X/1. DiRAC is part of the National e-Infrastructure + (www.dirac.ac.uk). Calculations were also performed using the Sulis + Tier 2 HPC platform hosted by the Scientific Computing Research + Technology Platform at the University of Warwick. Sulis is funded by + EPSRC Grant EP/T022108/1 and the HPC Midlands+ consortium. This + research has also utilised Queen Mary’s Apocrita HPC facility, + supported by QMUL Research-IT. This study is in part financed by the + European Union-NextGenerationEU, through the National Recovery and + Resilience Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria, project + No. BG-RRP-2.004-0008-C01. We acknowledge Discoverer PetaSC and + EuroHPC JU for awarding this project access to Discoverer + supercomputer resources.

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Folres (pronounced fol-res) is a + word meaning covers or linings in the Catalan language. It has a + specific application in the tradition of Castells + (Human Towers), denoting the second layers of reinforcement above + the base pinya. We use it here in analogy to our + understanding of effective field theories (EFTs) of gravity as an + infinite sum of terms organised as a derivative expansion, in which + the first one corresponds to GR (with up to 2 derivatives), and the + second one to modified theories up to 4 derivatives, which are those + that we are able to simulate with GRFolres.

+ + + +
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