diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore new file mode 100755 index 00000000..8b01850e --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitignore @@ -0,0 +1,139 @@ +core.* +*.bin +.nfs* +.vscode/* +dataset/* +result/* +misc/* +!misc/*.png +!dataset/.gitkeep +!result/.gitkeep +# Byte-compiled / optimized / DLL files +__pycache__/ +*.py[cod] +*$py.class + +# C extensions +*.so + +# Distribution / packaging +.Python +build/ +develop-eggs/ +dist/ +downloads/ +eggs/ +.eggs/ +lib/ +lib64/ +parts/ +sdist/ +var/ +wheels/ +pip-wheel-metadata/ +share/python-wheels/ +*.egg-info/ +.installed.cfg +*.egg +MANIFEST + +# PyInstaller +# Usually these files are written by a python script from a template +# before PyInstaller builds the exe, so as to inject date/other infos into it. +*.manifest +*.spec + +# Installer logs +pip-log.txt +pip-delete-this-directory.txt + +# Unit test / coverage reports +htmlcov/ +.tox/ +.nox/ +.coverage +.coverage.* +.cache +nosetests.xml +coverage.xml +*.cover +*.py,cover +.hypothesis/ +.pytest_cache/ + +# Translations +*.mo +*.pot + +# Django stuff: +*.log +local_settings.py +db.sqlite3 +db.sqlite3-journal + +# Flask stuff: +instance/ +.webassets-cache + +# Scrapy stuff: +.scrapy + +# Sphinx documentation +docs/_build/ + +# PyBuilder +target/ + +# Jupyter Notebook +.ipynb_checkpoints + +# IPython +profile_default/ +ipython_config.py + +# pyenv +.python-version + +# pipenv +# According to pypa/pipenv#598, it is recommended to include Pipfile.lock in version control. +# However, in case of collaboration, if having platform-specific dependencies or dependencies +# having no cross-platform support, pipenv may install dependencies that don't work, or not +# install all needed dependencies. +#Pipfile.lock + +# PEP 582; used by e.g. github.com/David-OConnor/pyflow +__pypackages__/ + +# Celery stuff +celerybeat-schedule +celerybeat.pid + +# SageMath parsed files +*.sage.py + +# Environments +.env +.venv +env/ +venv/ +ENV/ +env.bak/ +venv.bak/ + +# Spyder project settings +.spyderproject +.spyproject + +# Rope project settings +.ropeproject + +# mkdocs documentation +/site + +# mypy +.mypy_cache/ +.dmypy.json +dmypy.json + +# Pyre type checker +.pyre/ diff --git a/LICENSE b/LICENSE new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6b8200bf --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +MIT license + +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy +of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal +in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights +to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell +copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is +furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in +all copies or substantial portions of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR +IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, +FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER +LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, +OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN +THE SOFTWARE. diff --git a/NOTICE b/NOTICE new file mode 100644 index 00000000..30d42090 --- /dev/null +++ b/NOTICE @@ -0,0 +1,213 @@ +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy +of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal +in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights +to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell +copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is +furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in +all copies or substantial portions of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR +IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, +FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER +LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, +OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN +THE SOFTWARE. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +This project contains subcomponents with separate copyright notices and license terms. +Your use of the source code for these subcomponents is subject to the terms and conditions of the following licenses. + +===== + +googlefonts/noto-fonts +https://fonts.google.com/specimen/Noto+Sans + + +Copyright 2018 The Noto Project Authors (github.com/googlei18n/noto-fonts) + +This Font Software is licensed under the SIL Open Font License, +Version 1.1. + +This license is copied below, and is also available with a FAQ at: +http://scripts.sil.org/OFL + +----------------------------------------------------------- +SIL OPEN FONT LICENSE Version 1.1 - 26 February 2007 +----------------------------------------------------------- + +PREAMBLE +The goals of the Open Font License (OFL) are to stimulate worldwide +development of collaborative font projects, to support the font +creation efforts of academic and linguistic communities, and to +provide a free and open framework in which fonts may be shared and +improved in partnership with others. + +The OFL allows the licensed fonts to be used, studied, modified and +redistributed freely as long as they are not sold by themselves. The +fonts, including any derivative works, can be bundled, embedded, +redistributed and/or sold with any software provided that any reserved +names are not used by derivative works. The fonts and derivatives, +however, cannot be released under any other type of license. The +requirement for fonts to remain under this license does not apply to +any document created using the fonts or their derivatives. + +DEFINITIONS +"Font Software" refers to the set of files released by the Copyright +Holder(s) under this license and clearly marked as such. This may +include source files, build scripts and documentation. + +"Reserved Font Name" refers to any names specified as such after the +copyright statement(s). + +"Original Version" refers to the collection of Font Software +components as distributed by the Copyright Holder(s). + +"Modified Version" refers to any derivative made by adding to, +deleting, or substituting -- in part or in whole -- any of the +components of the Original Version, by changing formats or by porting +the Font Software to a new environment. + +"Author" refers to any designer, engineer, programmer, technical +writer or other person who contributed to the Font Software. + +PERMISSION & CONDITIONS +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining +a copy of the Font Software, to use, study, copy, merge, embed, +modify, redistribute, and sell modified and unmodified copies of the +Font Software, subject to the following conditions: + +1) Neither the Font Software nor any of its individual components, in +Original or Modified Versions, may be sold by itself. + +2) Original or Modified Versions of the Font Software may be bundled, +redistributed and/or sold with any software, provided that each copy +contains the above copyright notice and this license. These can be +included either as stand-alone text files, human-readable headers or +in the appropriate machine-readable metadata fields within text or +binary files as long as those fields can be easily viewed by the user. + +3) No Modified Version of the Font Software may use the Reserved Font +Name(s) unless explicit written permission is granted by the +corresponding Copyright Holder. This restriction only applies to the +primary font name as presented to the users. + +4) The name(s) of the Copyright Holder(s) or the Author(s) of the Font +Software shall not be used to promote, endorse or advertise any +Modified Version, except to acknowledge the contribution(s) of the +Copyright Holder(s) and the Author(s) or with their explicit written +permission. + +5) The Font Software, modified or unmodified, in part or in whole, +must be distributed entirely under this license, and must not be +distributed under any other license. The requirement for fonts to +remain under this license does not apply to any document created using +the Font Software. + +TERMINATION +This license becomes null and void if any of the above conditions are +not met. + +DISCLAIMER +THE FONT SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, +EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTIES OF +MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT +OF COPYRIGHT, PATENT, TRADEMARK, OR OTHER RIGHT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +COPYRIGHT HOLDER BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, +INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL +DAMAGES, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING +FROM, OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE FONT SOFTWARE OR FROM +OTHER DEALINGS IN THE FONT SOFTWARE. + +===== + +huggingface/transformers +https://github.com/huggingface/transformers + + +Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner] + +Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); +you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. +You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + +Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software +distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, +WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. +See the License for the specific language governing permissions and limitations under the License. + +===== + +clovaai/synthtiger +https://github.com/clovaai/synthtiger + + +Copyright (c) 2021-present NAVER Corp. + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy +of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal +in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights +to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell +copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is +furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in +all copies or substantial portions of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR +IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, +FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER +LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, +OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN +THE SOFTWARE. + +===== + +rwightman/pytorch-image-models +https://github.com/rwightman/pytorch-image-models + + + Copyright 2019 Ross Wightman + + Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); + you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. + You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + + Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software + distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, + WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. + See the License for the specific language governing permissions and + limitations under the License. + +===== + +ankush-me/SynthText +https://github.com/ankush-me/SynthText + + + Copyright 2017, Ankush Gupta. + + Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); + you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. + You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + + Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software + distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, + WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. + See the License for the specific language governing permissions and + limitations under the License. + +===== diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100755 index 00000000..97b6cbd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,225 @@ +
+ +# Donut 🍩 : Document Understanding Transformer + +[![Paper](https://img.shields.io/badge/Paper-arxiv.2111.15664-red)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.15664) +[![Conference](https://img.shields.io/badge/ECCV-2022-blue)](#how-to-cite) +[![Pypi](https://img.shields.io/badge/pypi-v1.0.3-yellow)](https://pypi.org/project/donut-python) +[![Demo](https://img.shields.io/badge/Demo-Gradio-brightgreen)](#demo) +[![Demo](https://img.shields.io/badge/Demo-Colab-orange)](#demo) + +Official Implementation of Donut and SynthDoG + +
+ +## Introduction + +**Donut** 🍩, **Do**cume**n**t **u**nderstanding **t**ransformer, is a new method of document understanding that utilizes an OCR-free end-to-end Transformer model. Donut does not require off-the-shelf OCR engines/APIs, yet it shows state-of-the-art performances on various visual document understanding tasks, such as visual document classification or information extraction (a.k.a. document parsing). +In addition, we present **SynthDoG** 🐶, **Synth**etic **Do**cument **G**enerator, that helps the model pre-training to be flexible on vairous languages and domains. + +Our academic paper, which describes our method in detail and provides full experimental results and analyses, can be found here:
+> [**OCR-free Document Understanding Transformer**](https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.15664).
+> [Geewook Kim](https://geewook.kim), [Teakgyu Hong](https://dblp.org/pid/183/0952.html), [Moonbin Yim](https://github.com/moonbings), [JeongYeon Nam](https://github.com/long8v), [Jinyoung Park](https://github.com/jyp1111), [Jinyeong Yim](https://jinyeong.github.io), [Wonseok Hwang](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=M13_WdcAAAAJ), [Sangdoo Yun](https://sangdooyun.github.io), [Dongyoon Han](https://dongyoonhan.github.io), [Seunghyun Park](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=iowjmTwAAAAJ). To appear at ECCV 2022. + +image + +## Pre-trained Models and Web Demos + +Gradio web demos are available! [![Demo](https://img.shields.io/badge/Demo-Gradio-brightgreen)](#demo) [![Demo](https://img.shields.io/badge/Demo-Colab-orange)](#demo) +|:--:| +|![image](./misc/screenshot_gradio_demos.png)| +- You can run the demo with `./app.py` file. +- Sample images are available at `./misc` and more receipt images are available at [CORD dataset link](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/cord-v2). +- Web demos are available from the links in the following table. + +|Task|Sec/Img|Score|Trained Model|
Demo
| +|---|---|---|---|---| +| [CORD](https://github.com/clovaai/cord) (Document Parsing) | 0.7 /
0.7 /
1.2 | 93.9 /
93.6 /
93.5 | [donut-base-finetuned-cordv2](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-cordv2) (1280) /
[donut-base-finetuned-cordv1](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-cordv1) (1280) /
[donut-base-finetuned-cordv1-2560](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-cordv1-2560) | [gradio space web demo](https://huggingface.co/spaces/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-cord-v2),
[google colab demo](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1o07hty-3OQTvGnc_7lgQFLvvKQuLjqiw?usp=sharing) | +| [Train Ticket](https://github.com/beacandler/EATEN) (Document Parsing) | 0.6 | 98.8 | [donut-base-finetuned-zhtrainticket](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-zhtrainticket) | [google colab demo](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/16O-hMvGiXrYZnlXA_tfJ9_q760YcLoOj?usp=sharing) | +| [RVL-CDIP](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~aharley/rvl-cdip) (Document Classification) | 0.75 | 95.3 | [donut-base-finetuned-rvlcdip](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-rvlcdip) | [google colab demo](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1xUDmLqlthx8A8rWKLMSLThZ7oeRJkDuU?usp=sharing) | +| [DocVQA Task1](https://rrc.cvc.uab.es/?ch=17) (Document VQA) | 0.78 | 67.5 | [donut-base-finetuned-docvqa](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-docvqa) | [google colab demo](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1Z4WG8Wunj3HE0CERjt608ALSgSzRC9ig?usp=sharing) | + +The links to the pre-trained backbones are here: +- [`donut-base`](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-base): trained with 64 A100 GPUs, number of layers (encoder: {2,2,14,2}, decoder: 4), input size 2560x1920, swin window size 10, IIT-CDIP (11M) and SynthDoG (ECJK, 0.5M x 4). +- [`donut-proto`](https://huggingface.co/naver-clova-ix/donut-proto): (preliminary model) trained with 8 V100 GPUs, number of layers (encoder: {2,2,18,2}, decoder: 4), input size 2048x1536, swin window size 8, and SynthDoG (EJK, 0.4M x 3). + +Please see [our paper](#how-to-cite) for more details. + +## SynthDoG datasets + +![image](./misc/sample_synthdog.png) + +The links to the SynthDoG-generated datasets are here: + +- [`synthdog-en`](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/synthdog-en): English, 0.5M +- [`synthdog-zh`](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/synthdog-en): Chinese, 0.5M +- [`synthdog-ja`](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/synthdog-en): Japanses, 0.5M +- [`synthdog-ko`](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/synthdog-en): Korean, 0.5M + +To generate synthetic datasets with our SynthDoG, please see `./synthdog/README.md` and [our paper](#how-to-cite) for details. + +## Updates + +**_2022-07-20_** First Commit, We release our code, model weights, synthetic data and generator. + +## Software installation + +[![Pypi](https://img.shields.io/badge/pypi-v1.0.3-yellow)](https://pypi.org/project/donut-python) + +```bash +pip install donut-python +``` + +or clone this repository and install the dependencies: +```bash +git clone https://github.com/clovaai/donut.git +cd donut/ +conda create -n donut_official python=3.7 +conda activate donut_official +pip install . +``` + + +## Getting Started + +### Data + +This repository assumes the following structure of dataset: +```bash +> tree dataset_name +dataset_name +├── test +│ ├── metadata.jsonl +│ ├── {image_path0} +│ ├── {image_path1} +│ . +│ . +├── train +│ ├── metadata.jsonl +│ ├── {image_path0} +│ ├── {image_path1} +│ . +│ . +└── validation + ├── metadata.jsonl + ├── {image_path0} + ├── {image_path1} + . + . + +> cat dataset_name/test/metadata.jsonl +{"file_name": {image_path0}, "ground_truth": "{\"gt_parse\": {ground_truth_parse}, ... {other_meta_data} ... }"} +{"file_name": {image_path1}, "ground_truth": "{\"gt_parse\": {ground_truth_parse}, ... {other_meta_data} ... }"} + . + . +``` + +- The structure of `metadata.jsonl` file is in [JSON Lines text format](https://jsonlines.org), i.e., `.jsonl`. Each line consists of + - `file_name` : relative path to the image file + - `ground_truth` : string format (json dumped), the dictionary contains either `gt_parse` or `gt_parses` +- `donut` interprets all tasks as a JSON prediction problem. As a result, all `donut` model training share a same pipeline. For training and inference, the only thing to do is preparing `gt_parse` or `gt_parses` for the task in format described below. + +#### For Document Classification +The `gt_parse` follows the format of `{"class" : {class_name}}`, for example, `{"class" : "scientific_report"}` or `{"class" : "presentation"}`. +- Google colab demo is available [here](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1xUDmLqlthx8A8rWKLMSLThZ7oeRJkDuU?usp=sharing). + +#### For Document Information Extraction +The `gt_parse` is a JSON object that contains full information of the document image, for example, the JSON object for a receipt may look like `{"menu" : [{"nm": "ICE BLACKCOFFEE", "cnt": "2", ...}, ...], ...}`. +- More examples are available at [CORD dataset](https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/cord-v2). +- Google colab demo is available [here](https://huggingface.co/spaces/naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-cord-v2). +- Gradio web demo is available [here](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1o07hty-3OQTvGnc_7lgQFLvvKQuLjqiw?usp=sharing). + +#### For Document Visual Question Answering +The `gt_parses` follows the format of `[{"question" : {question_sentence}, "answer" : {answer_candidate_1}}, {"question" : {question_sentence}, "answer" : {answer_candidate_2}}, ...]`, for example, `[{"question" : "what is the model name?", "answer" : "donut"}, {"question" : "what is the model name?", "answer" : "document understanding transformer"}]`. +- DocVQA Task1 has multiple answers, hence `gt_parses` should be a list of dictionary that contains a pair of question and answer. +- Google colab demo is available [here](https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1Z4WG8Wunj3HE0CERjt608ALSgSzRC9ig?usp=sharing). + +#### For (Psuedo) Text Reading Task +The `gt_parse` looks like `{"text_sequence" : "word1 word2 word3 ... "}` +- This task is also a pre-training task of Donut model. +- You can use our **SynthDoG** 🐶 to generate synthetic images for the text reading task with proper `gt_parse`. See `./synthdog/README.md` for details. + +### Training + +This is the configuration of Donut model training on [CORD](https://github.com/clovaai/cord) dataset used in our experiment. +We ran this with a single NVIDIA A100 GPU. + +```bash +python train.py --config config/train_cord.yaml \ + --pretrained_model_name_or_path "naver-clova-ix/donut-base" \ + --dataset_name_or_paths '["naver-clova-ix/cord-v2"]' \ + --exp_version "test_experiment" + . + . +Prediction: Lemon Tea (L)125.00025.00030.0005.000 +Answer: Lemon Tea (L)125.00025.00030.0005.000 +Normed ED: 0.0 +Prediction: Hulk Topper Package1100.000100.000100.0000 +Answer: Hulk Topper Package1100.000100.000100.0000 +Normed ED: 0.0 +Prediction: Giant Squidx 1Rp. 39.000C.Finishing - CutRp. 0B.Spicy Level - Extreme Hot Rp. 0A.Flavour - Salt & PepperRp. 0Rp. 39.000Rp. 39.000Rp. 50.000Rp. 11.000 +Answer: Giant Squidx1Rp. 39.000C.Finishing - CutRp. 0B.Spicy Level - Extreme HotRp. 0A.Flavour- Salt & PepperRp. 0Rp. 39.000Rp. 39.000Rp. 50.000Rp. 11.000 +Normed ED: 0.039603960396039604 +Epoch 29: 100%|█████████████| 200/200 [01:49<00:00, 1.82it/s, loss=0.00327, exp_name=train_cord, exp_version=test_experiment] +``` + +Some important arguments: + +- `--config` : config file path for model training. +- `--pretrained_model_name_or_path` : string format, model name in huggingface modelhub or local path. +- `--dataset_name_or_paths` : string format (json dumped), list of dataset names in huggingface datasets or local paths. +- `--result_path` : file path to save model outputs/artifacts. +- `--exp_version` : used for experiment versioning. The output files are saved at `{result_path}/{exp_version}/*` + +### Test + +With the trained model, test images and ground truth parses, you can get inference results and accuracy scores. + +```bash +python test.py --dataset_name_or_path naver-clova-ix/cord-v2 --pretrained_model_name_or_path ./result/train_cord/test_experiment --save_path ./result/output.json +100%|█████████████| 100/100 [00:37<00:00, 2.67it/s] +{'accuracies': [0.7778, 1.0, {...} , 0.9689], 'mean_accuracy': 0.9388447875172169} length : 100 +``` + +Some important arguments: + +- `--dataset_name_or_path` : string format, the target dataset name in huggingface datasets or local path. +- `--pretrained_model_name_or_path` : string format, the model name in huggingface modelhub or local path. +- `--save_path`: file path to save predictions and scores. + +## How to Cite +If you find this work useful to you, please cite: +``` +@article{kim2021donut, + title={OCR-free Document Understanding Transformer}, + author={Kim, Geewook and Hong, Teakgyu and Yim, Moonbin and Nam, JeongYeon and Park, Jinyoung and Yim, Jinyeong and Hwang, Wonseok and Yun, Sangdoo and Han, Dongyoon and Park, Seunghyun}, + journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.15664}, + year={2021} +} +``` + +## License + +``` +MIT license + +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy +of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal +in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights +to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell +copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is +furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in +all copies or substantial portions of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR +IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, +FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE +AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER +LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, +OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN +THE SOFTWARE. +``` diff --git a/app.py b/app.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..d1dd28cb --- /dev/null +++ b/app.py @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import argparse + +import gradio as gr +import torch +from PIL import Image + +from donut import DonutModel + + +def demo_process_vqa(input_img, question): + global pretrained_model, task_prompt, task_name + input_img = Image.fromarray(input_img) + user_prompt = task_prompt.replace("{user_input}", question) + output = pretrained_model.inference(input_img, prompt=user_prompt)["predictions"][0] + return output + + +def demo_process(input_img): + global pretrained_model, task_prompt, task_name + input_img = Image.fromarray(input_img) + output = pretrained_model.inference(image=input_img, prompt=task_prompt)["predictions"][0] + return output + + +if __name__ == "__main__": + parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() + parser.add_argument("--task", type=str, default="docvqa") + parser.add_argument("--pretrained_path", type=str, default="naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-docvqa") + parser.add_argument("--port", type=int, default=None) + parser.add_argument("--url", type=str, default=None) + parser.add_argument("--sample_img_path", type=str) + args, left_argv = parser.parse_known_args() + + task_name = args.task + if "docvqa" == task_name: + task_prompt = "{user_input}" + else: # rvlcdip, cord, ... + task_prompt = f"" + + example_sample = [] + if args.sample_img_path: + example_sample.append(args.sample_img_path) + + pretrained_model = DonutModel.from_pretrained(args.pretrained_path) + + if torch.cuda.is_available(): + pretrained_model.half() + device = torch.device("cuda") + pretrained_model.to(device) + else: + pretrained_model.encoder.to(torch.bfloat16) + + pretrained_model.eval() + + demo = gr.Interface( + fn=demo_process_vqa if task_name == "docvqa" else demo_process, + inputs=["image", "text"] if task_name == "docvqa" else "image", + outputs="json", + title=f"Donut 🍩 demonstration for `{task_name}` task", + examples=[example_sample] if example_sample else None, + ) + demo.launch(server_name=args.url, server_port=args.port) diff --git a/config/train_cord.yaml b/config/train_cord.yaml new file mode 100755 index 00000000..1e2a8543 --- /dev/null +++ b/config/train_cord.yaml @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +resume_from_checkpoint_path: null # only used for resume_from_checkpoint option in PL +result_path: "./result" +pretrained_model_name_or_path: "naver-clova-ix/donut-base" # loading a pre-trained model (from moldehub or path) +dataset_name_or_paths: ["naver-clova-ix/cord-v2"] # loading datasets (from moldehub or path) +sort_json_key: False # cord dataset is preprocessed, and publicly available at https://huggingface.co/datasets/naver-clova-ix/cord-v2 +train_batch_sizes: [8] +val_batch_sizes: [1] +input_size: [1280, 960] +max_length: 768 +align_long_axis: False +num_nodes: 1 +seed: 2022 +lr: 3e-5 +warmup_steps: 300 # 800/8*30/10, 10% +num_training_samples_per_epoch: 800 +max_epochs: 30 +max_steps: null +num_workers: 8 +val_check_interval: 1.0 +check_val_every_n_epoch: 3 +gradient_clip_val: 1.0 +verbose: True diff --git a/dataset/.gitkeep b/dataset/.gitkeep new file mode 100755 index 00000000..8b137891 --- /dev/null +++ b/dataset/.gitkeep @@ -0,0 +1 @@ + diff --git a/donut/__init__.py b/donut/__init__.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..513eb6ad --- /dev/null +++ b/donut/__init__.py @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from .model import DonutConfig, DonutModel +from .util import DonutDataset, JSONParseEvaluator, load_json, save_json + +__all__ = [ + "DonutConfig", + "DonutModel", + "DonutDataset", + "JSONParseEvaluator", + "load_json", + "save_json", +] diff --git a/donut/_version.py b/donut/_version.py new file mode 100644 index 00000000..afc5d9dd --- /dev/null +++ b/donut/_version.py @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +__version__ = "1.0.3" diff --git a/donut/model.py b/donut/model.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..816fc399 --- /dev/null +++ b/donut/model.py @@ -0,0 +1,610 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import math +import os +import re +from typing import Any, List, Optional, Union + +import numpy as np +import PIL +import timm +import torch +import torch.nn as nn +import torch.nn.functional as F +from PIL import ImageOps +from timm.data.constants import IMAGENET_DEFAULT_MEAN, IMAGENET_DEFAULT_STD +from timm.models.swin_transformer import SwinTransformer +from torchvision import transforms +from torchvision.transforms.functional import resize, rotate +from transformers import MBartConfig, MBartForCausalLM, XLMRobertaTokenizer +from transformers.file_utils import ModelOutput +from transformers.modeling_utils import PretrainedConfig, PreTrainedModel + + +class SwinEncoder(nn.Module): + r""" + Donut encoder based on SwinTransformer + Set the initial weights and configuration with a pretrained SwinTransformer and then + modify the detailed configurations as a Donut Encoder + + Args: + input_size: Input image size (width, height) + align_long_axis: Whether to rotate image if height is greater than width + window_size: Window size(=patch size) of SwinTransformer + encoder_layer: Number of layers of SwinTransformer encoder + name_or_path: Name of a pretrained model name either registered in huggingface.co. or saved in local. + otherwise, `swin_base_patch4_window12_384` will be set (using `timm`). + """ + + def __init__( + self, + input_size: List[int], + align_long_axis: bool, + window_size: int, + encoder_layer: List[int], + name_or_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike] = None, + ): + super().__init__() + self.input_size = input_size + self.align_long_axis = align_long_axis + self.window_size = window_size + self.encoder_layer = encoder_layer + + self.to_tensor = transforms.Compose( + [ + transforms.ToTensor(), + transforms.Normalize(IMAGENET_DEFAULT_MEAN, IMAGENET_DEFAULT_STD), + ] + ) + + self.model = SwinTransformer( + img_size=self.input_size, + depths=self.encoder_layer, + window_size=self.window_size, + patch_size=4, + embed_dim=128, + num_heads=[4, 8, 16, 32], + num_classes=0, + ) + + # weight init with swin + if not name_or_path: + swin_state_dict = timm.create_model("swin_base_patch4_window12_384", pretrained=True).state_dict() + new_swin_state_dict = self.model.state_dict() + for x in new_swin_state_dict: + if x.endswith("relative_position_index") or x.endswith("attn_mask"): + pass + elif ( + x.endswith("relative_position_bias_table") + and self.model.layers[0].blocks[0].attn.window_size[0] != 12 + ): + pos_bias = swin_state_dict[x].unsqueeze(0)[0] + old_len = int(math.sqrt(len(pos_bias))) + new_len = int(2 * window_size - 1) + pos_bias = pos_bias.reshape(1, old_len, old_len, -1).permute(0, 3, 1, 2) + pos_bias = F.interpolate(pos_bias, size=(new_len, new_len), mode="bicubic", align_corners=False) + new_swin_state_dict[x] = pos_bias.permute(0, 2, 3, 1).reshape(1, new_len ** 2, -1).squeeze(0) + else: + new_swin_state_dict[x] = swin_state_dict[x] + self.model.load_state_dict(new_swin_state_dict) + + def forward(self, x: torch.Tensor) -> torch.Tensor: + """ + Args: + x: (batch_size, num_channels, height, width) + """ + x = self.model.patch_embed(x) + x = self.model.pos_drop(x) + x = self.model.layers(x) + return x + + def prepare_input(self, img: PIL.Image.Image, random_padding: bool = False) -> torch.Tensor: + """ + Convert PIL Image to tensor according to specified input_size after following steps below: + - resize + - rotate (if align_long_axis is True and image is not aligned longer axis with canvas) + - pad + """ + if self.align_long_axis and ( + (self.input_size[0] > self.input_size[1] and img.width > img.height) + or (self.input_size[0] < self.input_size[1] and img.width < img.height) + ): + img = rotate(img, angle=-90, expand=True) + img = resize(img, min(self.input_size)) + img.thumbnail((self.input_size[1], self.input_size[0])) + delta_width = self.input_size[1] - img.width + delta_height = self.input_size[0] - img.height + if random_padding: + pad_width = np.random.randint(low=0, high=delta_width + 1) + pad_height = np.random.randint(low=0, high=delta_height + 1) + else: + pad_width = delta_width // 2 + pad_height = delta_height // 2 + padding = ( + pad_width, + pad_height, + delta_width - pad_width, + delta_height - pad_height, + ) + return self.to_tensor(ImageOps.expand(img, padding)) + + +class BARTDecoder(nn.Module): + """ + Donut Decoder based on Multilingual BART + Set the initial weights and configuration with a pretrained multilingual BART model, + and modify the detailed configurations as a Donut decoder + + Args: + decoder_layer: + Number of layers of BARTDecoder + max_position_embeddings: + The maximum sequence length to be trained + name_or_path: + Name of a pretrained model name either registered in huggingface.co. or saved in local, + otherwise, `hyunwoongko/asian-bart-ecjk` will be set (using `transformers`) + """ + + def __init__( + self, decoder_layer: int, max_position_embeddings: int, name_or_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike] = None + ): + super().__init__() + self.decoder_layer = decoder_layer + self.max_position_embeddings = max_position_embeddings + + self.tokenizer = XLMRobertaTokenizer.from_pretrained( + "hyunwoongko/asian-bart-ecjk" if not name_or_path else name_or_path + ) + + self.model = MBartForCausalLM( + config=MBartConfig( + is_decoder=True, + is_encoder_decoder=False, + add_cross_attention=True, + decoder_layers=self.decoder_layer, + max_position_embeddings=self.max_position_embeddings, + vocab_size=len(self.tokenizer), + scale_embedding=True, + add_final_layer_norm=True, + ) + ) + self.model.forward = self.forward # to get cross attentions and utilize `generate` function + + self.model.config.is_encoder_decoder = True # to get cross-attention + self.add_special_tokens([""]) # is used for representing a list in a JSON + self.model.model.decoder.embed_tokens.padding_idx = self.tokenizer.pad_token_id + self.model.prepare_inputs_for_generation = self.prepare_inputs_for_inference + + # weight init with asian-bart + if not name_or_path: + bart_state_dict = MBartForCausalLM.from_pretrained("hyunwoongko/asian-bart-ecjk").state_dict() + new_bart_state_dict = self.model.state_dict() + for x in new_bart_state_dict: + if x.endswith("embed_positions.weight") and self.max_position_embeddings != 1024: + new_bart_state_dict[x] = torch.nn.Parameter( + self.resize_bart_abs_pos_emb( + bart_state_dict[x], + self.max_position_embeddings + + 2, # https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/blob/v4.11.3/src/transformers/models/mbart/modeling_mbart.py#L118-L119 + ) + ) + elif x.endswith("embed_tokens.weight") or x.endswith("lm_head.weight"): + new_bart_state_dict[x] = bart_state_dict[x][: len(self.tokenizer), :] + else: + new_bart_state_dict[x] = bart_state_dict[x] + self.model.load_state_dict(new_bart_state_dict) + + def add_special_tokens(self, list_of_tokens: List[str]): + """ + Add special tokens to tokenizer and resize the token embeddings + """ + newly_added_num = self.tokenizer.add_special_tokens({"additional_special_tokens": sorted(set(list_of_tokens))}) + if newly_added_num > 0: + self.model.resize_token_embeddings(len(self.tokenizer)) + + def prepare_inputs_for_inference(self, input_ids: torch.Tensor, past=None, use_cache: bool = None, **model_kwargs): + """ + Args: + input_ids: (batch_size, sequence_lenth) + Returns: + input_ids: (batch_size, sequence_length) + attention_mask: (batch_size, sequence_length) + encoder_hidden_states: (batch_size, sequence_length, embedding_dim) + """ + attention_mask = input_ids.ne(self.tokenizer.pad_token_id).long() + if past is not None: + input_ids = input_ids[:, -1:] + output = { + "input_ids": input_ids, + "attention_mask": attention_mask, + "past_key_values": past, + "use_cache": use_cache, + "encoder_hidden_states": model_kwargs["encoder_outputs"].last_hidden_state, + } + return output + + def forward( + self, + input_ids, + attention_mask: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + encoder_hidden_states: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + past_key_values: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + labels: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + use_cache: bool = None, + output_attentions: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + output_hidden_states: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + return_dict: bool = None, + ): + """ + A forward fucntion to get cross attentions and utilize `generate` function + + Source: + https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/blob/v4.11.3/src/transformers/models/mbart/modeling_mbart.py#L1669-L1810 + + Args: + input_ids: (batch_size, sequence_length) + attention_mask: (batch_size, sequence_length) + encoder_hidden_states: (batch_size, sequence_length, hidden_size) + + Returns: + loss: (1, ) + logits: (batch_size, sequence_length, hidden_dim) + hidden_states: (batch_size, sequence_length, hidden_size) + decoder_attentions: (batch_size, num_heads, sequence_length, sequence_length) + cross_attentions: (batch_size, num_heads, sequence_length, sequence_length) + """ + output_attentions = output_attentions if output_attentions is not None else self.model.config.output_attentions + output_hidden_states = ( + output_hidden_states if output_hidden_states is not None else self.model.config.output_hidden_states + ) + return_dict = return_dict if return_dict is not None else self.model.config.use_return_dict + outputs = self.model.model.decoder( + input_ids=input_ids, + attention_mask=attention_mask, + encoder_hidden_states=encoder_hidden_states, + past_key_values=past_key_values, + use_cache=use_cache, + output_attentions=output_attentions, + output_hidden_states=output_hidden_states, + return_dict=return_dict, + ) + + logits = self.model.lm_head(outputs[0]) + + loss = None + if labels is not None: + loss_fct = nn.CrossEntropyLoss(ignore_index=-100) + loss = loss_fct(logits.view(-1, self.model.config.vocab_size), labels.view(-1)) + + if not return_dict: + output = (logits,) + outputs[1:] + return (loss,) + output if loss is not None else output + + return ModelOutput( + loss=loss, + logits=logits, + past_key_values=outputs.past_key_values, + hidden_states=outputs.hidden_states, + decoder_attentions=outputs.attentions, + cross_attentions=outputs.cross_attentions, + ) + + @staticmethod + def resize_bart_abs_pos_emb(weight: torch.Tensor, max_length: int) -> torch.Tensor: + """ + Resize position embeddings + Truncate if sequence length of Bart backbone is greater than given max_length, + else interpolate to max_length + """ + if weight.shape[0] > max_length: + weight = weight[:max_length, ...] + else: + weight = ( + F.interpolate( + weight.permute(1, 0).unsqueeze(0), + size=max_length, + mode="linear", + align_corners=False, + ) + .squeeze(0) + .permute(1, 0) + ) + return weight + + +class DonutConfig(PretrainedConfig): + r""" + This is the configuration class to store the configuration of a [`DonutModel`]. It is used to + instantiate a Donut model according to the specified arguments, defining the model architecture + + Args: + input_size: + Input image size (canvas size) of Donut.encoder, SwinTransformer in this codebase + align_long_axis: + Whether to rotate image if height is greater than width + window_size: + Window size of Donut.encoder, SwinTransformer in this codebase + encoder_layer: + Depth of each Donut.encoder Encoder layer, SwinTransformer in this codebase + decoder_layer: + Number of hidden layers in the Donut.decoder, such as BART + max_position_embeddings + Trained max position embeddings in the Donut decoder, + if not specified, it will have same value with max_length + max_length: + Max position embeddings(=maximum sequence length) you want to train + name_or_path: + Name of a pretrained model name either registered in huggingface.co. or saved in local + """ + + model_type = "donut" + + def __init__( + self, + input_size: List[int] = [2560, 1920], + align_long_axis: bool = False, + window_size: int = 10, + encoder_layer: List[int] = [2, 2, 14, 2], + decoder_layer: int = 4, + max_position_embeddings: int = None, + max_length: int = 1536, + name_or_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike] = "", + **kwargs, + ): + super().__init__() + self.input_size = input_size + self.align_long_axis = align_long_axis + self.window_size = window_size + self.encoder_layer = encoder_layer + self.decoder_layer = decoder_layer + self.max_position_embeddings = max_length if max_position_embeddings is None else max_position_embeddings + self.max_length = max_length + self.name_or_path = name_or_path + + +class DonutModel(PreTrainedModel): + r""" + Donut: an E2E OCR-free Document Understanding Transformer. + The encoder maps an input document image into a set of embeddings, + the decoder predicts a desired token sequence, that can be converted to a structured format, + given a prompt and the encoder output embeddings + """ + config_class = DonutConfig + base_model_prefix = "donut" + + def __init__(self, config: DonutConfig): + super().__init__(config) + self.config = config + self.encoder = SwinEncoder( + input_size=self.config.input_size, + align_long_axis=self.config.align_long_axis, + window_size=self.config.window_size, + encoder_layer=self.config.encoder_layer, + name_or_path=self.config.name_or_path, + ) + self.decoder = BARTDecoder( + max_position_embeddings=self.config.max_position_embeddings, + decoder_layer=self.config.decoder_layer, + name_or_path=self.config.name_or_path, + ) + + def forward(self, image_tensors: torch.Tensor, decoder_input_ids: torch.Tensor, decoder_labels: torch.Tensor): + """ + Calculate a loss given an input image and a desired token sequence, + the model will be trained in a teacher-forcing manner + + Args: + image_tensors: (batch_size, num_channels, height, width) + decoder_input_ids: (batch_size, sequence_length, embedding_dim) + decode_labels: (batch_size, sequence_length) + """ + encoder_outputs = self.encoder(image_tensors) + decoder_outputs = self.decoder( + input_ids=decoder_input_ids, + encoder_hidden_states=encoder_outputs, + labels=decoder_labels, + ) + return decoder_outputs + + def inference( + self, + image: PIL.Image = None, + prompt: str = None, + image_tensors: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + prompt_tensors: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None, + return_json: bool = True, + return_attentions: bool = False, + ): + """ + Generate a token sequence in an auto-regressive manner, + the generated token sequence is convereted into an ordered JSON format + + Args: + image: input document image (PIL.Image) + prompt: task prompt (string) to guide Donut Decoder generation + image_tensors: (1, num_channels, height, width) + convert prompt to tensor if image_tensor is not fed + prompt_tensors: (1, sequence_length) + convert image to tensor if prompt_tensor is not fed + """ + # prepare backbone inputs (image and prompt) + if image is None and image_tensors is None: + raise ValueError("Expected either image or image_tensors") + if all(v is None for v in {prompt, prompt_tensors}): + raise ValueError("Expected either prompt or prompt_tensors") + + if image_tensors is None: + image_tensors = self.encoder.prepare_input(image).unsqueeze(0) + + if self.device.type == "cuda": # half is not compatible in cpu implementation. + image_tensors = image_tensors.half() + image_tensors = image_tensors.to(self.device) + else: + image_tensors = image_tensors.to(torch.bfloat16) + + if prompt_tensors is None: + prompt_tensors = self.decoder.tokenizer(prompt, add_special_tokens=False, return_tensors="pt")["input_ids"] + + prompt_tensors = prompt_tensors.to(self.device) + + last_hidden_state = self.encoder(image_tensors) + if self.device.type != "cuda": + last_hidden_state = last_hidden_state.to(torch.float32) + + encoder_outputs = ModelOutput(last_hidden_state=last_hidden_state, attentions=None) + + if len(encoder_outputs.last_hidden_state.size()) == 1: + encoder_outputs.last_hidden_state = encoder_outputs.last_hidden_state.unsqueeze(0) + if len(prompt_tensors.size()) == 1: + prompt_tensors = prompt_tensors.unsqueeze(0) + + # get decoder output + decoder_output = self.decoder.model.generate( + decoder_input_ids=prompt_tensors, + encoder_outputs=encoder_outputs, + max_length=self.config.max_length, + early_stopping=True, + pad_token_id=self.decoder.tokenizer.pad_token_id, + eos_token_id=self.decoder.tokenizer.eos_token_id, + use_cache=True, + num_beams=1, + bad_words_ids=[[self.decoder.tokenizer.unk_token_id]], + return_dict_in_generate=True, + output_attentions=return_attentions, + ) + + output = {"predictions": list()} + for seq in self.decoder.tokenizer.batch_decode(decoder_output.sequences): + seq = seq.replace(self.decoder.tokenizer.eos_token, "").replace(self.decoder.tokenizer.pad_token, "") + seq = re.sub(r"<.*?>", "", seq, count=1).strip() # remove first task start token + if return_json: + output["predictions"].append(self.token2json(seq)) + else: + output["predictions"].append(seq) + + if return_attentions: + output["attentions"] = { + "self_attentions": decoder_output.decoder_attentions, + "cross_attentions": decoder_output.cross_attentions, + } + + return output + + def json2token(self, obj: Any, update_special_tokens_for_json_key: bool = True, sort_json_key: bool = True): + """ + Convert an ordered JSON object into a token sequence + """ + if type(obj) == dict: + if len(obj) == 1 and "text_sequence" in obj: + return obj["text_sequence"] + else: + output = "" + if sort_json_key: + keys = sorted(obj.keys(), reverse=True) + else: + keys = obj.keys() + for k in keys: + if update_special_tokens_for_json_key: + self.decoder.add_special_tokens([fr"", fr""]) + output += ( + fr"" + + self.json2token(obj[k], update_special_tokens_for_json_key, sort_json_key) + + fr"" + ) + return output + elif type(obj) == list: + return r"".join( + [self.json2token(item, update_special_tokens_for_json_key, sort_json_key) for item in obj] + ) + else: + obj = str(obj) + if f"<{obj}/>" in self.decoder.tokenizer.all_special_tokens: + obj = f"<{obj}/>" # for categorical special tokens + return obj + + def token2json(self, tokens, is_inner_value=False): + """ + Convert a (generated) token seuqnce into an ordered JSON format + """ + output = dict() + + while tokens: + start_token = re.search(r"", tokens, re.IGNORECASE) + if start_token is None: + break + key = start_token.group(1) + end_token = re.search(fr"", tokens, re.IGNORECASE) + start_token = start_token.group() + if end_token is None: + tokens = tokens.replace(start_token, "") + else: + end_token = end_token.group() + start_token_escaped = re.escape(start_token) + end_token_escaped = re.escape(end_token) + content = re.search(f"{start_token_escaped}(.*?){end_token_escaped}", tokens, re.IGNORECASE) + if content is not None: + content = content.group(1).strip() + if r""): + leaf = leaf.strip() + if ( + leaf in self.decoder.tokenizer.get_added_vocab() + and leaf[0] == "<" + and leaf[-2:] == "/>" + ): + leaf = leaf[1:-2] # for categorical special tokens + output[key].append(leaf) + if len(output[key]) == 1: + output[key] = output[key][0] + + tokens = tokens[tokens.find(end_token) + len(end_token) :].strip() + if tokens[:6] == r"": # non-leaf nodes + return [output] + self.token2json(tokens[6:], is_inner_value=True) + + if len(output): + return [output] if is_inner_value else output + else: + return [] if is_inner_value else {"text_sequence": tokens} + + @classmethod + def from_pretrained( + cls, + pretrained_model_name_or_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike], + *model_args, + **kwargs, + ): + r""" + Instantiate a pretrained donut model from a pre-trained model configuration + + Args: + pretrained_model_name_or_path: + Name of a pretrained model name either registered in huggingface.co. or saved in local, + e.g., `naver-clova-ix/donut-base`, or `naver-clova-ix/donut-base-finetuned-rvlcdip` + """ + model = super(DonutModel, cls).from_pretrained(pretrained_model_name_or_path, *model_args, **kwargs) + + # truncate or interplolate position embeddings of donut decoder + max_length = kwargs.get("max_length", model.config.max_position_embeddings) + if ( + max_length != model.config.max_position_embeddings + ): # if max_length of trained model differs max_length you want to train + model.decoder.model.model.decoder.embed_positions.weight = torch.nn.Parameter( + model.decoder.resize_bart_abs_pos_emb( + model.decoder.model.model.decoder.embed_positions.weight, + max_length + + 2, # https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/blob/v4.11.3/src/transformers/models/mbart/modeling_mbart.py#L118-L119 + ) + ) + model.config.max_position_embeddings = max_length + + return model diff --git a/donut/util.py b/donut/util.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..a9c715c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/donut/util.py @@ -0,0 +1,288 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import json +import os +import random +from typing import Any, Dict, List, Tuple, Union + +import torch +import zss +from datasets import load_dataset +from nltk import edit_distance +from torch.utils.data import Dataset +from transformers.modeling_utils import PreTrainedModel +from zss import Node + + +def save_json(write_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike], save_obj: Any): + with open(write_path, "w") as f: + json.dump(save_obj, f) + + +def load_json(json_path: Union[str, bytes, os.PathLike]): + with open(json_path, "r") as f: + return json.load(f) + + +class DonutDataset(Dataset): + """ + DonutDataset which is saved in huggingface datasets format. (see details in https://huggingface.co/docs/datasets) + Each row, consists of image path(png/jpg/jpeg) and gt data (json/jsonl/txt), + and it will be converted into input_tensor(vectorized image) and input_ids(tokenized string). + + Args: + dataset_name_or_path: name of dataset (available at huggingface.co/datasets) or the path containing image files and metadata.jsonl + ignore_id: ignore_index for torch.nn.CrossEntropyLoss + task_start_token: the special token to be fed to the decoder to conduct the target task + """ + + def __init__( + self, + dataset_name_or_path: str, + donut_model: PreTrainedModel, + max_length: int, + split: str = "train", + ignore_id: int = -100, + task_start_token: str = "", + prompt_end_token: str = None, + sort_json_key: bool = True, + ): + super().__init__() + + self.donut_model = donut_model + self.max_length = max_length + self.split = split + self.ignore_id = ignore_id + self.task_start_token = task_start_token + self.prompt_end_token = prompt_end_token if prompt_end_token else task_start_token + self.sort_json_key = sort_json_key + + self.dataset = load_dataset(dataset_name_or_path, split=self.split) + self.dataset_length = len(self.dataset) + + self.gt_token_sequences = [] + for sample in self.dataset: + ground_truth = json.loads(sample["ground_truth"]) + if "gt_parses" in ground_truth: # when multiple ground truths are available, e.g., docvqa + assert isinstance(ground_truth["gt_parses"], list) + gt_jsons = ground_truth["gt_parses"] + else: + assert "gt_parse" in ground_truth and isinstance(ground_truth["gt_parse"], dict) + gt_jsons = [ground_truth["gt_parse"]] + + self.gt_token_sequences.append( + [ + task_start_token + + self.donut_model.json2token( + gt_json, + update_special_tokens_for_json_key=self.split == "train", + sort_json_key=self.sort_json_key, + ) + + self.donut_model.decoder.tokenizer.eos_token + for gt_json in gt_jsons # load json from list of json + ] + ) + + self.donut_model.decoder.add_special_tokens([self.task_start_token, self.prompt_end_token]) + self.prompt_end_token_id = self.donut_model.decoder.tokenizer.convert_tokens_to_ids(self.prompt_end_token) + + def __len__(self) -> int: + return self.dataset_length + + def __getitem__(self, idx: int) -> Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor]: + """ + Load image from image_path of given dataset_path and convert into input_tensor and labels + Convert gt data into input_ids (tokenized string) + + Returns: + input_tensor : preprocessed image + input_ids : tokenized gt_data + labels : masked labels (model doesn't need to predict prompt and pad token) + """ + sample = self.dataset[idx] + + # input_tensor + input_tensor = self.donut_model.encoder.prepare_input(sample["image"], random_padding=self.split == "train") + + # input_ids + processed_parse = random.choice(self.gt_token_sequences[idx]) # can be more than one, e.g., DocVQA Task 1 + input_ids = self.donut_model.decoder.tokenizer( + processed_parse, + add_special_tokens=False, + max_length=self.max_length, + padding="max_length", + truncation=True, + return_tensors="pt", + )["input_ids"].squeeze(0) + + if self.split == "train": + labels = input_ids.clone() + labels[ + labels == self.donut_model.decoder.tokenizer.pad_token_id + ] = self.ignore_id # model doesn't need to predict pad token + labels[ + : torch.nonzero(labels == self.prompt_end_token_id).sum() + 1 + ] = self.ignore_id # model doesn't need to predict prompt (for VQA) + return input_tensor, input_ids, labels + else: + prompt_end_index = torch.nonzero( + input_ids == self.prompt_end_token_id + ).sum() # return prompt end index instead of target output labels + return input_tensor, input_ids, prompt_end_index, processed_parse + + +class JSONParseEvaluator: + """ + Calculate n-TED(Normalized Tree Edit Distance) based accuracy between a predicted json and a gold json, + calculated as, + accuracy = 1 - TED(normalize(pred), normalize(gold)) / TED({}, normalize(gold)) + """ + + @staticmethod + def update_cost(label1: str, label2: str): + """ + Update cost for tree edit distance. + If both are leaf node, calculate string edit distance between two labels (special token '' will be ignored). + If one of them is leaf node, cost is length of string in leaf node + 1. + If neither are leaf node, cost is 0 if label1 is same with label2 othewise 1. + """ + label1_leaf = "" in label1 + label2_leaf = "" in label2 + if label1_leaf == True and label2_leaf == True: + return edit_distance(label1.replace("", ""), label2.replace("", "")) + elif label1_leaf == False and label2_leaf == True: + return 1 + len(label2.replace("", "")) + elif label1_leaf == True and label2_leaf == False: + return 1 + len(label1.replace("", "")) + else: + return int(label1 != label2) + + @staticmethod + def insert_and_remove_cost(node): + """ + Insert and remove cost for tree edit distance. + If leaf node, cost is length of label name. + Otherwise, 1 + """ + label = node.label + if "" in label: + return len(label.replace("", "")) + else: + return 1 + + def normalize_dict(self, data: Union[Dict, List, Any]): + """ + Sort by value, while iterate over element if data is list. + """ + if not data: + return {} + + if isinstance(data, dict): + new_data = dict() + for key, value in sorted(data.items()): + value = self.normalize_dict(value) + if value: + if not isinstance(value, list): + value = [value] + new_data[key] = value + + elif isinstance(data, list): + if all(isinstance(item, dict) for item in data): + new_data = [] + for item in sorted(data, key=lambda x: str(sorted(x.items()))): + item = self.normalize_dict(item) + if item: + new_data.append(item) + else: + new_data = sorted([str(item) for item in data if type(item) in {str, int, float} and str(item)]) + else: + new_data = [str(data)] + + return new_data + + def construct_tree_from_dict(self, data: Union[Dict, List], node_name: str = None): + """ + Convert Dictionary into Tree + + Example: + input(dict) + + { + "menu": [ + {"name" : ["cake"], "count" : ["2"]}, + {"name" : ["juice"], "count" : ["1"]}, + ] + } + + output(tree) + + | + menu + / \ + + / | | \ + name count name count + / | | \ + cake 2 juice 1 + """ + if node_name is None: + node_name = "" + + node = Node(node_name) + + if isinstance(data, dict): + for key, value in data.items(): + kid_node = self.construct_tree_from_dict(value, key) + node.addkid(kid_node) + elif isinstance(data, list): + if all(isinstance(item, dict) for item in data): + for item in data: + kid_node = self.construct_tree_from_dict( + item, + "", + ) + node.addkid(kid_node) + else: + for item in data: + node.addkid(Node(f"{item}")) + else: + raise Exception(data, node_name) + return node + + def cal_acc(self, pred, answer): + """ + Calculate normalized tree edit distance(nTED) based accuracy. + 1) Construct tree from dict, + 2) Get tree distance with insert/remove/update cost, + 3) Divide distance with GT tree size (i.e., nTED), + 4) Calculate nTED based accuracy. (= max(1 - nTED, 0 ). + """ + pred = self.construct_tree_from_dict(self.normalize_dict(pred)) + answer = self.construct_tree_from_dict(self.normalize_dict(answer)) + return max( + 0, + 1 + - ( + zss.distance( + pred, + answer, + get_children=zss.Node.get_children, + insert_cost=self.insert_and_remove_cost, + remove_cost=self.insert_and_remove_cost, + update_cost=self.update_cost, + return_operations=False, + ) + / zss.distance( + self.construct_tree_from_dict(self.normalize_dict({})), + answer, + get_children=zss.Node.get_children, + insert_cost=self.insert_and_remove_cost, + remove_cost=self.insert_and_remove_cost, + update_cost=self.update_cost, + return_operations=False, + ) + ), + ) diff --git a/lightning_module.py b/lightning_module.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..a8116be5 --- /dev/null +++ b/lightning_module.py @@ -0,0 +1,197 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import math +import random +import re +from pathlib import Path + +import numpy as np +import pytorch_lightning as pl +import torch +from nltk import edit_distance +from pytorch_lightning.utilities import rank_zero_only +from timm.data.constants import IMAGENET_DEFAULT_MEAN, IMAGENET_DEFAULT_STD +from torch.nn.utils.rnn import pad_sequence +from torch.optim.lr_scheduler import LambdaLR +from torch.utils.data import DataLoader + +from donut import DonutConfig, DonutModel + + +class DonutModelPLModule(pl.LightningModule): + def __init__(self, config): + super().__init__() + self.config = config + + if self.config.get("pretrained_model_name_or_path", False): + self.model = DonutModel.from_pretrained( + self.config.pretrained_model_name_or_path, + input_size=self.config.input_size, + max_length=self.config.max_length, + align_long_axis=self.config.align_long_axis, + ignore_mismatched_sizes=True, + ) + else: + self.model = DonutModel( + config=DonutConfig( + input_size=self.config.input_size, + max_length=self.config.max_length, + align_long_axis=self.config.align_long_axis, + # with DonutConfig, the architecture customization is available, e.g., + # encoder_layer=[2,2,14,2], decoder_layer=4, ... + ) + ) + + def training_step(self, batch, batch_idx): + image_tensors, decoder_input_ids, decoder_labels = list(), list(), list() + for batch_data in batch: + image_tensors.append(batch_data[0]) + decoder_input_ids.append(batch_data[1][:, :-1]) + decoder_labels.append(batch_data[2][:, 1:]) + image_tensors = torch.cat(image_tensors) + decoder_input_ids = torch.cat(decoder_input_ids) + decoder_labels = torch.cat(decoder_labels) + loss = self.model(image_tensors, decoder_input_ids, decoder_labels)[0] + self.log_dict({"train_loss": loss}, sync_dist=True) + return loss + + def validation_step(self, batch, batch_idx, dataset_idx=0): + image_tensors, decoder_input_ids, prompt_end_idxs, answers = batch + decoder_prompts = pad_sequence( + [input_id[: end_idx + 1] for input_id, end_idx in zip(decoder_input_ids, prompt_end_idxs)], + batch_first=True, + ) + + preds = self.model.inference( + image_tensors=image_tensors, + prompt_tensors=decoder_prompts, + return_json=False, + return_attentions=False, + )["predictions"] + + scores = list() + for pred, answer in zip(preds, answers): + pred = re.sub(r"(?:(?<=>) | (?=", "", answer, count=1) + answer = answer.replace(self.model.decoder.tokenizer.eos_token, "") + scores.append(edit_distance(pred, answer) / max(len(pred), len(answer))) + + if self.config.get("verbose", False) and len(scores) == 1: + self.print(f"Prediction: {pred}") + self.print(f" Answer: {answer}") + self.print(f" Normed ED: {scores[0]}") + + return scores + + def validation_epoch_end(self, validation_step_outputs): + num_of_loaders = len(self.config.dataset_name_or_paths) + if num_of_loaders == 1: + validation_step_outputs = [validation_step_outputs] + assert len(validation_step_outputs) == num_of_loaders + cnt = [0] * num_of_loaders + total_metric = [0] * num_of_loaders + val_metric = [0] * num_of_loaders + for i, results in enumerate(validation_step_outputs): + for scores in results: + cnt[i] += len(scores) + total_metric[i] += np.sum(scores) + val_metric[i] = total_metric[i] / cnt[i] + val_metric_name = f"val_metric_{i}th_dataset" + self.log_dict({val_metric_name: val_metric[i]}, sync_dist=True) + self.log_dict({"val_metric": np.sum(total_metric) / np.sum(cnt)}, sync_dist=True) + + def configure_optimizers(self): + + max_iter = None + + if self.config.get("max_epochs", None): + assert len(self.config.train_batch_sizes) == 1, "Set max_epochs only if the number of datasets is 1" + max_iter = (self.config.max_epochs * self.config.num_training_samples_per_epoch) / ( + self.config.train_batch_sizes[0] * torch.cuda.device_count() * self.config.get("num_nodes", 1) + ) + + if self.config.get("max_steps", None): + max_iter = min(self.config.max_steps, max_iter) + + assert max_iter is not None + optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(self.parameters(), lr=self.config.lr) + scheduler = { + "scheduler": self.cosine_scheduler(optimizer, max_iter, self.config.warmup_steps), + "name": "learning_rate", + "interval": "step", + } + return [optimizer], [scheduler] + + @staticmethod + def cosine_scheduler(optimizer, training_steps, warmup_steps): + def lr_lambda(current_step): + if current_step < warmup_steps: + return current_step / max(1, warmup_steps) + progress = current_step - warmup_steps + progress /= max(1, training_steps - warmup_steps) + return max(0.0, 0.5 * (1.0 + math.cos(math.pi * progress))) + + return LambdaLR(optimizer, lr_lambda) + + def get_progress_bar_dict(self): + items = super().get_progress_bar_dict() + items.pop("v_num", None) + items["exp_name"] = f"{self.config.get('exp_name', '')}" + items["exp_version"] = f"{self.config.get('exp_version', '')}" + return items + + @rank_zero_only + def on_save_checkpoint(self, checkpoint): + save_path = Path(self.config.result_path) / self.config.exp_name / self.config.exp_version + self.model.save_pretrained(save_path) + self.model.decoder.tokenizer.save_pretrained(save_path) + + +class DonutDataPLModule(pl.LightningDataModule): + def __init__(self, config): + super().__init__() + self.config = config + self.train_batch_sizes = self.config.train_batch_sizes + self.val_batch_sizes = self.config.val_batch_sizes + self.train_datasets = [] + self.val_datasets = [] + self.g = torch.Generator() + self.g.manual_seed(self.config.seed) + + def train_dataloader(self): + loaders = list() + for train_dataset, batch_size in zip(self.train_datasets, self.train_batch_sizes): + loaders.append( + DataLoader( + train_dataset, + batch_size=batch_size, + num_workers=self.config.num_workers, + pin_memory=True, + worker_init_fn=self.seed_worker, + generator=self.g, + shuffle=True, + ) + ) + return loaders + + def val_dataloader(self): + loaders = list() + for val_dataset, batch_size in zip(self.val_datasets, self.val_batch_sizes): + loaders.append( + DataLoader( + val_dataset, + batch_size=batch_size, + pin_memory=True, + shuffle=False, + ) + ) + return loaders + + @staticmethod + def seed_worker(wordker_id): + worker_seed = torch.initial_seed() % 2 ** 32 + np.random.seed(worker_seed) + random.seed(worker_seed) diff --git a/misc/overview.png b/misc/overview.png new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3d92a57f Binary files /dev/null and b/misc/overview.png differ diff --git a/misc/sample_image_cord_test_receipt_00004.png b/misc/sample_image_cord_test_receipt_00004.png new file mode 100755 index 00000000..5827a9cc Binary files /dev/null and b/misc/sample_image_cord_test_receipt_00004.png differ diff --git a/misc/sample_image_donut_document.png b/misc/sample_image_donut_document.png new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ef1aa4dc Binary files /dev/null and b/misc/sample_image_donut_document.png differ diff --git a/misc/sample_synthdog.png b/misc/sample_synthdog.png new file mode 100755 index 00000000..9a07cb9d Binary files /dev/null and b/misc/sample_synthdog.png differ diff --git a/misc/screenshot_gradio_demos.png b/misc/screenshot_gradio_demos.png new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5eff8bf1 Binary files /dev/null and b/misc/screenshot_gradio_demos.png differ diff --git a/result/.gitkeep b/result/.gitkeep new file mode 100755 index 00000000..8b137891 --- /dev/null +++ b/result/.gitkeep @@ -0,0 +1 @@ + diff --git a/setup.py b/setup.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..572977f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/setup.py @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import os +from setuptools import find_packages, setup + +ROOT = os.path.abspath(os.path.dirname(__file__)) + + +def read_version(): + data = {} + path = os.path.join(ROOT, "donut", "_version.py") + with open(path, "r", encoding="utf-8") as f: + exec(f.read(), data) + return data["__version__"] + + +def read_long_description(): + path = os.path.join(ROOT, "README.md") + with open(path, "r", encoding="utf-8") as f: + text = f.read() + return text + + +setup( + name="donut-python", + version=read_version(), + description="OCR-free Document Understanding Transformer", + long_description=read_long_description(), + long_description_content_type="text/markdown", + author="Geewook Kim, Teakgyu Hong, Moonbin Yim, JeongYeon Nam, Jinyoung Park, Jinyeong Yim, Wonseok Hwang, Sangdoo Yun, Dongyoon Han, Seunghyun Park", + author_email="gwkim.rsrch@gmail.com", + url="https://github.com/clovaai/donut", + license="MIT", + packages=find_packages( + exclude=[ + "config", + "dataset", + "misc", + "result", + "synthdog", + "app.py", + "lightning_module.py", + "README.md", + "train.py", + "test.py", + ] + ), + python_requires=">=3.7", + install_requires=[ + "transformers>=4.11.3", + "timm", + "datasets[vision]", + "pytorch-lightning>=1.6.4", + "nltk", + "sentencepiece", + "zss", + "sconf>=0.2.3", + ], + classifiers=[ + "Intended Audience :: Developers", + "Intended Audience :: Information Technology", + "Intended Audience :: Science/Research", + "License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License", + "Programming Language :: Python", + "Programming Language :: Python :: 3", + "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.7", + "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.8", + "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.9", + "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.10", + "Topic :: Scientific/Engineering :: Artificial Intelligence", + "Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries", + "Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries :: Python Modules", + ], +) diff --git a/synthdog/README.md b/synthdog/README.md new file mode 100755 index 00000000..2bd8bdb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +# SynthDoG 🐶: Synthetic Document Generator + +SynthDoG is synthetic document generator for visual document understanding (VDU). + +![image](../misc/sample_synthdog.png) + +## Prerequisites + +- python>=3.6 +- [synthtiger](https://github.com/clovaai/synthtiger) (`pip install synthtiger`) + +## Usage + +```bash +# Set environment variable (for macOS) +$ export OBJC_DISABLE_INITIALIZE_FORK_SAFETY=YES + +synthtiger -o {dataset_path}/SynthDoG_en -c 100 -w 4 -v template.py SynthDog config_en.yaml + +{'config': 'config_en.yaml', + 'count': 100, + 'name': 'SynthDog', + 'output': 'outputs/SynthDoG_en', + 'script': 'template.py', + 'verbose': True, + 'worker': 4} +{'aspect_ratio': [1, 2], + . + . + 'quality': [50, 95], + 'short_size': [720, 1024]} +Generated 1 data +Generated 2 data +Generated 3 data + . + . +Generated 99 data +Generated 100 data +108.74 seconds elapsed +``` + +To generate ECJK samples: +```bash +# english +synthtiger -o {dataset_path}/synthdog-en -w 4 -v template.py SynthDoG config_en.yaml + +# chinese +synthtiger -o {dataset_path}/synthdog-zh -w 4 -v template.py SynthDoG config_zh.yaml + +# japanese +synthtiger -o {dataset_path}/synthdog-ja -w 4 -v template.py SynthDoG config_ja.yaml + +# korean +synthtiger -o {dataset_path}/synthdog-ko -w 4 -v template.py SynthDoG config_ko.yaml +``` diff --git a/synthdog/config_en.yaml b/synthdog/config_en.yaml new file mode 100755 index 00000000..1ea50df0 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/config_en.yaml @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +quality: [50, 95] +landscape: 0.5 +short_size: [720, 1024] +aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + +background: + image: + paths: [resources/background] + weights: [1] + + effect: + args: + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 10] + +document: + fullscreen: 0.5 + landscape: 0.5 + short_size: [480, 1024] + aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + + paper: + image: + paths: [resources/paper] + weights: [1] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + grayscale: 1 + crop: 1 + + content: + margin: [0, 0.1] + text: + path: resources/corpus/enwiki.txt + font: + paths: [resources/font/en] + weights: [1] + bold: 0 + layout: + text_scale: [0.0334, 0.1] + max_row: 10 + max_col: 3 + fill: [0.5, 1] + full: 0.1 + align: [left, right, center] + stack_spacing: [0.0334, 0.0334] + stack_fill: [0.5, 1] + stack_full: 0.1 + textbox: + fill: [0.5, 1] + textbox_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + content_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + + effect: + args: + # elastic distortion + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [0, 1] + sigma: [0, 0.5] + # gaussian noise + - prob: 1 + args: + scale: [0, 8] + per_channel: 0 + # perspective + - prob: 1 + args: + weights: [750, 50, 50, 25, 25, 25, 25, 50] + args: + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + +effect: + args: + # color + - prob: 0.2 + args: + rgb: [[0, 255], [0, 255], [0, 255]] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + # shadow + - prob: 1 + args: + intensity: [0, 160] + amount: [0, 1] + smoothing: [0.5, 1] + bidirectional: 0 + # contrast + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [1, 1.5] + # brightness + - prob: 1 + args: + beta: [-48, 0] + # motion blur + - prob: 0.5 + args: + k: [3, 5] + angle: [0, 360] + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 1.5] diff --git a/synthdog/config_ja.yaml b/synthdog/config_ja.yaml new file mode 100755 index 00000000..fcb12f45 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/config_ja.yaml @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +quality: [50, 95] +landscape: 0.5 +short_size: [720, 1024] +aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + +background: + image: + paths: [resources/background] + weights: [1] + + effect: + args: + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 10] + +document: + fullscreen: 0.5 + landscape: 0.5 + short_size: [480, 1024] + aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + + paper: + image: + paths: [resources/paper] + weights: [1] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + grayscale: 1 + crop: 1 + + content: + margin: [0, 0.1] + text: + path: resources/corpus/jawiki.txt + font: + paths: [resources/font/ja] + weights: [1] + bold: 0 + layout: + text_scale: [0.0334, 0.1] + max_row: 10 + max_col: 3 + fill: [0.5, 1] + full: 0.1 + align: [left, right, center] + stack_spacing: [0.0334, 0.0334] + stack_fill: [0.5, 1] + stack_full: 0.1 + textbox: + fill: [0.5, 1] + textbox_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + content_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + + effect: + args: + # elastic distortion + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [0, 1] + sigma: [0, 0.5] + # gaussian noise + - prob: 1 + args: + scale: [0, 8] + per_channel: 0 + # perspective + - prob: 1 + args: + weights: [750, 50, 50, 25, 25, 25, 25, 50] + args: + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + +effect: + args: + # color + - prob: 0.2 + args: + rgb: [[0, 255], [0, 255], [0, 255]] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + # shadow + - prob: 1 + args: + intensity: [0, 160] + amount: [0, 1] + smoothing: [0.5, 1] + bidirectional: 0 + # contrast + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [1, 1.5] + # brightness + - prob: 1 + args: + beta: [-48, 0] + # motion blur + - prob: 0.5 + args: + k: [3, 5] + angle: [0, 360] + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 1.5] diff --git a/synthdog/config_ko.yaml b/synthdog/config_ko.yaml new file mode 100755 index 00000000..8ef319cc --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/config_ko.yaml @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +quality: [50, 95] +landscape: 0.5 +short_size: [720, 1024] +aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + +background: + image: + paths: [resources/background] + weights: [1] + + effect: + args: + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 10] + +document: + fullscreen: 0.5 + landscape: 0.5 + short_size: [480, 1024] + aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + + paper: + image: + paths: [resources/paper] + weights: [1] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + grayscale: 1 + crop: 1 + + content: + margin: [0, 0.1] + text: + path: resources/corpus/kowiki.txt + font: + paths: [resources/font/ko] + weights: [1] + bold: 0 + layout: + text_scale: [0.0334, 0.1] + max_row: 10 + max_col: 3 + fill: [0.5, 1] + full: 0.1 + align: [left, right, center] + stack_spacing: [0.0334, 0.0334] + stack_fill: [0.5, 1] + stack_full: 0.1 + textbox: + fill: [0.5, 1] + textbox_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + content_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + + effect: + args: + # elastic distortion + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [0, 1] + sigma: [0, 0.5] + # gaussian noise + - prob: 1 + args: + scale: [0, 8] + per_channel: 0 + # perspective + - prob: 1 + args: + weights: [750, 50, 50, 25, 25, 25, 25, 50] + args: + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + +effect: + args: + # color + - prob: 0.2 + args: + rgb: [[0, 255], [0, 255], [0, 255]] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + # shadow + - prob: 1 + args: + intensity: [0, 160] + amount: [0, 1] + smoothing: [0.5, 1] + bidirectional: 0 + # contrast + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [1, 1.5] + # brightness + - prob: 1 + args: + beta: [-48, 0] + # motion blur + - prob: 0.5 + args: + k: [3, 5] + angle: [0, 360] + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 1.5] diff --git a/synthdog/config_zh.yaml b/synthdog/config_zh.yaml new file mode 100755 index 00000000..aa572534 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/config_zh.yaml @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +quality: [50, 95] +landscape: 0.5 +short_size: [720, 1024] +aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + +background: + image: + paths: [resources/background] + weights: [1] + + effect: + args: + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 10] + +document: + fullscreen: 0.5 + landscape: 0.5 + short_size: [480, 1024] + aspect_ratio: [1, 2] + + paper: + image: + paths: [resources/paper] + weights: [1] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + grayscale: 1 + crop: 1 + + content: + margin: [0, 0.1] + text: + path: resources/corpus/zhwiki.txt + font: + paths: [resources/font/zh] + weights: [1] + bold: 0 + layout: + text_scale: [0.0334, 0.1] + max_row: 10 + max_col: 3 + fill: [0.5, 1] + full: 0.1 + align: [left, right, center] + stack_spacing: [0.0334, 0.0334] + stack_fill: [0.5, 1] + stack_full: 0.1 + textbox: + fill: [0.5, 1] + textbox_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + content_color: + prob: 0.2 + args: + gray: [0, 64] + colorize: 1 + + effect: + args: + # elastic distortion + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [0, 1] + sigma: [0, 0.5] + # gaussian noise + - prob: 1 + args: + scale: [0, 8] + per_channel: 0 + # perspective + - prob: 1 + args: + weights: [750, 50, 50, 25, 25, 25, 25, 50] + args: + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1], [1, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [0.75, 1]] + - percents: [[1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1]] + +effect: + args: + # color + - prob: 0.2 + args: + rgb: [[0, 255], [0, 255], [0, 255]] + alpha: [0, 0.2] + # shadow + - prob: 1 + args: + intensity: [0, 160] + amount: [0, 1] + smoothing: [0.5, 1] + bidirectional: 0 + # contrast + - prob: 1 + args: + alpha: [1, 1.5] + # brightness + - prob: 1 + args: + beta: [-48, 0] + # motion blur + - prob: 0.5 + args: + k: [3, 5] + angle: [0, 360] + # gaussian blur + - prob: 1 + args: + sigma: [0, 1.5] diff --git a/synthdog/elements/__init__.py b/synthdog/elements/__init__.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..3abb2c36 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/__init__.py @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from elements.background import Background +from elements.content import Content +from elements.document import Document +from elements.paper import Paper +from elements.textbox import TextBox + +__all__ = ["Background", "Content", "Document", "Paper", "TextBox"] diff --git a/synthdog/elements/background.py b/synthdog/elements/background.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..4e02c479 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/background.py @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from synthtiger import components, layers + + +class Background: + def __init__(self, config): + self.image = components.BaseTexture(**config.get("image", {})) + self.effect = components.Iterator( + [ + components.Switch(components.GaussianBlur()), + ], + **config.get("effect", {}) + ) + + def generate(self, size): + bg_layer = layers.RectLayer(size, (255, 255, 255, 255)) + self.image.apply([bg_layer]) + self.effect.apply([bg_layer]) + + return bg_layer diff --git a/synthdog/elements/content.py b/synthdog/elements/content.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..954978d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/content.py @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import numpy as np +from synthtiger import components + +from elements.textbox import TextBox +from layouts import GridStack +from utils import TextReader + + +class Content: + def __init__(self, config): + self.margin = config.get("margin", [0, 0.1]) + self.reader = TextReader(**config.get("text", {})) + self.font = components.BaseFont(**config.get("font", {})) + self.layout = GridStack(config.get("layout", {})) + self.textbox = TextBox(config.get("textbox", {})) + self.textbox_color = components.Switch(components.Gray(), **config.get("textbox_color", {})) + self.content_color = components.Switch(components.Gray(), **config.get("content_color", {})) + + def generate(self, size): + width, height = size + + layout_left = width * np.random.uniform(self.margin[0], self.margin[1]) + layout_top = height * np.random.uniform(self.margin[0], self.margin[1]) + layout_width = max(width - layout_left * 2, 0) + layout_height = max(height - layout_top * 2, 0) + layout_bbox = [layout_left, layout_top, layout_width, layout_height] + + text_layers, texts = [], [] + layouts = self.layout.generate(layout_bbox) + self.reader.move(np.random.randint(len(self.reader))) + + for layout in layouts: + font = self.font.sample() + + for bbox, align in layout: + x, y, w, h = bbox + text_layer, text = self.textbox.generate((w, h), self.reader, font) + self.reader.prev() + + if text_layer is None: + continue + + text_layer.center = (x + w / 2, y + h / 2) + if align == "left": + text_layer.left = x + if align == "right": + text_layer.right = x + w + + self.textbox_color.apply([text_layer]) + text_layers.append(text_layer) + texts.append(text) + + self.content_color.apply(text_layers) + + return text_layers, texts diff --git a/synthdog/elements/document.py b/synthdog/elements/document.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..c4152e03 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/document.py @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import numpy as np +from synthtiger import components + +from elements.content import Content +from elements.paper import Paper + + +class Document: + def __init__(self, config): + self.fullscreen = config.get("fullscreen", 0.5) + self.landscape = config.get("landscape", 0.5) + self.short_size = config.get("short_size", [480, 1024]) + self.aspect_ratio = config.get("aspect_ratio", [1, 2]) + self.paper = Paper(config.get("paper", {})) + self.content = Content(config.get("content", {})) + self.effect = components.Iterator( + [ + components.Switch(components.ElasticDistortion()), + components.Switch(components.AdditiveGaussianNoise()), + components.Switch( + components.Selector( + [ + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + components.Perspective(), + ] + ) + ), + ], + **config.get("effect", {}), + ) + + def generate(self, size): + width, height = size + fullscreen = np.random.rand() < self.fullscreen + + if not fullscreen: + landscape = np.random.rand() < self.landscape + max_size = width if landscape else height + short_size = np.random.randint( + min(width, height, self.short_size[0]), + min(width, height, self.short_size[1]) + 1, + ) + aspect_ratio = np.random.uniform( + min(max_size / short_size, self.aspect_ratio[0]), + min(max_size / short_size, self.aspect_ratio[1]), + ) + long_size = int(short_size * aspect_ratio) + size = (long_size, short_size) if landscape else (short_size, long_size) + + text_layers, texts = self.content.generate(size) + paper_layer = self.paper.generate(size) + self.effect.apply([*text_layers, paper_layer]) + + return paper_layer, text_layers, texts diff --git a/synthdog/elements/paper.py b/synthdog/elements/paper.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..ea5ac614 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/paper.py @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from synthtiger import components, layers + + +class Paper: + def __init__(self, config): + self.image = components.BaseTexture(**config.get("image", {})) + + def generate(self, size): + paper_layer = layers.RectLayer(size, (255, 255, 255, 255)) + self.image.apply([paper_layer]) + + return paper_layer diff --git a/synthdog/elements/textbox.py b/synthdog/elements/textbox.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..ed38292d --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/elements/textbox.py @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import numpy as np +from synthtiger import layers + + +class TextBox: + def __init__(self, config): + self.fill = config.get("fill", [1, 1]) + + def generate(self, size, text, font): + width, height = size + + char_layers, chars = [], [] + fill = np.random.uniform(self.fill[0], self.fill[1]) + width = np.clip(width * fill, height, width) + font = {**font, "size": int(height)} + left, top = 0, 0 + + for char in text: + if char in "\r\n": + continue + + char_layer = layers.TextLayer(char, **font) + char_scale = height / char_layer.height + char_layer.bbox = [left, top, *(char_layer.size * char_scale)] + if char_layer.right > width: + break + + char_layers.append(char_layer) + chars.append(char) + left = char_layer.right + + text = "".join(chars).strip() + if len(char_layers) == 0 or len(text) == 0: + return None, None + + text_layer = layers.Group(char_layers).merge() + + return text_layer, text diff --git a/synthdog/layouts/__init__.py b/synthdog/layouts/__init__.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..02fc5847 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/layouts/__init__.py @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from layouts.grid import Grid +from layouts.grid_stack import GridStack + +__all__ = ["Grid", "GridStack"] diff --git a/synthdog/layouts/grid.py b/synthdog/layouts/grid.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..39978c82 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/layouts/grid.py @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import numpy as np + + +class Grid: + def __init__(self, config): + self.text_scale = config.get("text_scale", [0.05, 0.1]) + self.max_row = config.get("max_row", 5) + self.max_col = config.get("max_col", 3) + self.fill = config.get("fill", [0, 1]) + self.full = config.get("full", 0) + self.align = config.get("align", ["left", "right", "center"]) + + def generate(self, bbox): + left, top, width, height = bbox + + text_scale = np.random.uniform(self.text_scale[0], self.text_scale[1]) + text_size = min(width, height) * text_scale + grids = np.random.permutation(self.max_row * self.max_col) + + for grid in grids: + row = grid // self.max_col + 1 + col = grid % self.max_col + 1 + if text_size * (col * 2 - 1) <= width and text_size * row <= height: + break + else: + return None + + bound = max(1 - text_size / width * (col - 1), 0) + full = np.random.rand() < self.full + fill = np.random.uniform(self.fill[0], self.fill[1]) + fill = 1 if full else fill + fill = np.clip(fill, 0, bound) + + padding = np.random.randint(4) if col > 1 else np.random.randint(1, 4) + padding = (bool(padding // 2), bool(padding % 2)) + + weights = np.zeros(col * 2 + 1) + weights[1:-1] = text_size / width + probs = 1 - np.random.rand(col * 2 + 1) + probs[0] = 0 if not padding[0] else probs[0] + probs[-1] = 0 if not padding[-1] else probs[-1] + probs[1::2] *= max(fill - sum(weights[1::2]), 0) / sum(probs[1::2]) + probs[::2] *= max(1 - fill - sum(weights[::2]), 0) / sum(probs[::2]) + weights += probs + + widths = [width * weights[c] for c in range(col * 2 + 1)] + heights = [text_size for _ in range(row)] + + xs = np.cumsum([0] + widths) + ys = np.cumsum([0] + heights) + + layout = [] + + for c in range(col): + align = self.align[np.random.randint(len(self.align))] + + for r in range(row): + x, y = xs[c * 2 + 1], ys[r] + w, h = xs[c * 2 + 2] - x, ys[r + 1] - y + bbox = [left + x, top + y, w, h] + layout.append((bbox, align)) + + return layout diff --git a/synthdog/layouts/grid_stack.py b/synthdog/layouts/grid_stack.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..34bc8065 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/layouts/grid_stack.py @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import numpy as np + +from layouts import Grid + + +class GridStack: + def __init__(self, config): + self.text_scale = config.get("text_scale", [0.05, 0.1]) + self.max_row = config.get("max_row", 5) + self.max_col = config.get("max_col", 3) + self.fill = config.get("fill", [0, 1]) + self.full = config.get("full", 0) + self.align = config.get("align", ["left", "right", "center"]) + self.stack_spacing = config.get("stack_spacing", [0, 0.05]) + self.stack_fill = config.get("stack_fill", [1, 1]) + self.stack_full = config.get("stack_full", 0) + self._grid = Grid( + { + "text_scale": self.text_scale, + "max_row": self.max_row, + "max_col": self.max_col, + "align": self.align, + } + ) + + def generate(self, bbox): + left, top, width, height = bbox + + stack_spacing = np.random.uniform(self.stack_spacing[0], self.stack_spacing[1]) + stack_spacing *= min(width, height) + + stack_full = np.random.rand() < self.stack_full + stack_fill = np.random.uniform(self.stack_fill[0], self.stack_fill[1]) + stack_fill = 1 if stack_full else stack_fill + + full = np.random.rand() < self.full + fill = np.random.uniform(self.fill[0], self.fill[1]) + fill = 1 if full else fill + self._grid.fill = [fill, fill] + + layouts = [] + line = 0 + + while True: + grid_size = (width, height * stack_fill - line) + text_scale = np.random.uniform(self.text_scale[0], self.text_scale[1]) + text_size = min(width, height) * text_scale + text_scale = text_size / min(grid_size) + self._grid.text_scale = [text_scale, text_scale] + + layout = self._grid.generate([left, top + line, *grid_size]) + if layout is None: + break + + line = max(y + h - top for (_, y, _, h), _ in layout) + stack_spacing + layouts.append(layout) + + line = max(line - stack_spacing, 0) + space = max(height - line, 0) + spaces = np.random.rand(len(layouts) + 1) + spaces *= space / sum(spaces) if sum(spaces) > 0 else 0 + spaces = np.cumsum(spaces) + + for layout, space in zip(layouts, spaces): + for bbox, _ in layout: + x, y, w, h = bbox + bbox[:] = [x, y + space, w, h] + + return layouts diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/bedroom_83.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/bedroom_83.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..293fefd7 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/bedroom_83.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/bob+dylan_83.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/bob+dylan_83.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..faa1dadf Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/bob+dylan_83.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_122.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_122.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..b7b13fbf Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_122.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_18.jpeg b/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_18.jpeg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..72c8e159 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/coffee_18.jpeg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/crater_141.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/crater_141.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..c2fa0351 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/crater_141.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/cream_124.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/cream_124.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..f3829d2e Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/cream_124.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/eagle_110.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/eagle_110.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..e0211904 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/eagle_110.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/farm_25.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/farm_25.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..4d9c7979 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/farm_25.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/background/hiking_18.jpg b/synthdog/resources/background/hiking_18.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..1c863eac Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/background/hiking_18.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/corpus/enwiki.txt b/synthdog/resources/corpus/enwiki.txt new file mode 100755 index 00000000..0751358d --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/resources/corpus/enwiki.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary coercive forms of hierarchy. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state which it holds to be unnecessary undesirable and harmful. As a historically left-wing movement placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum it is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and has a strong historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism.Humans lived in societies without formal hierarchies long before the establishment of formal states realms or empires. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies scepticism toward authority also rose in the 19th century a self-conscious political movement emerged questioning all forms of authority. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions most notably in the Comune of Paris Russian Civil War and Spanish Civil War whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more.Anarchism employs a diversity of tactics in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics; there is significant overlap between the two, which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past, while evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like. Anarchist thought, criticism, and praxis have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticism of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian.Etymology, terminology, and definition.The etymological origin of "anarchism" is from the Ancient Greek "anarkhia" meaning "without a ruler" composed of the prefix "an-" and the word "arkhos" . The suffix "-ism" denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. "Anarchism" appears in English from 1642 as "anarchisme" and "anarchy" from 1539 early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as "anarchists" although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin and Wilhelm Weitling would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use "anarchist" or "anarchism" in describing themselves or their beliefs.The first political philosopher to call himself an .While the term "libertarian" has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, some anarchists use "libertarian socialist" to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism. "Anarchism" is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberals and socialists but more so, while most scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining "anarchism" is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.Pre-modern era.Before the establishment of towns and cities an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of institutions of authority that anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China philosophical anarchism was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism Taoism has been said to have had of anarchism.Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature . Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.In medieval Europe there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These and other Muslim movements later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I.In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Libertarian ideas further emerged during the Renaissance with the spread of humanism, rationalism, and reasoning through Europe. Novelists fictionalised ideal societies that were based on voluntarism rather than coercion. The Age of Enlightenment further pushed towards anarchism with the optimism for social progress.Modern era.During the French Revolution partisan groups such as the Enrags and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England morally delegitimising the state Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism.Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmens needs.At the turn of the century anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence. This strategy became known as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to exclude them from American immigration including the Immigration Act of 1903 also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.Despite concerns anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement however they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was stabilised. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine notably leading to the Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia two new antithetical currents emerged namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War many workers and activists turned to communist parties which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International.In the Spanish Civil War of 1936, anarchists and syndicalists once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named May Days as Joseph Stalin tried to seize control of the Republicans.Post-war era.At the end of World War II the anarchist movement was severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear environmental and peace movements the counterculture of the 1960s and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization , the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, "ad hoc" leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a "de facto" autonomous region in northern Syria.Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents developed thereafter.Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism.Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mrmol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation.Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism . They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils and worker cooperatives, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management.Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation.Post-classical and contemporary.Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements at times eclectic drawing upon various sources and syncretic combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups tendencies and schools of thought exist today making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles" there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple "anarchisms" rather than a singular "anarchism" in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government , economic class systems , autocratic religions , patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals namely to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims although there is significant overlap between the two.Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.Classical era tactics.During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. On one hand anarcho-pacifists point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand other anarchist groups advocate direct action a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or even acts of terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta who were proponents of limited use of violence stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.Anarchists took an active role in strike actions although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.Revolutionary tactics.In the current era Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small informal affiliation groups where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state capitalism and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges terrorism included.Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.Evolutionary tactics.Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way with everyone having equal say in each decision an approach known as horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism although not explicitly anarchist respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the "big-A anarchism" of the classical era the newly coined term "small-a anarchism" signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.As in the past newspapers and journals are used and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones spaces where art poetry and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.Key issues.As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.Gender, sexuality, and free love.As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy many anarchists address analyse and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory and queer anarchism. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice , and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.Anarchism and education.The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin and Max Stirner attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.Anarchism and the state.Objection to the state and its institutions is a "sine qua non" of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power regardless of whether that power is open or transparent as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government even the most altruistic among officials will unavoidably seek to gain more power leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.Anarchism and the arts.The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book "Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas", Chris Rob claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists and publications such as "Anarchy" wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.The most common critique of anarchism is that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique stating that Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state can not be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. While it advocates for no-one to , if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' "Moral Principles and Political Obligations". Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In "The Problem of Political Authority", Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.Friedrich Engels considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes in his book believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining. +Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually though some autistic children experience regression in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace.Autism is associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides, lead, and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders combines forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder .Several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of autistic people to function and participate independently in the community. Behavioral, psychological, education, and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist autistic people to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference to be accommodated instead of cured.Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of autistic people worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased considerably since the 1990s, which may be partly due to increased recognition of the condition.Characteristics.Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood and generally follows a steady course without remission. Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average or even superior in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood although often in more muted form. It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms impairments in social interaction impairments in communication and repetitive behavior. Other aspects such as atypical eating are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.Social development.Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders from other developmental disorders. Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals or people with typical neural development as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars".Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli smile and look at others less often and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms for example they have less eye contact and turn-taking and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding approach others spontaneously imitate and respond to emotions communicate nonverbally and take turns with others. However they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most autistic children display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for autistic people. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns.Communication.About one third to half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension, and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.Repetitive behavior.Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised categorizes as follows.No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.Other symptoms.Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis but that can affect the individual or the family.An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity than for over-responsivity or for sensation seeking . An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur.There is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria occurs more frequently in autistic people (see Autism and LGBT identities). As well as that a 2021 anonymized online survey of 16-90 year-olds revealed that autistic males are more likely to be bisexual while autistic females are more likely to be homosexual.Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly co-occurring medical conditions in autistic people. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes.Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation—such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition, but genetic phenomena such as imprinting and X linkage have the ability to raise the frequency and severity of conditions in males, and theories have been put forward for a genetic reason why males are diagnosed more often, such as the imprinted brain hypothesis and the extreme male brain theory.Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy especially heavy metals and particulates may increase the risk of autism. Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods infectious diseases solvents PCBs phthalates and phenols used in plastic products pesticides brominated flame retardants alcohol smoking illicit drugs vaccines and prenatal stress. Some such as the MMR vaccine have been completely disproven.Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine "overload", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain.Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known teratogens related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders may also be used.A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genomes genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits.Signs of autism may be more challenging for clinicians to detect in females. Autistic females have been shown to engage in masking more frequently than autistic males. Masking may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact. A notable percentage of autistic females may be misdiagnosed diagnosed after a considerable delay or not diagnosed at all.Conversely the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.Classification.Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders , which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, severely restricted interests, and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.Of the five PDD forms Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism but may have unrelated causes PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS also called ) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering with autism Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the (ASD) or sometimes the are often used interchangeably. ASD in turn is a subset of the broader autism phenotype which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits such as avoiding eye contact.Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior. Autism has long been thought to cover a wide spectrum ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent developmentally disabled and prone to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches narrowly focused interests and verbose pedantic communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary.About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome".The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concern. The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast in the UK children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire and the First Year Inventory initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity but good specificity . It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical it can be considered in some cases such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features.Prevention.While infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.Management.The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by behavior analysts special education teachers speech pathologists and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. However the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor their clinical results are mostly tentative and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care communication and job skills and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms they may be used for associated symptoms such as irritability inattention or repetitive behavior patterns.Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis developmental models structured teaching speech and language therapy social skills therapy and occupational therapy and cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability to reduce depression anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Among these approaches interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention —a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA that is carried out with very young children—is currently low and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions and developmental social pragmatic models . One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.Early intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.Medication.Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as ADHD or anxiety. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and autistic people may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. SSRI antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.Alternative medicine.Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that autistic children have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D however suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders. In 2005 botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for autistic people since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy a mixture of homeopathy supplements and .Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for autistic people as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism such as those with known food intolerances or allergies or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD . All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group . In two of the studies whose duration was 12 and 24 months a significant improvement in ASD symptoms was identified. In the other two studies whose duration was 3 months no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet small sample size the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support mindfulness-based interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression. There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism. Studies on pet therapy have shown positive effects.There is no known cure for autism. The degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often this outcome happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most autistic children acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Many autistic children lack social support, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. About half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed.Autistic people tend to face increased stress levels related to psychosocial factors such as stigma which may increase the rates of mental health issues in the autistic population.Epidemiology.As of 2007, reviews estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD. A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children for 2010.In the UK from 1998 to 2018 the autism diagnoses increased by 787%. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices referral patterns availability of services age at diagnosis and public awareness though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors and changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. It has been established that vaccination is not a risk factor for autism and is not behind any increase in autism prevalence rates if any change in the rate of autism exists at all.Males are at higher risk for ASD than females. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent and with diabetes bleeding and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race ethnicity and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include:A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The "Table Talk" of Martin Luther compiled by his notetaker Mathesius contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron a feral child caught in 1798 showed several signs of autism the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.The New Latin word "autismus" was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word "auts" and used it to mean morbid self-admiration referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". A Soviet child psychiatrist Grunya Sukhareva described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925 and in German in 1926.Clinical development and diagnoses.The word , are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.Kanner's reuse of . Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome.Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia.As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987 the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013 the DSM-5 was released updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders including PDD-NOS autism Asperger syndrome Rett syndrome and CDD has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.Society and culture.An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements. Events include World Autism Awareness Day, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about Many autistic individuals have been successful in their fields.Autism rights movement.The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than on imitating the behaviors of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from fringe theories that autism is caused by environmental factors such as vaccines. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are "high-functioning" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of "low-functioning" autistic people.Employment.About half of autistic people are unemployed and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among those who find work most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision experienced employers of autistic people give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children. +Albedo is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation.Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity "J"e to the irradiance "E"e (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.Unless given for a specific wavelength , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface . This spectrum includes visible light , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright .Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its , is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work .Terrestrial albedo.Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance the ocean surface has a low albedo as do most forests whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.Earths MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance . These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function , which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about . If Earth were frozen entirely , the average temperature of the planet would drop below . If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about . In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called ocean planet – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost .In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.White-sky black-sky and blue-sky albedo.For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:with formula_3 being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle and formula_4 being the proportion of diffuse illumination the actual albedo formula_5 (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given asThis formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.Astronomical albedo.The albedos of planets satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos their dependence on wavelength lighting angle () and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.Enceladus a moon of Saturn has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the geometric albedo and the Bond albedo . Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.The relation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is:where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude.Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.Illumination.Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location . That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.Insolation effects.The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance) high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert which also have a relatively high albedo will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.Climate and weather.Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land ice or ocean surfaces can drive weather.Albedo–temperature feedback.When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area , the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.Snow albedo is highly variable ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow to about 0.4 for melting snow and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms snow tends to melt lowering the albedo and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback).Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming.Cryoconite powdery windblown dust containing soot sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.Small-scale effects.Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.Solar photovoltaic effects.Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.Because forests generally have a low albedo, , some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation . In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.In seasonally snow-covered zones winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative effect of albedo change and effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool new forests in high latitudes were neutral or perhaps warming.Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations.At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner . The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator . However as mentioned above waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.Note that white caps on waves look white because the water is foamed up so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day about half of Earth is covered by clouds which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.Aerosol effects.Aerosols have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are:In extremely polluted cities like Delhi aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an urban cool island effect during the day.Black carbon.Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m−2, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m−2. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.Human activities.Human activities change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult, further study is required to determine anthropogenic effects.Other types of albedo.Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material the size of the particle or particles and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. +A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its name in English is (pronounced ), plural . It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey . The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", are indefinite articles.The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph , the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants . In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel and called it by the similar name of alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages dating to the 8th century BC the letter rests upon its side but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg or by the angle at which the cross line is set.The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.Typographic variants.During Roman times there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive such as majuscule cursive minuscule cursive and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial the uncial and the later semi-uncial.At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD) several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy the Merovingian script in France the Visigothic script in Spain and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century the Caroline script which was very similar to the present-day form was the principal form used in book-making before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants the "Italic" and "Roman" forms were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form also called "script a" is used in most current handwriting it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right . This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material it consists of a small loop with an arc over it . Both derive from the majuscule form. In Greek handwriting it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc resulting in the printed form while in others it was dropped resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the "Italic" and "Roman" forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively.Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest . There are some other cases aside from italic type where .Use in writing systems.In modern English orthography the letter represents at least seven different vowel soundsThe double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as . However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .is the third-most-commonly used letter in English , and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be , while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.Other languages.In most languages that use the Latin alphabet denotes an open unrounded vowel such as or . An exception is Saanich in which stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .Other systems.In phonetic and phonemic notation:Other uses.In algebra the letter and this convention is still often followed especially in elementary algebra.In geometry capital A B C etc. are used to denote segments lines rays etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A."A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status A- A or A+ the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork "A grade" for clean restaurants A-list celebrities etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance when compared with other letters.In English grammar "a" and its variant "an" is an indefinite article used to introduce noun phrases.Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere. +Alabama is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered by Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south; and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states. With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state.Alabama is nicknamed the "Yellowhammer State", after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State". The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville. Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center.The state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay, a historically significant port. Politically, as part of the Deep South, Alabama is now a predominantly conservative state, and it is known for its Southern culture. Today, American football, particularly at the college level at schools like Auburn University, the University of Alabama, Alabama A&M University, Alabama State University, Troy University, the University of South Alabama, and Jacksonville State University is a major part of the state's culture.Originally home to many native tribes present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819 Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period Alabama was a major producer of cotton and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861 the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America with Montgomery acting as its first capital and rejoined the Union in 1868.From the American Civil War until World War II Alabama suffered economic hardship in part because of its continued dependence on few agricultural cash crops. Similar to other former slave states Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and discriminate against African Americans from the end of the Reconstruction Era up until the 1960s. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers white rural interests dominated the state legislature from 1901 to the 1960s. During this time urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented. High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. Following World War II Alabama grew as the states economy in the 21st century is based on management automotive finance manufacturing aerospace mineral extraction healthcare education retail and technology.The European-American naming of the Alabama River and state was derived from the Alabama people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is . The suggestion that "Alabama" was borrowed from the Choctaw language is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote "Alibamu" and "Limamu", respectively, in transliterations of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the , with French maps identifying the river as . Other spellings of the name have included "Alibamu", "Alabamo", "Albama", "Alebamon", "Alibama", "Alibamou", "Alabamu", "Allibamou".Sources disagree on the word, referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language.An 1842 article in the "Jacksonville Republican" proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek. Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation.Pre-European settlement.Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact.The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era after Cahokia in present-day Illinois which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex . Contrary to popular belief the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee an Iroquoian language people and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama Chickasaw Choctaw Creek and Koasati. While part of the same large language family the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages.European settlement.The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane.After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War, it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County.What is now the counties of Baldwin and Mobile became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783 part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810 and was finally added to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War it remained a part of Georgia although heavily disputed.With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804 following the Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Ons Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.Early 19th century.Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10 1817 the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory. The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3 1817. St. Stephens now abandoned served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County.Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men.Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded. The economy of the central Black Belt was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were completely removed from the state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830.From 1826 to 1846 Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30 1846 the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. The first structure burned down in 1849 but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter Maine.Civil War and Reconstruction.By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort.A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville Alabama joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville Kentucky. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves collar and coattails. This led to them being greeted with and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier.Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation. Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, these included the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, and the White League.Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874 when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875 and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.20th century.The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised large portions of the population including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans and tens of thousands of poor European Americans through making voter registration difficult requiring a poll tax and literacy test. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2980 African Americans were registered in Alabama although at least 74000 were literate. This compared to more than 181000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s jails were segregated in 1911 hospitals in 1915 toilets hotels and restaurants in 1928 and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans. Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens.The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well.Beginning in 1913 the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools seven teachers' houses and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.Continued racial discrimination and lynchings, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920.At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the . By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order.Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base.Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."In the United States Supreme Court cases of "Baker v. Carr" and "Reynolds v. Sims" , the court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties.In 1972 for the first time since 1901 the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts.African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in "Brown v. Board of Education" that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery bus boycott , Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress.Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964 but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s an omnibus redistricting case challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions.As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in Conecuh County. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens.Beginning in the 1960s, the states economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida.21st century.In 2001 Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002 the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed but Moore refused to follow the court order which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003.A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004 Hurricane Ivan a category 3 storm upon landfall struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people devastating many communities.Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area 3.2% of the area is water making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks streams rivers mountains and lakes.Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to more than in the northeast, to Mount Cheaha at .Alabamas total land area. Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally Alabama has four National Forests Conecuh Talladega Tuskegee and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.Notable natural wonders include the "Natural Bridge" rock the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies located just south of Haleyville Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County named for its cathedral-like appearance features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world Ecor Rouge in Fairhope the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico DeSoto Caverns in Childersburg the first officially recorded cave in the United States Noccalula Falls in Gadsden features a 90-foot waterfall Dismals Canyon near Phil Campbell home to two waterfalls six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James Stephens Gap Cave in Jackson County boasts a 143-foot pit two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America Little River Canyon near Fort Payne one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an underground pool blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations and the Walls of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee state line.A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.The state is classified as humid subtropical under the Koppen Climate Classification. The average annual temperature is 64°F . Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state.Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and hurricanes. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken.South Alabama reports many thunderstorms. The Gulf Coast around Mobile Bay averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.Alabama, along with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains.Winters are generally mild in Alabama as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast snowfall is less frequent sometimes going several years without any snowfall.Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5 1925 in the unincorporated community of Centerville. The record low of occurred on January 30 1966 in New Market.Flora and fauna.Alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna in habitats that range from the Tennessee Valley Appalachian Plateau and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians of the north to the Piedmont Canebrake and Black Belt of the central region to the Gulf Coastal Plain and beaches along the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity.Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant species.Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species 93 reptile species 73 amphibian species roughly 307 native freshwater fish species and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state. Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.Demographics.According to the 2020 United States Census the population of Alabama was 5024279 on April 1 2020 which represents an increase of 244543 or 5.12% since the 2010 Census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121054 and an increase due to net migration of 104991 into the state.Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000).The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County outside the town of Jemison.Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are of overwhelmingly English extraction however most English Americans identify simply as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long in many cases since the early sixteen hundreds. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and state that the figure is probably much higher. In the 1980 census 1139976 people in Alabama cited that they were of English ancestry out of a total state population of 2824719 making them 41% of the state at the time and the largest ethnic group.In 2011 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities. The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are American Irish English German and Scots-Irish based on 2006-2008 Census data.The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution and many settled in the South later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.In 1984 under the Davis–Strong Act the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission. Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation the Native American peoples who have sometimes been of mixed race have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast. These are the following.The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.Most Alabama residents spoke only English at home in 2010 a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly Southern and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from Tennessee. In the major Southern speech region there is the decreasing loss of the final "r" for example the "boyd" pronunciation of "bird". In the northern third of the state there is a South Midland "arm" and "barb" rhyming with "form" and "orb". Unique words in Alabama English include redworm peckerwood snake doctor and snake feeder tow sack plum peach French harp and dog irons .In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant.In Alabama the Southern Baptist Convention has the highest number of adherents with 1380121 this is followed by the United Methodist Church with 327734 adherents non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220938 adherents and the Catholic Church with 150647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century when preachers proselytized across the South. The Assemblies of God had almost 60000 members the Churches of Christ had nearly 120000 members. The Presbyterian churches strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants had a combined membership around 75000 (PCA—28009 members in 108 congregations PC—26247 members in 147 congregations the Cumberland Presbyterian Church—6000 members in 59 congregations the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America—5000 members and fifty congregations plus the EPC and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations).In a 2007 survey nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Bah Faith, and Unitarian Universalism.Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic Jews immigrated from London. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two Orthodox, four Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic synagogue.Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa.There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.The first community of adherents of the Bah Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy who moved from Chicago to Fairhope. Bah centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham Huntsville and Florence.In 2018 life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality suicide and gun crimes.A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.On May 14 2019 Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk" with no exceptions for rape and incest. The law if enacted would punish doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment and be the most restrictive abortion law in the country. However on October 29 2019 U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson blocked the law from taking effect.The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121800 in management occupations 71750 in business and financial operations 36790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation 44200 in architecture and engineering 12410 in life physical and social sciences 32260 in community and social services 12770 in legal occupations 116250 in education training and library services 27840 in art design and media occupations 121110 in healthcare 44750 in fire fighting law enforcement and security 154040 in food preparation and serving 76650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance 53230 in personal care and services 244510 in sales 338760 in office and administration support 20510 in farming fishing and forestry 120155 in construction and mining gas and oil extraction 106280 in installation maintenance and repair 224110 in production and 167160 in transportation and material moving.According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion or $29411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information. In 2010 per capita income for the state was $22984.The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%.Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017 United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.Largest employers.The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were:The next twenty largest employers, , included:Agriculture.Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs cattle fish plant nursery items peanuts cotton grains such as corn and sorghum vegetables milk soybeans and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State" Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production according to various reports with Texas Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three.Aquaculture.Aquaculture is a large part of the economy of Alabama. Alabamians began to practice aquaculture in the early 1960s. U.S. farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America. By 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed by the catfish industry and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish. In 2020, Alabama produced of the United States' farm-raised catfish. The total 2020 sales of catfish raised in Alabama equaled $307 million but by 2020 the total employment of Alabamians fell to 2,442.From the early 2000s to 2020, the Alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms and 4 processors to 66 farms and 2 processors. Reasons for this decline include increased feed prices, catfish alternatives, COVID-19’s impact on restaurant sales, disease, and fish size.Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and apparel. In addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, the location of NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Army Materiel Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal.A great deal of Alabamas expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz U.S. International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck.Steel producers Outokumpu Nucor SSAB ThyssenKrupp and U.S. Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10000 people. In May 2007 German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division Inoxum including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6billion in March 2013. Companhia Siderrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil for $3.8billion. In July 2013 the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel.The Hunt Refining Company a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated Inc. is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile Melvin and Moundville. JVC America Inc. operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden which employs about 1400 people. It has been in operation since 1929.Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brgier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2 2012. The plans include a $600million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319 A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013 with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1 2013 that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility.Tourism and entertainment.According to Business Insider Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion providing directly or indirectly 186900 jobs in the state which includes 362000 International tourists spending $589 million.The state is home to various attractions natural features parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe notably the annual Hangout Music Festival held on the public beaches of Gulf Shores the Alabama Shakespeare Festival one of the ten largest Shakespeare festivals in the world the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state casinos such as Victoryland amusement parks such as Alabama Splash Adventure the Riverchase Galleria one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast Guntersville Lake voted the best lake in Alabama by Southern Living Magazine readers and the Alabama Museum of Natural History the oldest museum in the state.Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830 a tradition that continues to this day. Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties.In 2018 Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892811. The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849981 followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543090. Of the parks and natural destinations Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6700000 visitors.Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include Close Encounters of the Third Kind Get Out 42 Selma Big Fish The Final Destination Due Date Need For Speed and many more.Healthcare.UAB Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama having a market share of 84% followed by UnitedHealth Group at 7%.Regions Financial Corporation and BBVA USA Bank are the largest banks headquartered in Alabama. Birmingham-based Compass Bancshares was acquired by Spanish-based BBVA in September 2007 with the headquarters of BBVA USA remaining in Birmingham. In November 2006 Regions Financial acquired AmSouth Bancorporation which was also headquartered in Birmingham. SouthTrust Corporation another large bank headquartered in Birmingham was acquired by Wachovia in 2004.Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation.Electronics and communications.Telecommunications provider AT&T formerly BellSouth has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham.Many commercial technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville such as network access company ADTRAN computer graphics company Intergraph and IT infrastructure company Avocent.Construction.Rust International has grown to include Brasfield & Gorrie BE&K Hoar Construction and B.L. Harbert International which all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design international construction and engineering firms. Law and government.State government.The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution which was ratified in 1901. With over 850 amendments and almost 87000 words it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution.There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism.Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives with 105 members and the Alabama Senate with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing debating passing or defeating state legislation. The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority .Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In "Reynolds v. Sims" , the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "one man, one vote", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems.At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments.The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the governor of Alabama. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet the lieutenant governor of Alabama the Attorney General of Alabama the Alabama Secretary of State the Alabama State Treasurer and the State Auditor of Alabama. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey.The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the states highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate appellate courts the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals and four trial courts the circuit court and the district probate and municipal courts.Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. In some years it imposes more death sentences than does Texas a state which has a population five times larger. However executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas. Some of its cases have been highly controversial the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue. Alabama levies a 2, 4, or5 percent personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the standard deduction; those who itemize can also deduct FICA (the Social Security and Medicare tax).The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. For example the total sales tax rate in Mobile is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1% which means a diner in Mobile would pay an 11% tax on a meal. sales and excise taxes in Alabama account for 51% of all state and local revenue compared with an average of about 36% nationwide. Alabama is one of seven states that levy a tax on food at the same rate as other goods and one of two states (the other being neighboring Mississippi) which fully taxes groceries without any offsetting relief for low-income families. (Most states exempt groceries from sales tax or apply a lower tax rate.)Alabamas threshold is the lowest among the 41 states and the District of Columbia with income taxes.The corporate income tax rate is currently 6.5%. The overall federal state and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. Property taxes are the lowest in the U.S. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes.Since Alabama's tax structure largely depends on consumer spending, it is subject to high variable budget structure. For example, in 2003, Alabama had an annual budget deficit as high as $670million.County and local governments.Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the Alabama Constitution, which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties in the state have limited home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning.The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing home rule for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in . Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas."The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance."Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state meaning the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. A total of 25 of the 67 counties are "dry counties" which ban the sale of alcohol and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales.During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud, and intimidation.After 1890 a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised 600000 to 520000. The total effects were greater on the black community as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law.From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation.Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the civil rights movement when whites bureaucratically and at times violently resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor George Wallace the state's only four-term governor was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions they continued to be excluded from representation by at-large electoral systems which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish single-member districts that enable a more diverse representation among county boards.In 2007, the Alabama Legislature passed, and Republican governor Bob Riley signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the Alabama State Capitol, which housed Congress of the Confederate States of America.In 2010 Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years., there are a total of 3,589,839 registered voters, with 3,518,285 active, and the others inactive in the state.State elections.With the disfranchisement of Blacks in 1901, the state became part of the "Solid South", a system in which the Democratic Party operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office.Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994 no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election the then-incumbent chief justice Ernest C. Hornsby refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3000 votes to Republican Perry O. Hooper Sr. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench.In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission, was defeated in 2012.Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated freedmen who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are Steve Windom , Kay Ivey , and Will Ainsworth .Local elections.Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, tax collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions.Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan at-large races and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 Democrats 31 Republicans and one Independent Fayette. However most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties. the state of Alabama has one female sheriff in Morgan County Alabama and ten African-American sheriffs.Federal elections.The state's two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Republican Tommy Tuberville. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992 but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election.In the U.S. House of Representatives the state is represented by seven members six of whom are Republicans and one Democrat Terri Sewell who represents the Black Belt as well as most of the predominantly black portions of Birmingham Tuscaloosa and Montgomery.Primary and secondary education.Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students.Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007 Alabama appropriated $3775163578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444736387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007 more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law using measures determined by the state of Alabama.While Alabamas high school graduation rate is the fourth lowest in the U.S. . The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees.Generally prohibited in the West at large school corporal punishment is not unusual in Alabama with 27260 public school students paddled at least one time according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi and Arkansas.Colleges and universities.Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities two-year community colleges and 17 private undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools two veterinary colleges a dental school an optometry college two pharmacy schools and five law schools . Public post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs.The largest single campus is the University of Alabama, located in Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. Troy University was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses , as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public University of North Alabama in Florence and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill College in Mobile, both founded in 1830.Accreditation of academic programs is through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the Association for Biblical Higher Education , the Council on Occupational Education , and the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools .According to the 2011 Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America .According to the 2012 "U.S. News & World Report" Alabama had four tier one universities .Major newspapers include .Major television network affiliates in Alabama includeCollege sports.College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the University of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern Conference. In the 2013 season, Alabama averaged over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averaged over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a seating capacity of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451.Legion Field is home for the UAB Blazers football program and the Birmingham Bowl. It seats 71,594. Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile is the home of the University of South Alabama football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA Senior Bowl, LendingTree Bowl, and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the Alabama High School Athletic Association state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham.Professional sports.Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams including three minor league baseball teams.The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of NASCAR events. It has a seating capacity of 143000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car Series races.The ATP Birmingham was a World Championship Tennis tournament held from 1973 to 1980.Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments such as the 1984 and 1990 PGA Championship at Shoal Creek the Barbasol Championship the Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions Airbus LPGA Classic and Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic and The Tradition .Transportation.Major airports with sustained operations in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport Huntsville International Airport Dothan Regional Airport Mobile Regional Airport Montgomery Regional Airport Northwest Alabama Regional Airport and Northeast Alabama Regional Airport .For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the "Crescent", a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa.Alabama has six major interstate routes Interstate 65 travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state I-20/I-59 travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta I-85 originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state traveling from west to east through Mobile. I-22 enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis Tennessee. In addition there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state I-165 in Mobile I-359 in Tuscaloosa I-459 around Birmingham I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville and I-759 in Gadsden. A sixth route I-685 will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as I-422. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible I-222 has been proposed as well.Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as U.S. Route 11 , US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431.There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in Montgomery; Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in Tuscaloosa and Northport; Emerald Mountain Expressway in Wetumpka; and Beach Express in Orange Beach.The Port of Mobile, Alabamas other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico.Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south: +In Greek mythology, Achilles or Achilleus was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of Homer's . He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia.Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the "Iliad", other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him with an arrow. Later legends state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel, because when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is also named after him due to these legends.Linear B tablets attest to the personal name .Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of , a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound "*he-pds" "sharp foot" which first gave an Illyrian "*k̂pedis" evolving through time into "*khpdes" and then "*akhiddes". The shift from "-dd-" to "-ll-" is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part "*he-" "sharp pointed" also gave Greek and whereas stems from the root "*heg-" "to be upset afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin "acupedius" "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of "acis" "sharp edge or point battle line battle engagement" "acus" "needle pin bodkin" and "acu" "to make pointed sharpen whet to exercise to arouse" . Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the "Iliad" point to this "swift-footedness" namely or even more frequently .Some researchers deem the name a loan word possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name based among other things on the coexistence of "--" and "--" in epic language which may account for a palatalized phoneme /ly/ in the original language.Birth and early years.Achilles was the son of the Thetis a nereid and Peleus the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until Prometheus the fore-thinker warned Zeus of a prophecy that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason the two gods withdrew their pursuit and had her wed Peleus.There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events In the "Argonautica" Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus was also brought up by Hera further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.According to the "Achilleid", written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel . It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary in the "Iliad" Homer mentions Achilles being wounded in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus son of Pelagon challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He was ambidextrous and cast a spear from each hand one grazed Achilles' elbow "drawing a spurt of blood".In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles the arrow hit his torso.Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, who lived on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his companion Patroclus.According to Photius, the sixth book of the "New History" by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.Other names.Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following:Hidden on Skyros.Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war Thetis hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes king of Skyros.There Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes women. While the women fled in panic Achilles prepared to defend the court thus giving his identity away.In the Trojan War.According to the "Iliad" Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders Menesthius Eudorus Peisander Phoenix and Alcimedon.When the Greeks left for the Trojan War they accidentally stopped in Mysia ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal Telephus consulted an oracle who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle he arrived at Argos where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively Telephus held Orestes for ransom the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound therefore the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.According to the is a medieval invention.In Dares Phrygius' .Homer's "Iliad" is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the "Iliad" read:The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses a priest of Apollo begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis the daughter of Briseus be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away with the urging of his mother Thetis Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war so that he may regain his honour.As the battle turns against the Greeks thanks to the influence of Zeus Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains Ajax and Phoenix. They promise that if Achilles returns to battle Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.Enraged over the death of Patroclus Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother Deiphobus persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting he charges at Achilles with his only weapon his sword but misses. Accepting his fate Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him declaring that "my rage my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion.At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog ; a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star , while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star has set .With the assistance of the god Hermes Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th . The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon.The "Aethiopis" and a work named "Posthomerica", composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.Following the death of Patroclus Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia slays Antilochus Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield killing Memnon. Consequently Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus except that Memnon was also the son of a goddess.Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the "Iliad"s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic "Aethiopis" which was composed after the "Iliad" possibly in the 7th century BC. The "Aethiopis" is now lost except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.Achilles and Patroclus.The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the , the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.The death of Achilles even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources is a complex one with many different versions. In the oldest version the "Iliad" and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow . In some versions the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield.After death Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus and funeral games were held. He was represented in the as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.Another version of Achilless greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles Paris who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow killing him.In the Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.In Book 11 of Homer heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.According to some accounts he had married Medea in life so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' "Argonautica" .Fate of Achilles' armour.Achilless presentations decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious Ajax cursed Odysseus which earned him the ire of Athena who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep thinking them his comrades. After a while when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus.A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE.Achilles Ajax and a game of .Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game . They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.Worship and heroic cult.The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. Strabo also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island . Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an "Achilles Pontrchs" , who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.Pliny the Elder in his situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay but which is hardly 125 Roman miles away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary as Pliny states. In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.The "Periplus of the Euxine Sea" (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who likely lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called "Leuce" "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters ("aquae") on the island.A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town "Achlleion" built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an "Achlleion" in Messenia and an "Achlleios" in Laconia. Nicolae Densuianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta called Chilia though his conclusion that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great son of the Epirote princess Olympias could therefore also claim this descent and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla while on his way to war against Parthia emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.Reception during antiquity.In Greek tragedy.The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title "Achilleis" by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the "Achilleis" and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the "Achilleis" trilogy, "The Myrmidons", focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's "Symposium", Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him.The tragedian Sophocles also wrote a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.Towards the end of the 5th century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in "Hecuba", "Electra", and "Iphigenia in Aulis".In Greek philosophy.The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.In than a person who is unintentionally false on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point.The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the "Odyssey" and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it's better to lie on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally.In Roman and medieval literature.The Romans who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers such as Catullus Propertius and Ovid represent a second strand of disparagement with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benot de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie" and Guido delle Colonne's "Historia destructionis Troiae" which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon not as Hellene but as Scythian while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.In modern literature and arts.Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas ballets and related genres.Film and television.In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series +Abraham Lincoln was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War and succeeded in preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy.Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the frontier primarily in Indiana. He was self-educated and became a lawyer Whig Party leader Illinois state legislator and U.S. Congressman from Illinois. In 1849 he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to slavery as a result of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He reentered politics in 1854 becoming a leader in the new Republican Party and he reached a national audience in the 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas. Lincoln ran for President in 1860 sweeping the North in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery and southern states began seceding from the Union. To secure its independence the new Confederate States fired on Fort Sumter a U.S. fort in the South and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union.Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats despised Lincoln, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican, egalitarian, libertarian, and democratic sentiments. Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended "habeas corpus" in Maryland, and he averted British intervention by defusing the "Trent" Affair. He engineered the end to slavery with his Emancipation Proclamation, including his order that the Army and Navy liberate, protect, and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged border states to outlaw slavery, and promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country.Lincoln managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife Mary when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and hero of the United States and is consistently ranked as one of the greatest presidents in American history.Family and childhood.Early life.Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake, Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. The family then migrated west, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln's paternal grandparents, his namesake Captain Abraham Lincoln and wife Bathsheba moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky. The captain was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and Tennessee before the family settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s.The heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy remains unclear but it is widely assumed that she was the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12 1806 in Washington County and moved to Elizabethtown Kentucky. They had three children Sarah Abraham and Thomas who died as infant.Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but of his land in court disputes over property titles. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana where the land surveys and titles were more reliable. Indiana was a "free" territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest" in Hurricane Township, Perry County, Indiana. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties.In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times, he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptists church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery.Overcoming financial challenges Thomas in 1827 obtained clear title to in Indiana an area which became the Little Pigeon Creek Community.Mother's death.On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a stillborn son, devastating Lincoln.On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mother". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. His family even said he was lazy, for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.Education and move to Illinois.Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read but probably not to write, at age seven, and in Indiana, where he went to school sporadically due to farm chores, for a total of less than 12 months in aggregate by the age of 15. He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his reading included the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress", Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe", and "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin".As a teen Lincoln took responsibility for chores and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21. Lincoln was tall strong and athletic and became adept at using an ax. He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough catch-as-catch-can style . He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21. He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove Boys".In March 1830 fearing another milk sickness outbreak several members of the extended Lincoln family including Abraham moved west to Illinois a free state and settled in Macon County. Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas in part due to his father's lack of education. In 1831 as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County Illinois Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in New Salem Illinois for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by flatboat to New Orleans Louisiana where he was first exposed to slavery.In 1865, Lincoln was asked how he came to acquire his rhetorical skills. He answered that in the practice of law he frequently came across the word "demonstrate" but had insufficient understanding of the term. So, he left Springfield for his father's home to study until he "could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid at sight."Marriage and children.Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he moved to New Salem. By 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky.Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied.In 1839 Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield Illinois and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington Kentucky. A wedding set for January 1 1841 was canceled at Lincoln's request but they reconciled and married on November 4 1842 in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials he was asked where he was going and replied "To hell I suppose." In 1844 the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative.Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The oldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity. Edward Baker Lincoln , born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the White House on February 20, 1862. The youngest, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children" and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done."The deaths of their sons Eddie and Willie had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "melancholy" a condition now thought to be clinical depression. Later in life Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875.Early career and militia service.In 1832, Lincoln joined with a partner, Denton Offutt, in the purchase of a general store on credit in New Salem. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the Illinois General Assembly, advocating navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but he lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election.Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War. In his first campaign speech after returning he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack grabbed the assailant by his and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading, and decided to become a lawyer. Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was the custom, Lincoln borrowed legal texts from attorneys John Todd Stuart and Thomas Drummond, purchased books including Blackstone's "Commentaries" and Chitty's "Pleadings", and read law on his own. He later said of his legal education that "I studied with nobody."Illinois state legislature .Lincolns support for the American Colonization Society which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in Liberia.Admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836 he moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T. Stuart Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with Stephen T. Logan and in 1844 began his practice with William Herndon "a studious young man".U.S. House of Representatives .True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be . Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization.In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois' 7th district seat in the U.S. House of Representatives; he was defeated by John J. Hardin though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846 but also won the election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line. He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support.Political views.On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War, which he imputed to President James K. Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood". He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers.Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office. The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory as consolation. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.Prairie lawyer.In his Springfield practice, Lincoln handled , a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent.Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases he was sole counsel in 51 cases of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860 one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname .Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending William showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted.Leading up to his presidential campaign Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison who was a third cousin Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent Rev. Peter Cartwright. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who as he lay dying of his wounds confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible hearsay. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected the judge a Democrat reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence resulting in Harrison's acquittal.Republican politics .Emergence as Republican leader.The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North with the failure of the Compromise of 1850 a legislative package designed to address the issue. In his 1852 eulogy for Clay Lincoln highlighted the latters Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "Peoria Speech" in October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery which he repeated en route to the presidency. He said the Kansas Act had a ""declared" indifference, but as I must think, a covert "real" zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ..." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.Nationally the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party Lincoln wrote in 1855 "I think I am a Whig but others say there are no Whigs and that I am an abolitionist...I do no more than oppose the "extension" of slavery." The new Republican Party was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party and combining Free Soil Liberty and antislavery Democratic Party members Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement.In 1854 Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act and in the aftermath Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate. At that time senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat and had received few votes in the earlier ballots his supporters also antislavery Democrats had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate Joel Aldrich Matteson.1856 campaign.Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, John C. Frmont and William Dayton comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State James Buchanan and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois."Dred Scott v. Sandford".Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory under the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in (1857). Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that .Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech.In 1858 Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858 and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas from his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and admission of Kansas as a slave state. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition.Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech with the biblical reference Mark 325 The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas. These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that Douglas’ decision.Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln several local papers endorsed his candidacy.Traveling untiringly Lincoln made about fifty speeches. By their quality and simplicity he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However unlike his overwhelming support in the Midwestern United States his support in the east was not as great where he sometimes encountered a lack of appreciation and in some quarters was met with much indifference. Horace Greeley editor of the New York Tribune at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincolns Dred-Scott ruling which was promptly used against him by his political rivals.On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union, in which he argued that the Founding Fathers of the United States had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a 1860 presidential election.On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend , Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate". In 1860, Lincoln described himself: "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes." Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy.On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for vice president to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff.Pennsylvania put him over the top led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to "Make no contracts that will bind me".As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the Democratic convention they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty and selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the Wide Awakes, which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln.As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned Lincoln gave no speeches relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North and produced an abundance of campaign posters leaflets and newspaper editorials. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform and second on Lincolns life and sold 100000–200000 copies. Though he did not give public appearances many sought to visit him and write him. In the runup to the election he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired John George Nicolay as his personal secretary who would remain in that role during the presidency.On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents.Presidency .Secession and inauguration.The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, and adopted a constitution. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional president on February 9, 1861.Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the territories. Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."Lincoln tacitly supported the Corwin Amendment to the Constitution which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. A few weeks before the war Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.En route to his inauguration Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. He gave a particularly emotional farewell address upon leaving Springfield he would never again return to Springfield alive. The president-elect evaded suspected assassins in Baltimore. On February 23 1861 he arrived in disguise in Washington D.C. which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern statesLincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South stating "One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South "We are not enemies but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land will yet swell the chorus of the Union when again touched as surely they will be by the better angels of our nature." The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861 no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. In his second inaugural address Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said "Both parties deprecated war but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive and the other would accept war rather than let it perish and the war came."Major Robert Anderson commander of the Unions order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12 1861 Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and began the fight. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations underestimating the gravity of the crisis exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South and overlooking Southern Unionist opposition to an invasion.William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes that "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot they did just that."On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of 75,000 volunteer troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and , which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation.As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Union troops who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of "habeas corpus" where needed for the security of troops trying to reach Washington. John Merryman, one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of "habeas corpus." In June Taney, ruling only for the lower circuit court in ex parte Merryman, issued the writ which he felt could only be suspended by Congress. Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.Union military strategy.Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the Union military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended "habeas corpus", and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6 1861 Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery.In August 1861, General John C. Frmont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels. Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity. As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000.Internationally Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner. In the 1861 Trent Affair which threatened war with Great Britain the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship the on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer James G. Randall dissected Lincoln's successful techniquesLincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort consulting with governors and selecting generals based on their success their state and their party. In January 1862 after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities auditing and canceling contracts saving the federal government $17000000. Stanton was a staunch Unionist pro-business conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. say Thomas and Hyman.Lincolns army, rather than simply capturing territory.General McClellan.After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia Peninsula Campaign. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capitol.In 1862 Lincoln removed McClellan for the generals desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack. But Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington.Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in January.McClellan then resisted the presidents part.Burnside against presidential advice launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg so Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joseph Hooker.In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due to rising inflation high taxes rumors of corruption suspension of military draft law and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest where many Southerners had lived for generations.In the spring of 1863 Lincoln was sufficiently optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to think the end of the war could be near; the plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, then resigned and was replaced by George Meade. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the Gettysburg Campaign, but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states.Emancipation Proclamation.The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 delegated the issue to the individual states. Lincoln argued that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented. He sought to persuade the states to agree to compensation for emancipating their slaves in return for their acceptance of abolition. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861, as well as one by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and would upset loyal border states.In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was enacted, providing court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion; Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief that it was unconstitutional. He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise. Lincoln at this time reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet.Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification; Republican editor Horace Greeley of the "New York Tribune" agreed. In a letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln said that while he personally wished all men could be free, regardless of that, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union:The Emancipation Proclamation issued on September 22 1862 and effective January 1 1863 affirmed the freedom of slaves in 10 states not then under Union control with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was He spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites.With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated three million slaves.Enlisting former slaves became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, . By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.The Proclamation included Lincoln's earlier plans for colonies for newly freed slaves though that undertaking ultimately failed.Gettysburg Address .Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19 1863. In 272 words and three minutes Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789 but in 1776 .Defying his prediction that "the world will little note nor long remember what we say here" the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.General Grant.Grants army.Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grants name to the Senate. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2 1864.Grant in 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign which exacted heavy losses on both sides. When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were the persistent general replied "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at City Point Virginia to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations railroads and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction for its own sake. Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general Jubal Early raided Washington D.C.. Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position Union Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. shouted at him "Get down you damn fool before you get shot!"As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group meeting with Lincoln Seward and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal his objective to end the fighting was not realized. On April 1 1865 Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9 Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox officially ending the war.Re-election.Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with War Democrats Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party.Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House; Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. The pledge read as follows:The Democratic platform followed the ; but their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support. Shermans support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers.On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll places the speech it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial. Lincoln said:Reconstruction.Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance.As Southern states fell they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors. In Louisiana Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient and passed their own plan the 1864 Wade–Davis Bill which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana Arkansas and Tennessee.Lincoln choice Salmon P. Chase who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies.After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform and after his successful reelection the second attempt in the House passed on January 31 1865. With ratification it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6 1865.Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumners Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists.Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current according to David Lincove argue thatEric Foner argues that:Native American policy.Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham at their hands in the presence of his father and uncles. Lincoln claimed Indians were antagonistic toward his father Thomas Lincoln and his young family. Although Lincoln was a veteran of the Black Hawk War which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832 he saw no significant action. During his presidency Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He faced difficulties guarding Western settlers railroads and telegraphs from Indian attacks.On August 17, 1862, the Dakota uprising in Minnesota, supported by the Yankton Indians, killed hundreds of white settlers, forced 30,000 from their homes, and deeply alarmed the Lincoln administration. Some believed it was a conspiracy by the Confederacy to launch a war on the Northwestern front. Lincoln sent General John Pope, the former head of the Army of Virginia, to Minnesota as commander of the new Department of the Northwest. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the Dakota Uprising. When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy. Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly, even advocating their extinction. He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed, and Indian warriors be killed. Aiding Pope, Minnesota Congressman Col. Henry H. Sibley led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the Dakota at Wood Lake. By October 9, Pope considered the uprising to be ended; hostilities ceased on December 26. An unusual military court was set up to prosecute captured natives, with Lincoln effectively acting as the route of appeal.Lincoln personally reviewed each of 303 execution warrants for Santee Dakota convicted of killing innocent farmers he commuted the sentences of all but 39 (one was later reprieved). Lincoln sought to be lenient but still send a message. He also faced significant public pressure including threats of mob justice should any of the Dakota be spared. Former Governor of Minnesota Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln in 1864 that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 of the Indians. Lincoln responded Other enactments.In the selection and use of his cabinet Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process .Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress First Transcontinental Railroad which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government tariffs and a Federal income tax. In 1861 Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs following the first enacted by Buchanan. He also signed the Revenue Act of 1861 creating the first U.S. income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 . The Revenue Act of 1862 adopted rates that increased with income.Lincoln presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The National Banking Act created the system of national banks. The US issued paper currency for the first time known as greenbacks—printed in green on the reverse side. In 1862 Congress created the Department of Agriculture.In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days.Lincoln is largely responsible for the Thanksgiving holiday. Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.In June 1864 Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park.Judicial appointments.Supreme Court appointments.Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known." Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.Other judicial appointments.Lincoln appointed 27 judges to the United States district courts but no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office.States admitted to the Union.West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. Nevada, which became the third state in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.Assassination.John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland though he never joined the Confederate army he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending an April 11 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks Booth hatched a plot to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford's Theatre. Lincoln and his wife attended the play "Our American Cousin" on the evening of April 14 just five days after the Union victory at the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse. At the last minute Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.At 1015 in the evening Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box crept up from behind and fired at the back of Lincoln's head mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for eight hours Lincoln died at 722 in the morning on April 15. Stanton saluted and said "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in the next morning.Two weeks later, Booth, refusing to surrender, was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and was mortally shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested for court martial. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge.Funeral and burial.The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincolns body was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield and now lies within the Lincoln Tomb.Religious and philosophical beliefs.As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it. He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others. He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. Through his entire public career, Lincoln had a proneness for quoting Scripture. His three most famous speeches—the House Divided Speech, the Gettysburg Address, and his second inaugural—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture.In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power. With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended First Presbyterian Church with his wife beginning in 1852.In the 1850s Lincoln asserted his belief in "providence" in a general way and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches. By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it. Whither it is tending seems plain. If God now wills the removal of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North as well as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere the justice and goodness of God.This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, considered by some scholars as the greatest such address in American history, and by Lincoln himself as his own greatest speech, or one of them at the very least. Lincoln explains therein the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will. Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs and might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants. On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.Lincoln is believed to have had depression, smallpox, and malaria. He took blue mass pills, which contained mercury, to treat constipation. It is unknown to what extent he may have suffered from mercury poisoning.Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on photographs of Lincoln appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as Marfan syndrome or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B.Republican values.Lincoln's redefinition of "republican values" has been stressed by historians such as John Patrick Diggins Harry V. Jaffa Vernon Burton Eric Foner and Herman J. Belz. Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the "sheet anchor" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s. He did this at a time when the Constitution which "tolerated slavery" was the focus of most political discourse. Diggins notes "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech. Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument he focused on the moral basis of republicanism.His position on war was founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract. Furthermore it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state. Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north though felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs.As a Whig activist Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests favoring high tariffs banks infrastructure improvements and railroads in opposition to Jacksonian democrats. William C. Harris found that Lincoln's Reunification of the states.In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said The successful reunification of the states had consequences for how people viewed the country. The term has historically been used, sometimes in the plural , and other times in the singular. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.Historical reputation.In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since 1948 the top three presidents are Lincoln Washington and Franklin Delano Roosevelt although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011 Lincoln John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan have been the top-ranked presidents in eight surveys according to Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington.Lincolns name to their party. Many though not all in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office.Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington D.C.Union nationalism as envisioned by Lincoln "helped lead America to the nationalism of Theodore Roosevelt Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Delano Roosevelt." In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the welfare state.Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.In the Cold War years Lincolns role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders such as authors Dirck and Cashin retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day and that he was a who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives apart from neo-Confederates such as Mel Bradford who denounced his treatment of the white South for his intense nationalism support for business his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across the world.Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered .In the 21st century, President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the Lincoln Bible for his inaugural ceremonies. Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.Memory and memorials.Lincolnt grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell. He was the first of 16 presidents to do so.He has been memorialized in many town city and county names including the capital of Nebraska. The United States Navy is named after Lincoln the second Navy ship to bear his name.Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nations home as well as his tomb. A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on Mount Rushmore which receives about 3 million visitors a year. +Aristotle (; , ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father Nicomachus died when Aristotle was a child and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven . Shortly after Plato died Aristotle left Athens and at the request of Philip II of Macedon tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication only around a third of his original output has survived none of it intended for publication.Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of physical science extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages as well as Christian theology especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher" while the poet Dante called him “the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan.Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition his ethics though always influential gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political science", "the father of zoology", "the father of embryology", "the father of natural law", "the father of scientific method", "the father of rhetoric", "the father of psychology", "the father of realism", "the father of criticism", "the father of individualism", "the father of teleology", and "the father of meteorology".In general the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.Aristotle whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek was born in 384 BC in Stagira Chalcidice about 55 km east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young Aristotle learned about biology and medical information which was taught by his father. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.At the age of seventeen or eighteen Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the "Suda" an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages is accurate, he may also have had an "ermenos", Palaephatus of Abydus.This period in Athens between 335 and 323 BC is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not for the most part intended for widespread publication they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include "Physics" "Metaphysics" "Nicomachean Ethics" "Politics" "On the Soul" and "Poetics". Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic metaphysics mathematics physics biology botany ethics politics agriculture medicine dance and theatre."Near the end of his life Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis on Euboea at which occasion he was said to have stated "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.Speculative philosophy.With the that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.What is today called with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument) Aristotle himself would have labelled around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books areThe order of the books is not certain but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics the analysis of simple terms in the "Categories" the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in "On Interpretation" to the study of more complex forms namely syllogisms and dialectics . The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory "stricto sensu" the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The "Rhetoric" is not conventionally included but it states that it relies on the "Topics".Metaphysics.The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name "Metaphysics". Aristotle called it "first philosophy" and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science as the contemplative philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his "Metaphysics" Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence in his house, namely or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.Immanent realism.Like his teacher Plato Aristotles ontology places the universal in particulars things in the world whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle in a particular substance.Plato argued that all things have a universal form which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple for example one sees an apple and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover one can place an apple next to a book so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example it is possible that there is no particular good in existence but is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms a place where all universal forms subsist Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So according to Aristotle the form of apple exists within each apple rather than in the world of the forms.Potentiality and actuality.With regard to the change and its causes now, as he defines in his "Physics" and "On Generation and Corruption" 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality and actuality in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' or 'be acted upon' , which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight , while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning . Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance , Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being and the actual one are one and the same.Epistemology.Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from "a priori" principles.Natural philosophy.Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning which he also would describe as "science". However his use of the term "science" carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle "all science is either practical poetical or theoretical" . His practical science includes ethics and politics his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry his theoretical science covers physics mathematics and metaphysics.Five elements.In his Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles Earth Water Air and Fire to two of the four sensible qualities hot cold wet and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme all matter was made of the four elements in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether the divine substance of the heavenly spheres stars and planets.Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the "Physics" , and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in "On the Heavens" . In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equationincorrect in modern physics.Natural motion depends on the element concerned the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up or down towards their natural resting places.In the , Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, , of the fluid in which it is falling:Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.Archimedes corrected Aristotle scheme on the mass and volume of the object not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.Aristotles gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones , and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.Four causes.Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term , but the traditional rendering will be employed here.Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in "Problems" book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it he saw that whatever shape he made the hole the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.Chance and spontaneity.According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of Geology/Natural Sciences.Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change including 'Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology . For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff Empirical research.Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function so among birds the heron which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish has a long neck and long legs and a sharp spear-like beak whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin too noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle accidents like heat waves in winter must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor or that one kind can change into another or that kinds can become extinct.Scientific style.Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term , he finds a fertilized hens heart beating inside.Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.From the data he collected and documented Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with body mass so that an elephant has fewer young per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period and also with body mass so that elephants live longer than mice have a longer period of gestation and are heavier. As a final example fecundity decreases with lifespan so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.Classification of living things.Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the . Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing , and the egg-laying . Those without blood were insects, crustacea and the hard-shelled molluscs . He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.Psychology.Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise .For Aristotle the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings e.g. the ability to initiate movement . In contrast to earlier philosophers but in accordance with the Egyptians he placed the rational soul in the heart rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers with the exception of Alcmaeon.According to Aristotle in "On the Soul", memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking.Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past prediction is of the future and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences both for previous experience and present experience.Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions people search the memory itself. Within the memory if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.Aristotle believed the chain of thought which ends in recollection of certain impressions was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity contrast and contiguity described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle association is the power innate in a mental state which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences allowing them to rise and be recalled.Aristotle describes sleep in . Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams sensation is still involved but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water and then looks away the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In "De Anima" iii 3 Aristotle ascribes the ability to create to store and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination "phantasia".One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.Practical philosophy.Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics politics economics and rhetoric.Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study i.e. one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics including most notably the "Nicomachean Ethics".Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the . To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character , often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom ("phronesis") and their intellect ("nous") can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled and argued that humanitys conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires the natural community according to Aristotle was the city ("polis") which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" ("koinnia"). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life and to perform beautiful acts "The political partnership must be regarded therefore as being for the sake of noble actions not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches beginning with social contract theory according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."In "Protrepticus" the character 'Aristotle' statesAs Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state:To illustrate this approach Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting albeit textually described where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting" for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable such as iron or silver.Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them .Rhetoric and poetics.Aristotle's "Rhetoric" proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience "ethos" "pathos" and "logos" . He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres epideictic forensic and deliberative . Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs "enthymeme" and "paradeigma" .Aristotle writes in his For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.While it is believed that Aristotle's with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.Views on women.Aristotles and commented in his that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.More than 2300 years after his death Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements Aristotle was the founder of formal logic pioneered the study of zoology and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen writing in "The Classical Tradition" observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory theology rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result Kukkonen argues any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".On his successor Theophrastus.Aristotle's pupil and successor Theophrastus wrote the seed chamber.Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.On later Greek philosophers.The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus Dicaearchus Demetrius of Phalerum Eudemos of Rhodes Harpalus Hephaestion Mnason of Phocis Nicomachus and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists botanists and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong when the old philosopher released his works to the public Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"On Hellenistic science.After Theophrastus the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.The first medical teacher at Alexandria Herophilus of Chalcedon corrected Aristotle placing intelligence in the brain and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life teleology would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was On Byzantine scholars.Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus Elias and David in the sixth century and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotles teaching of physics noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.On the medieval Islamic world.Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers scientists and scholars. Averroes Avicenna and Alpharabius who wrote on Aristotle in great depth also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.On medieval Europe.With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius Peter Abelard and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by havingA cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the kings male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in "The Divine Comedy":Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the "Comedy" is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the "Comedy" with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the "Nicomachean Ethics".On medieval Judaism.Moses Maimonides adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his "Guide for the Perplexed" on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers". Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher".On Early Modern scientists.In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the bodys physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.On 18th/19th-century thinkers.The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people , and the natural superiority of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided . This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods though in very different ways but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle". Also in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species' Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle whom he considered to be —Aristotle Aquinas and Ayn Rand. She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers.Karl Marx considered Aristotle to be the .Modern rejection and rehabilitation.During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russellargued that . Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by .. Hobbes rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle’s politics namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen.By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film "Alexander", while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the "Poetics" in Hollywood.Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology while Niko Tinbergen's four questions based on Aristotle's four causes are used to analyse animal behaviour they examine function phylogeny mechanism and ontogeny.Surviving works.Corpus Aristotelicum.The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts as opposed to Aristotles Royal Prussian Academy edition which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.Loss and preservation.Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotles school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.Depictions.Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder Justus van Gent Raphael Paolo Veronese Jusepe de Ribera Rembrandt and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image at the architectural vanishing point reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's "Aristotle with a Bust of Homer" too is a celebrated work showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world ensnaring us in its musty glowing pitch-black terrible knowledge of time."The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture in his book . Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.Further reading.The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. +An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital during the "Annes folles".Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta saxophones and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition which took place on December 13 1928 in Carnegie Hall with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F following the earlier success of "Rhapsody in Blue" . He completed the orchestration on November 18 less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor.Background.Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel.Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by va Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his "Rhapsody in Blue". Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway, and artist Pablo Picasso.Composition.Gershwin based it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.Gershwin explained in The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso".Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of "An American in Paris". He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses."Critics believed that was better crafted than Gershwin's Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers Csar Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics:Instrumentation."An American in Paris" was originally scored for 3 flutes 2 oboes English horn 2 clarinets in B-flat bass clarinet in B-flat 2 bassoons contrabassoon 4 horns in F 3 trumpets in B-flat 3 trombones tuba timpani snare drum bass drum triangle wood block ratchet cymbals low and high tom-toms xylophone glockenspiel celesta 4 taxi horns labeled as A B C and D with circles around them alto saxophone tenor saxophone baritone saxophone and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A B C and D it had been Gershwin's intention to use the notes A4 B4 D5 and A4. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A B C and D with circles he was referring to the four horns and not the notes that they played.A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments alto tenor and baritone. The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments and the contrabassoon was also deleted. This became the standard performing edition until 2000 when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian.William Daly arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929.Preservation status.On September 22 2013 it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.The score to was planned to be an early volume in the series.Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.On September 9 2017 The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration an alteration usually attributed to F. Campbell-Watson.Recordings."An American in Paris" has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D, and a lower A.The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937, Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which "An American in Paris," also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set.Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music.In 1945 Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer.The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today.Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album "One Night Stand" recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago .Use in film.In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film, symphonic poem , costing $500,000.External links. +The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator. It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.The films below are listed with their production year . In the lists below the winner of the award for each year is shown first followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in the film industry. They are regarded as the most prestigious and significant awards in the entertainment industry worldwide. Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements, as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy, officially called the . The statuette depicts a knight rendered in the Art Deco style.The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons. AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by Douglas Fairbanks in The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in what would become known as the 1st Academy Awards. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide. It is also the oldest of the four major annual American entertainment awards; its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards. A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929. They are widely cited as the most prestigious and renowned competitive awards in the field of entertainment.The 93rd Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021, was held on April 25, 2021, after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema. As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. It took place at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California for the 19th consecutive year, along with satellite location taking place at the Union Station also in Los Angeles.The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people.The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ at 2020 prices). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes.Winners were announced to the media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then for the rest of the first decade the results were given to newspapers for publication at 1100 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until 1940 when the "Los Angeles Times" announced the winners before the ceremony began as a result the Academy has since 1941 used a sealed envelope to reveal the names of the winners.Milestones.The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in . He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.At the 29th ceremony held in 1957 the Best Foreign Language Film category now known as Best International Feature Film was introduced. Until then foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.Perhaps the most widely seen streaker in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel, who streaked across the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles flashing a peace sign on national US television at the 46th Academy Awards in 1974. Bemused host David Niven quipped, Later, evidence arose suggesting that Opels wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was thus not the ad-lib it appeared to be.The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.From 1973 to 2020 all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture. For 2021 this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the Academy Award for Best Actor.Traditionally, the previous years winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the February 9, 2020, award ceremony.Tom Hanks announced at the 2020 Oscar Ceremony the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures on December 14 2020. The museum development started in 2017 under Kerry Brougher but is now led by Bill Kramer. The industry curated exhibits will be geared toward the history of motion picture the art & science of film making exhibiting trailblazing directors actors film-makers sound editors and more and will house famous artifacts from acclaimed movies like Dorothy's Ruby Red Slippers.Because of COVID-19 Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the 2021 Oscar Ceremony streaming movies not shown in theaters would be eligible though at some point the requirement that movies be shown in theaters would return.Oscar statuette.Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette).The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.Sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar" for the trophies in 1939. However the origin of the nickname is disputed.One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently mentioned originator is Margaret Herrick, the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of , a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce.Columnist Sidney Skolsky, who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'" The Academy credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to "Oscar" in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's 6th Academy Awards. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of "Oscar": a "Time" magazine story. In the ceremonies that year, Walt Disney was the first to thank the Academy for his "Oscar" during his acceptance speech.To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.Ownership of Oscar statuettes.Prior to 1950 Oscar statuettes were (and remain) the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums.In 1989, Michael Todds Best Picture Oscar for his 1956 production of to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale.In 1992 Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for "The Best Years of Our Lives" to auction to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6 1992 for $60500 . Russell defended his action saying "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here even if Oscar isn't."In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for "Citizen Kane" was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542 .Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.Other awards presented by the Academy.In addition to the Academy Award of Merit , there are nine honorary awards presented by the Academy from time to time :The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting.Nomination.Since 2004 Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that the results were announced in early February. In 2021 the nominees are announced in March.The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) a professional honorary organization maintains a voting membership of over 7000 .Academy membership is divided into different branches with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc numbering 1311 members of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers since the 7th Academy Awards in 1935. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours.All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures.New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the "Los Angeles Times" were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees and winners .In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best International Feature Film, Best Documentary Feature, and awards in short film categories). Additionally, the film must be shown at least three times on each day of its qualifying run, with at least one of the daily showings starting between 6 pm and 10 pm local time.For example the 2009 Best Picture winner "The Hurt Locker" was originally first released in 2008 but did not qualify for the 2008 awards as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009 thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles and each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year.Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Since the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of , an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection.The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list , or submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. Additionally, a film must have been reviewed by a critic from "The New York Times", "Time Out New York", the "Los Angeles Times", or "LA Weekly".Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.Awards in short film categories have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year instead of covering one year starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in "either" Los Angeles County "or" New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of several competitive film festivals designated by the Academy also without regard to prior public distribution. Finally a film that is selected as a gold silver or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible . The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards. Only one screening per day is required. For the Documentary award the screening must start between noon and 10 pm local time for other awards no specific start time is required but the film must appear in regular theater listings with dates and screening times.In late December, ballots, and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories . In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including International Feature Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches.In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects.Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner .Awards ceremonies.The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised live from the U.S. to all-time zones in North America and worldwide and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC which continued to broadcast the event until 1960 when ABC took over televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970 but only two South American countries Chile and Brazil purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later the rights were already being sold to 60 countries and by 1984 the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949.After many years of being held on Mondays at 900 pm Eastern/600 p.m Pacific since the 1999 ceremonies it was moved to Sundays at 830 pm ET/530 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010 the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January citing TV viewerss long awards season. However such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers . Furthermore a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018 the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020.Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C.In 1993, an feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break.In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night . "The Wall Street Journal" analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches.Although still dominant in ratings the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership) while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show reported that ABC was in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast including the choice of production staff and hosting although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016 AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028 the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.TV ratings.Historically the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998 the year of "Titanic" which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US a box office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The 76th Academy Awards ceremony in which "" received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date however was the 42nd Academy Awards which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7 1970.By contrast ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings despite how much critical acclaim those films have received. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budget independent film "Crash" generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008 the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film .Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million. That is the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974.The Academy Film Archive holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies along with ancillary material related to more recent shows. Copies are held in a variety of film video and digital formats.In 1929 the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943 the ceremony alternated between two venues the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles.Graumans headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California, in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine.In 2002, Hollywoods current venue.Awards of Merit categories.Current categories.In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories . At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories . From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction , Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories . Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup.In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony.Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed several proposals that the Academy had announced but did not implement.Proposed categories.The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed:Special categories.The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on an annual basis.Accusations of commercialism.Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. William Friedkin an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009 describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself".Tim Dirks editor of AMC's filmsite.org has written of the Academy AwardsA recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against "Zero Dark Thirty" suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that "Lincoln" distorts history.Accusations of bias.Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. in the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. The term "Oscar bait" was coined to describe such movies. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring "Oscar bait" over audience favorites or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.Allegations of a lack of diversity.The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. Due to a variety of reasons, including marketability and historical bans on interracial couples, a number of high-profile Oscars have been given to yellowface portrayals, as well as performances of Asian characters rewritten for white characters. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the hashtag #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.Symbolism or sentimentalization.Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity to make up for a "snub" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one awarded or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.Recognition of streaming media film.Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice having heard of this potential rule change wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019 cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.Refusals of the award.Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols . Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career.George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it."The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando who refused his award citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony Brando sent actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms for which there was booing and cheering by the audience.Disqualifications.Six films have had nominations revoked before the official award ceremony:One film was disqualified after winning the award and had the winner return the OscarOne film had its nomination revoked after the award ceremony when it had not won the OscarGender segregation.Some advocates of gender equality and non-binary people have criticized the separation of male and female acting categories in the Academy Awards, Emmy Awards and Tony Awards. Though some commentators worry that gender discrimination would cause men to dominate unsegregated categories, other categories are unsegregated. The Grammy Awards went gender-neutral in 2012, while the Daytime Emmy Awards introduced a single Outstanding Younger Performer in a Drama Series category in 2019 to replace their two gender-specific younger actor and actress categories.Associated events.The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy AwardsPresenter and performer gifts.It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant videophones a four-night stay at a hotel watches bracelets spa treatments bottles of vodka maple salad dressing weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them in 2014 the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag Carolyn Hennesy Kate Linder Chris Mulkey Jim O'Heir and John Salley.Television ratings and advertisement prices.From 2006 onwards results are Live+SD all previous years are live viewing.The term is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field. +Actresses is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glria Marc , the television star Assumpta Roca , and dubbing director Maria Caminal .Recognition.Screenings. screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival.In "Movie - Film - Review" Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers" the film "is visually unimaginative never escapes its stage origins and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness" they did not "justify comparisons to "All About Eve"" and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with "Rashomon"". He also wrote that "The Guardian" called the film a "slow stuffy chamber-piece" and that "The Evening Standard" stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story." +Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket. is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator and armadillo, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify (however, there are not necessarily , as the author states). As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.Here are some of the things in each picture that are truly different :1. Astronaut4. Archdiocese7. Aborigine12. Apricot13. Avocado15. Albatross16. Antelope 17. Anteater18. Aardvark20. Afghan hound21. Affenpinscher22. Airedale terrier23. Aqueduct26. Asparagus27. Artichoke28. Accordion30. Anemone33. Algebra36. Bumblebee37. Bobolink40. Barbed wire41. Brambles42. Bullrushes44. Bassoon45. Brontosaurus46. Budgerigar51. Basketball52. Basketball hoop53. Baseball54. Baseball bat55. Backgammon56. Ballpoint pen57. Bagpipes58. Bicycle63. Blueberries68. Bellows69. Boomerang70. Bathtub76. Binoculars77. Barracuda79. Battery85. Caterpillar87. Computer90. Concertina92. Cheetah94. Cassette95. Crocodile98. Cylinder100. Cucumber101. Celery102. Cabbage103. Cheese105. Carrot107. Calculator108. Candle109. Cherry111. Coconut115. Calendar117. Castle118. Church119. Cemetery120. Cross of Christ121. Caravan122. Circus124. Cricket 125. Convict126. Cannon128. Chimpanzee131. Canary133. Crossword134. Crutch141. Clarinet143. Chieftain144. Cactus146. Chateau147. Concorde148. Chandelier149. Cottage151. Candy cane152. Cauldron153. Centipede154. Dustpan155. Duster156. Dynamite158. Drawers159. Draughts160. Doughnut161. Diamond163. Dutch doll164. Dentures169. Dollar170. Dolphin171. Decagon173. Dormouse174. Diagonal175. Decade176. Doctrine177. Dumbbell178. Dragonfly180. Dachshund181. Doberman pinscher182. Dalmatian184. Diplodocus185. Dimetrodon187. Desperado188. Donkey191. Dinghy192. Drowning193. Drawbridge195. Destroyer196. Dromedary197. Double-decker bus198. Daffodil200. Dirigible201. Dominos202. Dagger207. Deputy208. Eclipse209. Eclair210. Elderberries211. Envelope213. Eleven214. Edison215. Einstein216. Embryo217. Earwig218. Echidna220. Eskimo222. Edelweiss224. Earring225. Emerald226. Flounder229. Foxglove233. Firewood234. Frankenstein236. Forest237. Falcon238. Fungus242. Foghorn244. Glockenspiel245. Gerbil246. Geranium247. Gladiolus248. Gladiator249. Gremlin250. Golf club251. Golf ball252. Gibbon253. Guitar254. Galoshes256. Greyhound258. Gazelle259. Griffin260. Gargoyle261. Graffiti262. Grasshopper264. Galleon265. Gorgon267. Gramophone269. Goggles271. Giraffe272. Gazebo275. Garage276. Garbage277. Garbage can278. Gallows279. Guillotine283. Glider285. Hexagon290. Hammock293. Hunter295. Hang glider296. Herald297. Helicopter298. Hamburger299. Hydrant300. Hourglass301. Hamster302. Hedgehog306. Hand grenade307. Humpty-Dumpty309. Holy Bible311. Haddock312. Hammer313. Hieroglyphics314. Handkerchief315. Handcuffs316. Hatchet317. Hornet318. Island319. Icicle320. Ice cream322. Iceberg323. Icarus325. Javelin326. Jester327. Jack-in-the-box328. Jack-in-the-pulpit331. Jasmine332. Jaguar334. Knapsack335. Knitting338. Kitten339. Knight340. Kipper343. Keychain344. Kitchen345. Kettle347. Knocker350. Ladder352. Lantern353. Lobster355. Lettuce356. Leprechaun357. Lockbox361. Lollipop366. Mammoth367. Mermaid369. Magpie370. Mosque371. Mandolin372. Monkey marionette373. Marble374. Metronome376. Million377. Millimeter378. Millipede379. Mushroom381. Matchbox382. Molecule386. Monocle387. Magnet388. Maggot390. Microphone391. Microscope395. Narwhal396. Neptune397. Newspaper398. Nightingale403. Nutcracker405. Ninety-nine406. Napkin407. Nautilus409. Nonagon410. Orange412. Orangutan413. Observatory414. Octagon416. Obelisk418. Oil drill422. Physician423. Poodle424. Parasol426. Perambulator427. Periwinkle428. Politician430. Philosopher431. Parchment432. Polka dot433. Pigtail434. Pit drum435. Pharaoh436. Pied Piper437. Pajamas439. Police440. Prisoner442. Punch & Judy445. Pirate447. Peg leg448. Prince449. Princess450. Pendant451. Palace452. Pagoda453. Parachute454. Pegasus456. Parthenon457. Palm tree458. Pyramid460. Peninsula461. Penguin463. Pathway464. Procession465. Platypus467. Pumpkin468. Pheasant469. Partridge470. Puffin471. Pelican472. Porcupine474. Parcel475. Pliers477. Pitchfork479. Pine tree481. Poison ivy482. Periscope483. Porpoise485. Popeye486. Phoenix487. Potato489. Painter490. Palette492. Paintbrush495. Pomegranate496. Pineapple497. Pussy-willows498. Pavilion499. Pulley501. Plaque505. Quartz506. Quicksand507. Quarter508. Quoits513. Raspberry514. Raccoon515. Rhododendron516. Roman numerals520. Roller skate521. Reindeer522. Roulette525. Revolver526. Refrigerator527. Rabbit528. Rolling pin529. Register534. Rowboat535. Rooster536. Rattlesnake538. Rocking horse539. Rocking chair540. Radius542. Racket543. Recorder544. Rocket545. Sapphire548. Scorpion550. Sandcastle552. Schooner555. Spider557. Sheriff560. Sickle561. Scythe562. Slippers563. Sandwich564. Sunflower565. Snowshoes567. Stretcher569. Stitch570. Screwdriver572. Wrench 575. Shovel576. Sledgehammer577. Scissors578. Shears580. Scalpel582. Scooter583. Satchel584. Sundae586. Spaghetti587. Strawberry589. Saturn590. See-saw591. Spring592. Sneeze593. Shepherd595. Scarecrow598. Spoonbill601. Skipping rope602. Scroll604. Soccer605. Swimmer606. Snorkel607. Syringe608. Siphon609. Stethoscope610. Starfish613. Sphinx614. Sprocket615. Spinning wheel618. Space shuttle619. Satellite620. Sombrero621. Serape622. Saxophone623. Synthesizer624. Superman625. Shower626. Suitcase627. Shuttlecock628. Bowling pin 629. Stilts630. Stalactite631. Stalagmite632. Steamroller633. Swings636. Sheathe637. Stiletto638. Scimitar641. Sleigh643. St. Nicholas645. Sausage646. Stick figure647. Surfboard648. Surfer652. Shamrock653. Spectacles654. Scapula655. Slingshot657. Swallow658. Sardines661. Stepladder663. Scarab beetle664. Stereo665. Star of David666. Sparrow667. Squirrel668. Sextant670. Seahorse671. Salute672. Top hat674. Tricycle676. Thermos677. Turtle679. Trombone680. Trumpet682. Tractor683. Trailer684. Tunnel686. Totem pole687. Target688. Tuxedo690. Telescope691. Teapot692. Television693. Trophy695. Teddy bear696. Tambourine698. Toy tank699. Tomato700. Thermometer701. Tweezers702. Threader703. Typewriter704. Turntable705. Telephone708. Ursa Major709. Ursa Minor710. United Kingdom711. Uncle Sam712. Ukulele713. Underwear715. Volkswagen719. Violin720. Vacuum cleaner721. Voodoo doll724. Volcano725. Viaduct727. Viking728. Vampire729. Valley730. Weevil731. Wristwatch734. Wizard741. Walrus742. Whirlpool743. Werewolf745. Wishbone747. Washerwoman748. Washhouse749. Washing machine752. Windmill753. Wombat754. Wallaby755. Weeping willow756. Waterfall757. Xylophone758. Xerophytes759. Xmas tree765. Yeoman770. Zodiac771. Zipper772. Zinnia773. ZitherRelated products.Julia MacRae Books published an "Animalia" colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.H. N. Abrams published "The Animalia Wall Frieze" a fold-out over 26 feet in length in which the author created new riddles for each letter.The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.Adaptations.A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.In 2010 The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch."Animalia" won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.The Children's Book Council of Australia designated "Animalia" a 1987 Honour Book.Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named the 1988 Picture Book Winner. +International Atomic Time is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earths surface. UTC deviates from TAI by a number of whole seconds. when another leap second was put into effect UTC is currently exactly 37 seconds behind TAI. The 37 seconds result from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972 plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972.TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically both Julian days and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958 and the two have drifted apart ever since due to the changing motion of the Earth.TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock.The participating institutions each broadcast in real time a frequency signal with timecodes which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form "UTC" in the UTC form where "NPL" in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory UK. The TAI form may be denoted "TAI". The latter is not to be confused with "TA" which denotes an independent atomic time scale not synchronised to TAI or to anything else.The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC (equivalent to TAI − TAI) for each participating institution . The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this once published in Circular T the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive better estimates do not create another version of TAI it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time .Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado on 9 October 1957.The International Time Bureau began a time scale, Tm or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: in 1969.The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for Weights and Measures made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time .In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale, therefore, corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at the geoid (mean sea level). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ().The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time Geocentric Coordinate Time and Terrestrial Time which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT with the equation TT = TAI + 32.184 s.The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, Relation to UTC.UTC is a discontinuous time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterward these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale the less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC. +Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings or other animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious and secular worldviews. However, the object of concern vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness, which is the opposite of selfishness.The word "altruism" was popularized by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French as "altruisme" for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian "altrui" which in turn was derived from Latin "alteri" meaning "other people" or "somebody else".Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves but benefits either directly or indirectly another individual without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards". In one sense the opposite of altruism is spite a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit.Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty or concern for the common good. The latter are predicated upon social relationships whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether qualify as "benefits".The term "altruism" may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense it is usually contrasted with egoism which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. Effective altruism is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.The notion of altruism.The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science Auguste Comte and has become a major topic for psychologists evolutionary biologists and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.Scientific viewpoints.Anthropology.Marcel Mauss's essay "The Gift" contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.Evolutionary explanations.In the science of ethology , and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism.Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies.Some of the proposed mechanisms are:Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin to friends than to strangers to those attractive than to those unattractive to non-competitors than to competitors and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds such as "Dictyostelium mucoroides". These protists live as individual amoebae until starved at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book "" and Moral Philosopher Peter Singer in his book "A Darwinian Left".Neurobiology.Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding.In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the University of Southern California neuroscientist Antonio R. Damasio and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to Adrian Raine, a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?"In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a University of Oregon economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.Psychology.The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines "psychological altruism" as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with "psychological egoism", which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare.There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives: to ultimately benefit the self , to ultimately benefit the other person , to benefit a group , or to uphold a moral principle . Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping . Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.Many studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live and lower in depression anxiety and somatization. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health but physical health and longevity as well attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. It is important to note that while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states.Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one . Additionally while generous acts make people feel good about themselves it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that . (. American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges public sociology saying, ( ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and . The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims. Studies have shown that generosity in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate observed generosity of others.Pathological altruism.Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs hoarding of animals and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.Religious viewpoints.Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism and are focused on all beings equally love is the wish that all beings be happy and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" .Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: .In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first Tirthankara, Rishabhdev, introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger pride deceit greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations pride destroys humility deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness pride by humility deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment.Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:The are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress.The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become "Siddha" . Because all living beings possess a soul great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life advocating harmlessness towards all whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.Christianity.St Thomas Aquinas interprets as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves we naturally seek the common good the good of the whole more than any private good the good of a part. However he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word Altruism as stated above Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism.Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman and that hatred of ones demands undermine overall well-being.German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love In Islam, the concept as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.This concept was emphasized by Sufis like Rabia al-Adawiyya who paid attention to the difference between dedication to Allah and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy as is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as bestowal or giving which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag in his writings about the future generation focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity.Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love affection sacrifice patience harmony truthfulness. The concept of "seva" or selfless service to the community for its own sake is an important concept in Sikhism.The fifth Guru, Arjun Dev, sacrificed his life to uphold "22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity", the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity.In the late seventeenth century, Guru Gobind Singh (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. Under the tutelage of the Guru Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service.In Hinduism Selflessness Love Kindness and Forgiveness are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "Manushyattva". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or "Punya" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "Paapa" and will led them to heaven or "Swarga" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs.The founder of warkari samprdaya the great saint "Dhnyaneshwar Maharaj" in his "Pasaydan" pray to the supreme lord "Vitthal" for the wellbeing of all living organisms of the universe.Swami Vivekananda the legendary Hindu monk has said - . Mass donation of clothes to poor people or blood donation camp or mass food donation for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies.Swami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.However the very well known and popular text the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga & or action without expectation / desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.Philosophy.There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with utilitarianism, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest .Effective altruism.Effective altruism is a philosophy and social movement that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values. It is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or charity. Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the nonprofit sector, the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit. People associated with the movement include philosopher Peter Singer, Facebook co founder Dustin Moskovitz, Cari Tuna, Ben Delo, Oxford-based researchers William MacAskill and Toby Ord, professional poker player Liv Boeree, and writer Jacy Reese.The genes OXTR, CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, GABRB2 have been found to be candidate genes for altruism. +Alice O'Connor , better known by her pen name Ayn Rand , was a Russian-American writer and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She wrote a play that opened on Broadway in 1935. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, "The Fountainhead". In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel "Atlas Shrugged". Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays.Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge; she rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism and rejected altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism, statism, and anarchism. Instead, she supported capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including private property rights. Although Rand opposed libertarianism, which she viewed as anarchism, she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States. In art, Rand promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and classical liberals.Rand's fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics. Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy because of her polemical approach and lack of methodological rigor. Her writings have politically influenced some libertarians and conservatives. The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas both to the public and in academic settings.Early life.Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2 1905 to a Russian-Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum a pharmacist and Anna Borisovna . Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at age eight and novels at age ten. At the prestigious her closest friend was Vladimir Nabokov's younger sister Olga the pair shared an intense interest in politics.She was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917 during which Rand favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II. The subsequent October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had enjoyed previously. Her father's business was confiscated and the family fled to the Crimean Peninsula which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. While in high school there Rand concluded she was an atheist and valued reason above any other virtue. After graduating in June 1921 she returned with her family to Petrograd where they faced desperate conditions occasionally nearly starving.Following the Russian Revolution universities were opened to women allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University. At 16 she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato Rand came to see their differing views on reality and knowledge as the primary conflict within philosophy. She also studied the philosophical works of Friedrich Nietzsche.Along with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which she did in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, Rand wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work.By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be "Rand" possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt of her birth surname in Cyrillic. She adopted the first name "Ayn".Arrival in the United States.In late 1925 Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17 1926. Arriving in New York City on February 19 1926 Rand was so impressed with the Manhattan skyline that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter she lived for a few months with her relatives. One of them owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of charge. She then left for Hollywood California.In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film "The King of Kings" and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on "The King of Kings", she met an aspiring young actor, ; the two married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to obtain permission to emigrate.During these early years of her career, Rand wrote a number of screenplays, plays, and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime; some were published later in .Early fiction.Although it was never produced, Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay "Red Pawn" to Universal Studios in 1932. Her courtroom drama "Night of January 16th", first produced by E. E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934, reopened successfully on Broadway in 1935. Each night, a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on its vote, one of two different endings would be performed.Her first published novel, the semi-autobiographical "We the Living", was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow, and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. She adapted the story as a stage play, but producer George Abbott's Broadway production was a failure and closed in less than a week. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In a foreword to the 1959 edition, Rand wrote that "We the Living" "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. ... The plot is invented, the background is not ...".Rand wrote her novella "Anthem" during a break from writing her next major novel, "The Fountainhead". It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word "I" has been forgotten and replaced with "we". Published in England in 1938, Rand could not find an American publisher initially. As with "We the Living", Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold over 3.5 million copies."The Fountainhead" and political activism.During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for Republican Wendell Willkie's 1940 presidential campaign. This led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had seen pro-Willkie newsreels. Her work brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt, who introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to her as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman". Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned her about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings, and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, "The God of the Machine".Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with "The Fountainhead" a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others placing others above themselves. Twelve publishers rejected it before the Bobbs-Merrill Company finally accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings."The Fountainhead" became a worldwide success bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943 she sold the film rights to Warner Bros. and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Producer Hal B. Wallis hired her afterwards as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for him included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated "Love Letters" and "You Came Along". Rand worked on other projects including a never-completed nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called "The Moral Basis of Individualism".Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and wrote articles on the groups California associates led to a falling out between the two when Paterson made comments to valued political allies which Rand considered rude. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a .After several delays the film version of and complained about its editing the acting and other elements. and Objectivism.Following the publication of Rand received numerous letters from readers some of whom the book had influenced profoundly. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated ) included a future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand at her apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy. Later Rand began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel as she wrote the manuscript. In 1954 her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair with the knowledge of their spouses.Published in 1957 "Atlas Shrugged" was considered Rand's "magnum opus". She described the novel's theme as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and as a corollary the demonstration of a new moral philosophy the morality of rational self-interest". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists scientists and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike John Galt describes it as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals contributing most to the nation's wealth and achievements. With this fictional strike Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery romance and science fiction and contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.Despite many negative reviews, "Atlas Shrugged" became an international bestseller, however, the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand. "Atlas Shrugged" was her last completed work of fiction marking the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute , to promote Rands closest followers in New York.Later years.Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Harvard, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding to questions from the audience. During these appearances, she often took controversial stances on the political and social issues of the day. These included: supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft , supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as .In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens, and the NBI was closed. She published an article in "The Objectivist" repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976 she retired from writing her newsletter and after her initial objections allowed a social worker employed by her attorney to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare. During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined especially after the death of her husband on November 9 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of "Atlas Shrugged".On March 6, 1982, Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City. She was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York. At her funeral, a floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff as her beneficiary.Literary method and influences.Rand described her approach to literature as .Rand considered plot a critical element of literature, and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described as . Romantic triangles are a common plot element in Rand's fiction; in most of her novels and plays, the main female character is romantically involved with at least two different men.Influences.In school Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her favorites. She considered them to be among the "top rank" of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots. Hugo, in particular, was an important influence on her writing, especially her approach to plotting. In the introduction she wrote for an English-language edition of his novel "Ninety-Three", Rand called him "the greatest novelist in world literature".Although Rand disliked most Russian literature her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the Russian Symbolists and other nineteenth-century Russian writing most notably the 1863 novel also reflect it.Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios. They often follow common film editing conventions, such as having a broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close-up details, and her descriptions of women characters often take a "male gaze" perspective.Philosophy.Rand called her philosophy . She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.In metaphysics Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism including all forms of religion. Rand believed in free will as a form of agent causation and rejected determinism.In epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which Rand considered axiomatic, and reason, which she described as , Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy.In ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism , as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself". Rand referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her book of that title. In it, she presented her solution to the is-ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival qua man". She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in "Atlas Shrugged" that, "Force and mind are opposites."Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights—including property rights. She considered "laissez-faire" capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights. Rand opposed statism, which she understood included theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, democratic socialism, and dictatorship. She believed a constitutionally limited government should protect natural rights. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, Rand preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. Rand denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. She rejected anarchism as a nave theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice.In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a . According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature. She considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will.Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her Criticisms.Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy. Numerous authors, including Robert Nozick and William F. O'Neill, in some of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas, said she failed in her attempt to solve the is–ought problem. Critics have called her definitions of "egoism" and "altruism" biased and inconsistent with normal usage. Critics from religious traditions oppose her rejection of altruism in addition to atheism. Essays criticizing Rand's egoistic views are included in a number of anthologies for teaching introductory ethics, often including no essays presenting or defending them.Multiple critics including Nozick have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails. Others like Michael Huemer have gone further saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions. Some critics like Roy Childs have said that her opposition to the initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism rather than limited government.Commentators including Hazel Barnes Albert Ellis and Nathaniel Branden have criticized Rand's focus on the importance of reason. Branden said this emphasis led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be.Relationship to other philosophers.Except for Aristotle Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her. Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle Aquinas and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace when asked where her philosophy came from she responded "Out of my own mind with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself."In an article for the Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be Immanuel Kant whom she referred to as she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest. Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.Reception and legacy.Critical reception.The first reviews Rand received were for received little review attention, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.Rand's first bestseller, "The Fountainhead", received far fewer reviews than "We the Living", and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette's positive review in "The New York Times" was one that Rand greatly appreciated. Pruette called her "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", and said "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time". There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the novel's length; one called it "a whale of a book" and another said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian".. He accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets) claiming .Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book "For the New Intellectual" was similar to that for "Atlas Shrugged". Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union" and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality". Her subsequent books got progressively less review attention.On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, writing for .Popular interest.With over 30 million copies sold Rands influence has been greatest in the United States there has been international interest in her work.Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, like Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith; she has influenced later writers like Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind. Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko and musician Neil Peart of Rush, although he later distanced himself. Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas. Mark Cuban as well as John P. Mackey , among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.Television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows, as well as movies and video games have referred to Rand and her works. Throughout her life she was the subject of many articles in popular magazines, as well as book-length critiques by authors such as the psychologist Albert Ellis and Trinity Foundation president John W. Robbins. Rand, or characters based on her, figure prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors. Nick Gillespie, former editor-in- chief of , a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano.Rand's works have found a foothold in classrooms. Since 2002 the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand's novels to high school teachers who promise to include the books in their curriculum. The Institute had distributed 4.5 million copies in the U.S. and Canada by the end of 2020. In 2017 Rand was added to the required reading list for the A Level Politics exam in the United Kingdom.Political influence.Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian", Rand has had a continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism. Rand is often considered one of the three most important women in the early development of modern American libertarianism. David Nolan, one founder of the Libertarian Party, said that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist". In his history of that movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large". Historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right".The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives despite Rand taking some atypical positions for a conservative like being pro-choice and an atheist. She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley Jr. and other contributors to the conservative . Republican congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels. She has influenced some conservative politicians outside the U.S. such as Sajid Javid in the United Kingdom Siv Jensen in Norway and Ayelet Shaked in Israel.The financial crisis of 2007–2008 spurred renewed interest in her works especially "Atlas Shrugged" which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the novel's plot. Signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests. There was increased criticism of her ideas especially from the political left. Critics blamed the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan. In 2015 Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan "Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy". Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had "incalculable impact" in encouraging the spread of neoliberal political ideas. In 2021 Cass Sunstein said Rand's ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the Trump administration which he attributed to the "enduring influence" of Rand's fiction.Academic reaction.During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars. Since her death interest in her work has increased gradually. In 2009 historian Jennifer Burns identified her work but he believed more academic critics were engaging with her work in recent years.To her ideas.In 1967 John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook ."The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand" a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen was the first academic book about Rand's ideas published after her death. In one essay political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage" Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought". In 1987 Allan Gotthelf George Walsh and David Kelley co-founded the Ayn Rand Society a group affiliated with the American Philosophical Association.In a 1995 entry about Rand in a multidisciplinary peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the study of Rand and her ideas was established in 1999. R. W. Bradford Stephen D. Cox and Chris Matthew Sciabarra were its founding co-editors.In a 2010 essay for the Cato Institute, libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer argued very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics. He attributed the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist, noting that "Atlas Shrugged" outsells Rand's non-fiction works and the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism. In 2012, the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed to take over publication of "The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies", and the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on the Society's proceedings. That same year, political scientist Alan Wolfe dismissed Rand as a "nonperson" among academics. The Fall 2012 update to the entry about Rand in the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy" said that "only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously".To her fiction.Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited than the discussion of her philosophy. Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rands Masterwork Studies , and Re-reading the Canon , as well as in popular study guides like CliffsNotes and SparkNotes. In .Objectivist movement.After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute, the Objectivist movement continued in other forms. In the 1970s, Leonard Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism. In 1979, Objectivist writer Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called "The Intellectual Activist", which Rand endorsed. She also endorsed "The Objectivist Forum", a bimonthly magazine founded by Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger, which ran from 1980 to 1987.In 1985, Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society. In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.Selected works.Fiction and dramaNon-fiction: +Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, and a theoretical physicist, known for his contributions to the study of operator algebras and noncommutative geometry. He is a Professor at the Collge de France, IHS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982.Connes was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et mtiers .Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. He also formulated the Connes embedding problem. Following this he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki.Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics including number theory differential geometry and particle physics.Awards and honours.Connes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001 and the gold medal of the CNRS in 2004. He was an invited speaker at the ICM in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a plenary speaker at the ICM in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the French Academy of Sciences and several foreign academies and societies, including the Danish Academy of Sciences, Norwegian Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, and US National Academy of Sciences. +Allan Dwan (born Joseph Aloysius Dwan; April 3, 1885 – December 28, 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.Early life.Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, ne Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on December 4, 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan , became a physician.Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association.Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On August 12, 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California.After making a series of westerns and comedies Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband Douglas Fairbanks notably in the acclaimed 1922 for The Lambs with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club.Following the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in "Heidi" and "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm" .Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct . He directed his last movie in 1961.He died in Los Angeles at the age of 96 and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery Mission Hills California.Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard.Daniel Eagan of "Film Journal International" described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style "is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion."Further reading.Print E-book +Algeria, officially the Peoples tenth largest nation by area. With a population of 44 million, and is the ninth-most populous country in Africa. The capital and largest city is Algiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast.Pre-1962 Algeria has seen many empires and dynasties, including ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Rustamid, Idrisid, Aghlabids, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Zayyanids, Spaniards, Ottomans and finally, the French Colonial Empire. The vast majority of Algeria's population is Arab-Berber, practicing Islam, and using the official languages of Arabic and Berber. However, French serves as an administrative and education language in some contexts, and Algerian Arabic is the main spoken language.Algeria is a semi-presidential republic with local constituencies consisting of 58 provinces and 1541 communes. Algeria is a regional power in North Africa and a middle power in global affairs. It has the highest Human Development Index of all non-island African countries and one of the largest economies on the continent based largely on energy exports. Algeria has the worlds military is one of the largest in Africa and has the largest defence budget on the continent. It is a member of the African Union the Arab League OPEC the United Nations and the Arab Maghreb Union of which it is a founding member.Other forms of the name are: , ; ; ; ; . It is officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria .The country's name derives from the city of Algiers which in turn derives from the Arabic a truncated form of the older employed by medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi.Prehistory and ancient history.Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech were considered to represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa. Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit are estimated to be ~1.9 million years old and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4 million years. Hence the Ain Boucherit evidence shows that ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe in northern Africa much earlier than previously thought. The evidence strongly argues for early dispersal of stone tool manufacture and use from East Africa or a possible multiple-origin scenario of stone technology in both East and North Africa.Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques. Tools of this era starting about 30000 BC are called Aterian .The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian . This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15000 and 10000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called Berbers who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.From their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius and Rusicade . These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.By the early 4th century BC Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.In 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in the 2nd century BC.After Masinissas line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire.For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius , located in the Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political, military and cultural revival. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Berber people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Muslim conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.The collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to the establishment of a native Kingdom based in Altava (modern day Algeria) known as the Mauro-Roman Kingdom. It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava the Kingdom of Altava. During the reign of Kusaila its territory extended from the region of modern day Fez in the west to the western Aurs and later Kairaouan and the interior of Ifriqiya in the east.Middle Ages.After negligible resistance from the locals Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate numerous local dynasties emerged including the Rustamids Aghlabids Fatimids Zirids Hammadids Almoravids Almohads and the Abdalwadid. The Christians left in three waves after the initial conquest in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century.During the Middle Ages North Africa was home to many great scholars saints and sovereigns including Judah Ibn Quraysh the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene and Sidi El Houari and the Emirs Abd Al Mu'min and Yghmrasen. It was during this time that the Fatimids or children of Fatima daughter of Muhammad came to the Maghreb. These went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb Hejaz and the Levant boasting a secular inner government as well as a powerful army and navy made up primarily of Arabs and Levantines extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo. The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the Zirids seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tghribt. In Al-Tghrbt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khlf Al-Znat asks daily for duels to defeat the Hilalan hero bu Zayd al-Hilal and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids however were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes however remained largely independent and depending on tribe location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb at times unifying it . The Fatimid Islamic state also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa Sicily Palestine Jordan Lebanon Syria Egypt the Red Sea coast of Africa Tihamah Hejaz and Yemen. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.The Amazighs historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barns tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes . All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region the Zirid Ifranid Maghrawa Almoravid Hammadid Almohad Merinid Abdalwadid Wattasid Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties. Both of the Hammadid and Zirid empires as well as the Fatimids established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The Zirids ruled land in what is now Algeria Tunisia Morocco Libya Spain Malta and Italy. The Hammadids captured and held important regions such as Ouargla Constantine Sfax Susa Algiers Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region. The Fatimids which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East.A few examples of medieval Berber dynasties which originated in Modern AlgeriaFollowing the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb. In Algeria the Rustamid Kingdom was established. The Rustamid realm stretched from Tafilalt in Morocco to the Nafusa mountains in Libya including south central and western Tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day Maghreb countries in the south the Rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders of Mali and included territory in Mauritania.Once extending their control over all of the Maghreb part of Spain and briefly over Sicily originating from modern Algeria the Zirids only controlled modern Ifriqiya by the 11th century. The Zirids recognized nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Cairo. El Mu'izz the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence. The Zirids also fought against other Zenata Kingdoms for example the Maghrawa a Berber dynasty originating from Algeria and which at one point was a dominant power in the Maghreb ruling over much of Morocco and western Algeria including Fez Sijilmasa Aghmat Oujda most of the Sous and Draa and reaching as far as M’sila and the Zab in Algeria.As the Fatimid state was at the time too weak to attempt a direct invasion they found another means of revenge. Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin nomad tribes expelled from Arabia for their disruption and turbulency. The Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym for example who regularly disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot their farms. The then Fatimid vizier decided to destroy what he couldn't control and broke a deal with the chiefs of these Beduouin tribes. The Fatimids even gave them money to leave.Whole tribes set off with women, children, elders, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region, arriving 1051. The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the battlefield. They Arabs usually didn't take control over the cities, instead looting them and destroying them.The invasion kept going and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains of Constantine where they encircled the Qalaa of Banu Hammad (capital of the Hammadid Emirate) as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains. Some of these territories were forcibly taken back by the Almohads in the second half of the 12th century. The influx of Bedouin tribes was a major factor in the linguistic cultural Arabization of the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal tribes had become completely arid desert.The Almohads originating from modern day Morocco although founded by a man originating from Algeria known as Abd al-Mus tribe the Kouma were the main supporters of the throne and the most important body of the empire. Defeating the weakening Almoravid Empire and taking control over Morocco in 1147 they pushed into Algeria in 1152 taking control over Tlemcen Oran and Algiers wrestling control from the Hilian Arabs and by the same year they defeated Hammadids who controlled Eastern Algeria.Following their decisive defeat in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 the Almohads began collapsing and in 1235 the governor of modern-day Western Algeria Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared his independence and established the Kingdom of Tlemcen and the Zayyanid dynasty. Warring with the Almohad forces attempting to restore control over Algeria for 13 years they defeated the Almohads in 1248 after killing their Caliph in a successful ambush near Oujda.The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria for 3 centuries. Much of the eastern territories of Algeria were under the authority of the Hafsid dynasty although the Emirate of Bejaia encompassing the Algerian territories of the Hafsids would occasionally be independent from central Tunisian control. At their peak the Zayyanid kingdom included all of Morocco as its vassal to the west and in the east reached as far as Tunis which they captured during the reign of Abu Tashfin.After several conflicts with local Barbary pirates sponsored by the Zayyanid sultans, Spain decided to invade Algeria and defeat the native Kingdom of Tlemcen. In 1505 they invaded and captured Mers el Kbir, and in 1509 after a bloody siege, they conquered Oran. Following their decisive victories over the Algerians in the western-coastal areas of Algeria, the Spanish decided to get bolder, and invaded more Algerian cities. In 1510 they led a series of sieges and attacks, taking over Bejaia in a large siege, and leading a semi-successful siege against Algiers. They also besieged Tlemcen. In 1511 they took control over Cherchell and Jijel, and attacked Mostaganem where although they weren't able to conquer the city, they were able to force a tribute on them.Ottoman era.In 1516 the Ottoman privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under the Hafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards with help from the locals who saw them as liberators from the Christians, but the brothers eventually assassinated the local noble Salim al-Tumi and took control over the city and the surrounding regions. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. With the aid of this force and native Algerians, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran .The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan who assumed the position in 1544. He was a Kouloughli or of mixed origins as his mother was an Algerian Mooresse. Until 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently with the institution of a regular administration governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit known in Algeria as the Ojaq who were led by an agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.Plague had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as slaves. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis from the 16th to 19th century pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids called Razzias on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in North Africa and other parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1544 for example Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia taking 4000 prisoners and enslaved some 9000 inhabitants of Lipari almost the entire population. In 1551 the Ottoman governor of Algiers Turgut Reis enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera. The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic.In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of Dutch pirate Jan Janszoon sailed as far as Iceland, raiding and capturing slaves. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Sal in Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands.In 1671, the taifa of raises, or the company of corsair captains rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of Dey. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the divan, a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the "ojaq"; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the pasha in that role. Although Algiers remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, in reality they acted independently from the rest of the Empire, and often had wars with other Ottoman subjects and territories such as the Beylik of Tunis.The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years that the system was in place, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of the Deylikal government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylia, although in 1730 the Regency was able to take control over the Kingdom of Kuku in western Kabylia. Many cities in the northern parts of the Algerian desert paid taxes to Algiers or one of its Beys, although they otherwise retained complete autonomy from central control, while the deeper parts of the Sahara were completely independent from Algiers.Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784. For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and the Knights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.In 1792 Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kbir, the two last Spanish strongholds in Algeria. In the same year, they conquered the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795.In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in the First and Second Barbary Wars which ended the attacks on U.S. ships. A year later a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet under the command of Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful although Algerian piracy would continue until the French conquest in 1830.French colonization .Under the pretext of a slight to their consul the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830. Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonized until after the Mokrani revolt in 1871.From 1848 until independence France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and Between 1825 and 1847 50000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.During the late 19th and early 20th century the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.During the Second World War Algeria came under Vichy control before being liberated by the Allies in Operation Torch which saw the first large-scale deployment of American troops in the North African campaign.Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Stif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began after the publication of the Declaration of 1 November 1954. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependants were killed by the Front de Libration Nationale or by lynch mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals.The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum.The first three decades of independence (1962–1991).The number of European "Pied-Noirs" who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians.Algeria's first president was the Front de Libration Nationale leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumdine, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumdienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis.In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene Algeria pursued a program of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor Chadli Bendjedid introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic brought in from other Muslim countries spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s by the end of the decade Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed such as the Islamic Salvation Front a broad coalition of Muslim groups.Civil War and aftermath.In December 1991 the Islamic Salvation Front dominated the first of two rounds of legislative elections. Fearing the election of an Islamist government the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992 cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Council of State was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS triggering a civil insurgency between the Front's armed wing the Armed Islamic Group and the national armed forces in which more than 100000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres. At several points in the conflict the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969 a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.Algeria held elections in 1999, considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prdication et le Combat , a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.Bouteflika was re-elected in the April 2004 presidential election after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.In November 2008, the Algerian Constitution was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009 presidential elections, and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar protests across the Middle East and North Africa. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after mass protests against his candidacy for a fifth term in office.Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan and the creation of South Sudan Algeria has been the largest country in Africa and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north the Tell Atlas form with the Saharan Atlas further south two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat .Algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly sometimes even mountainous and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas farther south there is the Sahara desert.The Hoggar Mountains , also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities.Climate and hydrology.In this region midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset however the clear dry air permits rapid loss of heat and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas ranging from annually the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria where it reaches as much as in some years.Farther inland the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs or sand dunes between mountains. Among these in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty temperatures can go up to .Fauna and flora.The varied vegetation of Algeria includes coastal mountainous and grassy desert-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars jackals and gazelles although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population but these are seldom seen. A species of deer the Barbary stag inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas.A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes monitor lizards and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct including the Barbary lions Atlas bears and crocodiles.In the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara. Algeria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.Camels are used extensively the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes scorpions and numerous insects.Government and politics.Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead a group of unelected civilian and military () known as () actually rule the country even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been Mohamed Medine the head of military intelligence before he was brought down during the 2019 protests. In recent years many of these generals have died retired or been imprisoned. After the death of General Larbi Belkheir Previous president Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts notably at Sonatrach and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely until he was brought down in 2019 during protests.The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. The most recent presidential election was planned to be in April 2019, but widespread protests erupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April. Abdelmadjid Tebboune, an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system. Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the army, the Council of Ministers and the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government.The Algerian parliament is bicameral the lower house the People's National Assembly has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms while the upper house the Council of the Nation has 144 members serving six-year terms of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the constitution no political association may be formed if it is . In addition political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.Parliamentary elections were last held in May 2017. In the elections, the FLN lost 44 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 164 seats, the military-backed National Rally for Democracy won 100, and the Muslim Brotherhood-linked Movement of the Society for Peace won 33.Foreign relations.Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.In 2009 the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Herve Morin stated that when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union nominally established in 1989 but which has carried little practical weight. On 24 August 2021 Algeria announced the break of diplomatic relations with Morocco.The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army the Algerian National Navy and the Algerian Air Force plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence .Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff . Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product in 2012. Algeria has the second largest military in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa . Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally.In 2007 the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.Human rights.Algeria has been categorised by Freedom House as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972 with the exception of 1989 1990 and 1991 when the country was labelled "partly free." In December 2016 the "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor" issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the press expression and right to peaceful demonstration protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government some media organisations' licenses are cancelled.Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison. Despite this about 26% of Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted according to the survey conducted by the BBC News Arabic-Arab Barometer in 2019. Algeria showed largest LGBT acceptance compared to other Arab countries where the survey was conducted.Human Rights Watch has accused the Algerian authorities of using the COVID-19 pandemic as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of social distancing.Administrative divisions.Algeria is divided into 58 provinces 553 districts and 1541 municipalities . Each province district and municipality is named after its seat which is usually the largest city.The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently they areAlgeria's currency is the dinar . The economy remains dominated by the state a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems including the need to diversify the economy strengthen political economic and financial reforms improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development.Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algerias budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.Algeria has not joined the WTO despite several years of negotiations.Oil and natural resources.Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had of proven natural-gas reserves. It also ranks 16th in oil reserves.Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands the authorities raised expenditure especially on basic food support employment creation support for SMEs and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.The Algerian national oil company is Sonatrach which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.Access to biocapacity in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.Research and alternative energy sources.Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.Labour market.Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group.The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011 but remained higher among young people with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988 in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif dInsertion Professionnelle).The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al QalAjjer a mountain range.The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia.Demographics.Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the vast majority are Arab-Berber ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi refugee camps, in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.Ethnic groups.Indigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians Romans Vandals Byzantine Greeks Arabs Turks various Sub-Saharan Africans and French have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of Andalusian refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.Despite the dominance of the Berber ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the Shenwa people of North Algeria.During the colonial period, there was a large European population who became known as . They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Algerian Arabic is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber.Berber has been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official in parts of Kabylie. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic.Although French has no official status in Algeria it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world and French is widely used in government media and both the education system and academia due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million people out of a total of 30 million at the time. Following a period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French in recent decades the government has changed course and reinforced the study of French and some television programs are broadcast in the language.Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA "World Factbook" estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020. There are about 290,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia. Estimates of the Christian population range from 20,000 to 200,000 Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to Protestant groups, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures.There has been an increase in the number of people identifying as non-religious. The June 2019 Arab Barometer-BBC News report found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious has grown from around 8% in 2013 to around 15% in 2018. The Arab Barometer December 2019, found that the growth in the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious is largely driven by young Algerians, with roughly 25% describing themselves as non-religious.Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mouloud Kacem Nat Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun.In 2018, Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region , nurses , and dentists . Access to "improved water sources" was around 97.4% of the population in urban areas and 98.7% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, and around 93.4% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive health care free of charge.Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.Since the 1970s in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence now the literacy rate is around 92.6%. Since 1972 Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English Italian Spanish and German. In 2008 new programs at the elementary appeared therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore but at the age of five. Apart from the 122 private schools the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school students pass the exam of the baccalaureate which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008 the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3% 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6% while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%.Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers founded in 1879 is the oldest it offers education in various disciplines . Twenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.Even if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Belkad in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa. Algeria was ranked 121st in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 113rd in 2019.Below is a list of the most populous Algerian citiesModern Algerian literature split between Arabic Tamazight and French has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib Albert Camus Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni later vice-president of Amnesty International and Tahar Djaout murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste ; and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus , in what later became Algeria.Contemporary Algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.Algerian painters, like or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of Mhamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.Literature.The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuleius wrote , the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella, among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionised the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun, who wrote the Muqaddimah while staying in Algeria, and many others.Albert Camus was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.Today Algeria contains in its literary landscape big names having not only marked the Algerian literature but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the of Kateb Yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Lad Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.In the aftermath of the independence several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems among them there are Rachid Boudjedra Rachid Mimouni Leila Sebbar Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, .Chabi music is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The Constantinois Malouf style is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer.Folk music styles include Bedouin music characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida Kabyle music based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations Shawiya music a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurs Mountains. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include Manel Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally Tinariwen had a worldwide success. Finally the stafi music is born in Stif and remains a unique style of its kind.Modern music is available in several facets Ra music is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap a relatively recent style in Algeria is experiencing significant growth.The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.The financial support provided by the state through the Fund for the Development of the Arts Techniques and the Film Industry and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013 FDATIC subsidised 98 films . In mid-2013 AARC had already supported a total of 78 films including 42 feature films 6 short films and 30 documentaries.According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union 3172612 and 474722 respectively.Algeria won the Palme d'Or for .Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the . It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present.Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known couscous chorba rechta chakhchoukha berkoukes shakshouka mthewem chtitha mderbel dolma brik or bourek garantita lham'hlou etc. Merguez sausage is widely used in Algeria but it differs depending on the region and on the added spices.Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria in Europe or North America. However traditional cakes are also made at home following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes there are Tamina Baklawa Chrik Garn logzelles Griouech Kalb el-louz Makroud Mbardja Mchewek Samsa Tcharak Baghrir Khfaf Zlabia Aarayech Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba karantika doubara chakhchoukha hassouna and t'chicha.Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba . Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing and rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.The first Algerian and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of Amsterdam in the Marathon. The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli Hassiba Boulmerka Nouria Merah-Benida and Taoufik Makhloufi all specialized in middle-distance running.Football is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport including Lakhdar Belloumi Rachid Mekhloufi Hassen Lalmas Rabah Madjer Riyad Mahrez Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane. The Algeria national football team qualified for the 1982 FIFA World Cup 1986 FIFA World Cup 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. In addition several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club ES Stif or JS Kabylia. The Algerian Football Federation is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.National animal.The fennec fox is the national animal of Algeria. It also serves as the nickname for the Algeria national football team: . +This is a list of characters in Ayn Rand's 1957 novel Major characters.The following are major characters from the novel.Protagonists.Dagny Taggart.Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel. She is vice-president in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental under her brother James Taggart. Given James' incompetence Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad.Francisco d'Anconia.Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in .John Galt is the primary male hero of . He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employeess true identity.Before working for Taggart Transcontinental Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity but abandoned his prototype and his employment when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel working a job and living by himself where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech which presents the author's philosophy of Objectivism.Henry "Hank" Rearden.Henry Rearden is one of the central characters in "Atlas Shrugged". He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an alloy stronger, lighter, cheaper and tougher than steel. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of self-made man and eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike.Eddie Willers.Edwin Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse.Ragnar Danneskjld.One of Galts perspective.According to Barbara Branden, who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, , wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjld. In the published book, Danneskjld is always seen through the eyes of others , except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter.Antagonists.James Taggart.The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect.Lillian Rearden.The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to blackmail Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her.Dr. Floyd Ferris.Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement and publishes a book entitled "Why Do You Think You Think?" He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters Ferris uses the device on Galt but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters.Dr. Robert Stadler.A former professor at Patrick Henry University and along with colleague Hugh Akston mentor to Francisco d'Anconia John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjld. He has since become a sell-out one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military including a sound-based weapon known as Project X . He is killed when Cuffy Meigs drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was in part modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project and his part in the creation of nuclear weapons.` To his former student Galt Stadler represents the epitome of human evil as the but chose not to act for the good.Wesley Mouch.The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country.Secondary characters.The following secondary characters also appear in the novel. +Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity concerned with human behavior human biology cultures societies and linguistics in both the present and past including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour while cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning including norms and values. A portmanteau sociocultural anthropology is commonly used today. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.Archaeological anthropology often termed as 'anthropology of the past' studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence. It is considered a branch of anthropology in North America and Asia while in Europe archaeology is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines such as history.The abstract noun "anthropology" is first attested in reference to history. Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin ' derived from the combining forms of the Greek words "nthrpos" (, "human") and "lgos" (, "study"). (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of Aristotle.) It began to be used in English, possibly via French ', by the early 18th century.Through the 19th century.In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the University of Copenhagen, defined as follows:Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently such as the use by tienne Serres in 1839 to describe the natural history or paleontology of man based on comparative anatomy and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the French National Museum of Natural History by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Brau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Socit Ethnologique de Paris the first to use the term "ethnology" was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the "Socit" was abandoned.Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the American Ethnological Society, was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the Ethnological Society of London in 1843, a break-away group of the Aborigines' Protection Society. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. They maintained international connections.Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy linguistics and ethnology making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals languages and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them the publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild.Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Socit de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Socit d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to .Broca being what today would be called a neurosurgeon had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain today called Broca's area after him. His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology but a German philosopher specializing in psychology Theodor Waitz took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work entitled "Die Anthropologie der Naturvlker" 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously.Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".Waitz was influential among British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French "Socit" were present though not Broca. In his keynote address printed in the first volume of its new publication "The Anthropological Review" Hunt stressed the work of Waitz adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor inventor of cultural anthropology and his brother Alfred Tylor a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist subsequently an anthropologist.Similar organizations in other countries followed The Anthropological Society of Madrid the American Anthropological Association in 1902 the Anthropological Society of Vienna the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionists. One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology Ethnology and Prehistory founded by Rudolph Virchow known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation.During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.20th and 21st centuries.This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached a global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.Since the work of Franz Boas and Bronisaw Malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries "social" anthropology in Great Britain and "cultural" anthropology in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons long-term in-depth examination of context and the importance they place on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized cultural relativism holism and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism. Ethnography is one of its primary research designs as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the four field approach developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: anthropology; and archaeological anthropology; plus linguistic anthropology. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more ethnology . It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of "Homo sapiens", human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of "Homo sapiens" has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity, such as by Al-Biruni of the Islamic Golden Age. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies.According to Clifford GeertzSociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.Sociocultural.Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy literature and the arts (how ones knowledge customs and institutions) while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. In that it helps develop an understanding of social structures typically of others and other populations (such as minorities subgroups dissidents etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic point of view.The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language .Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology including the industrialized West. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample includes 186 such cultures.Biological.Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.Archaeological.Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.Linguistic.Linguistic anthropology seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.Ethnography.Ethnography is a method of analysing social or cultural interaction. It often involves participant observation though an ethnographer may also draw from texts written by participants of in social interactions. Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.Tim Ingold distinguishes ethnography from anthropology arguing that anthropology tries to construct general theories of human experience applicable in general and novel settings while ethnography concerns itself with fidelity. He argues that the anthropologist must make his writing consistent with their understanding of literature and other theory but notes that ethnography may be of use to the anthropologists and the fields inform one another.Key topics by field: sociocultural.Art media music dance and film.One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of .Media anthropology emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media, and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music , that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire.Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc. While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally introduced as “ethnomusicology” by Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst around 1950. Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical "Ethnomusicology" and the Society of Ethnomusicology.Visual anthropology is concerned in part with the study and production of ethnographic photography film and since the mid-1990s new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation including areas such as performance museums art and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures such as sandpaintings tattoos sculptures and reliefs cave paintings scrimshaw jewelry hieroglyphics paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.Economic, political economic, applied and development.Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology Bronisaw Malinowski and his French compatriot Marcel Mauss on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains for the most part focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists and have now turned to examine corporations banks and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective.Political economy.Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of historical materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial capitalism around the world.Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to development anthropology .Development.Anthropology of development tends to view development from a perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail?Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality."Kinship" can refer both to "the study of" the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to "the patterns of social relationships" themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "descent", "descent groups", "lineages", "affines", "cognates", and even "fictive kinship". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent , and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called consanguineal relations or "blood ties". People can also have a chosen family Finding Connection Through "Chosen Family" in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families.Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the Western world, historically such perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world. Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in intersectional feminist anthropology.Feminist anthropologists have stated that their publications have contributed to anthropology, along the way correcting against the systemic biases beginning with the "patriarchal origins of anthropology (and " and note that from 1891 to 1930 doctorates in anthropology went to males more than 85%, more than 81% were under 35, and only 7.2% to anyone over 40 years old, thus reflecting an age gap in the pursuit of anthropology by first-wave feminists until later in life. This correction of systemic bias may include mainstream feminist theory, history, linguistics, archaeology, and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are often concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying sexism.According to St. Clair Drake Vera Mae Green was until of voodoo in the Caribbean .Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth as a specialization which is the anthropological study of pregnancy and childbirth within cultures and societies.Medical nutritional psychological cognitive and transpersonal.Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease health care systems and biocultural adaptation". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fieldsOther subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as .Nutritional.Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development for any given group of people.Psychological.Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history language practices and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition emotion perception motivation and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition emotion motivation and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.Transpersonal.Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness and transpersonal experience. However the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance the roles of myth ritual diet and texts in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.Political and legal.Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more , the Balinese state, is an early, famous example.Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in . Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, and political uprisings.Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky a professor at Hawaii Pacific University to .Nature science and technology.Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 "Cyborg Manifesto" could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology.Ecological.Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of cultural adaptations to environments". The sub-field is also defined as "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment". The focus of its research concerns "how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology and arguably at least the backdrop if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture politics and power globalization localized issues century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly or indirectly . Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.Environment.Social sciences like anthropology can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology describes anthropology as distinctive with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory (nature culture divide) and finally an increased attention to globalization (transcending the barriers or time/space).Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral/universal, etc. In exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, “primitive” ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture.Historical.Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion and that every religion is a cultural product created by the human community that worships it.Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization poverty and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.Key topics by field: archaeological and biological.Anthrozoology.Anthrozoology is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines including anthropology ethology medicine psychology veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields including anthropology sociology biology and philosophy.Biocultural.Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective that is from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology.Evolutionary.Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.Palaeoanthropology.Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations.Organizations.Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA) which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe.In 1989 a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology.Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics.Anthropologists, like other researchers , have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.Some commentators have contendedCultural relativism.As part of their quest for scientific objectivity present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions in good anthropology of one culture being better or worse than another culture.Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, sexism, mutilation , and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to acculturation, to colonialism, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences.To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.Military involvement.Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government in particular has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the Axis Powers . Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence . At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association .Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions.Anthropologists along with other social scientists are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. "The Christian Science Monitor" reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan under the "Human Terrain System" (HTS) program in addition HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009 the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding in part that "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions not subject to external review where data collection occurs in the context of war integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD."Post–World War II developments.Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.Basic trends.There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place problem or phenomenon in detail using a variety of methods over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia.In the 1990s and 2000s calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships between what can be observed on the ground as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology whether cultural biological linguistic or archaeological.Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals . They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions and cultural regions anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method a central part of their science.Commonalities between fields.Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises including but not limited to fossil-hunting exploring documentary film-making paleontology primatology antiquity dealings and curatorship philology etymology genetics regional analysis ethnology history philosophy and religious studies it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures" both in terms of time and space . For example the classic of urban anthropology Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal "Exploring the City Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology" mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study like History and Sociology on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.In France the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists but this is increasingly changing starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like "Terrain" ("fieldwork") and developing with the center founded by Marc Aug ("Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains" the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies).Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people increasingly research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories social movements governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses. +Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agriculturists.In the 18th century Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum as a fertilizer.In 1843, John Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England, some of which are still running as of 2018.In the United States a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887 which used the term . The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906 public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:Soil forming factors and soil degradation.Agricultural sciences include research and development on: +Alchemy is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries CE.Alchemists attempted to purify mature and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g. lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold) the creation of an elixir of immortality and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical "magnum opus" ("Great Work"). The concept of creating the philosophers' stone was variously connected with all of these projects.Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not abandon the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the 12th-century translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy. This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine).Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as Eric J. Holmyard and Marie-Louise von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts.The word alchemy comes from Old French "alquemie" "alkimie" used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself brought from the Arabic word "al-kmiy" composed of two parts the Late Greek term "khmea" also spelled "khumeia" and "khma" - see below and the Arabic definite article "al-" meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis who derived it from the name of a book the "Khemeu." Hermanm Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from used to describe metallic objects formed by casting.Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name "kme" , meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word "al-kmiya" actually means "the Egyptian ", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", "kme" . This Coptic word derives from Demotic "km", itself from ancient Egyptian "kmt". The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" ; so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts".Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands which appear to be mostly independent at least in their earlier stages Chinese alchemy centered in China and Indian alchemy centered on the Indian subcontinent and Western alchemy which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt to the Islamic world and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths. In contrast Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin or to what extent they influenced each other.Hellenistic Egypt.The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of Andr-Jean Festugire modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis the earliest historically attested author can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors such as Mary the Jewess Pseudo-Democritus and Agathodaimon but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works The "Four Books" of Pseudo-Democritus were probably written in the first century AD.Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the (also known as the ). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain ( ) and those who offered them sacrifices (), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples.Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus . His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes" covering all fields of knowledge. The "Hermetica" of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria . Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 250–300 they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones cleaning and fabricating pearls and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical philosophical elements of alchemy but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan Christian and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms such as Moses Isis Cleopatra Democritus and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios and Chymes we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400 Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.Greek alchemy is preserved in medieval Greek manuscripts, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century CE text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains such as saltpetre/nitre, perfume making , granulated Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim.The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Ab Rayhn Brn, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that theyThe goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body and immortality while still embodied . Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god iva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Dev.Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise "Kalyakrakam" of Ugrditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Ngrjuna Siddha and Nityantha Siddha. Ngrjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, , and Ngrjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of "The Alchemical Body" by David Gordon White.A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White.The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's "History of Indian Medical Literature". The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work their special features and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML "Various works on rasastra and ratnastra" gives brief details of a further 655 treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.Islamic world.After the Fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word "alchemy" itself was derived from the Arabic word "al-kmiy" (). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to Jbir ibn Hayyn introduced a new approach to alchemy. Paul Kraus, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows:Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabirs physical properties.The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, , which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Ab al-Rayhn al-Brn, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view these two goals were not unconnected and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea therefore the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion. In the early Song dynasty followers of this Taoist idea would ingest mercuric sulfide which though tolerable in low levels led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West by Obed Simon Johnson.Medieval Europe.The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144 with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic . Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo Spain through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol carboy elixir and athanor are examples.Meanwhile theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century Peter Abelard followed Anselms methods of analysis and added the use of observation experimentation and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the "Book of Minerals" where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.Roger Bacon a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics comparative linguistics and medicine composed his "Great Work" for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality salvation alchemy and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle the natural philosophers and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend he became an archmage. In particular along with Albertus Magnus he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions.Soon after Bacon the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes that is to say they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example if one could learn the secret of purifying gold one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally the alchemists practiced their art they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that mans soul man could be reunited with God.In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals . These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.Renaissance and early modern Europe.During the Renaissance Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical pharmaceutical occult and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.In the late 15th century Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa , who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his , he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyric (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning "to separate" and "to join together" based on the Latin alchemic maxim "solve et coagula"). Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical "Monas Hieroglyphica", written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom "As above so below". During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining medical services and the production of chemicals medicines metals and gemstones. Rudolf II Holy Roman Emperor in the late 16th century famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland Julius Duke of Brunswick-Lneburg Henry V Duke of Brunswick-Lneburg Augustus Elector of Saxony Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn and Maurice Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book "Fasciculus Chemicus".Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.The terms were used as synonyms in the early modern period and the differences between alchemy chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners and trying to classify them into alchemists chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius ( 1566–1636) a Polish alchemist philosopher medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who in 1621 applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.Later modern period.The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for Robert Boyle pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out the wind characteristics the position of the Sun and Moon and the barometer reading all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.During the occult revival of the early 19th century alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school which arose during the 19th century held the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual moral or mystical processes.In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.In 1946 Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouv a work that was at once philosophical mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage many researchers including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess Cleopatra the Alchemist Medera and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia and Isis the Prophetess also played a role in early alchemical texts.The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess . Early sources claim that Mary devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously as the bain-marie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos and the kerotakis are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods aside from the fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's "A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery" marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival.Modern historical research.The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history such as the evolution of science and philosophy the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities kabbalism spiritualism Rosicrucianism and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society.Core concepts.Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such the classical elements appear in alchemical writings as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.Magnum opus.The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances" which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.Esoteric interpretations of historical texts.In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and Neo-Hermeticist practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.According to this view early alchemists such as Zosimos of Panopolis highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages as metaphysical aspects substances physical states and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities spiritual states and ultimately transformation. In this sense the literal meanings of s stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view the cryptic alchemical symbols diagrams and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings allegories and references to other equally cryptic works which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.In his 1766 "Alchemical Catechism" Thodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolicTraditional medicine.Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.Spagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, "Les Philosophes de la Nature" and "The Paracelsus Research Society", popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.Psychology.Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images after being given a copy of the translation of or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for people who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces that influence all of life.Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works "Mysterium Coniunctionis".Literature.Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. "Literary alchemy" appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling and also the popular Japanese manga "Fullmetal Alchemist". Here characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett.Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction film television novels comics and video games.One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, Gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941. +Alien primarily refers to:Alien or The Alien may also refer toAn astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars planets moons comets and galaxies – in either observational or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science solar astronomy the origin or evolution of stars or the formation of galaxies. Related but distinct subjects are like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole.Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form evolve and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work.Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy galactic astronomy or physical cosmology.Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond.Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time.Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field.Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a PhD in astronomy or physics.Amateur astronomers.While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. +ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters.The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority prefers the name US-ASCII for this character encoding.ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones.ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961 with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963 underwent a major revision during 1967 and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters.The use of ASCII format for Network Interchange was described in 1969. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015.Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits , and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed and tab codes.For example lowercase would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = hexadecimal 69 = decimal 105.The American Standard Code for Information Interchange was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association called the X3 committee by its X3.2 subcommittee and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group . The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute .With the other special characters and control codes filled in ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963 leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning reserved for future standardization and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to "sticks" 6 and 7 and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in "sticks" 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.The X3 committee made other changes including other new characters renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header ) and moving or removing others . ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967 then USAS X3.4-1968 ANSI X3.4-1977 and finally ANSI X3.4-1986.Revisions of the ASCII standardIn the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted , and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats.Design considerations.The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols . This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comit Consultatif International Tlphonique et Tlgraphique International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 standard of 1924, FIELDATA , and early EBCDIC , more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.ITA2 was in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code that mile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.The committee debated the possibility of a shift function which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding but is less reliable for data transmission as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.The committee considered an eight-bit code since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.Internal organization.The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together for ease of identification. The first two so-called "ASCII sticks" were reserved for control characters. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier so it became position 20hex for the same reason many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code . Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters and the letter "A" was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011 but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on . This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric , used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC , especially Model M and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift codice_9 or codice_10 so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair , and rearranged mathematical symbols to codice_13.Some common characters were not included notably codice_14 while codice_15 were included as diacritics for international use and codice_16 for mathematical use together with the simple line characters codice_17 . The was placed in position 40hex right before the letter A.The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), (WRU), (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns.Character order.ASCII-code order is also called "ASCIIbetical" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order . The main deviations in ASCII order areAn intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.Character groups.Control characters.ASCII reserves the first 32 codes for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.For example, character 10 represents the . refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete".Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 19 and 127 became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G literally as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol a noncompliant use of code 15 interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S it caused the tape reader to stop receiving Control-Q caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R and Control-T to start and stop the tape punch on some units equipped with this function the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.Delete & Backspace.The Teletype could not move the head backwards so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS . Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 . The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up then type the rubout which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation so these systems had to use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this DEC video terminals sent the DEL code for the key marked prefix command in GNU Emacs.Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC code 27) for example was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings C language strings and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or more properly a "Control Sequence Introducer") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.End of Line.The inherent ambiguity of many control characters combined with their historical usage created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" and "Line Feed" . The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.DEC operating systems (OS/8 RT-11 RSX-11 RSTS TOPS-10 etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981 IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.Unfortunately requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams including files on Multics used line feed alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems and Amiga systems adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS Apple DOS and ProDOS on the other hand used carriage return alone as a line terminator however since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based macOS operating system they now use line feed as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines.Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.End of File/Stream.The PDP-6 monitor and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10 used Control-Z as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For these reasons EOF or end-of-file was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code also known as Control-C was inappropriate for a variety of reasons while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream usually from a keyboard.In C library and Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for .Control code chart.Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.Printable characters.Codes 20hex to 7Ehex known as the printable characters represent letters digits punctuation marks and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.Code 20hex the "space" character denotes the space between words as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section.Code 7Fhex corresponds to the non-printable control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret and the left arrow instead of the underscore .ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work according to Bemer, .On March 11 1968 U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII statingI have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations.All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1 1969 must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.Variants and derivations.As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as , although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.7-bit codes.From early in its development ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling e.g. with code page 1104. Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example Canada had its own version that supported French characters.Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters currency symbols etc. See also YUSCII .It would share most characters in common but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for . However the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISOs choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway.Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646 a German French or Swedish etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646 rather than ASCII had to write and thus read something such asC trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. contained .In Japan and Korea still a variation of ASCII is used in which the backslash is rendered as ¥ or ₩ . This means that for example the file path C\Users\Smith is shown as C¥Users¥Smith or C₩Users₩Smith .8-bit codes.Eventually as 8- 16- and 32-bit computers began to replace 12- 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory providing an opportunity for extended 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII leaving the original character-mapping intact but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 characters.Encodings include ISCII , VISCII . Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants.The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when UTF-8 became more common.ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification and encoding .ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged. +Austin is the capital of Texas in the United States.Austin may also refer toAnimation is a method in which figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery . Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets, or clay figures.Commonly animators achieved the effect by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement but the exact causes are still uncertain. Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phnakisticope zoetrope flip book praxinoscope and film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on computers technology such as the animated GIF and Flash animation were developed.In addition to short films feature films television series animated GIFs and other media dedicated to the display of moving images animation is also prevalent in video games motion graphics user interfaces and visual effects.The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance moving images in magic lantern shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata. Electronic automata were popularized by Disney as animatronics.Before cinematography.Hundreds of years before the introduction of true animation, people all over the world enjoyed shows with moving figures that were created and manipulated manually in puppetry, automata, shadow play, and the magic lantern. The multi-media phantasmagoria shows that were very popular in West-European theatres from the late 18th century through the first half of the 19th century, featured lifelike projections of moving ghosts and other frightful imagery in motion.In 1833 the stroboscopic disc introduced the principle of modern animation with sequential images that were shown one by one in quick succession to form an optical illusion of motion pictures. Series of sequential images had occasionally been made over thousands of years but the stroboscopic disc provided the first method to represent such images in fluent motion and for the first time had artists creating series with a proper systematic breakdown of movements. The stroboscopic animation principle was also applied in the zoetrope the flip book and the praxinoscope . The average 19th-century animation contained about 12 images that were displayed as a continuous loop by spinning a device manually. The flip book often contained more pictures and had a beginning and end but its animation would not last longer than a few seconds. The first to create much longer sequences seem to have been Charles-mile Reynaud who between 1892 and 1900 had much success with his 10- to 15-minute-long .Silent era.When cinematography eventually broke through in 1895 after animated pictures had been known for decades the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. Animation on film was not commercialized until a few years later by manufacturers of optical toys with chromolithography film loops for adapted toy magic lanterns intended for kids to use at home. It would take some more years before animation reached movie theaters.After earlier experiments by movie pioneers J. Stuart Blackton Arthur Melbourne-Cooper Segundo de Chomn and Edwin S. Porter Blackton's was the first huge stop motion success baffling audiences by showing objects that apparently moved by themselves in full photographic detail without signs of any known stage trick.mile Cohl's (1908) is the oldest known example of what became known as traditional (hand-drawn) animation. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by Ladislas Starevich with his puppet animations since 1910 and by Winsor McCay with detailed drawn animation in films such as (1911) and (1914).During the 1910s, the production of animated "cartoons" became an industry in the US. Successful producer John Randolph Bray and animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century. Felix the Cat, who debuted in 1919, became the first animated superstar.American golden age.In 1928 featuring Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse popularized film with synchronized sound and put Walt Disney's studio at the forefront of the animation industry.The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the golden age of American animation that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including Maria Butinova Studios Pink Panther .Features before CGI.In 1917, Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film in 1918, but one day after its premiere the film was confiscated by the government.After working on it for three years, Lotte Reiniger released the German feature-length silhouette animation "Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed" in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.In 1937 Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features . The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with "Gulliver's Travels" with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War Disney's next features "Pinocchio" "Fantasia" and Fleischer Studios' second animated feature "Mr. Bug Goes to Town" failed at the box office. For decades afterward Disney would be the only American studio to regularly produce animated features until Ralph Bakshi became the first to also release more than a handful features. Sullivan-Bluth Studios began to regularly produce animated features starting with "An American Tail" in 1986.Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including stop motion and cutout animation techniques. Russia's Soyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films, while Japan became a true powerhouse of animation production, with its own recognizable and influential anime style of effective limited animation.Television.Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching Saturday-morning cartoons. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. Hanna-Barbera Productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as of American animation.While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring stop motion and puppetry over cel animation. Japanese anime TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as "Barbapapa" , "Wickie und die starken Mnner/ " , and "The Jungle Book" .Switch from cels to computers.Computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early appearance in the sci-fi thriller "Futureworld" . was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera. It was produced in a style that's very similar to traditional cel animation on the Computer Animation Production System developed by The Walt Disney Company in collaboration with Pixar in the late 1980s.The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, has become extremely popular since Pixar's , the first computer-animated feature in this style.Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects.Economic status.In 2008 the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins of all film genres between 2004 and 2013. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s.Education propaganda and commercials.The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment.During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. Many American studios, including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values. Some countries, including China, Japan and the United Kingdom, produced their first feature-length animation for their war efforts.Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as Snap, Crackle and Pop in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals. The legendary animation director Tex Avery was the producer of the first Raid commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company.Other media, merchandise and theme parks.Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series many cartoon characters would also prove extremely lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media.Animation has traditionally been very closely related to comic books. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan where many manga are adapted into anime) original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly characters and plots for video games (an interactive animation medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media.While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media The Walt Disney Company is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a childrens name but licensed Disney products sell well and the so-called Disneyana has many avid collectors and even a dedicated Disneyana fanclub .Disneyland opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its enormous success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts. Disney's earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies.Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity a large amount of criticism has arisen especially animated feature-length films. Many concerns of cultural representation psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.Criticism about the Impact of Animated Movies on Girls.Animated movies have been created for the sake of entertainment although there is much more to look at. Subliminal messages are hidden in these animations for all of them portray a piece of reality whether it is gender racial and cultural stereotypes prejudices discrimination values ideologies among others. Indeed “There is a good chance that some of your beliefs have been influenced by decades of animated movies”. The representation of women throughout animated movies has changed gradually and adjusted to contemporary times. According to Juan Sklar “Cartoons can be watched through the lens of ideology.” To start with the “engagement with Disney princesses in young girls around two years old is associated with greater female gender-stereotype behaviour and lower body self-esteem”. As a case in point The Little Mermaid is a Disney movie that tells the story of a princess who sacrifices her voice in order to stay with her beloved man. “The symbolism here is powerful To win the love of the prince Ariel must forfeit her thoughts and intellect her independence and identity”. Historically animated movies have portrayed female characters struggling to gain independence making personal sacrifices and undergoing cultural mandates before freeing themselves from the bonds of society. Besides in the past the image of an ideal correct and rigorous woman was also commonplace. As audiences change over time Disney has adapted their representation of traditional Disney princesses to modern times. For the first time Disney has created the story of a princess that breaks completely with the patterns and stereotypes of typical princesses. For instance Brave is a movie that shows an independent rebellious fearless and unique princess who “does not need to get happiness from a man or through marriage”.As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th Academy Awards function. The first winner of the Academy Award was the short also received Best Picture nominations after the Academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.Several other countries have instituted an award for the best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards: Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation , BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film , Csar Award for Best Animated Film , Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation , Goya Award for Best Animated Film , Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year , National Film Award for Best Animated Film . Also since 2007, the Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film has been awarded at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Since 2009, the European Film Awards have awarded the European Film Award for Best Animated Film.The Annie Award is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavour. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated Feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney however newer studios led by Pixar & DreamWorks have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as followsProduction.The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e. longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking with certain unique aspects. Traits common to both live-action and animated feature-length films are labor intensity and high production costs.The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators . It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards .Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators like all artists necessarily have individual styles but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s teams of about 500 to 600 people of whom 50 to 70 are animators typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s.Techniques.Traditional.Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film.The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.Examples of traditionally animated feature films include "Pinocchio" "Animal Farm" "Lucky and Zorba" and "The Illusionist" . Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include "The Lion King" "The Prince of Egypt" "Akira" "Spirited Away" "The Triplets of Belleville" and "The Secret of Kells" .Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles from more realistically animated works like those produced by the Walt Disney studio to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation as are non-Disney works "The Secret of NIMH" "The Iron Giant" and "Nocturna" . Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second with a combination of animation on ones and twos meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in "Gerald McBoing-Boing" (US, 1951), "Yellow Submarine" (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons).Rotoscoping.Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings as in .Live-action blending.Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live-action footage. Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include (Italy, 1976), (US, 1988), (Italy 1991), (US, 1996) and (US, 2001).Stop motion.Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping.2D animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated.Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh for the animator to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with key frames to create movement.Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics. +Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The national divinity of the Greeks, Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, and more. One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. Seen as the most beautiful god and the ideal of the "kouros" , Apollo is considered to be the most Greek of all the gods. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as "Apulu".As the patron deity of Delphi ("Apollo Pythios") Apollo is an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Apollo is the god who affords help and wards off evil various epithets call him the "averter of evil". Delphic Apollo is the patron of seafarers foreigners and the protector of fugitives and refugees.Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Apollo delivered people from epidemics yet he is also a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague with his arrows. The invention of archery itself is credited to Apollo and his sister Artemis. Apollo is usually described as carrying a golden bow and a quiver of silver arrows. Apollo's capacity to make youths grow is one of the best attested facets of his panhellenic cult persona. As the protector of young Apollo is concerned with the health and education of children. He presided over their passage into adulthood. Long hair which was the prerogative of boys was cut at the coming of age and dedicated to Apollo.Apollo is an important pastoral deity, and was the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases, pests and predators were his primary duties. On the other hand, Apollo also encouraged founding new towns and establishment of civil constitution. He is associated with dominion over colonists. He was the giver of laws, and his oracles were consulted before setting laws in a city.As the god of he became identified among Greeks with Helios the personification of the sun. In Latin texts however there was no conflation of Apollo with Sol among the classical Latin poets until 1st century CE. Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 5th century CE.Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , ; )The name "Apollo"—unlike the related older name "Paean"—is generally not found in the Linear B texts although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form "]pe-rjo-[" on the KN E 842 tablet.The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era but the Doric form () is more archaic as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month () and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai ().According to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word "apella" which originally meant "wall" "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square." Apella is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta corresponding to the "ecclesia" . R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun "apellai" and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *"Apalyun".Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb , and some toponyms may be derived from this word: and .A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name The Hittite form "Apaliunas" is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter. The Hittite testimony reflects an early form "" which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric . The name of the Lydian god "Qdns" /kns/ may reflect an earlier /kalyn-/ before palatalization syncope and the pre-Lydian sound change *y ">" d. Note the labiovelar in place of the labial /p/ found in pre-Doric "j" and Hittite "Apaliunas".A Luwian etymology suggested for .Greco-Roman epithets.Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus , literally "bright". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.Origin and birth.Apollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.Place of worship.Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.Celtic epithets and cult titles.Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.The cult centers of Apollo in Greece Delphi and Delos date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi Apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent Python. For the Greeks Apollo was the most Greek of all the gods and through the centuries he acquired different functions. In Archaic Greece he was the prophet the oracular god who in older times was connected with Healer and god-protector from evil.In classical times his major function in popular religion was to keep away evil and he was therefore called ( ) and ( from v. + n. ). Apollo also had many epithets relating to his function as a healer. Some commonly-used examples are ( literally ) ( ) ( ) and ( ). In later writers the word becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.Apollo in his aspect of "healer" has a connection to the primitive god Paean who did not have a cult of his own. Paean serves as the healer of the gods in the "Iliad" and seems to have originated in a pre-Greek religion. It is suggested though unconfirmed that he is connected to the Mycenaean figure "pa-ja-wo-ne" . Paean was the personification of holy songs sung by "seer-doctors" which were supposed to cure disease.Homer illustrated Paeon the god and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo and afterwards to other gods to Dionysus to Apollo Helios to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE the paean became merely a formula of adulation its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognized as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle when a fleet left the harbour and also after a victory had been won.In the "Iliad" Apollo is the healer under the gods but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a plague to the Achaeans. Knowing that Apollo can prevent a recurrence of the plague he sent they purify themselves in a ritual and offer him a large sacrifice of cows called a hecatomb.Dorian origin.The in northwest Greek calendars. The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: ). (the great Kouros). However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word (Pella), . Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).Minoan origin.George Huxley regarded the identification of Apollo with the Minoan deity Paiawon worshipped in Crete to have originated at Delphi. In the "Homeric Hymn" Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi where they evidently transferred their religious practices. "Apollo Delphinios" or "Delphidios" was a sea-god especially worshipped in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister Artemis who was the Greek goddess of hunting is identified with Britomartis the Minoan "Mistress of the animals". In her earliest depictions she was accompanied by the "Master of the animals" a bow-wielding god of hunting whose name has been lost aspects of this figure may have been absorbed into the more popular Apollo.Anatolian origin.A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where some of the oldest oracular shrines originated. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts. These rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites, and from there into Greece.Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to "Appaliunas", a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of "Artimus" (Artemis) and "Qdns", whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms, in surviving Lydian texts"." However, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of "Qdns" with Apollo.The Greeks gave to him the name "agyieus" as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day indicates a Babylonian origin.The Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian "Aplu" was a god of plague invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu meaning "the son of" was a title given to the god Nergal who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows but who can also heal possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In "Iliad" his priest prays to "Apollo Smintheus" the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions including the function of the healer-god Paean who seems to have Mycenean origin are fused in the cult of Apollo.Proto-Indo-European.The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows but he was able to free people of them and his alternative Shiva is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens exorcisms and with the oracular cult.Oracular cult.Unusually among the Olympic deities Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence Delos and Delphi. In cult practice Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Lycia was sacred to the god for this Apollo was also called Lycian. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period and the frequency of theophoric names such as Oracular shrines.Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi and other notable ones in Claros and Didyma. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis where he bore the toponymic epithet was important enough to be consulted by Croesus.His oracular shrines includeOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.Temples of Apollo.Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples especially in Crete do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs which couldn't be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.The most important temples are:Apollo appears often in the myths plays and hymns. As Zeus' favorite son Apollo had direct access to the mind of Zeus and was willing to reveal this knowledge to humans. A divinity beyond human comprehension he appears both as a beneficial and a wrathful god.Apollo was the son of Zeus the king of the gods and Leto his previous wife or one of his mistresses. Growing up Apollo was nursed by the nymphs Korythalia and Aletheia the personification of truth.When Zeuss own sister. Since it was neither a mainland nor an island, Leto was readily welcomed there and gave birth to her children under a palm tree. All the goddesses except Hera were present to witness the event. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber 9 yards long.When Apollo was born clutching a golden sword everything on Delos turned into gold and the island was filled with ambrosial fragrance. Swans circled the island seven times and the nymphs sang in delight. He was washed clean by the goddesses who then covered him in white garment and fastened golden bands around him. Since Leto was unable to feed him Themis the goddess of divine law fed him with nectar or ambrosia. Upon tasting the divine food Apollo broke free of the bands fastened onto him and declared that he would be the master of lyre and archery and interpret the will of Zeus to humankind. Zeus who had calmed Hera by then came and adorned his son with a golden headband.Apollo's birth fixed the floating Delos to the earth. Leto promised that her son would be always favorable towards the Delians. According to some, Apollo secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean after some time. This island became sacred to Apollo and was one of the major cult centres of the god.Apollo was born on the seventh day of the month Thargelion—according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth the days of the new and full moon were ever afterwards held sacred to him. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo or was born on the island of Ortygia then helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.Hyperborea.Hyperborea, the mystical land of eternal spring, venerated Apollo above all the gods. The Hyperboreans always sang and danced in his honor and hosted Pythian games. There, a vast forest of beautiful trees was called "the garden of Apollo". Apollo spent the winter months among the Hyperboreans. His absence from the world caused coldness and this was marked as his annual death. No prophecies were issued during this time. He returned to the world during the beginning of the spring. The "Theophania" festival was held in Delphi to celebrate his return.It is said that Leto came to Delos from Hyperborea accompanied by a pack of wolves. Henceforth Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves became sacred to him. His intimate connection to wolves is evident from his epithet "Lyceus" meaning "wolf-like". But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer in his role as the god who protected flocks from predators. The Hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks of Apollo being worshipped as the sun god. Shamanistic elements in Apollo's cult are often liked to his Hyperborean origin and he is likewise speculated to have originated as a solar shaman. Shamans like Abaris and Aristeas were also the followers of Apollo who hailed from Hyperborea.In myths the tears of amber Apollo shed when his son Asclepius died became the waters of the river Eridanos which surrounded Hyperborea. Apollo also buried in Hyperborea the arrow which he had used to kill the Cyclopes. He later gave this arrow to Abaris.Childhood and youth.As a child, Apollo is said to have built a foundation and an altar on Delos using the horns of the goats that his sister Artemis hunted. Since he learnt the art of building when young, he later came to be known as Archegetes, "the founder (of towns)" and god who guided men to build new cities. From his father Zeus, Apollo had also received a golden chariot drawn by swans.In his early years when Apollo spent his time herding cows he was reared by Thriae the bee nymphs who trained him and enhanced his prophetic skills. Apollo is also said to have invented the lyre and along with Artemis the art of archery. He then taught to the humans the art of healing and archery. Phoebe his grandmother gave the oracular shrine of Delphi to Apollo as a birthday gift. Themis inspired him to be the oracular voice of Delphi thereon.Python, a chthonic serpent-dragon, was a child of Gaia and the guardian of the Delphic Oracle, whose death was foretold by Apollo when he was still in Leto's womb. Python was the nurse of the giant Typhon. In most of the traditions, Apollo was still a child when he killed Python.Python was sent by Hera to hunt the pregnant Leto to death and had assaulted her. To avenge the trouble given to his mother Apollo went in search of Python and killed it in the sacred cave at Delphi with the bow and arrows that he had received from Hephaestus. The Delphian nymphs who were present encouraged Apollo during the battle with the cry "Hie Paean". After Apollo was victorious they also brought him gifts and gave the Corycian cave to him. According to Homer Apollo had encountered and killed the Python when he was looking for a place to establish his shrine.According to another version when Leto was in Delphi Python had attacked her. Apollo defended his mother and killed Python. Euripides in his gives an account of his fight with Python and the event's aftermath.You killed him, o Phoebus, while still a baby, still leaping in the arms of your dear mother, and you entered the holy shrine, and sat on the golden tripod, on your truthful throne distributing prophecies from the gods to mortals.A detailed account of Apollo intervention on behalf of his young son is also given.But when Apollo came and sent Themis, the child of Earth, away from the holy oracle of Pytho, Earth gave birth to dream visions of the night; and they told to the cities of men the present, and what will happen in the future, through dark beds of sleep on the ground; and so Earth took the office of prophecy away from Phoebus, in envy, because of her daughter. The lord made his swift way to Olympus and wound his baby hands around Zeus, asking him to take the wrath of the earth goddess from the Pythian home. Zeus smiled, that the child so quickly came to ask for worship that pays in gold. He shook his locks of hair, put an end to the night voices, and took away from mortals the truth that appears in darkness, and gave the privilege back again to Loxias.Apollo also demanded that all other methods of divination be made inferior to his, a wish that Zeus granted him readily. Because of this, Athena, who had been practicing divination by throwing pebbles, cast her pebbles away in displeasure.However Apollo had committed a blood murder and had to be purified. Because Python was a child of Gaia Gaia wanted Apollo to be banished to Tartarus as a punishment. Zeus didns order he travelled to the Vale of Tempe to bath in waters of Peneus. There Zeus himself performed purificatory rites on Apollo. Purified Apollo was escorted by his half sister Athena to Delphi where the oracular shrine was finally handed over to him by Gaia. According to a variation Apollo had also travelled to Crete where Carmanor purified him. Apollo later established the Pythian games to appropriate Gaia. Henceforth Apollo became the god who cleansed himself from the sin of murder and made men aware of their guilt and purified them.Soon after Zeus instructed Apollo to go to Delphi and establish his law. But Apollo disobeying his father went to the land of Hyperborea and stayed there for a year. He returned only after the Delphians sang hymns to him and pleaded him to come back. Zeus pleased with his son's integrity gave Apollo the seat next to him on his right side. He also gave to Apollo various gifts like a golden tripod a golden bow and arrows a golden chariot and the city of Delphi.Soon after his return, Apollo needed to recruit people to Delphi. So, when he spotted a ship sailing from Crete, he sprang aboard in the form of a dolphin. The crew was awed into submission and followed a course that led the ship to Delphi. There Apollo revealed himself as a god. Initiating them to his service, he instructed them to keep righteousness in their hearts. The Pythia was Apollo's high priestess and his mouthpiece through whom he gave prophecies. Pythia is arguably the constant favorite of Apollo among the mortals.Hera once again sent another giant, Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo shot him with his arrows and attacked him with his golden sword. According to other version, Artemis also aided him in protecting their mother by attacking Tityos with her arrows. After the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of , where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.Admetus was the king of Pherae, who was known for his hospitality. When Apollo was exiled from Olympus for killing Python, he served as a herdsman under Admetus, who was then young and unmarried. Apollo is said to have shared a romantic relationship with Admetus during his stay. After completing his years of servitude, Apollo went back to Olympus as a god.Because Admetus had treated Apollo well the god conferred great benefits on him in return. Apollo untimely death he convinced or tricked the Fates into letting Admetus live past his time.According to another version or perhaps some years later when Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus for this but his mother Leto intervened and reminding Zeus of their old love pleaded him not to kill their son. Zeus obliged and sentenced Apollo to one year of hard labor once again under Admetus.The love between Apollo and Admetus was a favored topic of Roman poets like Ovid and Servius.The fate of Niobe was prophesied by Apollo while he was still in Leto's womb. Niobe was the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion. She displayed hubris when she boasted that she was superior to Leto because she had fourteen children seven male and seven female while Leto had only two. She further mocked Apollo's effeminate appearance and Artemis' manly appearance. Leto insulted by this told her children to punish Niobe. Accordingly Apollo killed Niobe's sons and Artemis her daughters. According to some versions of the myth among the Niobids Chloris and her brother Amyclas were not killed because they prayed to Leto. Amphion at the sight of his dead sons either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.When Chloris married and had children Apollo granted her son Nestor the years he had taken away from the Niobids. Hence Nestor was able to live for 3 generations.Building the walls of Troy.Once Apollo and Poseidon served under the Trojan king Laomedon in accordance to Zeuss account Apollo completes his task by playing his tunes on his lyre.In Pindar's odes, the gods took a mortal named Aeacus as their assistant. When the work was completed, three snakes rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Apollo immediately prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae .However, the king not only refused to give the gods the wages he had promised, but also threatened to bind their feet and hands, and sell them as slaves. Angered by the unpaid labour and the insults, Apollo infected the city with a pestilence and Posedion sent the sea monster Cetus. To deliver the city from it, Laomedon had to sacrifice his daughter Hesione .During his stay in Troy, Apollo had a lover named Ourea, who was a nymph and daughter of Poseidon. Together they had a son named Ileus, whom Apollo loved dearly.Trojan War.Apollo sided with the Trojans during the Trojan War waged by the Greeks against the Trojans.During the war the Greek king Agamemnon captured Chryseis the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses and refused to return her. Angered by this Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment. He demanded that they return the girl and the Achaeans complied indirectly causing the .Receiving the aegis from Zeus, Apollo entered the battlefield as per his father's command, causing great terror to the enemy with his war cry. He pushed the Greeks back and destroyed many of the soldiers. He is described as because he rallied the Trojan army when they were falling apart.When Zeus allowed the other gods to get involved in the war, Apollo was provoked by Poseidon to a duel. However, Apollo declined to fight him, saying that he wouldn't fight his uncle for the sake of mortals.When the Greek hero Diomedes injured the Trojan hero Aeneas, Aphrodite tried to rescue him, but Diomedes injured her as well. Apollo then enveloped Aeneas in a cloud to protect him. He repelled the attacks Diomedes made on him and gave the hero a stern warning to abstain himself from attacking a god. Aeneas was then taken to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy, where he was healed.After the death of Sarpedon a son of Zeus Apollo rescued the corpse from the battlefield as per his father's wish and cleaned it. He then gave it to Sleep and Death . Apollo had also once convinced Athena to stop the war for that day so that the warriors can relieve themselves for a while.The Trojan hero Hector was favored by Apollo. When he got severely injured Apollo healed him and encouraged him to take up his arms. During a duel with Achilles when Hector was about to lose Apollo hid Hector in a cloud of mist to save him. When the Greek warrior Patroclus tried to get into the fort of Troy he was stopped by Apollo. Encouraging Hector to attack Patroclus Apollo stripped the armour of the Greek warrior and broke his weapons. Patroclus was eventually killed by Hector. At last after Hector's fated death Apollo protected his corpse from Achilles' attempt to mutilate it by creating a magical cloud over the corpse.Apollo held a grudge against Achilles throughout the war because Achilles had murdered his son Tenes before the war began and brutally assassinated his son Troilus in his own temple. Not only did Apollo save Hector from Achilles, he also tricked Achilles by disguising himself as a Trojan warrior and driving him away from the gates. He foiled Achilless dead body.Finally, Apollo caused Achilles' death by guiding an arrow shot by Paris into Achilles' heel. In some versions, Apollo himself killed Achilles by taking the disguise of Paris.Apollo helped many Trojan warriors including Agenor Polydamas Glaucus in the battlefield. Though he greatly favored the Trojans Apollo was bound to follow the orders of Zeus and served his father loyally during the war.After Heracles was struck with madness and killed his family, he sought to purify himself and consulted the oracle of Apollo. Apollo, through the Pythia, commanded him to serve king Eurystheus for twelve years and complete the ten tasks the king would give him. Only then would Alcides be absolved of his sin. Apollo also renamed him as Heracles.To complete his third task Heracles had to capture the Ceryneian Hind a hind sacred to Artemis and bring it alive. He chased the hind for one year. When the animal eventually got tired and tried crossing the river Ladon he captured it. While he was taking it back he was confronted by Apollo and Artemis who were angered at Heracles for this act. However Heracles soothed the goddess and explained his situation to her. After much pleading Artemis permitted him to take the hind and told him to return it later.After he was freed from his servitude to Eurystheus, Heracles fell in conflict with Iphytus, a prince of Oechalia, and murdered him. Soon after, he contracted a terrible disease. He consulted the oracle of Apollo once again, in hope of ridding himself of the disease. The Pythia, however, denied to give any prophesy. In anger, Heracles snatched the sacred tripod and started walking away, intending to start his own oracle. However, Apollo did not tolerate this and stopped Heracles; a duel ensued between them. Artemis rushed to support Apollo, while Athena supported Heracles. Soon, Zeus threw his thunderbolt between the fighting brothers and separated them. He reprimanded Heracles for this act of violation and asked Apollo to give a solution to Heracles. Apollo then ordered the hero to serve under Omphale, queen of Lydia for one year in order to purify himself.Periphas was an Attican king and a priest of Apollo. He was noble, just and rich. He did all his duties justly. Because of this people were very fond of him and started honouring him to the same extent as Zeus. At one point, they worshipped Periphas in place of Zeus and set up shrines and temples for him. This annoyed Zeus, who decided to annihilate the entire family of Periphas. But because he was a just king and a good devotee, Apollo intervened and requested his father to spare Periphas. Zeus considered Apollo's words and agreed to let him live. But he metamorphosed Periphas into an eagle and made the eagle the king of birds. When Periphas' wife requested Zeus to let her stay with her husband, Zeus turned her into a vulture and fulfilled her wish.Plato's concept of soulmates.A long time ago there were three kinds of human beings male descended from the sun female descended from the earth and androgynous descended from the moon. Each human being was completely round with four arms and fours legs two identical faces on opposite sides of a head with four ears and all else to match. They were powerful and unruly. Otis and Ephialtes even dared to scale Mount Olympus.To check their insolence Zeus devised a plan to humble them and improve their manners instead of completely destroying them. He cut them all in two and asked Apollo to make necessary repairs giving humans the individual shape they still have now. Apollo turned their heads and necks around towards their wounds he pulled together their skin at the abdomen and sewed the skin together at the middle of it. This is what we call navel today. He smoothened the wrinkles and shaped the chest. But he made sure to leave a few wrinkles on the abdomen and around the navel so that they might be reminded of their punishment."As he which he fastened in a knot he also moulded the breast and took out most of the wrinkles much as a shoemaker might smooth leather upon a last he left a few wrinkles however in the region of the belly and navel as a memorial of the primeval state.Nurturer of the young.Apollo "Kourotrophos" is the god who nurtures and protects children and the young especially boys. He oversees their education and their passage into adulthood. Education is said to have originated from Apollo and the Muses. Many myths have him train his children. It was a custom for boys to cut and dedicate their long hair to Apollo after reaching adulthood.Chiron the abandoned centaur was fostered by Apollo who instructed him in medicine prophecy archery and more. Chiron would later become a great teacher himself.Asclepius in his childhood gained much knowledge pertaining to medicinal arts by his father. However, he was later entrusted to Chiron for further education.Anius, Apollo's son by Rhoeo, was abandoned by his mother soon after his birth. Apollo brought him up and educated him in mantic arts. Anius later became the priest of Apollo and the king of Delos.Iamus was the son of Apollo and Evadne. When Evadne went into labour, Apollo sent the Moirai to assist his lover. After the child was born, Apollo sent snakes to feed the child some honey. When Iamus reached the age of education, Apollo took him to Olympia and taught him many arts, including the ability to understand and explain the languages of birds.Idmon was educated by Apollo to be a seer. Even though he foresaw his death that would happen in his journey with the Argonauts he embraced his destiny and died a brave death. To commemorate his son's bravery Apollo commanded Boeotians to build a town around the tomb of the hero and to honor him.Apollo adopted Carnus the abandoned son of Zeus and Europa. He reared the child with the help of his mother Leto and educated him to be a seer.When his son Melaneus reached the age of marriage Apollo asked the princess Stratonice to be his son's bride and carried her away from her home when she agreed.Apollo saved a shepherd boy from death in a large deep cave by the means of vultures. To thank him the shepherd built Apollo a temple under the name Vulturius.God of music.Immediately after his birth Apollo demanded a lyre and invented the paean thus becoming the god of music. As the divine singer he is the patron of poets singers and musicians. The invention of string music is attributed to him. Plato said that the innate ability of humans to take delight in music rhythm and harmony is the gift of Apollo and the Muses. According to Socrates ancient Greeks believed that Apollo is the god who directs the harmony and makes all things move together both for the gods and the humans. For this reason he was called . They are Apollo's sacred birds and acted as his vehicle during his travel to Hyperborea. Aelian says that when the singers would sing hymns to Apollo the swans would join the chant in unison.Among the Pythagoreans the study of mathematics and music were connected to the worship of Apollo their principal deity. Their belief was that the music purifies the soul just as medicine purifies the body. They also believed that music was delegated to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos evolving into an idea known as the music of the spheres.Apollo appears as the companion of the Muses and as Musagetes he leads them in dance. They spend their time on Parnassus which is one of their sacred places. Apollo is also the lover of the Muses and by them he became the father of famous musicians like Orpheus and Linus.Apollo is often found delighting the immortal gods with his songs and music on the lyre. In his role as the god of banquets, he was always present to play music in weddings of the gods, like the marriage of Eros and Psyche, Peleus and Thetis. He is a frequent guest of the Bacchanalia, and many ancient ceramics depict him being at ease amidst the maenads and satyrs. Apollo also participated in musical contests when challenged by others. He was the victor in all those contests, but he tended to punish his opponents severely for their hubris.Apollo's lyre.The invention of lyre is attributed either to Hermes or to Apollo himself. Distinctions have been made that Hermes invented lyre made of tortoise shell, whereas the lyre Apollo invented was a regular lyre.Myths tell that the infant Hermes stole a number of Apollos intestines and the tortoise shell and made his lyre.Upon discovering the theft Apollo confronted Hermes and asked him to return his cattle. When Hermes acted innocent Apollo took the matter to Zeus. Zeus having seen the events sided with Apollo and ordered Hermes to return the cattle. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo fell in love with the instrument and offered to exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence Apollo then became the master of the lyre.According to other versions, Apollo had invented the lyre himself, whose strings he tore in repenting of the excess punishment he had given to Marsyas. Hermes' lyre, therefore, would be a reinvention.Contest with Pan.Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge the god of music to a contest. The mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then, Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. It was so beautiful that Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and everyone was pleased with the judgement. Only Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo did not want to suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.Contest with Marsyas.Marsyas was a satyr who was punished by Apollo for his hubris. He had found an aulos on the ground tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. Athena had also placed a curse upon the instrument that whoever would pick it up would be severely punished. When Marsyas played the flute everyone became frenzied with joy. This led Marsyas to think that he was better than Apollo and he challenged the god to a musical contest. The contest was judged by the Muses or the nymphs of Nysa. Athena was also present to witness the contest.Marsyas taunted Apollo for "wearing his hair long, for having a fair face and smooth body, for his skill in so many arts". He also further said, +The Muses and Athena sniggered at this comment. The contestants agreed to take turns displaying their skills and the rule was that the victor could to the loser.According to one account after the first round they both were deemed equal by the Nysiads. But in the next round Apollo decided to play on his lyre and add his melodious voice to his performance. Marsyas argued against this saying that Apollo would have an advantage and accused Apollo of cheating. But Apollo replied that since Marsyas played the flute which needed air blown from the throat it was similar to singing and that either they both should get an equal chance to combine their skills or none of them should use their mouths at all. The nymphs decided that Apollo's argument was just. Apollo then played his lyre and sang at the same time mesmerising the audience. Marsyas could not do this. Apollo was declared the winner and angered with Marsyas' haughtiness and his accusations decided to flay the satyr.According to another account, Marsyas played his flute out of tune at one point and accepted his defeat. Out of shame, he assigned to himself the punishment of being skinned for a wine sack. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument. So the Muses who were the judges declared Apollo the winner. Apollo hung Marsyas from a tree to flay him.Apollo flayed the limbs of Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then gave the rest of his body for proper burial and nailed Marsyas' flayed skin to a nearby pine-tree as a lesson to the others. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas. But Apollo soon repented and being distressed at what he had done, he tore the strings of his lyre and threw it away. The lyre was later discovered by the Muses and Apollo's sons Linus and Orpheus. The Muses fixed the middle string, Linus the string struck with the forefinger, and Orpheus the lowest string and the one next to it. They took it back to Apollo, but the god, who had decided to stay away from music for a while, laid away both the lyre and the pipes at Delphi and joined Cybele in her wanderings to as far as Hyperborea.Contest with Cinyras.Cinyras was a ruler of Cyprus, who was a friend of Agamemnon. Cinyras promised to assist Agamemnon in the Trojan war, but did not keep his promise. Agamemnon cursed Cinyras. He invoked Apollo and asked the god to avenge the broken promise. Apollo then had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, and defeated him. Either Cinyras committed suicide when he lost, or was killed by Apollo.Patron of sailors.Apollo functions as the patron and protector of sailors one of the duties he shares with Poseidon. In the myths he is seen helping heroes who pray to him for safe journey.When Apollo spotted a ship of Cretan sailors that was caught in a storm, he quickly assumed the shape of a dolphin and guided their ship safely to Delphi.When the Argonauts faced a terrible storm, Jason prayed to his patron, Apollo, to help them. Apollo used his bow and golden arrow to shed light upon an island, where the Argonauts soon took shelter. This island was renamed "Anaphe", which means "He revealed it".Apollo helped the Greek hero Diomedes, to escape from a great tempest during his journey homeward. As a token of gratitude, Diomedes built a temple in honor of Apollo under the epithet Epibaterius .During the Trojan War Odysseus came to the Trojan camp to return Chriseis the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses and brought many offerings to Apollo. Pleased with this Apollo sent gentle breezes that helped Odysseus return safely to the Greek camp.Arion was a poet who was kidnapped by some sailors for the rich prizes he possessed. Arion requested them to let him sing for the last time to which the sailors consented. Arion began singing a song in praise of Apollo seeking the god's help. Consequently numerous dolphins surrounded the ship and when Arion jumped into the water the dolphins carried him away safely.Titanomachy.Once Hera out of spite aroused the Titans to war against Zeus and take away his throne. Accordingly when the Titans tried to climb Mount Olympus Zeus with the help of Apollo Artemis and Athena defeated them and cast them into tartarus.Trojan War.Apollo played a pivotal role in the entire Trojan War. He sided with the Trojans, and sent a terrible plague to the Greek camp, which indirectly led to the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon. He killed the Greek heroes Patroclus, Achilles, and numerous Greek soldiers. He also helped many Trojan heroes, the most important one being Hector. After the end of the war, Apollo and Poseidon together cleaned the remains of the city and the camps.Telegony war.A war broke out between the Brygoi and the Thesprotians, who had the support of Odysseus. The gods Athena and Ares came to the battlefield and took sides. Athena helped the hero Odysseus while Ares fought alongside of the Brygoi. When Odysseus lost, Athena and Ares came into a direct duel. To stop the battling gods and the terror created by their battle, Apollo intervened and stopped the duel between them .Indian war.When Zeus suggested that Dionysus defeat the Indians in order to earn a place among the gods, Dionysus declared war against the Indians and travelled to India along with his army of Bacchantes and satyrs. Among the warriors was Aristaeus, Apollo's son. Apollo armed his son with his own hands and gave him a bow and arrows and fitted a strong shield to his arm. After Zeus urged Apollo to join the war, he went to the battlefield. Seeing several of his nymphs and Aristaeus drowning in a river, he took them to safety and healed them. He taught Aristaeus more useful healing arts and sent him back to help the army of Dionysus.Theban war.During the war between the sons of Oedipus Apollo favored Amphiaraus a seer and one of the leaders in the war. Though saddened that the seer was fated to be doomed in the war Apollo made Amphiaraus' last hours glorious by . When Hypseus tried to kill the hero by a spear Apollo directed the spear towards the charioteer of Amphiaraus instead. Then Apollo himself replaced the charioteer and took the reins in his hands. He deflected many spears and arrows away them. He also killed many of the enemy warriors like Melaneus Antiphus Aetion Polites and Lampus. At last when the moment of departure came Apollo expressed his grief with tears in his eyes and bid farewell to Amphiaraus who was soon engulfed by the Earth.Slaying of giants.Apollo killed the giants Python and Tityos, who had assaulted his mother Leto.Gigantomachy.During the gigantomachy, Apollo killed the giant Ephialtes by shooting him in his eyes. He also killed Porphyrion, the king of giants, using his bow and arrows.Otis and Ephialtes the twin giants were together called the Aloadae. These giants are said to have grown every year by one cubit in breadth and three cubits in height. They once threatened to wage a war on gods and attempted to storm Mt. Olympus by piling up mountains. They also threatened to change land into sea and sea into land. Some say they even dared to seek the hand of Hera and Artemis in marriage. Angered by this Apollo killed them by shooting arrows at them. According to another tale Apollo killed them with a trick. He sent a deer between them. As they tried to kill it with their javelins they accidentally stabbed each other and died.Phorbas was a savage giant king of Phlegyas who was described as having swine like features. He wished to plunder Delphi for its wealth. He seized the roads to Delphi and started harassing the pilgrims. He captured the old people and children and sent them to his army to hold them for ransom. And he challenged the young and sturdy men to a match of boxing, only to cut their heads off when they would get defeated by him. He hung the chopped off heads to an oak tree. Finally, Apollo came to put an end to this cruelty. He entered a boxing contest with Phorbas and killed him with a single blow.Other stories.In the first Olympic games Apollo defeated Ares and became the victor in wrestling. He outran Hermes in the race and won first place.Apollo divides months into summer and winter. He rides on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months, and the absence of warmth in winters is due to his departure. During his absence, Delphi was under the care of Dionysus, and no prophecies were given during winters.Molpadia and Parthenos.Molpadia and Parthenos were the sisters of Rhoeo, a former lover of Apollo. One day, they were put in charge of watching their father's ancestral wine jar but they fell asleep while performing this duty. While they were asleep, the wine jar was broken by the swines their family kept. When the sisters woke up and saw what had happened, they threw themselves off a cliff in fear of their father's wrath. Apollo, who was passing by, caught them and carried them to two different cities in Chersonesus, Molpadia to Castabus and Parthenos to Bubastus. He turned them into goddesses and they both received divine honors. Molpadia's name was changed to Hemithea upon her deification.Prometheus.Prometheus was the titan who was punished by Zeus for stealing fire. He was bound to a rock where each day an eagle was sent to eat Prometheuss words and the tears of the goddesses finally sent Heracles to free Prometheus.The rock of Leukas.Leukatas was believed to be a white colored rock jutting out from the island of Leukas into the sea. It was present in the sanctuary of Apollo Leukates. A leap from this rock was believed to have put an end to the longings of love.Once Aphrodite fell deeply in love with Adonis a young man of great beauty who was later accidentally killed by a boar. Heartbroken Aphrodite wandered looking for the rock of Leukas. When she reached the sanctuary of Apollo in Argos she confided in him her love and sorrow. Apollo then brought her to the rock of Leukas and asked her to throw herself from the top of the rock. She did so and was freed from her love. When she sought for the reason behind this Apollo told her that Zeus before taking another lover would sit on this rock to free himself from his love to Hera.Another tale relates that a man named Nireus, who fell in love with the cult statue of Athena, came to the rock and jumped in order relieve himself. After jumping, he fell into the net of a fisherman in which, when he was pulled out, he found a box filled with gold. He fought with the fisherman and took the gold, but Apollo appeared to him in the night in a dream and warned him not to appropriate gold which belonged to others.It was an ancestral custom among the Leukadians to fling a criminal from this rock every year at the sacrifice performed in honor of Apollo for the sake of averting evil. However a number of men would be stationed all around below rock to catch the criminal and take him out of the borders in order to exile him from the island. This was the same rock from which according to a legend Sappho took her suicidal leap.Female lovers.Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.Daphne was a nymph who scorned Apollo's advances and ran away from him. When Apollo chased her in order to persuade her she changed herself into a laurel tree. According to other versions she cried for help during the chase and Gaia helped her by taking her in and placing a laurel tree in her place. According to Roman poet Ovid the chase was brought about by Cupid who hit Apollo with golden arrow of love and Daphne with leaden arrow of hatred. The myth explains the origin of the laurel and connection of Apollo with the laurel and its leaves which his priestess employed at Delphi. The leaves became the symbol of victory and laurel wreaths were given to the victors of the Pythian games.Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine Muses and not being able to choose one of them decided to remain unwed. He fathered the Corybantes by the Muse Thalia Orpheus by Calliope Linus of Thrace by Calliope or Urania and Hymenaios by one of the Muses.Cyrene, was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo loved. In her honor, he built the city Cyrene and made her its ruler. She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her into a nymph. The couple had two sons, Aristaeus, and Idmon.Evadne was a nymph daughter of Poseidon and a lover of Apollo. She bore him a son Iamos. During the time of the childbirth Apollo sent Eileithyia the goddess of childbirth to assist her.Rhoeo, a princess of the island of Naxos was loved by Apollo. Out of affection for her, Apollo turned her sisters into goddesses. On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named Anius. Not wanting to have the child, she entrusted the infant to Apollo and left. Apollo raised and educated the child on his own.Ourea, a daughter of Poseidon, fell in love with Apollo when he and Poseidon were serving the Trojan king Laomedon. They both united on the day the walls of Troy were built. She bore to Apollo a son, whom Apollo named Ileus, after the city of his birth, Ilion . Ileus was very dear to Apollo.Thero, daughter of Phylas, a maiden as beautiful as the moonbeams, was loved by the radiant Apollo, and she loved him in return. By their union, she became mother of Chaeron, who was famed as "the tamer of horses". He later built the city Chaeronea.Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother of Cycnus. Apollo turned both the mother and son into swans when they jumped into a lake and tried to kill themselves.Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus, and Apollo avenged his death by killing Achilles. After the sack of Troy, Hecuba was taken to Lycia by Apollo.Coronis was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. While pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus and slept with him. When Apollo found out about her infidelity through his prophetic powers, he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. Apollo rescued the baby by cutting open Koronis' belly and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise.Dryope, the daughter of Dryops, was impregnated by Apollo in the form of a snake. She gave birth to a son named Amphissus.In Euripides' play , Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. He used his powers to conceal her pregnancy from her father. Later, when Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.Male lovers.Hyacinth , a beautiful and athletic Spartan prince, was one of Apollo's favourite lovers. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief. Out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning "alas". He was later resurrected and taken to heaven. The festival Hyacinthia was a national celebration of Sparta, which commemorated the death and rebirth of Hyacinthus.Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus was so saddened by its death that he asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.Admetus the king of Pherae was also Apollo's lover. During his exile which lasted either for one year or nine years Apollo served Admetus as a herdsman. The romantic nature of their relationship was first described by Callimachus of Alexandria who wrote that Apollo was and asserts that Apollo became his servant not by force but by choice. He would also make cheese and serve it to Admetus. His domestic actions caused embarrassment to his family.When Admetus wanted to marry princess Alcestis Apollo provided a chariot pulled by a lion and a boar he had tamed. This satisfied Alcestis' father and he let Admetus marry his daughter. Further Apollo saved the king from Artemis' wrath and also convinced the Moirai to postpone Admetus' death once.Branchus, a shepherd, one day came across Apollo in the woods. Captivated by the god's beauty, he kissed Apollo. Apollo requited his affections and wanting to reward him, bestowed prophetic skills on him. His descendants, the Branchides, were an influential clan of prophets.Other male lovers of Apollo includeApollo sired many children, from mortal women and nymphs as well as the goddesses. His children grew up to be physicians, musicians, poets, seers or archers. Many of his sons founded new cities and became kings. They were all usually very beautiful.Asclepius is the most famous son of Apollo. His skills as a physician surpassed that of Apollos request, he was resurrected as a god.Aristaeus was placed under the care of Chiron after his birth. He became the god of beekeeping cheese making animal husbandry and more. He was ultimately given immortality for the benefits he bestowed upon the humanity. The Corybantes were spear-clashing dancing demigods.The sons of Apollo who participated in the Trojan War include the Trojan princes Hector and Troilus, as well as Tenes, the king of Tenedos, all three of whom were killed by Achilles over the course of the war.Apollo's children who became musicians and bards include Orpheus Linus Ialemus Hymenaeus Philammon Eumolpus and Eleuther. Apollo fathered 3 daughters Apollonis Borysthenis and Cephisso who formed a group of minor Muses the . They were nicknamed Nete Mese and Hypate after the highest middle and lowest strings of his lyre. Phemonoe was a seer and a poetess who was the inventor of Hexameter.Apis Idmon Iamus Tenerus Mopsus Galeus Telmessus and others were gifted seers. Anius Pythaeus and Ismenus lived as high priests. Most of them were trained by Apollo himself.Arabus Delphos Dryops Miletos Tenes Epidaurus Ceos Lycoras Syrus Pisus Marathus Megarus Patarus Acraepheus Cicon Chaeron and many other sons of Apollo under the guidance of his words founded eponymous cities.He also had a son named Chrysorrhoas who was a mechanic artist. His other daughters include Eurynome, Chariclo wife of Chiron, Eurydice the wife of Orpheus, Eriopis, famous for her beautiful hair, Melite the heroine, Pamphile the silk weaver, Parthenos, and by some accounts, Phoebe, Hilyra and Scylla. Apollo turned Parthenos into a constellation after her early death.Additionally, Apollo fostered and educated Chiron, the centaur who later became the greatest teacher and educated many demigods, including Apollo's sons. Apollo also fostered Carnus, the son of Zeus and Europa.Failed love attempts.Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo being immortal would tire of her when she grew old.Sinope, a nymph, was approached by the amorous Apollo. She made him promise that he would grant to her whatever she would ask for, and then cleverly asked him to let her stay a virgin. Apollo kept his promise and went back.Bolina was admired by Apollo but she refused him and jumped into the sea. To avoid her death Apollo turned her into a nymph and let her go.Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi at the base of Mt. Parnassos which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses.Cassandra was a daughter of Hecuba and Priam. Apollo wished to court her. Cassandra promised to return his love on one condition - he should give her the power to see the future. Apollo fulfilled her wish but she went back on her word and rejected him soon after. Angered that she broke her promise Apollo cursed her that even though she would see the future no one would ever believe her prophecies.Hestia the goddess of the hearth rejected both Apollo's and Poseidon's marriage proposals and swore that she would always stay unmarried.Female counterparts.Artemis as the sister of Apollo is "thea apollousa" that is she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. In the pre-Hellenic period their relationship was described as the one between husband and wife and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as the wife of Apollo. However this relationship was never sexual but spiritual which is why they both are seen being unmarried in the Hellenic period.Artemis like her brother is armed with a bow and arrows. She is the cause of sudden deaths of women. She also is the protector of the young especially girls. Though she has nothing to do with oracles music or poetry she sometimes led the female chorus on Olympus while Apollo sang. The laurel () was sacred to both. had her temple among the Lacedemonians at a place called Hypsoi."Apollo Daphnephoros" had a temple in Eretria, a "place where the citizens are to take the oaths". In later times when Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun or Helios, Artemis was naturally regarded as Selene or the moon.Hecate the goddess of witchcraft and magic is the chthonic counterpart of Apollo. They both are cousins since their mothers - Leto and Asteria - are sisters. One of Apollo's epithets "Hecatos" is the masculine form of Hecate and both the names mean "working from afar". While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and heaven Hecate presided over the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness. If Hecate is the "gate-keeper" Apollo "Agyieus" is the "door-keeper". Hecate is the goddess of crossroads and Apollo is the god and protector of streets.The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is at Apollo's temple in Miletos. There, Hecate was taken to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence of Artemis. Hecate's lunar nature makes her the goddess of the waning moon and contrasts and complements, at the same time, Apollo's solar nature.As a deity of knowledge and great power Apollo was seen being the male counterpart of Athena. Being Zeus' favorite children they were given more powers and duties. Apollo and Athena often took up the role as protectors of cities and were patrons of some of the important cities. Athena was the principle goddess of Athens Apollo was the principle god of Sparta.As patrons of arts, Apollo and Athena were companions of the Muses, the former a much more frequent companion than the latter. Apollo was sometimes called the son of Athena and Hephaestus.In the Trojan war, as Zeuss decisions were usually approved by his sister Athena, and they both worked to establish the law and order set forth by Zeus.Apollo in the "Oresteia".In Aeschyluss son Orestes is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies .Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he drives them away. He says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.Roman Apollo.The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the "Ludi Apollinares" were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.After the battle of Actium which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple dedicated a portion of the spoils to him and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.The chief Apollonian festival was the Pythian Games held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great Panhellenic Games. Also of major importance was the Delia held every four years on Delos.Athenian annual festivals included the Boedromia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, and Thargelia.Spartan annual festivals were the Carneia and the Hyacinthia.Thebes every nine years held the Daphnephoria.Attributes and symbols.Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre) the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.The palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves dolphins roe deer swans cicadas ravens hawks crows snakes mice and griffins mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.Homer and Porphyry wrote that Apollo had a hawk as his messenger. In many myths Apollo is transformed into a hawk. In addition Claudius Aelianus wrote that in Ancient Egypt people believed that hawks were sacred to the god and that according to the ministers of Apollo in Egypt there were certain men called who fed and tended the hawks belonging to the god. Eusebius wrote that the second appearance of the moon is held sacred in the city of Apollo in Egypt and that the city's symbol is a man with a hawklike face . Claudius Aelianus wrote that Egyptians called Apollo Horus in their own language.As god of colonization Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies especially during the height of colonization 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction Hittite cuneiform texts mention an Asia Minor god called "Appaliunas" or "Apalunas" in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation Apollo's title of "Lykegenes" can simply be read as "born in Lycia" which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves .In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.Apollo in the arts.Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is "delight" , and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.Archaic sculpture.Numerous free-standing statues of male youths from Archaic Greece exist and were once thought to be representations of Apollo though later discoveries indicated that many represented mortals. In 1895 V. I. Leonardos proposed the term to refer to those from Keratea this usage was later expanded by Henri Lechat in 1904 to cover all statues of this format.The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of . It was found in Piraeus a port city close to Athens and is believed to have come from north-eastern Peloponnesus. It is the only surviving large-scale Peloponnesian statue.Classical sculpture.The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara, a sophisticated seven-stringed variant of the lyre, in his left arm. While none of the Greek originals have survived, several Roman copies from approximately the late 1st or early 2nd century exist.Other notable forms are the Apollo Citharoedus and the Apollo Barberini.Hellenistic Greece-Rome.Apollo as a handsome beardless young man is often depicted with a cithara or bow in his hand or reclining on a tree . The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares made between 350 and 325 BCE.The life-size so-called , he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.Another haloed Apollo in mosaic from Hadrumentum is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation head tilted lips slightly parted large-eyed curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.Modern reception.Apollo often appears in modern and popular culture due to his status as the god of music, dance and poetry.Postclassical art and literature.Dance and music.Apollo has featured in dance and music in modern culture. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a "Hymn of Apollo" , and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's "Apollon musagte" . In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs "Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom"/"Dionysus: Bringer of Love".Apollo been portrayed in modern literature such as when Charles Handy in uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organizational culture. Apollo represents a culture where order reason and bureaucracy prevail. In 2016 author Rick Riordan published the first book in the Trials of Apollo series publishing four other books in the series in 2017 2018 2019 and 2020.Apollo has been depicted in modern films, such as by Keith David in Disney's 1997 animated feature film, "Hercules." Apollo has also been depicted by Luke Evans in the 2010 action film "Clash of the Titans".Video games.Apollo has appeared in many modern video games. Apollo appears as a minor character in Santa Monica Studio's 2010 action-adventure game God of War III with his bow being used by Peirithous. He also appears in the 2014 Hi-Rez Studios Multiplayer Online Battle Arena game Smite as a playable character.Psychology and philosophy.In philosophical discussion of the arts a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Psychologist Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distanceSpaceflight.In spaceflight, the 1960s and 1970s NASA program for orbiting and landing astronauts on the Moon was named after Apollo. +Andre Kirk Agassi is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. He is an eight-time major champion and a 1996 Olympic gold medalist as well as a runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments.Agassi was the first man to win four Australian Open singles titles in the Open Era (though later surpassed by Novak Djokovic, who won his fifth title in 2015). Agassi is the second of five men to achieve the career Grand Slam in the Open Era and the fifth of eight overall to make the achievement. He is also the first of two men to achieve the career Golden Slam (career Grand Slam and Olympic gold medal), and the only man to win a career Super Slam (career Grand Slam, plus the Olympic gold medal and the year-end championships).Agassi was the first man to win all four singles majors on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and remains the most recent American man to win the French Open (in 1999) and the Australian Open (in 2003). He also won 17 ATP Masters Series titles and was part of the winning Davis Cup teams in 1990, 1992 and 1995. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over. Agassi returned to No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname .After suffering from sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back, a spondylolisthesis and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve, Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the US Open. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K-12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player Steffi Graf since 2001.1970–1985 Early life.Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas Nevada to Emmanuel . Andre Agassi's mother Betty is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita Philip and Tami. Andre was given the middle name Kirk after Kirk Kerkorian an Armenian American billionaire. Emmanuel Agassi then a waiter at Tropicana Las Vegas had met Kerkorian in 1963.At the age of 12 Agassi and his good friend and doubles partner Roddy Parks won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago. Agassi describes memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book .When he was 13, Agassi was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only three months, because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri, deeply impressed by his talent, called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free." Agassi then dropped out of school in the ninth grade to pursue a full-time tennis career.1986–2006 Professional career.1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title.Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at La Quinta California. He won his first match against John Austin but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander. By the end of 1986 Agassi was ranked No. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica and ended the year ranked No. 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 and by December of that year he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level. During 1988 he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager . His year-end ranking was No. 3 behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the Association of Tennis Professionals and "Tennis" magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.In addition to not playing the Australian Open for the first eight years of his career Agassi chose not to play at Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism particularly its dress code to which players at the event are required to conform.Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988 and made the US Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to Andrs Gmez, which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. The rivalry between these two American players became the biggest one in tennis over the rest of the decade. Agassi ended 1990 on a high note as he helped the United States win its first Davis Cup in 8 years and won his only Tennis Masters Cup, beating reigning Wimbledon champion Stefan Edberg in the final.In 1991 Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus Jim Courier. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991 leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion losing in five sets to David Wheaton.Agassi Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. Agassi famously played the game wearing Oakley brand sunglasses, and a photo of him from the day appeared on the cover of magazine. In his memoir, he wrote that he was covering up bloodshot eyes from a hangover and claimed that the founder of Oakley, Jim Jannard, had sent him a Dodge Viper to thank him for the inadvertent publicity.In 1993 Agassi won the only doubles title of his career at the Cincinnati Masters partnered with Petr Korda. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to Thomas Enqvist and required wrist surgery late in the year.1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall.With new coach Brad Gilbert on board Agassi began to employ more of a tactical consistent approach which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994 losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless he emerged during the hard-court season winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a five-set fourth-round victory against Michael Chang. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player beating Michael Stich in the final. Along the way he beat 5 seeded players.In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old style. He competed in the 1995 Australian Open (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on hardcourt, with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 (Cincinnati, Key Biscayne, and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late-night four-set semi-final of the US Open against Boris Becker. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras.Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career.1996 was a less successful year for Agassi as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses to Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon respectively and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose as he did not want to play Boris Becker whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne.1997 was the low point of Agassis premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant championships.1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam.In 1998 Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against Pete Sampras and Patrick Rafter.In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 110 to No. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ros, who became No. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career .Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final becoming at the time only the fifth male player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver Agassi Federer Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the Open Era. This win also made him the first male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces . Agassi also became the only male player to win the Career Super Slam consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a Year-end championship.Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the US Open, beating Todd Martin in five sets in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat Marat Safin. Agassi ended 1999 as the No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings . This was the only time Agassi ended the year at No. 1. Agassi was runner-up to Sampras at the year-end Tennis Masters Cup losing 1–6, 5–7, 4-6 despite beating Sampras in the round-robin 6–2, 6–2.He began the next year 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. At the time Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events missing only the Wimbledon title.. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1.Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clment. En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semi-finals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades.2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Samprass US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.In 2003 Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open where he beat Rainer Schttler in straight sets in the final.On April 28 2003 he recaptured the No. 1 ranking to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by Roger Federer in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16 2003 which he held for 12 weeks until September 7 2003. There he managed to reach the US Open semi-finals where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero surrendering his No. 1 ranking to him. During his career Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup Agassi lost in the final to Federer his third time to finish as runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000 and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33 he had been one of the oldest players to rank in the top 5 since Connors at age 35 was No. 4 in 1987.2004–2006: Final years.In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi-finals of the Australian Open to Marat Safin; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event. He won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo and Hamburg. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history , tied with Roger Federer and surpassed only by Ken Rosewall, who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked No. 8, one of the oldest players to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No. 7 in 1988. At the time, Agassi also became the sixth male player during the open era to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over Alex Bogomolov in Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles.Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the Rogers Cup before falling to No. 2 Rafael Nadal.Agassis end.Agassi had a poor start to 2006, as he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then Wimbledon. He was defeated in the third round by world No. 2 Rafael Nadal. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando Gonzlez of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open.Agassi had a short but dramatic run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against Andrei Pavel Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech.Agassi vs. Sampras.The rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 90's, as Sampras and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest server and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20.The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi, however, lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the 1992 French Open, where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug himself out from a two-sets-to-love hole, levelling the match at 2 sets apiece; however, Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship.With both Sampras and Agassi participating the US won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won 3 out of 4 major titles meeting each other twice in the finals and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the whole year. They met 5 times during the year all in the title matches including the Australian Open the Newsweek Champions Cup the Lipton International Players Championships the Canadian Open and the US Open. Agassi won three of the finals including the Australian Open however Sampras took the US Open title ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season.In the following 3 years while Sampras continued winning Grand Slam titles every season Agassi slumped in the rankings and struggled in major competitions. The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was at Wimbledon in 1999 where Sampras won in straight sets. For both it was considered a career rejuvenation as Sampras had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was regaining his status as a top-ranked player after winning the French Open. Sampras forfeited the No. 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open which Agassi went on to win. They faced each other twice in the season-ending ATP Tour World Championships with Sampras losing the round-robin match but winning the final.In the 2000s, they met three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests. In 2000, the top-ranked Agassi defeated No. 3 Sampras in the semi-finals of the Australian Open in five sets, which was an important win for Agassi who had lost 4 of the previous 5 matches against Sampras. In arguably their most memorable match ever, Sampras defeated Agassi in the 2001 US Open quarterfinals in four sets. There were no breaks of serve during the entire match. Reruns of the match are frequently featured on television, especially during US Open rain delays, and the match is considered one of the best in history because of the level of play presented by both players.Their last meeting was the final of the 2002 US Open which was their third meeting in a US Open final but the first since 1995. The match was also notable because they had defeated several up-and-coming players en route to the final. Sampras had defeated No. 3 Tommy Haas in the fourth round and future No. 1 Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals while Agassi had defeated No. 1 and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets. This was the final ATP tour singles match of Sampras's career.Agassi vs. Chang.Michael Chang was the opponent Agassi faced most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to stay at the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players and both having foreign descent.Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high-quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing in a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi-finals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final. Agassi won the last four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly past his prime.Agassi vs. Becker.Boris Becker and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker won their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi reversed the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 Davis Cup semi-final match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title. The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semi-final after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi-final, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets.Agassi vs. Rafter.Agassi and Pat Rafter played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters because of the players' contrasting styles of play with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the 1999 Rome Masters. They played four matches at Wimbledon with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999 while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters both of the gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open in 1995 and 2001 on his way to the title on both occasions. Rafter however took their only US Open encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title.Agassi vs. Federer.Agassi and Roger Federer played 11 times and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer who was another great server like Sampras became Agassis hometown with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Open in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003 when he defeated Agassi in both the round-robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two windy days with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the 2005 US Open. In the historic clash of generations Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match was the last appearance by Agassi in any tournament final.Agassi vs. Lendl.Agassi and Ivan Lendl played 8 times, and Lendl led their head-to-head series 6–2.Agassi vs. Edberg.Agassi and Stefan Edberg played 9 times, and Agassi led their head-to-head series 6–3.Agassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money during his career sixth only to Djokovic Federer Nadal Sampras and Murray to date . He also earned more than $25 million a year through endorsements during his career which was ranked fourth in all sports at the time.Post-retirement.Since retiring after the 2006 US Open Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5 2007 he was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon teaming with his wife Steffi Graf to play with Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009. At the 2009 French Open Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam with the trophy.Also in 2009 Agassi played at the Outback Champions Series event for the first time. He played the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships at Surprise Arizona where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion Todd Martin. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in Boston and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas.In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in San Jose, beating John McEnroe in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat Michael Chang for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat James Blake for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in Portland to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to Mark Philippoussis in the final of the Champions Shootout. The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston.In 2009, in Macau Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the earthquake. Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, the old rivals began making jokes at each others body. After the event, Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at Madison Square Garden in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets. On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual World Tennis Day. This time, it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets.He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to Novak Djokovic for the French Open. Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31 2018 stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship.Playing style.Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court.Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the baseline and he was able to consistently take the ball on the rise. While he was growing up his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach Brad Gilbert in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. A signature play later in his career was a change-up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it.Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. Despite grass being his worst surface, his first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time. His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors.Business ventures.Agassi established a limited liability company named Andre Agassi Ventures . Agassi along with five athlete partners opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named Official All Star Caf in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001.In 1999 he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006.In 2002 he joined the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry and made an equity investment in the network. After meeting chef Michael Mina at one of his restaurants in San Francisco Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco San Jose Dana Point Atlantic City and Las Vegas. Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin from MGM Mirage for $215 million in 2004. One year later the group sold the hotel-casino to Landry's Inc. for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007 he sat on the board of Meadows Bank an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by Allen & Company.Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE a nightclub at Caesars Palace which opened in 2004 and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010. In August 2006 Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises. They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection. In September Agassi and Graf through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC along with Bayview Financial LP finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel Fairmont Tamarack at Tamarack Resort in Donnelly Idaho. Owing to difficult market conditions and delays they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September they collaborated with Steve Case's Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers.They also invested in online ticket reseller viagogo in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company.In October 2012, Village Roadshow and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build a new water park called WetWild Las Vegas in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013.IMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with CAA.Equipment and endorsements.Agassi used Prince Graphite rackets early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers Donnay. He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket and Heads charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike.Agassi was sponsored by DuPont, Ebel, Mountain Dew in 1993, Mazda in 1997, Kia Motors in 2002, American Express and Deutsche Bank in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc., promoting the Canon EOS Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by Aramis, and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with 24 Hour Fitness, which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end. Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker Jacobs Creek announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to " personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court." In 2007, watchmaker Longines named Agassi as their brand ambassador.Agassi and his mother appeared in a Got Milk? advertisement in 2002.Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed Deutsche Telekom in 2002 Genworth Financial and Canon Inc. in 2004 LVMH in 2007 and Nintendo Wii and Wii Fit U and Longines in 2013.Personal life.Relationships and family.In the early 1990s, after dating Wendi Stewart, Agassi dated American singer and entertainer Barbra Streisand. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, He was married to Brooke Shields from 1997 to 1999.He married Steffi Graf on October 22 2001 at their Las Vegas home the only witnesses were their mothers. They have two children son Jaden Gil and daughter Jaz Elle . Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players. The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin a community in the Las Vegas Valley. Graf's mother and brother Michael with his four children also live there.Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi. In 2012 Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment BILT By Agassi and Reyes. In December 2008 Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager Perry Rogers sued Graf for $50000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.Autobiography.Agassi's autobiography, "", , was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father, who came to the United States from Iran where he was a professional boxer. Overly demanding and emotionally abusive to the whole family, his father groomed young Agassi for tennis greatness by building a tennis court in their backyard and sending Agassi to tennis boarding school under the supervision of Nick Bollettieri, who later coached and managed part of Agassi's professional career.There is also mention in the book of using and testing positive for methamphetamine in 1997. In response to this revelation, Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed, while Marat Safin argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that "It was a period in my life where I needed help."Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought Pete Sampras was "robotic".The book reached No. 1 on the .In 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film , which highlighted the troubled relationship between his coach Nick Bollettieri and him.Agassi has donated more than $100000 to Democratic candidates and $2000 to Republicans. On September 1 2010 when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program "The Brian Lehrer Show" he stated that he is registered as Independent.Philanthropy.Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994 which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He has been cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation.Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics.In 2001 Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009 the graduating class had a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children Child Haven. In 1997 Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001 and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases.In 2007 along with several other athletes Agassi founded the charity Athletes for Hope which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change focusing on the "nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses."In September 2013 the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation.In February 2014 Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building in Las Vegas as a new school called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in Henderson Nevada to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas which will relocate from its campus inside a church.Career statistics.Grand Slam finals .By winning the 1999 French Open Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history to achieve this.Considered by numerous sources to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game and was described by the BBC upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history". As a result he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s. +The Austroasiatic languages also known as Mon–Khmer are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand India Bangladesh Nepal and southern China. There are around 117 million speakers of Austroasiatic languages. Of these languages only Vietnamese Khmer and Mon have a long-established recorded history. Only two have official status as modern national languages Vietnamese in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar the Wa language is the de facto official language of Wa State. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status."Ethnologue" identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families which have traditionally been grouped into two as Mon–Khmer and Munda. However one recent classification posits three groups while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether making it synonymous with the larger family.Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across Southeast Asia and parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal and East Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant original languages of Mainland Southeast Asia , with the neighboring, and sometimes surrounding, Kra–Dai, Hmong-Mien, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan languages being the result of later migrations.The name "Austroasiatic" comes from a combination of the Latin words for "South" and "Asia", hence "South Asia".Regarding word structure Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial unstressed reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes such as the causative prefix ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants. As for word formation most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes many have infixes but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches.The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast either between modal voice and breathy voice or between modal voice and creaky voice. Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast.However some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases such as Vietnamese tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages whereas Khmer which had more influence from Sanskrit has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.Proto-language.Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's "Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary". Little work has been done on the Munda languages which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as followsThis is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the Katuic languages which Sidwell has specialized in.Internal classification.Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh, parts of Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published.Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review.In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra , the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo .Diffloth (1974).Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in "Encyclopdia Britannica" and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in "Ethnologue."Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal structure below.Diffloth (2005).Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have:Or in more detailPaul Sidwell in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loanwords finds little evidence for internal branching though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic.He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly.Subsequently Sidwell proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other.A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b) suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious.Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China.Sidwell tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4000 B.P. cultivated rice and millet kept livestock such as dogs pigs and chickens and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.At 4500 B.P. this suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3800 B.P. However Sidwell found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai Chinese Tibetan Malay and other languages.During the Iron Age about 2500 B.P. relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as Vietic Katuic Pearic and Khmer were formed while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.Paul Sidwell considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items form part of the later stratum.Roger Blench suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river valley' 'boat' 'fish' 'catfish sp.' 'eel' 'prawn' 'shrimp' 'crab' 'tortoise' 'turtle' 'otter' 'crocodile' 'heron fishing bird' and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina dates back to only about 4000 years ago with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6000 B.P.Sidwell proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4000-4500 years before present. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic Palaungic and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red Valley valley. Based on their current distributions about half of all Austroasiatic branches can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals.Hence this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock crops and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area such as Sino-Tibetan.Sidwell (2018).Sidwell (2018) (quoted in Sidwell 2021) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included.Possible extinct branches.Roger Blench also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages.Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are:John Peterson suggests that "pre-Munda" languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages while western Indo-Aryan languages do not.Writing systems.Other than Latin-based alphabets many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer Thai Lao and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages.External relations.Austric languages.Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis which also includes the Austronesian languages and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the Hmong–Mien languages.Hmong-Mien.Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt . This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze.According to Cai Hmong–Mien is at least partially related to Austroasiatic but was heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan especially Tibeto-Burman languages.Indo-Aryan languages.It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha and the Ngas.Austroasiatic migrations.suggests that Haplogroup O1b1 which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China and haplogroup O1b2 which is common in today Japanese Koreans and some Manchu are the carriers of Yangtze civilization . Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Yayoi people.A 2021 study by Tagore et al. found that proto-Austroasiatic-speakers originated from an Basal-East Asian source population, native to Mainland Southeast Asia and Northeast India, which also gave rise to other East Asian-related lineages, including Northeast Asians and Native Americans. From Mainland Southeast Asia, the Austroasiatic-speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and Maritime Southeast Asia. There is evidence that continuing migration of agriculturalists from more northerly East Asia merged with "southern East Asians", forming modern day Southeast Asians, and contributed to the fragmentation observed among modern day Austroasiatic-speakers. Similarly, Austroasiatic-speakers in India intermixed with local tribals. The authors also found that the ancient Hoabinhian people likely spoke a variant of Proto-Austroasiatic, and had largely "southern East Asian ancestry". They concluded that their new genetic evidence does not support a partial relationship between Hoabinhians and Andamanese (Onge)/Papuans, as suggested by Mc.Coll 2018 and Chuan-Chao Wang, but in contrary, points to genetic influence (geneflow) from "East Asian-related" groups towards the Onge/Andamanese (previous studies estimated about 32% East Asian-related ancestry in Andamanese people). Additionally, it was found that East Asian-like ancestry (East-Eurasians) originated in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China, and expanded from this region towards the South and North respectively in several waves. The authors finally concluded that genetics do not necessarily correspond with linguistic identity, pointing to the fragmentation of modern Austroasiatic-speakers.Larena et al. 2021 confirmed the origin of Basal-East Asians in Mainland Southeast Asia. Distinctive Basal-East Asian ancestry is estimated to have formed more than 50000 years ago and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards. This sets back the time period for the origin of East Asian-like groups from 40000 BC to 50000 BC. Early Austroasiatic-speakers are estimated to have originated from an lineage which splitted from these Basal-East Asians between 25000 to 15000 years ago and were among the first wave to largely replace the distinct Australasian-related groups of Insular Southeast Asia. Evidence for Austroasiatic substratum among Austronesian languages in Western Indonesia noteworthy among the Dayak languages is strengthened by genetic data. According to a recent genetic study Sundanese Javanese and Balinese has almost an equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages.Migration into India.According to Chaubey et al. According to Riccio et al. the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia.According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al, suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya. +Afroasiatic also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic Semito-Hamitic or Erythraean is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia North Africa the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. With the exception of Semitic all branches of the Afrosiatic family are spoken exclusively on the African continent.Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth largest number of native speakers of any language family . The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic, however the inclusion of Omotic remains controversial, and several linguists see it as independent language family, which stood in long-term contact with Afroasiatic languages. By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is Arabic. A "de facto" group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch, the languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family, and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew and Old Aramaic. There is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family, or the period when the parent language was spoken. Proposed locations include the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Eastern Sahara and the Levant.In the early 19th century, linguists grouped the Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian languages within a were etymologically derived from the Book of Genesis, which describes various Biblical tribes descended from Ham and Shem, two sons of Noah. By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out.Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" for the entire language family in his "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft" . Maurice Delafosse later coined the term "Afroasiatic" . However, it did not come into general use until Joseph Greenberg formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that 'Hamitic' was not a valid group and that language cladistics did not reflect race.Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" and "Lisramic" . In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic" the Russian linguist Igor Diakonoff later suggested the term "Afrasian" meaning "half African half Asiatic" in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages.The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries, as well as in the official census of the government of India.Distribution and branches.Scholars generally treat the Afroasiatic language family as including the following five branches whereas Omotic is disputedAlthough there is general agreement on these six families, linguists who study Afroasiatic raise some points of disagreement, in particular:Demographics.In descending order of the number of speakers, widely-spoken Afroasiatic languages include:Classification history.In the 9th century the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret in Algeria became the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic Hebrew and Aramaic. In the course of the 19th century Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844 Theodor Benfey proposed a language family consisting of Semitic Berber and Cushitic . In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty.Friedrich Mller named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft" , and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. It was the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical gender system. This "Hamitic language group" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient Egyptian language, the Berber languages, the Cushitic languages, the Beja language, and the Chadic languages. Unlike Mller, Lepsius saw Hausa and Nama as part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments for grouping particular languages together.In 1912 Carl Meinhof published "Die Sprachen der Hamiten" in which he expanded Lepsius's model adding the Fula Maasai Bari Nandi Sandawe and Hadza languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported in the 1940s. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that "speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'." However in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of language mixture". Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages.Leo Reinisch had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However his suggestion found little acceptance. Marcel Cohen rejected the idea of a distinct for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus.Greenberg developed his model fully in his book , in which he reassigned most of Meinhofs classification remains a starting point for modern work on many languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category has no part in this.Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages have not been shown to form an exclusive phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family.In 1969 Harold Fleming proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic suggesting for it the new name "Omotic". This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance.Based on typological differences with the other Cushitic languages, Robert Hetzron proposed that Beja has to be removed from Cushitic, thus forming an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Most scholars, however, reject this proposal, and continue to group Beja as the sole member of a Northern branch within Cushitic. does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families South Omotic Mao Dizoid Gonga–Gimojan Ongota and Kujarge.Subgrouping.Little agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic Semitic Egyptian Berber Chadic Cushitic and Omotic. However Christopher Ehret Harold Fleming and Joseph Greenberg all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first.Position among the world's languages.Afroasiatic is one of the four major language families spoken in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book . It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe.There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following:Date of Afroasiatic.The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an Ancient Egyptian inscription dated to c. 3400 BC . Symbols on Gerzean pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from Proto-Afroasiatic and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7500 BC and approximately 16000 BC . According to Igor M. Diakonoff Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10000 BC. Christopher Ehret asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11000 BC at the latest and possibly as early as c. 16000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other proto-languages.Afroasiatic Urheimat.The Afroasiatic "urheimat" the hypothetical place where Proto-Afroasiatic language speakers lived in a single linguistic community or complex of communities before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages is unknown. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in West Asia North Africa the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the Sahara pump operating over the last 10000 years.While there is no definitive agreement on when or where the original homeland of this language family existed, many link the first speakers to the first farmers in the Levant who would later spread to North and East Africa. Others argue the first speakers were pre-agricultural and based in North East Africa.Similarities in grammar and syntax.Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include:One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation , with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with / t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/.According to Ehret tonal languages appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones phonemically.The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called by Kossmann & Suchard and Putten ). Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established.Shared vocabulary.The following are some examples of Afroasiatic cognates including ten pronouns three nouns and three verbs.There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic one by Christopher Ehret and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so that represent a fragile consensus of present researchEtymological bibliography.Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: +Andorra officially the Principality of Andorra is a sovereign landlocked microstate on the Iberian Peninsula in the eastern Pyrenees bordered by France to the north and Spain to the south. Believed to have been created by Charlemagne Andorra was ruled by the count of Urgell until 988 when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell. The present principality was formed by a charter in 1278. It is headed by two co-princes the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia Spain and the President of France. Its capital and also its largest city is Andorra la Vella.Andorra is the sixth-smallest state in Europe, having an area of and a population of approximately . The Andorran people are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent. Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and the 11th-smallest by population. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of above sea level. The official language is Catalan, but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken.Tourism in Andorra sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. Andorra is not a member state of the European Union, but the euro is its official currency. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. In 2013, Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, according to the Global Burden of Disease Study.The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word Andorra is from the Greek historian Polybius who describes the Andosins, an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars. The word Andosini or Andosins may derive from the Basque ' whose meaning is "big" or "giant". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ' .Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from , meaning . When the Arabs and Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule.Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese andurrial, which means .The folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of Endor or Andor , a name bestowed by his heir and son Louis the Pious after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell".Prehistory.La Balma de la Margineda found by archaeologists at Sant Juli de Lria was settled in 9500 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege and Segre.During the Neolithic Age, a group of people moved to the Valley of Madriu as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed a commercial trade with people from the Segre and Occitania.Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet and Feixa del Moro both dated in 4900–4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to a complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins, and relicaries can be found in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country.The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of Canillo, about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone murals.Iberian and Roman Andorra.The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini () during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the Aquitanian Basque and Iberian languages the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his during the Punic Wars.Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc dOral in Encamp.The presence of Roman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Juli de Lria, and in some places in Encamp, as well as in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet (the present-day La Seu d'Urgell) and all across Segre through the Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana).Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne.After the fall of the Roman Empire, Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths, the Kingdom of Toledo, and the Diocese of Urgell. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time Christianity spread. When the Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the Franks.Tradition holds that Charles the Great granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of five thousand soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver in return for fighting against the Moors near Port-Puymorens .Andorra remained part of the Frankish or a local municipal charter circa 805.In 988 Borrell II Count of Urgell gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then the Bishop of Urgell based in Seu d'Urgell has been Co-prince of Andorra.The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the . The old document dated from 839 depicts the six old parishes of the Andorran valleys and therefore the administrative division of the country.Medieval Age The Parages and the founding of the Co-Principality.Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the lord of Caboet for help and protection. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellb. Their daughter, Ermessenda, married the count of Foix, Roger-Bernard II. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell.In the 13th century a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon Peter III between the bishop and the count by the signing of the first parage which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix and the bishop of Urgell in Catalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form.A second parage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar. The document was ratified by the noble notary Jaume Orig of Puigcerd and the construction of military structures in the country was prohibited.In 1364 the political organization of the country named the figure of the syndic as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes making possible the creation of local departments . After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count John I, the Consell de la Terra or Consell General de les Valls was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Als and the General Council organized the creation of the Justice Courts in 1433 with the co-Princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc .Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century Andorra developed exquisite Romanesque Art during the 9th through 14th centuries particularly in the construction of churches bridges religious murals and statues of the Virgin and Child . Nowadays the Romanesque buildings that form part of AndorraEngolasters Sant Mart de la Cortinada and the medieval bridges of Margineda and Escalls among many others.The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon.The local population based its economy during the Middle Ages in livestock and agriculture as well as in furs and weavers. Later at the end of the 11th century the first iron foundries began to appear in Northern Parishes like Ordino much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century.16th to 18th centuries.In 1601 the Tribunal de Corts was created as a result of Huguenot rebellions in France, Inquisition courts coming from Spain and witchcraft-related beliefs native to the area, in the context of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation.With the passage of time the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry III of Navarre became king of France he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra a political arrangement that continues up to the present time.During 1617 communal councils form the sometent to deal with the rise of bandolerisme and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition organization and competences current today.Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. The fair of Andorra la Vella was ratified by the co-princes in 1371 and 1448 being the most important annual national festival commercially ever since.The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors located in Escaldes-Engordany founded in 1604 taking advantage of the thermal waters of the area. By this time the country was characterized by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition) deriving from the tradition of pubilla and hereu.Three centuries after its foundation the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall in 1702. The manor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys representative of each Andorran parish and where the Andorran constitution and other documents and laws were kept later on.In both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession the Andorran people supported the Catalans who saw their rights reduced in 1716. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra with cultural works such as the "Book of Privileges" "Manual Digest" by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the "Polit andorr" by Antoni Puig.19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question.After the French Revolution Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813 the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during the Peninsular War and divided the region into four dpartements with Andorra as a part of the district of Puigcerd. In 1814 an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra.During this period AndorraAreny-Plandolit led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state.The New Reform () began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the constitution and symbolssuch as the tricolour flagof Andorra. A new service economy arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines.The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict for the Andorran people. The conflict led to the so-called revolution of 1881, when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Bar i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies.From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and La Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany. After a day of combat the Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over the – the "Andorran Question" in relation to the Eastern Question. The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885.Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan Renaixena. Between 1882 and 1887 the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language Catalan. Romantic authors from France and Spain reported the awakening of the national consciousness of the country. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixena with writer and photographer Joaquim de Riba.In 1848, Fromental Halvy had premiered the opera to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War.20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra.In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes ; the revolt led by Joves Andorrans called for political reforms, the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defense of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel Ren-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilization of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Sndic Francesc Cairat.On 6 July 1934 adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff with his promise of freedoms and modernization of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell declaring himself Boris I King of Andorra simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Just Guitart i Vilardeb and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940 a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by well-known Colonel Ren-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and also face the rise of Republicanism in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain, two fascist states. Many Andorrans criticized the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and being sympathetic to Francoism. General Council members justified the councils survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain groups organized themselves to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the groups that were most prominent there was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command. The Evasion Network Command, in contact with the British Mi6, helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were Allied military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents within Andorra.In the capital city there was a smuggling black market network of propaganda culture and cinematic art not prone to totalitarian regimes promulgated in some places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel as a meeting place for people of ideologies close to Andorran and Spanish Republicanism and Free France. The network was maintained after the war when film societies were formed where movies music and books censored in Franco's Spain were imported thus becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorr) an anti-fascist organization linked to the Occitanie's French Resistance accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration with Nazism.The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps toward the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with Banc Agrcol and Crdit Andorr , later with Banca Mora , Banca Cassany and SOBANCA . Shortly after activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created .The Andorran Government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness.Andorra lived an era commonly known as along with the Trente Glorieuses: the mass culture rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this event was Rdio Andorra, number one transmitter musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of chanson franaise, swing, rhythm & blues, jazz, rock and roll or American country music. During this period Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy.Given its relative isolation Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history with few ties to countries other than France Spain and Portugal. In recent times however its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country sees the need to reform Andorran institutions due to the anachronisms in the field of sovereignty human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra under the name of Executive Board chaired by the first prime minister scar Ribas Reig with the approval of the Co-Princes. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularize trade relations.Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the Andorran constitutional referendum, when the constitution was drafted by the Co-Princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year. The same year Andorra became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe.Andorra formalized diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996 participating in the 51st UN General Assembly a very important fact in view of the normalization that the country aspired to. First General Syndic Marc Forn took part on a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organization and after three days Forn took part in the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe to defend the linguistic rights and the economy of Andorra. In mid-2006 the monetary agreement with the European Union is formalized which allows Andorra to use the euro in an official way as well as coin its own Euro currency.Andorra is a parliamentary co-principality with the president of France and the Catholic bishop of Urgell as co-princes. This peculiarity makes the president of France, in his capacity as prince of Andorra, an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy with a unicameral legislature, and of a pluriform multi-party system. The head of government is the chief executive.The current head of government is Xavier Espot Zamora of the Democrats for Andorra . Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament.The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors. The councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council.Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes and the other half of the councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session the Syndic General who is the head of the General Council and the Subsyndic General his assistant are elected. Eight days later the Council convenes once more. During this session the head of government is chosen from among the councillors.Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be head of government. The Syndic General then notifies the co-princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the head of government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra.The council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it.If the head of government is not satisfied with the council he may request that the co-princes dissolve the council and order new elections. In turn the councillors have the power to remove the head of government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors the council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes the head of government is removed.Law and criminal justice.The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the head of government, one each by the co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the judges and magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms.The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court.Foreign relations defence and security.Andorra does not have its own armed forces although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain. However in case of emergencies or natural disasters the Sometent is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans and especially the head of each house should by law keep a rifle even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. Andorra is a full member of the United Nations the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and has a special agreement with the European Union it also has observer status at the World Trade Organization . On 16 October 2020 Andorra became the 190th member of the International Monetary Fund during the COVID-19 pandemic.Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being a landlocked country, Andorra has no navy.Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capit or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capit). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell.In the modern era the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities.The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie, with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of Ren-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six Corporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish.Today a small twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. A shotgun per household is unregulated. Rifles and pistols require a license. The army has not fought for more than 700 years and its main responsibility is to present the flag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions. According to Marc Forn Moln Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations and the availability of full-time volunteers.In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees, where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units.Police Corps.Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing criminal detection border control and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs mountain rescue and a bomb disposal team.The "Grup d'Intervenci Policia d'Andorra" (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in counter-terrorism, and hostage recovery tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the Police Corps, and not the army. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing.Fire brigade.The Andorran Fire Brigade with headquarters at Santa Coloma operates from four modern fire stations and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances four light support vehicles and four ambulances.Historically the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961.The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.Andorra consists of seven parishesPhysical geography.Due to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream the Gran Valira river leaves the country for Spain . Andorra's land area is .Environment.Phytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Andorra belongs to the ecoregion of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests. Andorra had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries.Important Bird Area.The whole country has been recognised as a single Important Bird Area by BirdLife International, because it is important for forest and mountain birds and supports populations of red-billed choughs, citril finches and rock buntings.Andorra has alpine, continental and oceanic climates, depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of the Mediterranean climates make the country have a great diversity of microclimates that hinder the general dominance of the high mountain climate. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees.When in precipitation a global model characterized by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer which can last until autumn . In winter however it is less rainy except in the highlands subject to the influence of fronts from the Atlantic which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterized broadly by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality.Tourism the mainstay of Andorras duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts.One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year sustaining 2000 direct and 10000 indirect jobs at present since 2007.The banking sector, with its tax haven status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs . However, during the European sovereign-debt crisis of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercutting duty-free shopping and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter.Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead.Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the French franc and the Spanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014.Andorra has historically had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2019 it stood at 2%.On 31 May 2013 it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government Antoni Mart and the French President and Prince of Andorra Franois Hollande. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra .By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.Demographics.Population.The population of Andorra is estimated at (). The Andorrans are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent. The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900.Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.The historic and official language is Catalan a Romance language. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan Toponymy in Andorra and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan.Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries that have never signed the Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities.According to mother tongue percentage statistics by the Andorran Government released in 2018 the principality has the following:The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell. There are also members of various Protestant denominations. There are also small numbers of Muslims Hindus and Bah's and roughly 100 Jews. (See History of the Jews in Andorra.)Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government.There are three systems of school Andorran French and Spanish which use Catalan French and Spanish languages respectively as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools 33% attend French schools and 28% Spanish schools.University of Andorra.The Universitat d'Andorra is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing computer science business administration and educational sciences in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science the latter having a PhD programme.Virtual Studies Centre.The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre at the university runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism law Catalan philology humanities psychology political sciences audiovisual communication telecommunications engineering and East Asia studies. The centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals.Until the 20th century Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra.Andorra has a road network of , of which is unpaved. The two main roads out of Andorra la Vella are the CG-1 to the Spanish border near Sant Juli de Lria, and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near El Pas de la Casa. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to Barcelona and Toulouse, plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government.There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within AndorraUrgell Airport has operated commercial flights to Madrid and Palma de Mallorca, and is the main hub for Air Andorra and Andorra Airlines. As of 11 July 2018, there are no regular commercial flights at the airport.Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at Perpignan France and Lleida Spain . The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse France and Barcelona Spain . There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra.The nearest railway station is Andorre-LAndorre and Paris on certain dates.Media and telecommunications.In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as Andorra Telecom . The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. In 2010 Andorra became the first country to provide a direct optical fiber link to all homes and businesses.The first commercial radio station to broadcast was Radio Andorra which was active from 1939 to 1981. On 12 October 1989 the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA becoming on 13 April 2000 in the public company Rdio i Televisi dAndorra. As an autochthonous television channel there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisi created in 1995. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV.There are three national newspapers (1917) (1932) and (1933). In 1974 the became the first regular newspaper in Andorra. There is also an amateur radio society and news agency ANA with independent management.Andorra is home to folk dances like the contraps and marratxa, which survive in Sant Juli de Lria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially Catalan in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the sardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contraps in Andorra la Vella and Saint Annes national holiday is Our Lady of Meritxell Day, 8 September.Among the more important festivals and traditions are the Canlich Gathering in May the Roser d'Ordino in July the Meritxell Day the Andorra la Vella Fair the Sant Jordi Day the Santa Llcia Fair the Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo the Carnival of Encamp the sung of caramelles the Festivity of Sant Esteve and the Festa del Poble.Andorra participated regularly in the Eurovision Song Contest between 2004 and 2009, being the only participating country presenting songs in Catalan.In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady of Auviny, the Buner d'Ordino, the legend of Engolasters Lake and the legend of Our Lady of Meritxell.Andorran gastronomy is mainly Catalan although it has also adopted other elements of French and Italian cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of the Cerdanya and the Alt Urgell with whom it has a strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature as mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country are the quince all-i-oli the duck with winter pear the lamb in the oven with nuts pork civet the massegada cake the escarole with pear trees confited duck and mushrooms escudella spinach with raisins and pine nuts jelly marmalade stuffed murgues with pork dandelion salad and the Andorran trout of river. To drink the mulled wine and beer are also popular. Some of the dishes are very common in the mountainous regions of Catalonia such as trinxat embotits cooked snails rice with mushrooms mountain rice and mat.Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art are one of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque one allows to know the formation of the parochial communities, the relations of power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well as bridges, fortresses and manor houses of the same period.Summer solstice fire festivals in the Pyrenees was included as UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage in 2015. Also the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley became Andorra's first, and to date its only, UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, with a small extension in 2006.Andorra is famous for the practice of winter sports. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in the Pyrenees and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra include football rugby union basketball and roller hockey.For roller hockey, Andorra usually plays in CERH Euro Cup and in FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the 2011 European League Final Eight.The country is represented in association football by the Andorra national football team. The team gained its first competitive win in a European Championship qualifier on 11 October 2019 against Moldova. Football is governed in Andorra by the Andorran Football Federation – founded in 1994 it organizes the national competitions of association football and futsal. Andorra was admitted to UEFA and FIFA in the same year 1996. FC Andorra a club based in Andorra la Vella founded in 1942 compete in the Spanish football league system.Rugby is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The Andorra national rugby union team, nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage in rugby union and rugby sevens. VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella actually playing in the French championship.Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s when the Andorran team BC Andorra played in the top league of Spain . After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014.Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of .Andorra first participated at the Olympic Games in 1976. The country has appeared in every Winter Olympic Games since 1976. Andorra competes in the Games of the Small States of Europe being twice the host country in 1991 and 2005.As one of the Catalan Countries Andorra is home to a team of castellers or Catalan human tower builders. The based in the town of Santa Coloma d'Andorra are recognized by the the governing body of castells. +In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean , or simply the "mean" or the "average" , is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an experiment or an observational study, or frequently a set of results from a survey. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics, because it helps distinguish it from other means, such as the geometric mean and the harmonic mean.In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as economics, anthropology and history, and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, per capita income is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population.While the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies it is not a robust statistic meaning that it is greatly influenced by outliers . For skewed distributions such as the distribution of income for which a few peoples notion of and robust statistics such as the median may provide better description of central tendency.Definition.Given a data set formula_1 the arithmetic mean denoted formula_2 is the mean of the formula_4 values formula_5.The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a data set. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation, divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values formula_6, then the arithmetic mean formula_7 is defined by the formula:For example, consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean isIf the data set is a statistical population then the mean of that population is called the .The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for vectors in multiple dimension not only scalar values this is often referred to as a centroid. More generally because the arithmetic mean is a convex combination it can be defined on a convex space not only a vector space.Motivating properties.The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful especially as a measure of central tendency. These includeContrast with median.The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data increase arithmetically, when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample formula_19. The average is formula_20, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as formula_21, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2, while the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them.There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example since the 1980s the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.Generalizations.Weighted average.A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation.<ref> +The American Football Conference is one of the two conferences of the National Football League , the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference currently contains 16 teams organized into 4 divisions, as does its counterpart, the National Football Conference . Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 merger between the National Football League, and the American Football League . All ten of the AFL teams, and three NFL teams, became members of the new AFC, with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 teams in each conference. The current AFC champions are the Kansas City Chiefs, who defeated the Buffalo Bills in the 2020 AFC Championship Game for their second consecutive conference championship.Like the NFC the conference has 16 teams organized into four divisions each with four teams East North South and West.Season structure.This chart of the 2020 season standings displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The Chiefs in 2020 finished in first place in the AFC West. Thus in 2021 the Chiefs are scheduled to play two games against each of its division rivals one game against each team in the AFC North and NFC East and one game each against the first-place finishers in the AFC East AFC South and NFC North .Currently, the fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula:Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular teams prior-season divisional standing.At the end of each season, the four division winners and three wild cards in the AFC qualify for the playoffs. The AFC playoffs culminate in the AFC Championship Game, with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy. The AFC champion then plays the NFC champion in the Super Bowl.Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL) in 1970. The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams and added two more expansion clubs (the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the Cleveland Browns Pittsburgh Steelers and the then-Baltimore Colts) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions AFL East and AFL West were more or less intact while the NFL's Century Division in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967 was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970 the newly minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the 1970 season the National Football Conference however could not agree upon their setup and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16 1970.Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the Baltimore Colts relocated to Indianapolis. In 1995, the Cleveland Browns had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting dispute between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the Baltimore Ravens with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team.In California, the Oakland Raiders relocated to Los Angeles in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to Las Vegas in 2020, while the San Diego Chargers returned to Los Angeles in 2017 after 56 years in San Diego.The Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the Tennessee Titans.The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the Houston Texans to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since.Between 1995 and 2020 the AFC has sent only half of its 16 teams to the Super Bowl New England Patriots Denver Broncos Pittsburgh Steelers Baltimore Ravens Indianapolis Colts Kansas City Chiefs Las Vegas Raiders and Tennessee Titans . By contrast the NFC has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the Detroit Lions Minnesota Vikings and Washington Football Team missing out on an appearance in the Super Bowl. 16 of the last 19 AFC champions have started one of just three quarterbacks - Tom Brady Peyton Manning and Ben Roethlisberger - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 6 quarterbacks in the last 19 Super Bowls while the NFC has started 16.The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars and moving the stars inside the letter similar to the NFC logo.Television.NBC aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, CBS was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoff games have been seen on ABC or ESPN. +Animal Farm is a satirical allegorical novella by George Orwell first published in England on 17 August 1945. The book tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal free and happy. Ultimately the rebellion is betrayed and the farm ends up in a state as bad as it was before under the dictatorship of a pig named Napoleon.According to Orwell, the fable reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the May Days conflicts between the POUM and Stalinist forces during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union had become a totalitarian autocracy built upon a cult of personality while engaging in the practice of mass incarcerations and secret summary trials and executions. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described "Animal Farm" as a satirical tale against Stalin , and in his essay "Why I Write" , wrote that "Animal Farm" was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole".The original title was a symbol of Russia. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union '.Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the United Kingdom was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany, and the British intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War."Time" magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels and number 46 on the BBC's The Big Read poll. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.Plot summary.The poorly-run Manor Farm near Willingdon England is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer Mr. Jones. One night the exalted boar Old Major holds a conference at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England". When Old Major dies two young pigs Snowball and Napoleon assume command and stage a revolt driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism the most important of which is "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. To commemorate the start of Animal Farm Snowball raises a green flag with a white hoof and horn. Food is plentiful and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items ostensibly for their personal health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm Snowball announces his plans to modernise the farm by building a windmill. Napoleon disputes this idea and matters come to head which culminate in Napoleon's dogs chasing Snowball away and Napoleon declaring himself supreme commander.Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young porker named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea, claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals to his side. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project, and begin to purge the farm of animals accused by Napoleon of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones, even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage while falsely representing himself as the main hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with "Animal Farm", while an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man ("Comrade Napoleon"), is composed and sung. Napoleon then conducts a second purge, during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by Napoleon's dogs, which troubles the rest of the animals. Despite their hardships, the animals are easily placated by Napoleon's retort that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones, as well as by the sheep's continual bleating of “four legs good, two legs bad”.Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Although he recovers from this, Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill (being almost 12 years old at that point). He is taken away in a knacker's van, and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this, but Squealer quickly waves off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day. (However, Napoleon had in fact engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy whisky for themselves.)Years pass the windmill is rebuilt and another windmill is constructed which makes the farm a good amount of income. However the ideals that Snowball discussed including stalls with electric lighting heating and running water are forgotten with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Snowball has been forgotten alongside Boxer with "the exception of the few who knew him". Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones is also dead saying he "died in an inebriates' home in another part of the country". The pigs start to resemble humans as they walk upright carry whips drink alcohol and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase "All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." The maxim "Four legs good two legs bad" is similarly changed to "Four legs good two legs better." Other changes include the Hoof and Horn flag being replaced with a plain green banner and Old Major's skull which was previously put on display being reburied.Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the Ace of Spades at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two.Genre and style.George Orwell's "Animal Farm" is an example of a political satire that was intended to have a "wider application", according to Orwell himself, in terms of its relevance. Stylistically, the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works, most notably "1984", as both have been considered works of Swiftian Satire. Furthermore, these two prominent works seem to suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for humanity; he seems to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar to those in "Animal Farm" and "1984". In these kinds of works, Orwell distinctly references the disarray and traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War. Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with the pursuit of truth in writing. Orwell was committed to communicating in a way that was straightforward, given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and confuse. For this reason, he is careful, in "Animal Farm", to make sure the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion. The difference is seen in the way that the animals speak and interact, as the generally moral animals seem to speak their minds clearly, while the wicked animals on the farm, such as Napoleon, twist language in such a way that it meets their own insidious desires. This style reflects Orwell's close proximation to the issues facing Europe at the time and his determination to comment critically on Stalin's Soviet Russia.Background.Origin and writing.George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and February 1944 after his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in "Homage to Catalonia" . In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of "Animal Farm", he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries." This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals. "Homage to Catalonia" sold poorly; after seeing Arthur Koestler's best-selling, "Darkness at Noon", about the Moscow Trials, Orwell decided that fiction was the best way to describe totalitarianism.Immediately prior to writing the book Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.In the preface, Orwell described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:In 1944 the manuscript was almost lost when a German V-1 flying bomb destroyed his London home. Orwell spent hours sifting through the rubble to find the pages intact.Publication.Publishing.Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain the United States and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused to publish "Animal Farm" yet one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.During the Second World War it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber where the poet T. S. Eliot rejected it Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity" but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally Trotskyite". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing" and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm he posited that someone might argue "what was needed ... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs". Orwell let Andr Deutsch who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944 read the typescript and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it however they did not and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in "Animal Farm"." In his "London Letter" on 17 April 1944 for "Partisan Review" Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle."The publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted "Animal Farm", subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off – although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the "important official" was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Adolf Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper "Posev", and in giving permission for a Russian translation of "Animal Farm", Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate "Animal Farm". Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with "Animal Farm" – an excellent bit of satire – it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of "Animal Farm".Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:Although the first edition allowed space for the preface it was not included and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.Secker and Warburg published the first edition of in 1945 without an introduction. However the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown no preface was supplied and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.In 1972 Ian Angus found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press" and Bernard Crick published it together with his own introduction in "The Times Literary Supplement" on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of "Animal Farm" with another introduction by Crick claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American ."The Guardian" on 24 August 1945 called "Animal Farm" "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few". Tosco Fyvel writing in "Tribune" on the same day called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." Julian Symons responded on 7 September "Should we not expect in "Tribune" at least acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin and Snowball with Trotsky and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps "Animal Farm" may be simply a fairy story today it is a political satire with a good deal of point." "Animal Farm" has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.The CIA, from 1952 to 1957 in Operation Aedinosaur, sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down."Time" magazine chose "Animal Farm" as one of the 100 best English-language novels it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.Popular reading in schools "Animal Farm" was ranked the UK's favourite book from school in a 2016 poll."Animal Farm" has also faced an array of challenges in school settings around the US. The following are examples of this controversy that has existed around Orwell's work:"Animal Farm" has also faced similar forms of resistance in other countries. The ALA also mentions the way that the book was prevented from being featured at the International Book Fair in Moscow, Russia, in 1977 and banned from schools in the United Arab Emirates for references to practices or actions that defy Arab or Islamic beliefs, such as pigs or alcohol.In the same manner, "Animal Farm" has also faced relatively recent issues in China. In 2018, the government made the decision to censor all online posts about or referring to "Animal Farm". However the book itself, as of 2019, remains sold in stores. Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of "The Atlantic" stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in Mainland China for several reasons: the general public by and large no longer reads books, because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway, and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products as a liability. The authors stated "It was—and remains—as easy to buy "1984" and "Animal Farm" in Shenzhen or Shanghai as it is in London or Los Angeles."An enhanced version of the book launched in India in 2017 was widely praised for capturing the author's intent by republishing the proposed preface of the First Edition and the preface he wrote for the Ukrainian edition.The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism, not to be confused with the philosophy Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans , which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.The original commandments are:These commandments are also distilled into the maxim which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.Later Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows with the changes boldedEventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.Significance and allegory.Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution ... I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages."The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwells conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison contend that the "Battle of the Windmill", specifically referencing the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow, represents World War II. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Jzef Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion.Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball parallelling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another Trotskyism with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny" Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo and Frederick's forged bank notes parallelling the Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939 after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Tehran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West" – but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, each "played an ace of spades simultaneously".Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with "Beasts of England" and the later anthems, parallels "The Internationale" and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.Adaptations.Stage productions.In 2021, the National Youth Theatre toured a stage version of "Animal Farm".A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premired at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.A theatrical version with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984 directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties including sanitising some aspects.Andy Serkis is directing a film adaptation for Netflix with Matt Reeves producing. Serkis began work on the film after finishing directing duties for "".Radio dramatisations.A BBC radio version produced by Rayner Heppenstall was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square London with Hugh Gordon Porteous amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous A further radio production again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer and Ralph Ineson as Boxer.Comic strip.In 1950 Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired by the Information Research Department , a secret wing of the British Foreign Office, to adapt into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K. but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers. +Amphibians are ectothermic tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats with most species living within terrestrial fossorial arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this.The young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to lizards but along with mammals and birds reptiles are amniotes and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins amphibians are often ecological indicators in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations for many species around the globe.The earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia.The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura , Urodela , and Apoda . The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian in the world is a frog from New Guinea with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the South China giant salamander , but this is dwarfed by the extinct from the middle Permian of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology.Classification.The word is derived from the Ancient Greek term , which means . The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense was divided into three subclasses, two of which are extinct:The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb University of California Berkeley and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History available as the online reference database . The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species as of March 31 2019 is exactly 8000 of which nearly 90% are frogs.With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy, and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group.All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia which is usually considered a clade a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura Caudata and Gymnophiona . It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians and thus of amniotes. Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known the oldest "true frog" is "Prosalirus bitis" from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species "Eocaecilia micropodia" also from Arizona. The earliest salamander is "Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis" from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China.Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders, but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, "Triadobatrachus".Evolutionary history.The first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian period around 370 million years ago from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods including modern amphibians reptiles birds and mammals. Despite being able to crawl on land many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs but still breathed predominantly with gills.Many examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered. with five or more digits the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills diminished in size and became the stapes of the amphibian ear an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra-occipital bones at the back of the head neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom.At the end of the Devonian period the seas rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates though some such as may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal. In the early Carboniferous the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with mosses ferns horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. They were the top land predators sometimes reaching several metres in length preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the amniotic egg which prevents the developing embryo from drying out that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed.After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian–Triassic extinction event. During the Triassic Period the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the biosphere. According to the fossil record Lissamphibia which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating but the most recent molecular study based on multilocus sequence typing suggests a Late Carboniferous/Early Permian origin for extant amphibians.The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny based on rDNA analysis suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic (around 250 million years ago) before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period and the swiftness with which radiation took place would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the fossil record but the discovery of a Gerobatrachus hottoni from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. Molecular analysis suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence indicates. Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago and that stereospondyls are the closest relatives to the caecilians.As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss.Characteristics.The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps; the Anderson's salamander meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp.Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to paedomorphosis, caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates. Another reason for their size is associated with their rapid metamorphosis, which seems to have evolved only in the ancestors of lissamphibia; in all other known lines the development was much more gradual. Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they don't eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small. Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis inside the egg. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth.The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea ("Paedophryne amauensis") first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander ("Andrias davidianus") but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct "Prionosuchus", a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil. The largest frog is the African Goliath frog ("Conraua goliath"), which can reach and weigh .Amphibians are ectothermic vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes. Their metabolic rate is low and as a result their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state they have tear ducts and movable eyelids and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae with articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many mucous glands and in some species poison glands . The hearts of amphibians have three chambers two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin.The order Anura (from the Ancient Greek "a-" meaning "without" and "oura" meaning "tail") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin. Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with warty skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the "true toads". Frogs range in size from the Goliath frog of West Africa to the "Paedophryne amauensis", first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas.Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships. The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of primitive frogs. These are Ascaphidae Bombinatoridae Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages. The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae Pelobatidae Pelodytidae Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and the obligatorily aquatic Pipidae. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. Neobatrachia is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs including most common species. Ninety-six percent of the over 5000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians.The order Caudata consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with tubercles, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander , which has been reported to grow to a length of , to the diminutive "Thorius pennatulus" from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length. Salamanders have a mostly Laurasian distribution, being present in much of the Holarctic region of the northern hemisphere. The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin; South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the Miocene, 23 million years ago. Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the extant species of salamanders. Members of several salamander families have become paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults. Most salamanders are under long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates.The suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander ("Andrias davidianus"), the Japanese giant salamander ("Andrias japonicus") and the hellbender ("Cryptobranchus alleganiensis") from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right. The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has capillaries close to the surface.The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids the male deposits a bundle of sperm the spermatophore and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid. The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae the lungless salamanders which includes 60% of all salamander species. The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae.The third suborder Sirenoidea contains the four species of sirens which are in a single family Sirenidae. Members of this order are eel-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae for sperm storage. Despite this the eggs are laid singly a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.Gymnophiona.The order Gymnophiona or Apoda comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or worm-like form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres with the exception of Thomsons skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic. Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct. Caecilians have a mostly Gondwanan distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America.Anatomy and physiology.The structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands. Local thickenings are common such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the dermis between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds. To compensate for their thin and delicate skin amphibians have evolved mucous glands principally on their heads backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect. The main poison-producing glands the parotoids produce the neurotoxin bufotoxin and are located behind the ears of toads along the backs of frogs behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians.The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores , the guanophores and the lipophores . The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators.Skeletal system and locomotion.Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.In most amphibians there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel-like in appearance with tiny stubby legs. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side.In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging . In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Some salamanders in the genus "Aneides" and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails. In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has dorsal and ventral fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones.Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.Circulatory system.Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.Nervous and sensory systems.The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain. The brain consists of equal parts, cerebrum, midbrain and cerebellum. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians.Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes, to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called , in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals. The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound.The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the cornea becomes more dome-shaped, the lens becomes flatter, and eyelids and associated glands and ducts develop. The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.Digestive and excretory systems.Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage. The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey.Amphibians possess a pancreas liver and gall bladder. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen under the skin and in some salamanders in the tail.There are two kidneys located dorsally near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine while terrestrial species with a greater need to conserve water excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid.Respiratory system.The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes possessing few internal septa and large alveoli and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping. Most amphibians however are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration as in the Titicaca water frog and the hellbender salamander. In air where oxygen is more concentrated some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange most famously the plethodontid salamanders which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage with some retaining gills as aquatic adults.Reproduction.For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. ) can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid reported in 2010.Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., "Eleutherodactylus", the Pacific "Platymantis", the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for breeding in the wild. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing.In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active.In caecilians fertilisation is internal the male extruding an intromittent organ the and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Mllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct.The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these the male deposits a spermatophore a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone on the substrate either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.With a few exceptions frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs or in the case of is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the oviduct until the following spring.Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site the males usually arriving first calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females.There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with. Some species store sperm through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.Life cycle.Most amphibians go through metamorphosis, a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and prolactin, which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides. This capsule is permeable to water and gases and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality. Most eggs contain the pigment melanin which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against ultraviolet radiation. Caecilians some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the wood frog () the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to warmer than its surroundings which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat.The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The greenhouse frog lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage. The tungara frog builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female.The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders direct development takes place the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians the alpine salamander and some of the African live-bearing toads are viviparous. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct often for long periods. Other amphibians but not caecilians are ovoviviparous. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth either before or after metamorphosis according to their species. The toad genus "Nectophrynoides" exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members.Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks. Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration , lateral line systems and large tails that they use for swimming. Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak. Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later.Iodine and T4 also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria. They also feed on diatoms, filtered from the water through the gills, and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the Cuban tree frog () can occasionally be cannibalistic, the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis.At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.Salamanders.At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera "Ambystoma" and "Dicamptodon" have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The northwestern salamander is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as neoteny, or transforms into an adult. Both of these are able to breed. Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine. Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from conspecifics. The tiger salamander also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of "Necturus", "Proteus" and "Amphiuma", and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus , the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.Caecilians.Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of "Ichthyophis glutinosus", a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land.In the majority of species of caecilians the young are produced by viviparity. "Typhlonectes compressicauda" a species from South America is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first they feed on the yolks of the eggs but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis lost their eyes and gills developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth.The ringed caecilian has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca.Parental care.The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but in general the larger the number of eggs in a batch the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species one or both adults play some role in the care of the young. Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young.Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The black mountain salamander ("Desmognathus welteri") does this the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male hellbender a primitive salamander excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen.The male a tiny frog protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch the male transports the tadpoles on his back stuck there by a mucous secretion to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off. The male midwife toad winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The female gastric-brooding frog reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings however this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply. The pouched frog lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. The aquatic Surinam toad raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis. The granular poison frog is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family Dendrobatidae. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.Genetics and genomics.Amphibians are notable among vertebrates for their diversity of chromosomes and genomes. The karyotypes have been determined for at least 1,193 of the ~8,200 known species, including 963 anurans, 209 salamanders, and 21 caecilians. Generally, the karyotypes of diploid amphibians are characterized by 20–26 bi-armed chromosomes. Amphibians have also very large genomes compared to other taxa of vertebrates and corresponding variation in genome size . The genome sizes range from 0.95 to 11.5 pg in frogs, from 13.89 to 120.56 pg in salamanders, and from 2.94 to 11.78 pg in caecilians.The large genome sizes have prevented whole-genome sequencing of amphibians although a number of genomes have been published recently. The 1.7GB draft genome of was the first to be reported for amphibians in 2010. Compared to some salamanders this frog genome is tiny. For instance the genome of the Mexican axolotl turned out to be 32 Gb which is more than 10 times larger than the human genome .Feeding and diet.With a few exceptions adult amphibians are predators feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles caterpillars earthworms and spiders. The sirens () often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog () includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet. The Mexican burrowing toad () has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first their tongues being hinged at the front.Food is mostly selected by sight even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past. Toads salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell even in complete darkness.Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. They typically have small hinged pedicellate teeth, a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs ("Rana spp.") lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads ("Bufo spp.") have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also vomerine teeth attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth.The tiger salamander () is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians such as the toads actively search for prey while the Argentine horned frog () lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes. Among leaf litter frogs in Panama frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim often brightly coloured and toxic while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged. Caecilians do not flick their tongues but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole.When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic.Vocalization.The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the California giant salamander has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked.Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged. The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream. The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours.Territorial behaviour.Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species females are larger than males this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest arms or thumbs.In salamanders defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping chasing and sometimes biting occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of red back salamanders has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock. A similar proportion when moved experimentally a distance of found their way back to their home base. The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair. These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food.In frogs male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a "home advantage" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving deflating the opponent's vocal sac seizing him by the head jumping on his back biting chasing splashing and ducking him under the water.Defence mechanisms.Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed frogs , which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape. Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The rough-skinned newt from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin , the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake .In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity. Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity. Some frogs and toads are toxic the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated.Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad , the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew . Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands. A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant.Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads ("Pelobates spp") scream and leap towards the attacker. Giant salamanders of the genus "Andrias", as well as Ceratophrine and "Pyxicephalus" frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The blackbelly salamander ("Desmognathus quadramaculatus") can bite an attacking common garter snake ("Thamnophis sirtalis") two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.In amphibians there is evidence of habituation associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning and discrimination abilities.In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies , salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers and large numbers of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area.Conservation.Dramatic declines in amphibian populations including population crashes and mass localized extinction have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. In 2004 the International Union for Conservation of Nature reported stating that currently birds mammals and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1024 times higher.In 2006 there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including habitat destruction and modification, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, global warming, endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the ozone layer , and diseases like chytridiomycosis. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators. In many terrestrial ecosystems they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes. Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The western terrestrial garter snake in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers the Yosemite toad and the mountain yellow-legged frog putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. Meanwhile in the ponds and lakes fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.A global strategy to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation. Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians. One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis. +Alaska is a state in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., it borders the Canadian province of British Columbia and the territory of Yukon to the east and has a maritime border with Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug to the west, just across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas of the Arctic Ocean, while the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest.Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area comprising more total area than the next three largest states combined. It represents the seventh largest subnational division in the world. It is the third-least populous and the most sparsely populated state but by far the continent's most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel with a population of 736081 as of 2020—more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. The state capital of Juneau is the second-largest city in the United States by area comprising more territory than the states of Rhode Island and Delaware. The former capital of Alaska Sitka is the largest U.S. city by area.Alaska was occupied by various indigenous peoples for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. The state is considered the entry point for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Russians were the first Europeans to settle the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing Russian America, which spanned most of the current state. The expense and difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. in 1867 for US$7.2 million , or approximately two cents per acre . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.While it has one of the smallest state economies in the country Alaska's per capita income is among the highest owing to a diversified economy dominated by fishing natural gas and oil all of which it has in abundance. United States armed forces bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy more than half the state is federally owned public land including a multitude of national forests national parks and wildlife refuges.The indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally the highest of any U.S. state at over 15 percent. Close to two dozen native languages are spoken and Alaskan Natives exercise considerable influence in local and state politics.The name "Alaska" was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom "alaxsxaq" meaning "the mainland" or more literally "the object towards which the action of the sea is directed". It is also known as "Alyeska" the "great land" an Aleut word derived from the same root.Pre-colonization.Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringians.The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.The Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut peoplein people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people.Colonization.Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the icons". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River.The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the . After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.Between 1774 and 1800 Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez Bucareli Sound and Cordova. Later the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. Sitka renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867 on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeastern Alaska.William H. Seward the 24th United States Secretary of State negotiated the Alaska Purchase with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Russias house at where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day a legal holiday on October 18.Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially and was administered as a district starting in 1884 with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaskas first municipal government but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900 and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.Alaska as an incorporated U.S. territory.Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.During World War II the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu Agattu and Kiska all which were occupied by the Empire of Japan. During the Japanese occupation a white American civilian and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment. Unalaska/Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases for the United States Army United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy. The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by the U.S. Congress on July 7, 1958; Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.Good Friday earthquake.On March 27 1964 the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history with a moment magnitude of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the 1989 San Francisco earthquake). The time of day (536 pm) time of year (spring) and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives particularly in Anchorage.Alaska oil boom.The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward.That same year not coincidentally Alaska repealed its state income tax.In 1989 the "Exxon Valdez" hit a reef in the Prince William Sound spilling more than of crude oil over of coastline. Today the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.Located at the northwest corner of North America Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America about of British Columbia separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S. often called "the Lower 48". The capital city Juneau is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system.The state is bordered by Canada's Yukon and British Columbia to the east ; the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west; and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.At in area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States, and is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state, Texas. Alaska is the seventh largest subnational division in the world, and if it was an independent nation would be the 16th largest country in the world, as it is larger than Iran.With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.One of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than .Alaska has more than three million lakes. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover . Glacier ice covers about of Alaska. The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America covering alone.There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska but there are six widely accepted regionsSouth Central.The most populous region of Alaska containing Anchorage the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.The Interior is the largest region of Alaska much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali formerly Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in North America and is also located here.Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta one of the largest river deltas in the world is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands .North Slope.The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. The city of Utqiavik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.Aleutian Islands.More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain which stretches more than into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state and thus the entire North American continent within the same legal day. Two of the islands Attu and Kiska were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.Land ownership.According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages , or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising .Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns , its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.Another are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however.Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.Alaska Heritage Resources Survey.The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the U.S. state of Alaska it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects structures buildings sites districts and travel ways with a general provision that they are more than fifty years old. more than 35000 sites have been reported.Cities towns and boroughs.Alaska is not divided into counties as most of the other U.S. states but it is divided into . Delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention wanted to avoid the pitfalls of the traditional county system and adopted their own unique model. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A is a mechanism for management of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a state recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria fee schedule etc. for accepting documents into the public record.Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough and municipality .The state's most populous city is Anchorage home to 291247 people in 2020. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Denali . Yakutat City Sitka Juneau and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.Cities and census-designated places (by population).As reflected in the 2020 United States census Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places . The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska in population order.Of Alaska's 2020 U.S. census population figure of 733,391, 16,655 people, or 2.27% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census , but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.The climate in south and southeastern Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate and a subarctic oceanic climate in the northern parts. On an annual basis the southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over of precipitation a year and Ketchikan averages over . This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska it gets more snow and days tend to be clearer. On average Anchorage receives of precipitation a year with around of snow although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate due to its brief cool summers.The climate of western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley is technically a desert with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually. On the other extreme some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around of precipitation.The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is in Fort Yukon (which is just inside the arctic circle) on June 27 1915 making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in Prospect Creek on January 23 1971 one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag Yukon Canada).The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic () with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Utqiavik is . Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.Demographics.The United States Census Bureau found in the 2020 United States census that the population of Alaska was 736081 on April 1 2020 a 3.6% increase since the 2010 United States census. According to the 2010 United States census the U.S. state of Alaska had a population of 710231 increasing from 626932 at the 2000 U.S. census.In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming . Estimates show North Dakota ahead . Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest . due to its population size, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still have only one telephone area code.Race and ethnicity.The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 60.2% of the population was non-Hispanic white 3.7% Black or African American 15.6% American Indian or Alaska Native 6.5% Asian 1.4% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander 7.5% two or more races and 7.3% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. At the survey estimates 7.8% of the total population was foreign-born from 2015 to 2019. In 2015 61.3% was non-Hispanic white 3.4% Black or African American 13.3% American Indian or Alaska Native 6.2% Asian 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander 0.3% some other race and 7.7% multiracial. Hispanics and Latin Americans were 7% of the state population in 2015. From 2015 to 2019 the largest Hispanic and Latin American groups were Mexican Americans Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans. The largest Asian groups living in the state were Filipinos Korean Americans and Japanese and Chinese Americans.The state was 66.7% White , 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from some other race, and 7.3% from two or more races in 2010. Hispanics or Latin Americans of any race made up 5.5% of the population in 2010. , 50.7% of Alaskas population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.According to the 2011 American Community Survey 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language about 4.3% spoke an Asian language and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home. In 2019 the American Community Survey determined 83.7% spoke only English and 16.3% spoke another language other than English. The most spoken European language after English was Spanish spoken by approximately 4.0% of the state population. Collectively Asian and Pacific Islander languages were spoken by 5.6% of Alaskans. Since 2010 a total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 indigenous languages known locally as .The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families however some languages are thought to be isolates or have not yet been classified . nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened shifting moribund nearly extinct or dormant languages.In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages to have official status. This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010 about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. Of the religious population 100960 people identified as evangelical Protestants 50866 as Roman Catholic and 32550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4% were Mormon 0.5% Jewish 1% Muslim 0.5% Buddhist 0.2% Bah and 0.5% Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska was the Catholic Church with 50866 adherents non-denominational Evangelicals with 38070 adherents The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32170 adherents and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19891 adherents. Alaska has been identified along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon as being the least religious states of the USA in terms of church membership.The Pew Research Center in 2014 determined 62% of the adult population practiced Christianity. Protestantism was the largest Christian tradition dominated by Evangelicalism. Mainline Protestants were the second largest Protestant Christian group followed by predominantly African American churches. The Catholic Church remained the largest single Christian tradition practiced in Alaska. Of the unaffiliated population they made up the largest non-Christian religious affiliation. Atheists made up 5% of the population and the largest non-Christian religion was Buddhism.In 1795, the first Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population of any state. In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska . Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains. In 2010, Alaskan Hindus established the Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska, making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world. There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska. The vast majority of Hindus live in Anchorage or Fairbanks.Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2000 to 5000. The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world. There's also a Bah center.As of 2016, Alaska had a total employment of 266,072. The number of employer establishments was 21,077.The 2018 gross state product was $55 billion, 48th in the U.S.. Its per capita personal income for 2018 was $73,000, ranking 7th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the states main export product is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab.Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction shipping and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum natural gas coal gold precious metals zinc and other mining seafood processing timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.Alaska has vast energy resources although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope and Cook Inlet basins but according to the Energy Information Administration by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas North Dakota and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States typically producing about although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over . Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field which by 2014 was producing about of unconventional oil and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems were judged uneconomical due to low fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually thirty to sixty cents higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.Permanent Fund.The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.Starting in 1982 dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans ranging from an initial $1000 in 1982 to $3269 in 2008 . Every year the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a "Basic income" policy in the world.Cost of living.The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees particularly United States Postal Service workers and active-duty military members receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because while the cost of living has gone down it is still one of the highest in the country.Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.Agriculture and fishing.Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus especially the Delta Junction area about southeast of Fairbanks with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants the hotel and tourist industry and community-supported agriculture.Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.Alaska with no counties lacks county fairs. However a small assortment of state and local fairs are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides concerts and food. "Alaska Grown" is used as an agricultural slogan.Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high because of the terrain and difficult road conditions which change dramatically due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound or more in some remote areas during the most difficult times if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely twenty to thirty cents higher than the contiguous United States average with only Hawaii having higher prices.Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.The official state song of Alaska is "Alaska's Flag", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.Alaska in film and on television.Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was "The Chechahcos", produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made.One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's "Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent", starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932 an expedition set out from MGM's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made". Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals.When "Eskimo" premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history. "Eskimo" was critically acclaimed and released worldwide as a result Mala became an international movie star. "Eskimo" won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film.The 1983 Disney movie "Never Cry Wolf" was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film "White Fang" based on Jack London's 1906 novel and starring Ethan Hawke was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 "On Deadly Ground" starring Michael Caine was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. The 1999 John Sayles film "Limbo" starring David Strathairn Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio and Kris Kristofferson was filmed in Juneau.The psychological thriller was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film which is based on the novel of the same name follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992.Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there for example is set in Barrow Alaska but was filmed in New Zealand.Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the found ten set in the state.Public health and public safety.The Alaska State Troopers are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties they employ a wide variety of land air and water patrol vehicles.Many rural communities in Alaska are considered "dry" having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases the suspects were relatives friends or acquaintances.The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition the state operates a boarding school Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka and provides partial funding for other boarding schools including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena.There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of NCAA Division I.The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer one-week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology Welding Nursing and Mechanics.Alaska has had a problem with a . Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.Beginning in 1998, schools in rural Alaska must have at least 10 students to retain funding from the state, and campuses not meeting the number close. This was due to the loss in oil revenues that previously propped up smaller rural schools. In 2015 there was a proposal to raise that minimum to 25, but legislators in the state largely did not agree.Transportation.Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system, covering a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry; this has spurred debate over decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska.The Interstate Highways in Alaska consists of a total of . One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.Built around 1915 the Alaska Railroad played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska passing through Anchorage Eklutna Wasilla Talkeetna Denali and Fairbanks with spurs to Whittier Palmer and North Pole. The cities towns villages and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as . In recent years the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroads economy.The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward, such as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage. It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada , crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000 the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska Canada and the lower 48.Some private companies provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.Marine transport.Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan for example fluctuates dramatically on many days—up to four large cruise ships can dock there at the same time.Air transport.Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism .Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel Nome Kotzebue Dillingham Kodiak and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs.In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state. In Alaska there are 8795 active pilot certificates as of 2020.Of these there are 2507 Private 1496 Commercial 2180 Airline Transport and 2239 Student. There are also 3987 pilots with a Instrument rating and 1511 Flight Instructors.Other transport.Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at ). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or , as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.Data transport.Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and, as of late 2011, Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.Law and government.State government.Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the governor of Alaska and his or her appointees which head executive departments; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.The state of Alaska employs approximately 16000 people statewide.The Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.Alaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts hear only certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.State politics.Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law though the federal law remains in force.The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States with the Alaskan Independence Party.Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24 2015 placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over 21 can consume small amounts of cannabis. The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.To finance state government operations Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no sales tax one of seven states with no individual income tax and—along with New Hampshire—one of two that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. In 2014 the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly" tax policy behind only Wyoming South Dakota and Nevada.While Alaska has no state sales tax 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax from 1.0 to 7.5% typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes hotel motel and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes severance taxes liquor and tobacco taxes gaming taxes tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees is shared with municipalities in Alaska.The fall in oil prices after the fracking boom in the early 2010s has decimated Alaska's state treasury which has historically received about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes and fees imposed on oil and gas companies. The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget and has brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in 2016 to under $500 million by 2018. In 2020 Alaska's state government budget was $4.8 billion while projected government revenues were only $4.5 billion.Federal politics.Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in . No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968.The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing.In the 2020 election cycle, Alaskan voters approved Ballot Measure 2. The measure passed by a margin of 1.1%, or about 4,000 votes. The measure requires campaigns to disclose the original source and any intermediaries for campaign contributions over $2,000. The measure establishes non-partisan blanket primaries for statewide elections and ranked-choice voting . Alaska is the third state with jungle primaries for all statewide races, the second state with ranked voting, and the only state with both.The first race to use the new system of elections will be the 2022 Senate election in which Lisa Murkowski will run for re-election. +Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105000 years ago nascent farmers began to plant them around 11500 years ago. Pigs sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture.The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods fibers fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains) vegetables fruits oils meat milk eggs and fungi. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture second only to the service sector although in recent decades the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural workers continues especially in developing countries where smallholding is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and mechanization that brings a enormous crop yield increase.Modern agronomy plant breeding agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields but causing ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to global warming depletion of aquifers deforestation antibiotic resistance and growth hormones in industrial meat production. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation such as biodiversity loss desertification soil degradation and global warming all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used although some are banned in certain countries.Etymology and scope.The word "agriculture" is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin from 'field' and 'cultivation' or 'growing'. While agriculture usually refers to human activities certain species of ant termite and beetle have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years. Agriculture is defined with varying scopes in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life including food fiber forest products horticultural crops and their related services". Thus defined it includes arable farming horticulture animal husbandry and forestry but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin. Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago. Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia, where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted and gradually came to be domesticated.Civilizations.In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs. Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats. Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC. Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilisation.In China from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC followed by irrigation. By the late 2nd century heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These spread westwards across Eurasia. Asian rice was domesticated 8200–13500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used – on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice . In Greece and Rome the major cereals were wheat emmer and barley alongside vegetables including peas beans and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica include squash, beans, and cacao. Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC. Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC. Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there. In North America, the indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco, squash and permaculture. A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing beans.Indigenous Australians long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers practised systematic burning possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming. The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5000 years ago. There is evidence of across the whole continent over that period. In two regions of Australia the central west coast and eastern central early farmers cultivated yams native millet and bush onions possibly in permanent settlements.Revolution.In the Middle Ages both in Europe and in the Islamic world agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants including the introduction of sugar rice cotton and fruit trees to Europe by way of Al-Andalus.After 1492 the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize potatoes tomatoes sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe and Old World crops such as wheat barley rice and turnips and livestock to the Americas.Irrigation crop rotation and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations and to a lesser extent in the developing world has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor and assisted by synthetic fertilizers pesticides and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population. Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological political and economic issues including water pollution biofuels genetically modified organisms tariffs and farm subsidies leading to alternative approaches such as the organic movement.Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture fodder and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara Central Asia and some parts of India.In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018 cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land.Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs . It is practiced mainly in developed countries.Contemporary agriculture.From the twentieth century intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour but caused increased water pollution and often involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture resulting in the organic regenerative and sustainable agriculture movements. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management selective breeding and controlled-environment agriculture. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food. Demand for non-food biofuel crops development of former farm lands rising transportation costs climate change growing consumer demand in China and India and population growth are threatening food security in many parts of the world. The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security given the favorable experience of Vietnam. Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. By 2015 the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world followed by the European Union India and the United States. Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.Following the three-sector theory the number of people employed in agriculture and other primary activities can be more than 80% in the least developed countries and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries. Since the Industrial Revolution many countries have made the transition to developed economies and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe for example between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture by the 19th century this had dropped to between 35 and 65%. In the same countries today the figure is less than 10%.At the start of the 21st century some one billion people or over 1/3 of the available work force were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry. The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.Agriculture specifically farming remains a hazardous industry and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries lung disease noise-induced hearing loss skin diseases as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects. As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself entire families can be at risk for injuries illness and death. Ages 0–6 May be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning machinery and motor accidents including with all-terrain vehicles.The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors". It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported. The organization has developed the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.In the United States agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry. The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.Production.Overall production varies by country as listed.Crop cultivation systems.Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints geography and climate of the farm government policy economic social and political pressures and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.Shifting cultivation is a system in which forests are burnt releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest and the farmer moves to a new plot returning after many more years . This fallow period is shortened if population density grows requiring the input of nutrients and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.In subtropical and arid environments the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.Important categories of food crops include cereals legumes forage fruits and vegetables. Natural fibers include cotton wool hemp silk and flax. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons based on FAO estimates.Livestock production systems.Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool, and for work and transport. Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source as grassland-based mixed and landless. 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s there was a significant increase in livestock production both by numbers and by carcass weight especially among beef pigs and chickens the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens also showed significant production increases. Global cattle sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050. Aquaculture or fish farming the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland rangeland and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil representing 30–40 million pastoralists. Mixed production systems use grassland fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution. Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa. Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial.Production practices.Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.Pest control includes the management of weeds insects mites and diseases. Chemical biological mechanical and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation culling cover crops intercropping composting avoidance and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss and recommends pesticides as a last resort.Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity food security and trade by 2050 the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.Crop alteration and biotechnology.Plant breeding.Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans for example larger fruits or seeds drought-tolerance or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits self-pollination and cross-pollination and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques .Genetic engineering.Genetically modified organisms are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering. For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops. Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide. With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops which have a gene from the soil bacterium which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects. Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases wild species are the primary source of resistance traits some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.Environmental impact.Effects and costs.Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation and global warming, which cause decrease in crop yield. Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides) nutrient runoff excessive water usage and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2343 million or £208 per hectare. A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare) while livestock production imposes $714 million. Both studies which focused solely on the fiscal impacts concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens predators and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units such as making fields larger this means removing hedges ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land. Effective yields fall with on-farm losses which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting handling and storage.Livestock issues.A senior UN official Henning Steinfeld said that Land and water issues.Land transformation the use of land to yield goods and services is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems and is the driving force causing biodiversity loss. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%. Land degradation the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide with cropland overrepresented. Land management is the driving factor behind degradation 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation desertification soil erosion mineral depletion acidification or salinization.Eutrophication, excessive nutrient enrichment in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations. Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources. Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran Mexico and Saudi Arabia. Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources. Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems including the destruction of natural wetlands the spread of water-borne diseases and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging when irrigation is performed incorrectly.Pesticides.Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant. The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. However critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation. The Push–pull agricultural pest management technique involves intercropping using plant aromas to repel pests from crops and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed .Climate change.Climate change and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures rainfall and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves) changes in pests and diseases changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations changes in the nutritional quality of some foods and changes in sea level. Global warming is already affecting agriculture with effects unevenly distributed across the world. Future climate change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative. Global warming will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups such as the poor.Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO2 and a percentage of the world's methane and future land infertility and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use. Agriculture forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010. A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.Sustainability.Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable. Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion reduces water pollution and enhances carbon sequestration. Other potential practices include conservation agriculture agroforestry improved grazing avoided grassland conversion and biochar. Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy.The International Food Policy Research Institute states that agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, it found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.Energy dependence.Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers pesticides and farm machinery. In particular the production of nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of agricultural energy usage. Together direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979 and has since gradually declined. Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing packaging transporting marketing consumption and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.Disciplines.Agricultural economics.Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of goods and services". Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century. Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States to the European feudal system of manorialism. In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other measures. Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.However there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar milk and rice mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds sesame had the most taxation but overall feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy. Despite this progress certain crops such as cotton still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers. Unprocessed commodities such as corn soybeans and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities such as volume number or weight.Agricultural science.Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy plant breeding and genetics plant pathology crop modelling soil science entomology production techniques and improvement study of pests and their management and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation waste management and bioremediation.The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum as a fertilizer. Research became more systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running. In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers. In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids and predators of both pests in the USA.Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment , economic stability , natural resources and environmental sustainability , research and development, and market access for domestic commodities . Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy including consumers agribusiness trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political action groups including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions also provide influence as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi director of FAO's animal production and health division states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health and environmental regulations such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure. +Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer and philosopher. He wrote nearly 50 books—both novels and non-fiction works—as well as wide-ranging essays, narratives, and poems.Born into the prominent Huxley family he graduated from Balliol College Oxford with an undergraduate degree in English literature. Early in his career he published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine before going on to publish travel writing satire and screenplays. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. By the end of his life Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature nine times and was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature in 1962.Huxley was a pacifist. He grew interested in philosophical mysticism and universalism, addressing these subjects with works such as , he presented his vision of dystopia and utopia, respectively.Early life.Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited "The Cornhill Magazine", and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphry Ward. Julia named him Aldous after a character in one of her sister's novels. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist . His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevenen Huxley , who took his own life after a period of clinical depression.As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie", short for "Ogre". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently " the strangeness of things". According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing.Huxleys well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside he went on to Eton College. His mother died in 1908, when he was 14 . He contracted the eye disease Keratitis punctata in 1911; this in 1916, and in June of that year graduated BA with first class honours. His brother Julian wrote:Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. He taught French for a year at Eton College, where Eric Blair and Steven Runciman were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language.Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond, an advanced chemical plant in Billingham in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his science fiction novel "Brave New World" (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel.Huxley completed his first novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early twenties establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires "Crome Yellow" "Antic Hay" "Those Barren Leaves" and "Point Counter Point" . "Brave New World" was his fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s he was also a contributor to "Vanity Fair" and British "Vogue" magazines.Contact with the Bloomsbury Set.During the First World War, Huxley spent much of his time at Garsington Manor near Oxford, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, working as a farm labourer. There he met several Bloomsbury Group figures, including Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Clive Bell. Later, in "Crome Yellow" he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919 John Middleton Murry was reorganising the "Athenaeum" and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys, also at Garsington. They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend D. H. Lawrence. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters . Very early in 1929, in London, Huxley met Gerald Heard, a brilliant writer and broadcaster, philosopher and interpreter of contemporary science.Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress most famously and on pacifist themes (for example ). In .Beginning in this period Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues including and was an active member of the Peace Pledge Union.Life in the United States.In 1937 Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son Matthew Huxley, and friend Gerald Heard. He lived in the U.S., mainly in southern California, until his death, and also for a time in Taos, New Mexico, where he wrote . The book contains tracts on war, religion, nationalism and ethics.Heard introduced Huxley to Vedanta , meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of ahimsa. In 1938, Huxley befriended Jiddu Krishnamurti, whose teachings he greatly admired. Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into an enduring exchange over many years, with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley, with his pragmatic concerns, the more socially and historically informed position. Huxley provided an introduction to Krishnamurti's quintessential statement, .Huxley also became a Vedantist in the circle of Hindu Swami Prabhavananda, and introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle. Not long afterwards, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, "The Perennial Philosophy", which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted "five senses" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities.Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird president of Occidental College. He spent much time at the college which is in the Eagle Rock neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel "After Many a Summer" (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award the 1939 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel.During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; Christopher Isherwood, in his autobiography "My Guru and His Disciple", states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the US. In March 1938, Huxley's friend Anita Loos, a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , which hired him for "Madame Curie" which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed by George Cukor. Huxley received screen credit for "Pride and Prejudice" and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including "Jane Eyre" . He was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however.Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of J. D. Unwin's 1940 book .On 21 October 1949 Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of . In his letter to Orwell, he predicted:In 1953 Huxley and Maria applied for United States citizenship and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the McCarran Act, the judge had to adjourn the proceedings. He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the U.S. In 1959 Huxley turned down an offer to be made a Knight Bachelor by the Macmillan government without putting forward a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while another brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974.In the fall semester of 1960 Huxley was invited by Professor Huston Smith to be the Carnegie Visiting Professor of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . As part of the MIT centennial program of events organised by the Department of Humanities, Huxley presented a series of lectures titled, which concerned history, language, and art.Late-in-life perspectives.Biographer Harold H. Watts wrote that Huxley's writings in the Huxley's engagement with Eastern wisdom traditions was entirely compatible with a strong appreciation of modern science. Biographer Milton Birnbaum wrote that Huxley Association with Vedanta.Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood and other followers, he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices.In 1944 Huxley wrote the introduction to the translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood which was published by the Vedanta Society of Southern California.From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to , published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John Van Druten from 1951 through 1962.Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: "Knowledge and Understanding" and "Who Are We?" from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalised religion.Psychedelic drug use and mystical experiences.In the spring of 1953 Huxley had his first experience with the psychedelic drug mescaline. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Doctor Humphry Osmond a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California. After the publication of "The Doors of Perception" in which he recounted this experience Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience which may have caused the relationship to cool but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal lecture at the temple and attend social functions. Huxley later had an experience on mescaline that he considered more profound than those detailed in "The Doors of Perception".Huxley wrote that "The mystical experience is doubly valuable it is valuable because it gives the experiencer a better understanding of himself and the world and because it may help him to lead a less self-centered and more creative life."Differing accounts exist about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. Circa 1939 Huxley encountered the Bates method in which he was instructed by Margaret Darst Corbett. In 1940 Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a "ranchito" in the high desert hamlet of Llano California in northern Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that for the first time in more than 25 years he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his experiences with the Bates Method "The Art of Seeing" which was published in 1942 1943 . The book contained some generally disputed theories and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight.It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of "The Art of Seeing", in 1952, Bennett Cerf was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered—and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment".Brazilian author Joo Ubaldo Ribeiro, who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in the late 1950s, wrote that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile, "I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really".On the other hand Huxleys eyesight continues to endure similar significant controversy.American popular science author Steven Johnson, in his book "Mind Wide Open", quotes Huxley about his difficulties with visual encoding: "I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, do not evoke pictures in my mind. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon ...".Personal life.Huxley married on 10 July 1919 Maria Nys , a Belgian epidemiologist from Bellem, a village near Aalter, he met at Garsington, Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, Matthew Huxley , who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent epidemiologist. In 1955, Maria Huxley died of cancer.In 1956 Huxley married Laura Archera , also an author, as well as a violinist and psychotherapist. She wrote "This Timeless Moment", a biography of Huxley. She told the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, "Huxley on Huxley".Huxley was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer in 1960; in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel both at the UCSF Medical Center and at the Esalen Institute. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the Human Potential Movement.Huxley was a close friend of Jiddu Krishnamurti and Rosalind Rajagopal and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School, now Besant Hill School of Happy Valley, in Ojai, California.The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers, following the destruction of most in the 1961 Bel Air Fire, is at the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles. Some are also at the Stanford University Libraries.On 9 April 1962 Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature the senior literary organisation in Britain and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962. The correspondence between Huxley and the society is kept at the Cambridge University Library. The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at Somerset House London in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society however his deteriorating health meant he was not able to attend.On his deathbed, unable to speak owing to advanced laryngeal cancer, Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for , she obliged with an injection at 11:20 a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20 p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963.Media coverage of Huxley's death along with that of fellow British author C. S. Lewis was overshadowed by the assassination of American President John F. Kennedy on the same day less than seven hours before Huxley's death. In a 2009 article for "New York" magazine titled "The Eclipsed Celebrity Death Club" Christopher Bonanos wroteThis coincidence served as the basis for Peter Kreeft's book , which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths.Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963; it was led by his elder brother Julian. On 27 October 1971, his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the Watts Mortuary Chapel in Compton, Guildford, Surrey, England.Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. What became "" was begun in July 1963, completed in October 1964, and premiered by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra on 17 April 1965. +Ada may refer to:Aberdeen is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom.Aberdeen may also refer to:Algae is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular microalgae, such as "Chlorella," Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem, which are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, "Spirogyra" and stoneworts.No definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae most authorities exclude all prokaryotes from the definition of algae. Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor and although their plastids seem to have a single origin from cyanobacteria they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes . Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs , sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.Because of the wide range of types of algae, they have increasing different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asia food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications include cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review, found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration in order to mitigate climate change while providing valuable value-add products for global economies.Etymology and study.The singular is the Latin word for .The Ancient Greek word for , a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.Accordingly the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name appears in a number of taxa.Classifications.The committee on the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has recommended certain suffixes for use in the classification of algae. These are -phyta for division, for subfamily, a Greek-based name for genus, and a Latin-based name for species.Algal characteristics basic to primary classification.The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are pigment constitution of the cell, chemical nature of stored food materials, kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, chemical composition of cell wall and presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure.History of classification of algae.Although Carolus Linnaeus included algae along with lichens in his 25th class Cryptogamia he did not elaborate further on the classification of algae.Jean Pierre tienne Vaucher was perhaps the first to propose a system of classification of algae and he recognized three groups Conferves Ulves and Tremelles. While Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link classified algae on the basis of the colour of the pigment and structure William Henry Harvey proposed a system of classification on the basis of the habitat and the pigment. J. G. Agardh divided algae into six orders Diatomaceae Nostochineae Confervoideae Ulvaceae Floriadeae and Fucoideae. Around 1880 algae along with fungi were grouped under Thallophyta a division created by Eichler . Encouraged by this Adolf Engler and Karl A. E. Prantl proposed a revised scheme of classification of algae and included fungi in algae as they were of opinion that fungi have been derived from algae. The scheme proposed by Engler and Prantl is summarised as followsThe algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.Phylogeny based on plastid not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:Linnaeus, in (1753), the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In (as ), among the animals.In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin published the , the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.W. H. Harvey and Lamouroux were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae , brown algae , green algae , and Diatomaceae.At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers studying the Infusoria . Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Even the nonmotile microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus , de Jussieu , Horaninow , Agassiz , Wilson & Cassin , in further classifications, the are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.Throughout the 20th century most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae cyanophytes rhodophytes chrysophytes xanthophytes bacillariophytes phaeophytes pyrrhophytes euglenophytes and chlorophytes. Later many new groups were discovered and others were splintered from older groups charophytes and glaucophytes many heterokontophytes haptophytes and chlorarachniophytes .With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications .Some parasitic algae were originally classified as fungi sporozoans or protistans of "incertae sedis" while others had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae but later were seen as endophytic algae. Some filamentous bacteria were originally seen as algae. Furthermore groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.Relationship to land plants.The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like "Chara" almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.Morphology.A range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes. Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, areIn three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae—some of which may reach 50 m in length —the red algae and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes.The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listedPhysiology.Many algae particularly members of the Characeae species have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes osmoregulation turgor regulation salt tolerance cytoplasmic streaming and the generation of action potentials.Phytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.Symbiotic algae.Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be . The fungi or mycobionts are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species rarely two from the green algae except that alternatively the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria . A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently accordingly lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone . The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them.Coral reefs.Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia . These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals require endosymbiotic algae from the genus from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.Sea sponges.Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges . The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.The "Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium" consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive , gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species . Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the British Isles the "UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report" estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..."Regional and group estimates have been made as welland so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.The most recent estimate suggests 72500 algal species worldwide.Distribution.The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind as well as by living carriers. However not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them. Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability resulting in phytogeographic zones regions and provinces.To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, "Ulva reticulata" and "U. fasciata" travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns." For example, "Clathromorphum" is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."Algae are prominent in bodies of water common in terrestrial environments and are found in unusual environments such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters under deep however some such as "Navicula pennata" have been recorded to a depth of . A type of algae "Ancylonema nordenskioeldii" was found in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone' which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet. Same algae was found in the Italian Alps after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete poison or asphyxiate other life forms.Algae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.On the basis of their habitat algae can be categorized as aquatic terrestrial aerial lithophytic halophytic psammon thermophilic cryophilic epibiont endosymbiont parasitic calcifilic or lichenic .Cultural associations.In classical Chinese the word is used both for .Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.Alginic acid or alginate is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.Between 100000 and 170000 wet tons of are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.Energy source.To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.Fertilizer.For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South WalesToday, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as superfoods. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina, , high in beta-carotene.Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including ; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make laver bread in Wales, where it is known as ; in Korea, . It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Mori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland, and Iceland. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisineFurthermore it contains all nine of the essential amino acids the body does not produce on its ownThe oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid . Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae , which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid .Pollution control.Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber also called an algal turf scrubber . Scientists developed the ATS which consists of shallow 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers streams and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene. Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops and in surf boards.Bioremediation.The alga has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites biodegrading the synthetic substance.The natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents.The presence of some individual algal pigments together with specific pigment concentration ratios are taxon-specific analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods particularly high-performance liquid chromatography can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.Stabilizing substances.Carrageenan, from the red alga , is used as a stabilizer in milk products. +Analysis of variance is a collection of statistical models and their associated estimation procedures used to analyze the differences among means. ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher. ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether two or more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the "t"-test beyond two means.While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler. These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. Laplace was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s. Around 1800, Laplace and Gauss developed the least-squares method for combining observations, which improved upon methods then used in astronomy and geodesy. It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual sum of squares. By 1827, Laplace was using least squares methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides. Before 1800, astronomers had isolated observational errors resultingfrom reaction times and had developed methods of reducing the errors. The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology which developed strong experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added. An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model wasavailable in 1885.Ronald Fisher introduced the term variance and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article .Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by Jerzy Neyman in 1923.The analysis of variance can be used to describe otherwise complex relations among variables. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed it is typically limited to dogs that are adult pure-bred and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that each group has a low variance of dog weights and the mean of each group is distinct .In the illustrations to the right, groups are identified as "X"1, "X"2, etc. In the first illustration, the dogs are divided according to the product of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired . Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups has a relatively large variance, and since the means are very similar across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in doesn't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show. Thus, this grouping fails to explain the variation in the overall distribution .An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as "pet vs working breed" and "less athletic vs more athletic" would probably be somewhat more successful . The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big strong working breeds while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case and the means are more distinguishable. However the significant overlap of distributions for example means that we cannot distinguish "X"1 and "X"2 reliably. Grouping dogs according to a coin flip might produce distributions that look similar.An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship.Classes of models.There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance and these are outlined here.Fixed-effects models.The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the response variable values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole.Random-effects models.Random-effects model is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments differ from the fixed-effects model.Mixed-effects models.A mixed-effects model contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types.Teaching experiments could be performed by a college or university departmentto find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered atreatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidatetexts. The random-effects model would determine whether importantdifferences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. Themixed-effects model would compare the incumbent texts torandomly selected alternatives.Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competingdefinitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire.Assumptions.The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.Textbook analysis using a normal distribution.The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a linear model which makes the following assumptions about the probability distribution of the responsesThe separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the errors are independently identically and normally distributed for fixed effects models that is that the errors are independent andRandomization-based analysis.In a randomized controlled experiment, the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of C. S. Peirce and Ronald Fisher. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by Francis J. Anscombe at Rothamsted Experimental Station and by Oscar Kempthorne at Iowa State University. Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of "unit treatment additivity", which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and David R. Cox.Unit-treatment additivity.In its simplest form the assumption of unit-treatment additivity states that the observed response formula_3 from experimental unit formula_4 when receiving treatment formula_5 can be written as the sum of the unit's response formula_6 and the treatment-effect formula_7 that isThe assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment formula_5, the formula_5th treatment has exactly the same effect formula_11 on every experiment unit.The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly falsified, according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many "consequences" of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity "implies" that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by contraposition, a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant.The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population survey sampling.Derived linear model.Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of !The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments.Statistical models for observational data.However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or observational studies, model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization. For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public.Summary of assumptions.The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence normality andhomogeneity of variances of the residuals. Therandomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of thevariances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatmentadditivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment.Both these analyses require homoscedasticity as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis.However, studies of processes thatchange variances rather than means havebeen successfully conducted using ANOVA. There are"no" necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality but the-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practicallimitations which are of continuing interest.Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions.The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale" so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance. Also a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses which are believed to follow a multiplicative model.According to Cauchy's functional equation theorem the logarithm is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition.Characteristics.ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those inwhich only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statisticalsignificance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of twovariances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterationsto the experimental observations Adding a constant to allobservations does not alter significance. Multiplying allobservations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVAstatistical significance result is independent of constant bias andscaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations.In the era of mechanical calculation it was common tosubtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent todropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of dataThe calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a numberof means and variances dividing two variances and comparing the ratioto a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculatinga treatment effect is then trivial "the effect of any treatment isestimated by taking the difference between the mean of theobservations which receive the treatment and the general mean".Partitioning of the sum of squares.ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitionalequation of sample variance isformula_12, where thedivisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF) the summation is calledthe sum of squares , the result is called the mean square andthe squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVAestimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all theobservation deviations from the grand mean an error variance based onall the observation deviations from their appropriatetreatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance isbased on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, theresult being multiplied by the number of observations in eachtreatment to account for the difference between the variance ofobservations and the variance of means.The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels.The number of degrees of freedom if there is no treatment effect.See also Lack-of-fit sum of squares.The "F"-test is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example in one-way or single-factor ANOVA statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statisticwhere is mean square formula_17 = number of treatments andformula_18 = total number of casesto the -distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled chi-squared distribution.The expected value of F is formula_21 (where formula_22 is the treatment sample size)which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls.There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test both of which produce the same resultThe ANOVA -test is recommended as a practical test because of its robustness against many alternative distributions.Extended logic.ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of varianceand hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used tosupport other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit morecomplex models to data then ANOVA is used to compare models with theobjective of selecting simple models that adequately describe thedata. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA butANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models,and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients.""e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuringmultilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a toolfor summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences ..."For a single factor.The simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completelyrandomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experimentswith a single factor involve constraints on randomization and includecompletely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants:Graeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share manyof the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively completediscussion of the analysis ofthe completely randomized experiment isThere are some alternatives to conventional one-way analysis of variance e.g. Welchs heteroscedastic F test with trimmed means and Winsorized variances Brown-Forsythe test Alexander-Govern test James second order test and Kruskal-Wallis test available in onewaytests RIt is useful to represent each data point in the following form called a statistical modelYij = + j + iji = 1 2 3 . . . Rj = 1, 2, 3, . . ., C = overall average j = differential effect associated with the j level of Xthis assumes that overall the values of j add to zero (that is, ∑j = 0, summed over j from 1 to C)ij = noise or error associated with the particular ij data valueThat is we envision an additive model that says every data point can be represented by summing three quantities the true mean averaged over all factor levels being investigated plus an incremental component associated with the particular column plus a final component associated with everything else affecting that specific data value.For multiple factors.ANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors.When the experiment includes observations at all combinations oflevels of each factor, it is termed factorial.Factorial experimentsare more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and theefficiency grows as the number of factors increases. Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used.The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects and terms for interactions .All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare.The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiplefactor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, butproduces apparently inconsistent experimental results.Caution is advised when encountering interactions; Testinteraction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA ifinteractions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regardingthe continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering aninteraction. Interactions complicate the interpretation ofexperimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor theestimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. "Asignificant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects." Graphical methods are recommendedto enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox . Some interactions can be removed while others cannot.A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications.Associated analysis.Some analysis is required in support of the of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments.Preparatory analysis.The number of experimental units.In the design of an experiment the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential.Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals.Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. The analysis which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards.Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limitingthe probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase and methods based on achieving a desired confidence interval.Power analysis.Power analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true.Effect size.Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor and the dependent variable or the overall standardized difference of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes.Model confirmation.Sometimes tests are conducted to determine whether the assumptions of ANOVA appear to be violated. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm homoscedasticity and gross normality. Residuals should have the appearance of noise when plotted as a function of anything including time andmodeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations.Follow-up tests.A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed by additional tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are "planned" or "post hoc." Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are conceived only after looking at the data .The follow-up tests may be "simple" pairwise comparisons of individual group means or may be "compound" comparisons . Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Often the follow-up tests incorporate a method of adjusting for the multiple comparisons problem.Study designs.There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the design of the experiment especially on the protocol that specifies the random assignment of treatments to subjects the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any blocking. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model.Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA:Balanced experiments are relatively easy to interpret unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor ANOVA the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. ANOVA is a test of statistical significance. The American Psychological Association holds the view that simply reporting statistical significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred.Generalizations.ANOVA is considered to be a special case of linear regression which in turn is a special case of the general linear model. All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized.The Kruskal–Wallis test and the Friedman test are nonparametric tests which do not rely on an assumption of normality.Connection to linear regression.Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression.Linearly re-order the data so that formula_23 observation is associated with a response formula_24 and factors formula_25 where formula_26 denotes the different factors and formula_27 is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA formula_28 and in two-way ANOVA formula_29. Furthermore, we assume the formula_30 factor has formula_31 levels, namely formula_32. Now, we can one-hot encode the factors into the formula_33 dimensional vector formula_34.The one-hot encoding function formula_35 is defined such that the formula_36 entry of formula_37 isThe vector formula_34 is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all formula_40. Thus, formula_41. In order to obtain a fully general formula_27-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector formula_34 and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be formula_44.With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response formula_24 against the vector formula_44. However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use "F"-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors.We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels.Define formula_47 if formula_48 and formula_49 if formula_50 i.e. formula_51 is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and formula_40 is the one-hot encoding of the second factor.where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that +In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical trivial name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula . The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of methane (), where = 1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large and complex molecules, like pentacontane () or 6-ethyl-2-methyl-5-(1-methylethyl) octane, an isomer of tetradecane ().The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry defines alkanes as saturated hydrocarbon including those that are either monocyclic or polycyclic despite their having a distinct general formula .In an alkane each carbon atom is sp3-hybridized with 4 sigma bonds and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms . The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be considered as the size of the alkane.One group of the higher alkanes are waxes, solids at standard ambient temperature and pressure , for which the number of carbon atoms in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17.With their repeated – units, the alkanes constitute a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members differ in molecular mass by multiples of 14.03 u .Methane is produced by methanogenic bacteria and some long-chain alkanes function as pheromones in certain animal species or as protective waxes in plants and fungi. Nevertheless, most alkanes do not have much biological activity. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more active/reactive functional groups of biological molecules.The alkanes have two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.An alkyl group is an alkane-based molecular fragment that bears one open valence for bonding. They are generally abbreviated with the symbol for any organyl group, R, although Alk is sometimes used to specifically symbolize an alkyl group (as opposed to an alkenyl group or aryl group).Structure and classification.Ordinarily the C-C single bond distance is 1.53 (1m=10^-10Angstorm).Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear, branched, or cyclic. The third group is sometimes called cycloalkanes. Very complicated structures are possible by combining linear, branch, cyclic alkanes.Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in various ways forming structural isomers. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the "n"-isomer . However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example for acyclic alkanesBranched alkanes can be chiral. For example, 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. The above list only includes differences of connectivity, not stereochemistry. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more rings. Such compounds are called cycloalkanes, and are also excluded from the above list because changing the number of rings changes the molecular formula. For example, cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are isomers of each other , but are not isomers of butane .Nomenclature.The IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane".In 1866, August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine , -one, -une, for the hydrocarbons C"n"H2"n"+2, C"n"H2"n", C"n"H2"n"−2, C"n"H2"n"−4, C"n"H2"n"−6. In modern nomenclature, the first three specifically name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; while "-one" now represents a ketone.Linear alkanes.Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix (for ) where a non-linear isomer exists. Although this is not strictly necessary and is not part of the IUPAC naming system the usage is still common in cases where one wishes to emphasize or distinguish between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers e.g. -paraffins.The first six members of the series are named as followsThe first four names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C5H12; hexane, C6H14; heptane, C7H16; octane, C8H18; etc. The numeral prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example nonane, use the Latin prefix non-. For a more complete list, see list of straight-chain alkanes.Branched alkanes.Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes for example -pentane isopentane and neopentane.IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name.The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows:Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons.Though technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the As their description implies, they contain one or more rings.Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones e.g. cyclopentane is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner propane and cyclopropane butane and cyclobutane etc.Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes – the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules.Trivial/common names.The trivial name for alkanes is . Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes.Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. "Paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of isomers, i.e., compounds of the same chemical formula, e.g., pentane and isopentane.The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC systemSome non-IUPAC trivial names are occasionally used:Physical properties.All alkanes are colorless. Alkanes with the lowest molecular weights are gasses those of intermediate molecular weight are liquids and the heaviest are waxy solids.Boiling point.Alkanes experience intermolecular van der Waals forces. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes.There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forcesUnder standard conditions, from CH4 to C4H10 alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12 to C17H36 they are liquids; and after C18H38 they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series.A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact thus the greater van der Waals forces between adjacent molecules. For example compare isobutane and n-butane which boil at −12 and 0 °C and 22-dimethylbutane and 23-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C respectively.On the other hand cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules which give a plane of intermolecular contact.Melting points.The melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as outlined above. That is the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes this can be seen from the graph above . The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase forming a well-organized structure which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart. For a visualization of the crystal structures see.The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase.Conductivity and solubility.Alkanes do not conduct electricity in any way, nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field. For this reason, they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be hydrophobic as they are insoluble in water.Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively high a property that is called lipophilicity. Alkanes are for example miscible in all proportions among themselves.The density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture.Molecular geometry.The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are described as sp3 hybrids, that is to say that, to a good approximation, the valence electrons are in orbitals directed towards the corners of a tetrahedron which are derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. Geometrically, the angle between the bonds are cos−1 ≈ 109.47°. This is exact for the case of methane, while larger alkanes containing a combination of C–H and C–C bonds generally have bonds that are within several degrees of this idealized value.Bond lengths and bond angles.An alkane has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp3 orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp3 orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09 × 10−10 m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10−10 m for a C–C bond.The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp3 orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another while both common and useful do not accurately depict the geometry.Conformation.The structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further degree of freedom for each carbon–carbon bond: the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation.Ethane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called Newman projection. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation.The two conformations differ in energy the staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy than the eclipsed conformation .This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the torsion energy, is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH3 group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10−11 seconds.The case of higher alkanes is more complex but based on similar principles with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form whatever the models may suggest.Spectroscopic properties.Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen bonds and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups and therefore for the "absence" of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a functional group like –OH –CHO –COOH etc.Infrared spectroscopy.The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm−1, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm−1. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm−1.NMR spectroscopy.The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at ""H = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon ""C = 8–30 15–55 20–60 and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak due to the lack of nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time and can be missed in weak samples or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time.Mass spectrometry.Alkanes have a high ionization energy, and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH2 groups.Chemical properties.Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds. The acid dissociation constant values of all alkanes are estimated to range from 50 to 70 depending on the extrapolation method hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases . They are also extremely weak bases undergoing no observable protonation in pure sulfuric acid although superacids that are at least millions of times stronger have been known to protonate them to give hypercoordinate alkanium ions . Similarly they only show reactivity with the strongest of electrophilic reagents . By virtue of their strongly C–H bonds and C–C bonds they are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals although many electron-deficient radicals will react with alkanes in the absence of other electron-rich bonds . This inertness is the source of the term . In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years.Free radicals molecules with unpaired electrons play a large role in most reactions of alkanes such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. Moreover redox reactions of alkanes involving free radical intermediates in particular with oxygen and the halogens are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced state in the case of methane carbon is in its lowest possible oxidation state . Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke producing carbon dioxide and water. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens leading to the production of haloalkanes. In addition alkanes have been shown to interact with and bind to certain transition metal complexes in C–H bond activation reactions.In highly branched alkanes the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value to accommodate bulky groups. Such distortions introduce a tension in the molecule known as steric hindrance or strain. Strain substantially increases reactivity.However in general and perhaps surprisingly when branching is not extensive enough to make highly disfavorable 12- and 13-alkyl–alkyl steric interactions (worth ~3.1 kcal/mol and ~3.7 kcal/mol in the case of the eclipsing conformations of butane and pentane respectively) unavoidable the branched alkanes are actually more thermodynamically stable than their linear (or less branched) isomers. For example the highly branched 2233-tetramethylbutane is about 1.9 kcal/mol more stable than its linear isomer "n"-octane. Due to the subtlety of this effect the exact reasons for this rule have been vigorously debated in the chemical literature and is yet unsettled. Several explanations including stabilization of branched alkanes by electron correlation destabilization of linear alkanes by steric repulsion stabilization by neutral hyperconjugation and/or electrostatic effects have been advanced as possibilities. The controversy is related to the question of whether the traditional explanation of hyperconjugation is the primary factor governing the stability of alkyl radicals.Reactions with oxygen .All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion isIn the absence of sufficient oxygen carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed as shown belowFor example, methane:See the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data.The standard enthalpy change of combustion, c⊖ than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable.Reactions with halogens.Alkanes react with halogens in a so-called reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. Free radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly exothermic with halogen fluorine and can lead to an explosion.These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three stepsExperiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane:Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free-radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts , which promote a heterolytic breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position beta and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.Isomerization and reformation.Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens keeping the same molecular weight. In reformation the alkanes become cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the octane number of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers.Other reactions.Alkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen. Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated, although both reactions require special conditions. The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance. In the Reed reaction, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides. Nucleophilic Abstraction can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by transmetalation reactions. A mixture of antimony pentafluoride and fluorosulfonic acid , called magic acid, can protonate alkanes.Occurrence.Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe.Alkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter Saturn Uranus and Neptune . Titan a satellite of Saturn was examined by the probe which indicated that Titans surface. Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space away from the Sun which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites.Occurrence of alkanes on Earth.Traces of methane gas occur in the Earth's atmosphere produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants.The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some propane and butane: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction:These hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial oil fields. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the energy crisis.Methane is also present in what is called biogas produced by animals and decaying matter which is a possible renewable energy source.Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid methane clathrate (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels.Biological occurrence.Acyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways.Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.On the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidized organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen:Methanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands. The methane output of cattle and other herbivores which can release 30 to 50 gallons per day and of termites is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans. Methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the carbon cycle with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by photosynthesis. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way.Alkanes also play a role if a minor role in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms fungi plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts e.g. "Candida tropicale" "Pichia" sp. "Rhodotorula" sp. can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus "Amorphotheca resinae" prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.In plants the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain and protect against bacteria fungi and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions temperature or humidity.More volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The Jeffrey pine is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of "n"-heptane in its resin for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one octane rating. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components and "n"-nonane is a significant component in the scent of some roses. Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as ethane pentane and hexane by plants has also been documented at low levels though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution.Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers mainly 8 to 35 usually peaking in the low to upper 20s with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction.Alkanes are found in animal products although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil which is approximately 14% pristane . They are important as pheromones chemical messenger materials on which insects depend for communication. In some species e.g. the support beetle the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane 1721-dimethylheptatriacontane 1519-dimethylheptatriacontane and 151923-trimethylheptatriacontane and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes tricosane and pentacosane.Ecological relations.One example in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role is the ecological relationship between the sand bee and the early spider orchid the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate in the case of the females emit a mixture of tricosane pentacosane and heptacosane in the ratio 331 and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee it allows the orchid to transfer its pollenwhich will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to other blooms.Production.Petroleum refining.As stated earlier the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many products.Fischer–Tropsch.The Fischer–Tropsch process is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons including alkanes from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates.Laboratory preparation.There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo functional group interconversions cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of -butane as a side-product:However, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality using the above or similar methods. For example, an ethyl group is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a hydroxy group, it gives ethanol, which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes:Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction. The Barton–McCombie deoxygenation removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g.and the Clemmensen reduction removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.Preparation of alkanes from other organic compounds.Alkanes can be prepared from a variety of organic compounds.These include alkenes alkynes haloalkanes alcohols aldehydes and ketones and carboxylic acids.From alkenes and alkynes.When alkenes and alkynes are subjected to hydrogenation reaction by treating them with hydrogen in the presence of palladium or platinum or nickel catalyst, they produce alkanes. In this reaction powdered catalyst is preferred to increase the surface area so that adsorption of hydrogen on the catalyst increases. In this reaction the hydrogen gets attached on the catalyst to form a hydrogen-catalyst bond which leads to weakening of H-H bond, thereby leading to the addition of hydrogen on alkenes and alkynes. The reaction is exothermic because the product alkane is stable as it has more sigma bonds than the reactant alkenes and alkynes due to conversion of pi bond to sigma bonds.From haloalkanes.Alkanes can be produced from haloalkanes using different methods.Wurtz reaction.When haloalkane is treated with sodium in dry ether, alkane with double the number of carbon atoms is obtained. This reaction proceeds through free radical intermediate and has possibility of alkene formation in case of tertiary haloalkanes and vicinal dihalides.e.g2 R−X + 2 Na → R−R + 2 Na+X.(in presence of dry etherCorey-House-Synthesis.When haloalkane is treated with dialkyl lithium cuprite, which is otherwise known as Gilman's reagent, any higher alkane is obtained.egLi+[R–Cu–R]– + R'–X → R–R' + "RCu" + Li+XReaction with metal hydride.When haloalkanes are treated with metal hydride, e.g., sodium hydride and lithium aluminium hydride.Frankland reaction.When haloalkane is treated with zinc in ester alkane is obtained.Fittig reaction.When aryl halide is treated with sodium in dry ether it forms biphenyl.Ullmann biaryl synthesis.When aryl halide is treated with copper it forms biphenyl.Wurtz-Fittig reaction.When aryl halide is treated with haloalkane, we get alkyl benzene.Applications.The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas.Propane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas . Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays.From pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances.Alkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly.Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters.Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen used for example in road surfacing. However the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking.Some synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains containing hundreds or thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year.Environmental transformations.Alkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms.There are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize -alkanes as both carbon and energy sources. Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria.Methane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale; because it is a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane. Ethane is also extremely flammable, explosive, and dangerous to inhale. Both of them may cause suffocation. Propane, too, is flammable and explosive, and may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled. Butane presents the same hazards as propane.Alkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes. Methane is considered to be the greenhouse gas that is most dangerous to the environment, although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is relatively low. +United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals such as and abuse of discretion. However most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision.An appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.Access to appellant status.A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant" "plaintiff in error" "petitioner" or "pursuer" and a party on the other side is called an "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200000 instead of $50000.The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence.The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff , defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal.An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition oral arguments and legal briefs of the appellant. In general the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed.Ability to appeal.An appeal requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellants decision. In the Supreme Court review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.In tort equity or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters however the state or prosecution generally has no appeal from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal or it will not be heard.By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court.Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions.Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case.The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts.Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence.Appellate review."Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons .In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed . However certain critical interlocutory court orders such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction or an order holding a person in contempt of court can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of.There are two distinct forms of appellate review, , 483 F 3d. 475 .In Anglo-American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs.Direct appeal.After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process.Preservation issues.An appellant's claim must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial 4. if subject to harmless error analysis the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.State post-conviction relief collateral appeal.All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is it goes to the intermediate appellate court followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration the sentence could be modified or a new trial could be ordered.Notice of appeal.A is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country.The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both.Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey for example the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.Appellate procedure.Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact unless clearly erroneous and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts .If the appellate court finds no defect it the ruling to correct the defect or it may nullify the whole decision or any part of it. It may in addition send the case back to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision , challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court.Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.)Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct.In some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal.The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals a trial or an appeal on the record.A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.In some cases an application for district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offensepermitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense."In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error that is an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney admitting or excluding evidence improperly acting outside the courts judgment on the grounds that one did not by objecting.In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.In some cases an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation he is entitled to a new trial.A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court."After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur".The result of an appeal can be:There can be multiple outcomes so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. .Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. +In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.In the common law an answer is the first pleading by a defendant usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment.In a criminal case there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case which is entered on the record in open court is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment such as imprisonment.The famous Latin were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as , has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question. +An appellate court commonly called a court of appeals appeal court court of appeal court of second instance or second instance court is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions the court system is divided into at least three levels the trial court which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case at least one intermediate appellate court and a supreme court which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts often on a discretionary basis. A jurisdictions highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules.The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally an appellate courts determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed reversed remanded or modified.Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals.While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. In the United States, Alabama, Tennessee, and Oklahoma also have separate courts of criminal appeals. Texas and Oklahoma have the final determination of criminal cases vested in their respective courts of criminal appeals, while Alabama and Tennessee allow decisions of its court of criminal appeals to be finally appealed to the state supreme court.Courts of criminal appeals.Court of Criminal Appeals include:Appellate courts by country.New Zealand.The Court of Appeal of New Zealand located in Wellington is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level rather than in the Supreme Court.The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka located in Colombo is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system.United States.In the United States both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal.In most U.S. states and in U.S. federal courts parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However appeals may be costly and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts particularly supreme courts have the power of discretionary review meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case.Institutional titles.Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a court of appeal or court of appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a court of errors , on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals , the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors , the Kentucky Court of Errors , and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals . In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division.The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts in those states. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. +Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant, to inform them of the charges against them. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include are allowed in some circumstances.In Australia arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. The judge will testify during the indictment process.In every province in Canada except British Columbia defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge.In France the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism drug trafficking or organised crime. The police need to have the consent of the prosecutor the . In the vast majority of cases the prosecutor will consent.In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest.New Zealand.In New Zealand law, at the first appearance of the accused, they are read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are: guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance.South Africa.In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against them, the demanding of the accused whether they plead guilty or not guilty, and the entering of their plea. Their plea having been entered, they are said to stand arraigned.United Kingdom.In England Wales and Northern Ireland arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment.In England and Wales the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent authorises detention for a further 12 hours or a judge authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable.United States.Under the United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, In federal courts, arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this stage, the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second stage, a post-indictment arraignment , the defendant is allowed to enter a plea.In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours.In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays.Form of the arraignment.The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However it generally conforms with the following principlesVideo arraignment.Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the court to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom.Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation.Guilty and not-guilty pleas.If the defendant pleads guilty an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing the judge assesses the offense the mitigating factors and the defendant's character and passes sentence.If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial.In the past a defendant who refused to plead was subject to "peine forte et dure" . Today in common law jurisdictions the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence.Pre-trial release.This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. +"America the Beautiful" is a patriotic American song. Its lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates and its music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark New Jersey. The two never met.Bates wrote the words as a poem originally entitled .Ward had initially composed the song's melody in 1882 to accompany lyrics to "Materna" basis of the hymn "O Mother dear Jerusalem" though the hymn was not first published until 1892. The combination of Ward's melody and Bates's poem was first entitled "America the Beautiful" in 1910. The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs.In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Pikes Peak.On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. An amended version was published in 1904.The first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in .Ward died in 1903 not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Bates was more fortunate since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929. It is included in songbooks in many religious congregations in the United States.At various times in the more than one hundred years that have elapsed since the song was written particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration there have been efforts to give continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans and was even being considered before 1931 as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States.Notable performances.Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album .Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for "The Concert Sinatra" in February 1963, for a projected 45 single release. The 45 was not commercially issued however, but the song was later added as a bonus track to the enhanced 2012 CD release of "The Concert Sinatra".In 1976 while the United States celebrated its bicentennial a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B chart. His version was traditionally played on New Year's Eve in Times Square following the ball drop.Three different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of "America the Beautiful" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherri Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks.Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the "Late Show with David Letterman" following the attacks CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse.For Super Bowl XLVIII The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook and from some conservatives such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and for patriotic holidays.On January 20, 2017, Jackie Evancho released Classical Digital Song sales chart.Jennifer Lopez performed the song at President Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20 2021 as the second half of a medley with "This Land Is Your Land" by Woody Guthrie."From sea to shining sea", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" . Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase "" , which is the official motto of Canada. refers to the shade of the Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs Colorado which inspired Bates to write the poem.In 2003 Tori Amos appropriated the phrase "for amber waves of grain" to create a personification for her song "Amber Waves". Amos imagines Amber Waves as an exotic dancer like the character of the same name portrayed by Julianne Moore in "Boogie Nights".Lynn Sherr's 2001 book "America the Beautiful" discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates.Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography , draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. +Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive adaptive and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities or the elderly population. People with disabilities often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting mobility (ambulation) eating bathing dressing grooming and personal device care. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish or had great difficulty accomplishing by providing enhancements to or changing methods of interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. For example wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk while assistive eating devices can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology people with disability have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle with an increase in Adaptive technology.Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different. covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by a non-disabled person. In other words, assistive technology is any object or system that helps people with disabilities, while adaptive technology is specifically designed for disabled people. Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access.Occupational therapy.Occupational therapy (OT) is a healthcare profession that specializes in maintaining or improving the quality of life for individuals that experience challenges when independently performing life's occupations. According to the "Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process" (3rd ed.; AOTA, 2014), occupations include areas related to all basic and instrumental activities of daily living (ADLs), rest and sleep, education, work, play, leisure and social participation. Occupational therapists have the specialized skill of employing assistive technology (AT) in the improvement and maintenance of optimal, functional participation in occupations. The application of AT enables an individual to adapt aspects of the environment, that may otherwise be challenging, to the user in order to optimize functional participation in those occupations. As a result, occupational therapists may educate, recommend, and promote the use of AT to improve the quality of life for their clients.Mobility impairments.Wheelchairs.Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, head switches or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker.Newer advancements in wheelchair design enable wheelchairs to climb stairs go off-road or propel using segway technology or additional add-ons like handbikes or power assists.Transfer devices.Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are Patient lifts (for vertical transfer), Transfer benches, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a Patient lift (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association.A walker or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front.Prosthesis.A prosthesis prosthetic or prosthetic limb is a device that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics the science of using mechanical devices with human muscular musculoskeletal and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma disease or defect. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury or missing from birth or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include hearing aids artificial eyes palatal obturator gastric bands and dentures.Prostheses are specifically not orthoses although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance a C-Leg knee alone is not a prosthesis but only a prosthetic component. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system to the residual limb — usually a "socket" and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Despite the technical difference the terms are often used interchangeably.The terms are used to describe the respective allied health fields.An Occupational Therapist's role in prosthetics include therapy, training and evaluations. Prosthetic training includes orientation to prosthetics components and terminology, donning and doffing, wearing schedule, and how to care for residual limb and the prosthesis.Exoskeletons.A powered exoskeleton is a wearable mobile machine that is powered by a system of electric motors pneumatics levers hydraulics or a combination of technologies that allow for limb movement with increased strength and endurance. Its design aims to provide back support sense the user's motion and send a signal to motors which manage the gears. The exoskeleton supports the shoulder waist and thigh and assists movement for lifting and holding heavy items while lowering back stress.Adaptive seating and positioning.People with balance and motor function challenges often need specialized equipment to sit or stand safely and securely. This equipment is frequently specialized for specific settings such as in a classroom or nursing home. Positioning is often important in seating arrangements to ensure that user's body pressure is distributed equally without inhibiting movement in a desired way.Positioning devices have been developed to aid in allowing people to stand and bear weight on their legs without risk of a fall. These standers are generally grouped into two categories based on the position of the occupant. Prone standers distribute the body weight to the front of the individual and usually have a tray in front of them. This makes them good for users who are actively trying to carry out some task. Supine standers distribute the body weight to the back and are good for cases where the user has more limited mobility or is recovering from injury.Visual impairments.Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders.Screen readers.Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice or braille in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets.Some example of screen readers are Apple VoiceOver Google TalkBack and Microsoft Narrator. This software is provided free of charge on all Apple devices. Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify the screen control the keyboard and provide verbal descriptions to describe what is happening on the screen. There are thirty languages to select from. It also has the capacity to read aloud file content as well as web pages E-mail messages and word processing files.As mentioned above screen readers may rely on the assistance of text-to-speech tools. To use the text-to-speech tools the documents must in an electronic form that is uploaded as the digital format. However people usually will use the hard copy documents scanned into the computer which cannot be recognized by the text-to-speech software. To solve this issue people always use Optical Character Recognition technology accompanied with text-to-speech software.Braille and braille embossers.Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots with two parallel rows of three dots but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters numbers punctuation marks or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots.A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch.Refreshable braille display.A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text.Desktop video magnifier.Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand.Screen magnification software.A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass." Wherever the computer cursor moves it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities.Large-print and tactile keyboards.A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen change the background color of the screen or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards help the user find the right keys in a tactile way.Navigation assistance.Assistive technology for navigation has exploded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000 with over 7500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years and over 1300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS accelerometers gyroscopes and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what is in the immediate vicinity and assistance in getting to a destination.Wearable technology.Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices.Some wearable devices for visual impairment includePersonal emergency response systems.Personal emergency response systems , or Telecare , are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers , flooding and unlit gas sensors . Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately.Accessibility software.In human–computer interaction computer accessibility refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people regardless of disability or severity of impairment examples include web accessibility guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal such as a smart card that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed text size etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries ATM Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems – Man-Machine Interface. This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by SNAPI and has been successfully incorporated into the Lasseo specifications but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers.Hearing impairments.People in the d/Deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing) tactile feedback visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories Hearing Technology alerting devices and communication support.Hearing aids.A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro-acoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids.Assistive listening devices.Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM transmission, IR transmission, IL transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume.Amplified telephone equipment.This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from with different degrees of amplification. For example a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss.Augmentative and alternative communication.Augmentative and alternative communication is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food drink or other care or they can be advanced speech generating devices based on speech synthesis that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words.Cognitive impairments.Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention memory self-regulation navigation emotion recognition and management planning and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly but have focused on memory and planning that there is emerging evidence for efficacy that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include NeuroPage which prompts users about meetings Wakamaru which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong and telephone Reassurance systems.Memory aids.Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record information for fast and easy recall at a later time.Educational software.Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software.Eating impairments.Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficulty using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function and enable them to eat independently.Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in adaptive sports, where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind.An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-technology", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite Paralympic Games. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity".In education.In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device."Assistive technology listed is a student's IEP is not only recommended, it is required . These devices help students both with and without disabilities access the curriculum in a way they were previously unable to . Occupational therapists play an important role in educating students, parents and teachers about the assistive technology they may interact with .Assistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy.Dementia care.Assistive technology for memory support.A 2017 Cochrane Review highlighted the current lack of high-quality evidence to determine whether assistive technology effectively supports people with dementia to manage memory issues. Thus, it is not presently sure whether or not assistive technology is beneficial for memory problems.Computer accessibility.One of the largest problems that affect disabled people is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics.Assistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys.Assistive technology devices have been created to enable disabled people to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the iPad iPhone and iPod touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch single touch of the screen or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons.For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted.Home automation.The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security entertainment and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door.Overall, assistive technology aims to allow disabled people to "participate more fully in all aspects of life " and increases their opportunities for "education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment". It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities". Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks. There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible. +The abacus , also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool which has been used since ancient times. It was used in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of the abacus has not yet emerged. It consists of rows of movable beads, or similar objects, strung on a wire. They represent digits. One of the two numbers is set up, and the beads are manipulated to perform an operation such as addition, or even a square or cubic root.In their earliest designs the rows of beads could be loose on a flat surface or sliding in grooves. Later the beads were made to slide on rods and built into a frame allowing faster manipulation. Abacuses are still made often as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires. In the ancient world particularly before the introduction of positional notation abacuses were a practical calculating tool. The abacus is still used to teach the fundamentals of mathematics to some children e.g. in post-Soviet states.Designs such as the Japanese soroban have been used for practical calculations of up to multi-digit numbers. Any particular abacus design supports multiple methods to perform calculations, including the four basic operations and square and cube roots. Some of these methods work with non-natural numbers .Although calculators and computers are commonly used today instead of abacuses abacuses remain in everyday use in some countries. Merchants traders and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe Russia China and Africa use abacuses. The abacus remains in common useas a scoring system in non-electronic table games. Others may use an abacus due to visual impairment that prevents the use of a calculator.The word "abacus" dates to at least AD 1387 when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin that described a sandboard abacus. The Latin word is derived from ancient Greek which means something without a base, and colloquially, any piece of rectangular material. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust " (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive form of the Greek word, . While the table strewn with dust definition is popular, some argue evidence is insufficient for that conclusion. Greek probably borrowed from a Northwest Semitic language like Phoenician, evidenced by a cognate with the Hebrew word "bq" , or “dust” .Mesopotamia.The Sumerian abacus appeared between 2700–2300 BC. It held a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal (base 60) number system.Some scholars point to a character in Babylonian cuneiform that may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars, such as Ettore Carruccio, that Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations".Greek historian Herodotus mentioned the abacus in Ancient Egypt. He wrote that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument are yet to be discovered.At around 600 BC, Persians first began to use the abacus, during the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian, Sassanian, and Iranian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire- which is how the abacus may have been exported to other countries.The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Demosthenes (384 BC–322 BC) complained that the need to use pebbles for calculations was too difficult. A play by Alexis from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting and both Diogenes and Polybius use the abacus as a metaphor for human behavior stating "that men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less" like the pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia the Etruscan civilization Ancient Rome and the Western Christian world until the French Revolution.A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD dates to 300 BC making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble in length wide and thick on which are 5 groups of markings. In the tablet's center is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection the third sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame the Darius Vase was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other.The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC.The Chinese abacus, also known as the can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center.The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the Han Dynasty, and the beads are oval. The Song Dynasty and earlier used the 1:4 type or four-beads abacus similar to the modern abacus including the shape of the beads commonly known as Japanese-style abacus.In the early Ming Dynasty, the abacus began to appear in a 1:5 ratio. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads. In the late Ming Dynasty, the abacus styles appeared in a 2:5 ratio. The upper deck had two beads, and the bottom had five.Various calculation techniques were devised for "Suanpan" enabling efficient calculations. Some schools teach students how to use it.In the long scroll "Along the River During the Qingming Festival" painted by Zhang Zeduan during the Song dynasty , a "suanpan" is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an apothecary's .The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other given evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However no direct connection has been demonstrated and the similarity of the abacuses may be coincidental both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place the standard has 5 plus 2. Incidentally this allows use with a hexadecimal numeral system which may have been used for traditional Chinese measures of weight. Another possible source of the "suanpan" is Chinese counting rods which operated with a decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a placeholder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians.The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome as in Greece was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles ("calculi") were used. Later and in medieval Europe jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units fives tens etc. as in the Roman numeral system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to Pope Sylvester II's reintroduction of the abacus with modifications it became widely used in Europe again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires unlike the traditional Roman counting boards which meant the abacus could be used much faster and was more easily moved.Writing in the 1st century BC Horace refers to the wax abacus a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus.One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown nearby in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens, etc., essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, related to the Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman "ounces" .The to indicate the empty column on the abacus.In Japan, the abacus is called "soroban" (, lit. "counting tray"). It was imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class adopted it, as the class structure obstructed such changes. The 1:4 abacus, which removes the seldom-used second and fifth bead became popular in the 1940s.Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus, introduced from China in the Muromachi era. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is similar to the Chinese or Korean abacus, and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as a one:four device. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called , which is now in the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in Yamagata City. Japan also used a 2:5 type abacus.The four-bead abacus spread and became common around the world. Improvements to the Japanese abacus arose in various places. In China an aluminium frame plastic bead abacus was used. The file is next to the four beads and pressing the "clearing" button put the upper bead in the upper position and the lower bead in the lower position.The abacus is still manufactured in Japan even with the proliferation practicality and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery can complete a calculation as quickly as a physical instrument.The Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans call it . The four-beads abacus was introduced during the Goryeo Dynasty. The 5:1 abacus was introduced to Korea from China during the Ming Dynasty.Native America.Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a "nepohualtzintzin" in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. The word Nephualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl, formed by the roots; "Ne" – personal -; "phual" or "phualli" – the account -; and "tzintzin" – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements. Its use was taught in the Calmecac to the "temalpouhqueh" , who were students dedicated to taking the accounts of skies, from childhood.The Nephualtzintzin was divided into two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part were four beads. Beads in the first row have unitary values and on the right side three beads had values of 5 10 and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows it is enough to multiply by 20 the value of the corresponding count in the first row.The device featured 13 rows with 7 beads, 91 in total. This was a basic number for this culture. It had a close relation to natural phenomena, the underworld, and the cycles of the heavens. One Nephualtzintzin represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nephualtzitzin is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nephualtzintzin is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nephualtzintzin completed a cycle and approximated one year. When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nephualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to 18 in floating point, which precisely calculated large and small amounts, although round off was not allowed.The rediscovery of the Nephualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his travels throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. Very old Nephualtzintzin are attributed to the Olmec culture, and some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures.Sanchez wrote in "Arithmetic in Maya" that another base 5, base 4 abacus had been found in the Yucatn Peninsula that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2, and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles.The quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 Italian mathematician De Pasquale proposed an explanation. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20, and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.The Russian abacus, the "schoty" , usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire . Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with each wire running horizontally. The wires are usually bowed upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either side. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire usually are of a different color from the other eight. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire may have a different color.The Russian abacus was in use in shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and its usage was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia; according to Yakov Perelman. Some businessmen attempting to import calculators into the Russian Empire were known to leave in despair after watching a skilled abacus operator. Likewise, the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce abacus use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of domestic microcalculators in 1974.The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who had served in Napoleons French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a by the Armenians.School abacus.Around the world abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic.In Western countries a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame is common .The wireframe may be used either with positional notation like other abacuses or each bead may represent one unit . In the bead frame shown the gap between the 5th and 6th wire corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire suggests the latter use. Teaching multiplication e.g. 6 times 7 may be represented by shifting 7 beads on 6 wires.The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version referred to by its Dutch name is often used either on a string of beads or on a rigid framework.Feynman vs the abacus.Physicist Richard Feynman was noted for facility in mathematical calculations. He wrote about an encounter in Brazil with a Japanese abacus expert, who challenged him to speed contests between Feynman's pen and paper, and the abacus. The abacus was much faster for addition, somewhat faster for multiplication, but Feynman was faster at division. When the abacus was used for a really difficult challenge, i.e. cube roots, Feynman won easily. However, the number chosen at random was close to a number Feynman happened to know was an exact cube, allowing him to use approximate methods.Neurological analysis.Learning how to calculate with the abacus may improve capacity for mental calculation. Abacus-based mental calculation which was derived from the abacus is the act of performing calculations including addition subtraction multiplication and division in the mind by manipulating an imagined abacus. It is a high-level cognitive skill that runs calculations with an effective algorithm. People doing long-term AMC training show higher numerical memory capacity and experience more effectively connected neural pathways. They are able to retrieve memory to deal with complex processes. AMC involves both visuospatial and visuomotor processing that generate the visual abacus and move the imaginary beads. Since it only requires that the final position of beads be remembered it takes less memory and less computation time.Binary abacus.The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an "on" or "off" position.Visually impaired users.An adapted abacus invented by Tim Cranmer and called a Cranmer abacus is commonly used by visually impaired users. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads keeping them in place while the users manipulate them. The device is then used to perform the mathematical functions of multiplication division addition subtraction square root and cube root.Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators the abacus is often taught to these students in early grades. Blind students can also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code but large multiplication and long division problems are tedious. The abacus gives these students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a useful tool throughout life. +An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton known as a Brnsted–Lowry acid or capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair known as a Lewis acid.The first category of acids are the proton donors or Brnsted–Lowry acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brnsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brnsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+.Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste can turn blue litmus red and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word (as in ) while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic.Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid.The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride , whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia . Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brnsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly .Definitions and concepts.Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids.Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions or can be dissolved in water so the Arrhenius and Brnsted–Lowry definitions are the most relevant.The Brnsted–Lowry definition is the most widely used definition unless otherwise specified acid–base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton from an acid to a base.Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brnsted–Lowry acids they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms.Arrhenius acids.In 1884, Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions , later described as protons or hydrons. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H+ and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion or other forms . Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as hydrogen chloride and acetic acid.An Arrhenius base on the other hand is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O moleculesH3O + OH ⇌ H2O + H2ODue to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it.In an acidic solution the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7.Brnsted–Lowry acids.While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brnsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid–base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brnsted–Lowry acid is a species that donates a proton to a Brnsted–Lowry base. Brnsted–Lowry acid–base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic tasteBoth theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brnsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia , but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brnsted–Lowry acid.Brnsted–Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen chloride and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition:As with the acetic acid reactions both definitions work for the first example where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.Lewis acids.A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis, which includes reactions with acid–base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brnsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brnsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid–base chemistry:In the first reaction a fluoride ion F− gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brnsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brnsted acid to ammonia a Brnsted base alternatively ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid for example the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. Organic Brnsted acids such as acetic citric or oxalic acid are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid H+ but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base . This article deals mostly with Brnsted acids rather than Lewis acids.Dissociation and equilibrium.Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H+ + A− where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as protolysis. The protonated form of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the free acid.Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton . Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant "K" is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration such that means "the concentration of H2O". The acid dissociation constant "K"a is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of "K"a is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants where the reactant is the acid and the products are the conjugate base and H+.The stronger of two acids will have a higher a at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.Nomenclature.Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form hydrochloric acid."Classical naming system"In the IUPAC naming system is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus for hydrogen chloride as an acid solution the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride.Acid strength.The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A−, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid , hydroiodic acid , hydrobromic acid , perchloric acid , nitric acid and sulfuric acid . In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base.Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant "K"a and a more negative p"K"a than weaker acids.Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid . Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable.Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.Lewis acid strength in non-aqueous solutions.Lewis acids have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots. It has been shown that to define the order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearsons quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent.Chemical characteristics.Monoprotic acids.Monoprotic acids also known as monobasic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA)Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid and nitric acid . On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid , acetic acid and benzoic acid .Polyprotic acids.Polyprotic acids also known as polybasic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names such as diprotic acid and triprotic acid . Some macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids can have a very large number of acidic protons.A diprotic acid can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2.The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second . For example, sulfuric acid can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion , for which "K"a1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion , wherein the "K"a2 is intermediate strength. The large "K"a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion and lose a second to form carbonate anion . Both "K"a values are small, but "K"a1 > "K"a2 .A triprotic acid can undergo one two or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants where "K"a1 > "K"a2 > "K"a3.An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO then HPO and finally PO the orthophosphate ion usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent the successive "K"a values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion.Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration for each species can be calculated. For example a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution H2A HA− and A2−. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate basesA plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given -times:\alpha_{\ce H_{n-i} A^{i-} }= +Asphalt, also known as bitumen , is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek . The largest natural deposit of asphalt in the world, estimated to contain 10 million tons, is the Pitch Lake located in La Brea in southwest Trinidad , within the Siparia Regional Corporation.The primary use of asphalt is in road construction where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.In material sciences and engineering, the terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance, although there is regional variation as to which term is most common. Worldwide, geologists tend to favor the term "bitumen" for the naturally occurring material. For the manufactured material, which is a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils, "bitumen" is the prevalent term in much of the world; however, in American English, "asphalt" is more commonly used. To help avoid confusion, the phrases "liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or "asphalt cement" are used in the U.S. Colloquially, various forms of asphalt are sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits, although tar is a different material.Naturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term . The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural asphalt in the Athabasca oil sands, which cover , an area larger than England.Asphalt properties change with temperature which means that there is a specific range where viscosity permits adequate compaction by providing lubrication between particles during the compaction process. Low temperature prevents aggregate particles from moving and the required density is not possible to achieve. Computer simulations of simplified model systems are able to reproduce some of asphalt's characteristic properties.Terminology.The word "asphalt" is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French "asphalte", based on Late Latin "asphalton", "asphaltum", which is the latinisation of the Greek , a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch", which perhaps derives from , "not, without", i.e. the alpha privative, and , "to cause to fall, baffle, err, be balked of". The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French and English . In French, the term "asphalte" is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads.The Latin source of the word .Modern terminology.In British English, "bitumen" is used instead of "asphalt". The word "asphalt" is instead used to refer to asphalt concrete, a mixture of construction aggregate and asphalt itself . Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called "asphaltum", but the term is less commonly used today.In Australian English the word refers to the liquid derived from the heavy-residues from crude oil distillation.In American English, "asphalt" is equivalent to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt" is also commonly used as a shortened form of "asphalt concrete" .In Canadian English, the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen is known as "dilbit" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "upgraded" to synthetic crude oil is known as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called "synbit". is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The oil sands of Alberta Canada are a similar material.Neither of the terms should be confused with tar or coal tars. Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry distillation and pyrolysis of organic hydrocarbons primarily sourced from vegetation masses whether fossilized as with coal or freshly harvested. The majority of bitumen on the other hand was formed naturally when vast quantities of organic animal materials were deposited by water and buried hundreds of metres deep at the diagenetic point where the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon molecules joined together in long chains in the absence of oxygen. Bitumen occurs as a solid or highly viscous liquid. It may even be mixed in with coal deposits. Bitumen and coal using the Bergius process can be refined into petrols such as gasoline and bitumen may be distilled into tar not the other way around.Composition.Normal composition.The components of asphalt include four main classes of compoundsThe naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Most natural bitumens also contain organosulfur compounds resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found at <10 parts per million as is typical of some petroleum.The substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase. .Asphalt may be confused with coal tar which is a visually similar black thermoplastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to macadam roads led to the word is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt as in Pitch Lake.Additives mixtures and contaminants.For economic and other reasons asphalt is sometimes sold combined with other materials often without being labeled as anything other than simply .Of particular note is the use of re-refined engine oil bottoms – the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically iron and copper). Some research has indicated a correlation between this adulteration of asphalt and poorer-performing pavement.Occurrence.The majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen kerogen or petroleum.Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits and in the Dead Sea.Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta Canada and the similar "tar sands" in Utah US.The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering , an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.The world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands, is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage.Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah, US. The Tar Sand Triangle deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.Bitumen may occur in hydrothermal veins. An example of this is within the Uinta Basin of Utah in the US where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed Gilsonite. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the Green River Formation during burial and diagenesis.Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites. However detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals mainly algae that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud buried deeply over time and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of . Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Alberta 80 to 55 million years ago the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches thus forming the oil sands.Ancient times.The use of natural bitumen for waterproofing and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth millennium BC with a crop storage basket discovered in Mehrgarh of the Indus Valley Civilization lined with it. By the 3rd millennium BC refined rock asphalt was in use in the region and was used to waterproof the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro.In the ancient Middle East, the Sumerians used natural bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship caulking, and for waterproofing. The Greek historian Herodotus said hot bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of Babylon.The long Euphrates Tunnel beneath the river Euphrates at Babylon in the time of Queen Semiramis was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent.Bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. The Persian word for asphalt is "moom", which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the Dead Sea, which the Romans knew as "Palus Asphaltites" .In approximately 40 AD, Dioscorides described the Dead Sea material as "Judaicum bitumen", and noted other places in the region where it could be found. The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at Hasbeya in Lebanon. Pliny also refers to bitumen being found in Epirus. Bitumen was a valuable strategic resource. It was the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit – between the Seleucids and the Nabateans in 312 BC.In the ancient Far East natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing such as scabbards and other items. Statuettes of household deities were also cast with this type of material in Japan and probably also in China.In North America, archaeological recovery has indicated that bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone projectile points to wooden shafts. In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the Athabasca and other rivers to waterproof birch bark canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off mosquitoes in the summer.Continental Europe.In 1553, Pierre Belon described in his work , a mixture of pitch and bitumen, was used in the Republic of Ragusa for tarring of ships.An 1838 edition of "Mechanics Magazine" cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621 by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys states that he had discovered the existence in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel" and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries and in protecting by means of the arches the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth" which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation".But the substance was generally neglected in France until the revolution of 1830. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann (Bas-Rhin), the Parc (Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix (Puy-de-Dme)", although it could also be made artificially. One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the Place de la Concorde in 1835.United Kingdom.Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's "Polygraphice" provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of mastic, and one ounce of asphaltum. By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources.The first British patent for the use of asphalt was .Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838 and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851 extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge. "Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company"formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France""laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". "The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry". "By the end of 1838 at least two other companies Robinson's and the Bastenne company were in production" with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton Herne Bay Canterbury Kensington the Strand and a large floor area in Bunhill-row while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue in good order". The Bonnington Chemical Works manufactured asphalt using coal tar and by 1839 had installed it in Bonnington.In 1838 there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt which had uses beyond paving. For example asphalt could also be used for flooring damp proofing in buildings and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England .In 1914 Claridges Company which was itself compulsorily wound up ceasing operations in 1917 having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture both at the outset and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company.Bitumen was thought in 19th century Britain to contain chemicals with medicinal properties. Extracts from bitumen were used to treat catarrh and some forms of asthma and as a remedy against worms, especially the tapeworm.United States.The first use of bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseo and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water. Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes.Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial.In the horse-drawn era US streets were mostly unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. Especially where mud or trenching often made streets difficult to pass pavements were sometimes made of diverse materials including wooden planks cobble stones or other stone blocks or bricks. Unpaved roads produced uneven wear and hazards for pedestrians. In the late 19th century with the rise of the popular bicycle bicycle clubs were important in pushing for more general pavement of streets. Advocacy for pavement increased in the early 20th century with the rise of the automobile. Asphalt gradually became an ever more common method of paving. St. Charles Avenue in New Orleans was paved its whole length with asphalt by 1889.In 1900 Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses, pulling streetcars, wagons, and carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets. Small towns continued to rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities wanted much better streets. They looked to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s. In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of streets were paved, chiefly with wooden blocks, which gave better traction than mud. Brick surfacing was a good compromise, but even better was asphalt paving, which was easy to install and to cut through to get at sewers. With London and Paris serving as models, Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882; it became the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick. The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers until they bought automobiles after 1945 and commuted from more distant suburbs in privacy and comfort on asphalt highways.Canada has the worldt until 1787 that fur trader and explorer Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca oil sands and said "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance."The value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen was not. The nearest town, Fort McMurray, Alberta, was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet of road in Edmonton, Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic Site.Photography and art.Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicphore Nipce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is Thodore Gricault's Raft of the Medusa , where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle.Modern use.Global use.The vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, asphalt is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is used as the binder in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse aggregates such as sand, gravel and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers , may be added to the asphalt to modify its properties according to the application for which the asphalt is ultimately intended.A further 10% of global asphalt production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable.The remaining 5% of asphalt is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint. Asphalt is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as the following:Rolled asphalt concrete.The largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe.Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates . Due to its highly viscous nature asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt and the aggregates but warm-mix asphalt technologies allow producers to reduce the temperature required.The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the aggregate type, the asphalt, and the air void content. An average example in the United States is about 112 pounds per square yard, per inch of pavement thickness.When maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements roadbeds shoulders and embankments or stockpiled for future use.Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly it is widely used for runways.Mastic asphalt.Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt in that it has a higher asphalt content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about thick.Asphalt emulsion.A number of technologies allow asphalt to be applied at mild temperatures. The viscosity can be lowered by emulsfying the asphalt by the addition of fatty amines. 2–25% is the content of these emulsifying agents. The cationic amines enhance the binding of the asphalt to the surface of the crushed rock.Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal is a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements. Bitumen emulsion based techniques are known to be useful for all classes of roads, their use may also be possible in the following applications: 1. Asphalts for heavily trafficked roads (based on the use of polymer modified emulsions) 2. Warm emulsion based mixtures, to improve both their maturation time and mechanical properties 3. Half-warm technology, in which aggregates are heated up to 100 degrees, producing mixtures with similar properties to those of hot asphalts 4. High performance surface dressing.Synthetic crude oil.Synthetic crude oil also known as syncrude is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous power shovels and loaded into even larger dump trucks for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by Dr. Karl Clark of the University of Alberta during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader which converts it into a light crude oil equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional oil pipelines and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over per day of synthetic crude oil of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States.In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.Non-upgraded crude bitumen.Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline diesel fuel and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over per day of which about 65% was exported to the United States.Because of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with natural-gas condensate in a form called dilbit or with synthetic crude oil, called synbit. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as Western Canadian Select. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as Mexican Mayan or Arabian Dubai Crude.Radioactive waste encapsulation matrix.Asphalt was used starting in the 1960s as a hydrophobic matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts produced by the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels or radioactive sludges from sedimentation ponds. Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic elements from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France Belgium and Japan but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues and long-term stability problems related to their geological disposal in deep rock formations. One of the main problems is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation and to water. Asphalt swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma radiolysis. A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts the asphalt acting as a semi-permeable membrane. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the redox conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences radionuclides of elements such as selenium technetium uranium neptunium and plutonium have a higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded anions. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging.Different types of asphalt have been used blown bitumen and direct distillation bitumen . Blown bitumens like Mexphalte with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons.Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the nuclear industry and the waste management organisations.Other uses.Roofing shingles and roll roofing account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker. Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process.Production.About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984. It is obtained as the "heavy" fraction. Material with a boiling point greater than around 500 °C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil . The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a de-asphalting unit, the crude asphalt is treated with either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This step makes the product harder and more viscous.Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around . Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called , or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to environmental concerns.Naturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from currently under development in Alberta Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen covering 140000 square kilometres (an area larger than England) giving it the second-largest proven oil reserves in the world. The Athabasca oil sands are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to surface mining although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by methods. Because of oil price increases after 2003 producing bitumen became highly profitable but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014 Canadian crude bitumen production averaged about per day and was projected to rise to per day by 2020. The total amount of crude bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted is estimated to be about which at a rate of would last about 200 years.Alternatives and bioasphalt.Although uncompetitive economically, asphalt can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, molasses and rice, corn and potato starches. Asphalt can also be made from waste material by fractional distillation of used motor oil, which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently.Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the urban heat island effect. Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called green parking lots.Albanian deposits.Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in Selenice, in Albania, the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% , with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point around 120 °C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%.Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868 when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875 the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912 they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945 the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date the management passed to a French company which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine.Selenizza is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags.A life-cycle assessment study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum asphalt has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission.Asphalt is a commonly recycled material in the construction industry. The two most common recycled materials that contain asphalt are reclaimed asphalt pavement and reclaimed asphalt shingles . RAP is recycled at a greater rate than any other material in the United States and typically contains approximately 5 – 6% asphalt binder. Asphalt shingles typically contain 20 – 40% asphalt binder.Asphalt naturally becomes stiffer over time due to oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and physical hardening. For this reason, recycled asphalt is typically combined with virgin asphalt, softening agents, and/or rejuvenating additives to restore its physical and chemical properties.For information on the processing and performance of RAP and RAS see Asphalt Concrete.For information on the different types of RAS and associated health and safety concerns, see Asphalt Shingles.For information on in-place recycling methods used to restore pavements and roadways see Road Surface.Although asphalt typically makes up only 4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement mixture, as the pavement's binder, it is also the most expensive part of the cost of the road-paving material.During asphalt's early use in modern paving oil refiners gave it away. However asphalt is today a highly traded commodity. Its prices increased substantially in the early 21st Century. A U.S. government report statesThe report indicates that an Health and safety.People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 over a 15-minute period.Asphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving roofing and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt the International Agency for Research on Cancer determined that it is the application parameters predominantly temperature that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions. In particular temperatures greater than 199 °C were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement. IARC has classified paving asphalt fumes as a Class 2B possible carcinogen indicating inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.In 2020 scientists reported that asphalt currently is a significant and largely overlooked source of air pollution in urban areas especially during hot and sunny periods.An asphalt-like substance found in the Himalayas and known as "shilajit" is sometimes used as an Ayurveda medicine, but is not in fact a tar, resin or asphalt. +The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations government agencies consumer groups companies and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent that people use the same definitions and terms and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.The organizations operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications membership dues and fees accreditation services fee-based programs and international standards programs.ANSI was most likely originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee . In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association . In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute . The present name was adopted in 1969.Prior to 1918 these five founding engineering societieshad been members of the United Engineering Society . At the behest of the AIEE they invited the U.S. government Departments of War Navy and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization.According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies.In 1931, the organization became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission , which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide.Although ANSI itself does not develop standards the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the institute's requirements for openness balance consensus and due process.ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards or ANS when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders.Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation.The American National Standards process involves:International activities.In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate.The institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a founding member and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC through ANSI or the USNC where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards.Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012.Standards panels.The Institute administers nine standards panelsEach of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas.In 2009 ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. +In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion.Argument may also refer to:Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin formed the American crew that landed the Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle" on July 20 1969 at 2017 UTC. Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six hours and 39 minutes later on July 21 at 0256 UTC Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later. They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft and collected of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Command module pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module "Columbia" alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon's surface. Armstrong and Aldrin spent 21 hours 36 minutes on the lunar surface at a site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing before lifting off to rejoin "Columbia" in lunar orbit.Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island Florida on July 16 at 1332 UTC and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts a command module with a cabin for the three astronauts the only part that returned to Earth a service module which supported the command module with propulsion electrical power oxygen and water and a lunar module that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as Background.In the late 1950s and early 1960s the United States was engaged in the Cold War a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 the first artificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances and challenged American claims of military economic and technological superiority. This precipitated the Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and initiating Project Mercury which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit. But on April 12 1961 Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later on May 5 1961 Alan Shepard became the first American in space completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor John F. Kennedy.Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles, Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose.On May 25 1961 Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declaredOn September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston, Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows:In spite of that the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "moondoggle" by Norbert Wiener a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name Project Apollo. When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev the Premier of the Soviet Union in June 1961 he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death.An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development.Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor electronic technology, including metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform and silicon integrated circuit chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer .Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon.The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.Prime crew.The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong Command Module Pilot Jim Lovell and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM Apollo8 and Apollo9 swapped prime and backup crews and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11.There would be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was STS-26 in 1988.Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13).The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as Backup crew.The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable.By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo Lovell Mattingly and Haise were scheduled to fly on Apollo 14 after backing up for Apollo 11. Later Lovell's crew was forced to switch places with Alan Shepard's tentative Apollo 13 crew to give Shepard more training time.Support crew.During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them. For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Ronald Evans and Bill Pogue.Capsule communicators.The capsule communicator was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: Charles Duke, Ronald Evans, Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind, Owen K. Garriott and Harrison Schmitt.Flight directors.The flight directors for this mission wereOther key personnel.Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following.Preparations.The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for .An illustrator at the Manned Spacecraft Center did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval. The design was rejected. Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked "too warlike". After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979.Call signs.After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft "Charlie Brown" and "Snoopy", assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The name "Snowcone" was used for the CM and "Haystack" was used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning.The LM was named , the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel was in reference to Christopher Columbus.The astronauts had personal preference kits , small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission. Five PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three were stowed on "Columbia" before launch, and two on "Eagle".Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the Wright brothers' 1903 "Wright Flyer"s left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11.Site selection.NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program. The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration.Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed as no such site was found. Five sites were considered Sites1 and2 were in the Sea of Tranquility () Site3 was in the Central Bay () and Sites4 and5 were in the Ocean of Storms ().The final site selection was based on seven criteriaThe requirement for the Sun angle was particularly restrictive limiting the launch date to one day per month. A landing just after dawn was chosen to limit the temperature extremes the astronauts would experience. The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site2 with Sites 3and5 as backups in the event of the launch being delayed. In May 1969 Apollo 10's lunar module flew to within of Site2 and reported it was acceptable.First-step decision.During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced the first question was .One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander which matched what had been done on Gemini missions where the commander had never performed the spacewalk. Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon and Associate Administrator George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14 1969.For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring. Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that's the way to do it."The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first. Chris Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft.Pre-launch.The ascent stage of LM-5 "Eagle" arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and CSM-107 "Columbia" on January 23. There were several differences between "Eagle" and Apollo 10's LM-4 "Snoopy"; "Eagle" had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from the Operations and Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building on April 14.The S-IVB third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived on January 18, followed by the S-II second stage on February 6, S-IC first stage on February 20, and the Saturn V Instrument Unit on February 27. At 12:30 on May 20, the assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the crawler-transporter, bound for Launch Pad 39A, part of Launch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service structure back to its parking area. In the early hours of the morning, the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with liquid hydrogen. Fueling was completed by three hours before launch. Launch operations were partly automated, with 43 programs written in the ATOLL programming language.Slayton roused the crew shortly after 04:00, and they showered, shaved, and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 06:30, they headed out to Launch Complex 39. Haise entered about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at 06:54. Five minutes later, Collins joined him, taking up his position on the right-hand couch. Finally, Aldrin entered, taking the center couch. Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the firing room.Launch and flight to lunar orbit.An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the Chief of Staff of the United States Army General William Westmoreland four cabinet members 19 state governors 40 mayors 60 ambassadors and 200 congressmen. Vice President Spiro Agnew viewed the launch with former president Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird Johnson. Around 3500 media representatives were present. About two-thirds were from the United States the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White House with his NASA liaison officer Apollo astronaut Frank Borman.Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16 1969 at 133200 UTC . At 13.2 seconds into the flight the launch vehicle began to roll into its flight azimuth of 72.058°. Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2minutes and 42 seconds into the mission followed by separation of the S-IC and ignition of the S-II engines. The second stage engines then cut off and separated at about 9minutes and 8seconds allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later.Apollo 11 entered a near-circular Earth orbit at an altitude of by , twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans-lunar injection burn at 16:22:13 UTC. About 30 minutes later, with Collins in the left seat and at the controls, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed. This involved separating "Columbia" from the spent S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking with "Eagle" still attached to the stage. After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon. This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. A slingshot effect from passing around the Moon threw it into an orbit around the Sun.On July 19 at 172150 UTC Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about southwest of the crater Sabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about southeast of the Surveyor5 landing site and southwest of Ranger8's crash site.Lunar descent.At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered "Eagle", and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 "Eagle" separated from "Columbia". Collins, alone aboard "Columbia", inspected "Eagle" as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed. Armstrong exclaimed: "The "Eagle" has wings!"As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. "Eagle" was traveling too fast. The problem could have been mascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains a gravitational anomaly, potentially altering "Eagle"'s trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel. Or it could have been the result of "Eagle"s pirouette maneuver.Five minutes into the descent burn and above the surface of the Moon the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center computer engineer Jack Garman told Guidance Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows" meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them. Margaret Hamilton the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the MIT Charles Stark Draper Laboratory later recalledDuring the mission the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time. Software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in Apollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on should have been irrelevant to the computer but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious cycle stealing as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter caused the computer alarms.When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a crater , so he took semi-automatic control. Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting "Eagle". Now above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site.Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed.A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the probes hanging from "Eagle" footpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said "Contact light!" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode but he forgot. Three seconds later "Eagle" landed and Armstrong shut the engine down. Aldrin immediately said "Okay engine stop. ACA—out of detent." Armstrong acknowledged "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin continued "Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in."ACA was the Attitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command the reaction control system jets to fire. meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. LGC address 413 contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed."Eagle" landed at 201740 UTC on Sunday July 20 with of usable fuel remaining. Information available to the crew and mission controllers during the landing showed the LM had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown would have become unsafe but post-mission analysis showed that the real figure was probably closer to 50 seconds. Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellant sloshing more than expected uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this.Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin's completion of the post-landing checklist with "Engine arm is off" before responding to the CAPCOM Charles Duke with the words "Houston Tranquility Base here. The "Eagle" has landed." Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle" to "Tranquility Base" emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful. Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control "Roger Twan—Tranquility we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."Two and a half hours after landing before preparations began for the EVA Aldrin radioed to EarthHe then took communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20. The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep.Lunar surface operations.Preparations for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to walk on the Moon began at 23:43. These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two. During training on Earth, everything required had been neatly laid out in advance, but on the Moon the cabin contained a large number of other items as well, such as checklists, food packets, and tools. Six hours and thirty-nine minutes after landing Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, and "Eagle" was depressurized."Eagle"s hatch was opened at 023933. Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his portable life support system . Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. At 0251 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly folded against "Eagle" side and activate the TV camera.Apollo 11 used slow-scan television incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor , significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States, but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station near Canberra in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, but recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA.After describing the surface dust as Armstrong intended to say , and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line.About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moons Apollo space suit. Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface. He described the view with the simple phrase: Armstrong said moving in the lunar gravity one-sixth of Earth's was shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit but the helmet was warmer in sunlight so he felt cooler in shadow. The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow slowing work somewhat. As they worked the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits.The astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag of the United States on the lunar surface in clear view of the TV camera. Aldrin remembered "Of all the jobs I had to do on the Moon the one I wanted to go the smoothest was the flag raising." But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only jam the pole about into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers. But he gave "a crisp West Point salute". Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House." Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call but Frank Borman who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11 convinced Nixon to keep his words brief.They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismic experiment package used to measure moonquakes and a retroreflector array used for the lunar laser ranging experiment. Then Armstrong walked from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core samples. He used the geologist's hammer to pound in the tubes—the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11—but was unable to penetrate more than deep. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes. Aldrin shoveled of soil into the box of rocks in order to pack them in tightly. Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples: basalt and breccia. Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth.While on the surface Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM ladder bearing two drawings of Earth an inscription and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription readAt the behest of the Nixon administration to add a reference to God, NASA included the vague date as a reason to include A.D., which stands for Anno Domini, .Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong his metabolic rates were high, and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. As metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension. In a 2010 interview, Armstrong explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon.Lunar ascent.Aldrin entered "Eagle" first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor . This proved to be an inefficient tool and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket and Aldrin tossed the bag down. Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM life support the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks lunar overshoes an empty Hasselblad camera and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 051113. They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep.Presidential speech writer William Safire had prepared an "In Event of Moon Disaster" announcement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke's First World War poem "The Soldier".While moving inside the cabin Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine stranding them on the Moon. A felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch.After more than hours on the lunar surface in addition to the scientific instruments the astronauts left behind an Apollo 1 mission patch in memory of astronauts Roger Chaffee Gus Grissom and Edward White who died when their command module caught fire during a test in January 1967 two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin who died in 1967 and 1968 respectively a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk carrying the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower Kennedy Johnson and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world. The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management.After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. Two and a half hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, they lifted off in "Eagle" ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard "Columbia" in lunar orbit. Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over." Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. in lunar orbit.During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said .One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by the fuel cells and preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return.Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts of "Columbia" might freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. When "Columbia" came back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called for "Eagle" to meet up with "Columbia", Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would fly "Columbia" down to meet "Eagle". on the lunar surface. In 2021 however, some calculations show that lander may still be in orbit.On July 23 the last night before splashdown the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commentedAldrin addedArmstrong concludedOn the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong.Splashdown and quarantine.The aircraft carrier , under the command of Captain Carl J. Seiberlich, was selected as the primary recovery ship for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the LPH , which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26. s air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including a boilerplate command module used for training.On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, s carrier onboard delivery aircraft.Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force Captain Hank Brandli had access to top-secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which "would have ripped their parachutes to shreds" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation, Rear Admiral Donald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected northeast.This altered the flight plan. A different sequence of computer programs was used one never before attempted. In a conventional entry trajectory event P64 was followed by P67. For a skip-out re-entry P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip. In this case because they were extending the re-entry but not actually skipping out P66 was not invoked and instead P65 led directly to P67. The crew were also warned they would not be in a full-lift attitude when they entered P67. The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to the second to .Before dawn on July 24, while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon. At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time) , at . with seas and winds at from the east were reported under broken clouds at with visibility of at the recovery site. Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted.During splashdown landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to prevent it from drifting. More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction.The divers then passed biological isolation garments to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and "Columbia" wiped with Povidone-iodine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board "Hornet". The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk.After touchdown on "Hornet" at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the to the Mobile quarantine facility , where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped. Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: "s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before."After Nixon departed "Hornet" was brought alongside the "Columbia" which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel allowing the lunar samples film data tapes and other items to be removed. "Hornet" returned to Pearl Harbor where the MQF was loaded onto a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at 1000 UTC on July 28. "Columbia" was taken to Ford Island for deactivation and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to Hickham Air Force Base from whence it was flown to Houston in a Douglas C-133 Cargomaster reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30.In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement , the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine , and on itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study.Celebrations.On August 13, the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, Chief Justice of the United States Warren E. Burger and his predecessor, Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon. The flag of American Samoa on Apollo 11 is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa.This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with the leaders of many countries. The crew toured from September 29 to November 5. Many nations honored the first human Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins.Cultural significance.Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy technological superiority and with the success of Apollo 11 America had won the Space Race.New phrases permeated into the English language. became a common saying following Apollo 11. Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies.While most people celebrated the accomplishment disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America evidenced by protesters led by Ralph Abernathy outside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched. NASA Administrator Thomas Paine met with Abernathy at the occasion both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards such as poverty in the US. Paine was then asked and agreed to host protesters as spectators at the launch and Abernathy awestruck by the spectacle prayed for the astronauts. Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem by Gil Scott-Heron called illustrated the racial inequality in the United States that was highlighted by the Space Race. The poem starts withTwenty percent of the world's population watched humans walk on the Moon for the first time. While Apollo 11 sparked the interest of the world the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest of the nation. One possible explanation was the shift in complexity. Landing someone on the Moon was an easy goal to understand lunar geology was too abstract for the average person. Another is that Kennedy's goal of landing humans on the Moon had already been accomplished. A well-defined objective helped Project Apollo accomplish its goal but after it was completed it was hard to justify continuing the lunar missions.While most Americans were proud of their nation's achievements in space exploration, only once during the late 1960s did the Gallup Poll indicate that a majority of Americans favored "doing more" in space as opposed to "doing less". By 1973, 59 percent of those polled favored cutting spending on space exploration. The Space Race had been won, and Cold War tensions were easing as the US and Soviet Union entered the era of dtente. This was also a time when inflation was rising, which put pressure on the government to reduce spending. What saved the space program was that it was one of the few government programs that had achieved something great. Drastic cuts, warned Caspar Weinberger, the deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget, might send a signal that "our best years are behind us".After the Apollo 11 mission officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon and indicated they were not making an attempt. Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969 "We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems." It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon but were unable due to technological difficulties. The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention and another portion was angered by it.The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs .Spacecraft.The command module .. This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, the Saint Louis Science Center from April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh from September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location at Museum of Flight in Seattle from March 16 to September 2, 2019. Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to the Cincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019.For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's "Apollo to the Moon" exhibit, until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module.The descent stage of the LM "Eagle" remains on the Moon. In 2009 the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules scientific instruments and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface after being abandoned and impacting the Moon. The location is uncertain because "Eagle" ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time.In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013 a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11. The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth.Moon rocks.The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston Texas. For safekeeping there is also a smaller collection stored at White Sands Test Facility near Las Cruces New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories around the world conduct studies of the samples and approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year.In November 1969 Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentation Apollo 11 lunar sample displays for 135 nations the fifty states of the United States and its possessions and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as a United States half dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. The Apollo 11 lunar sample displays were given out as goodwill gifts by Nixon in 1970.Experiment results.The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25 1969. The downlink failed on December 14 1969. the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment remains operational.Armstrong's camera.Armstrong's Hasselblad camera was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface.LM memorabilia.In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in the lunar module, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing. The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum.Anniversary events.40th anniversary.On July 15 2009 Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by "Life" photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch. From July 16 to 24 2009 NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments. In July 2010 air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up an Adobe Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon.On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with US President Barack Obama at the White House. On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator Bill Nelson and Florida Representative Alan Grayson.A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing:50th anniversary.On June 10 2015 Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of the United States House of Representatives directing the United States Mint to design and sell commemorative coins in gold silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24 2019 the Mint released the Apollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coins to the public on its website.A documentary film "Apollo 11" with restored footage of the 1969 event premiered in IMAX on March 1 2019 and broadly in theaters on March 8.The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival" on the National Mall in Washington DC. The three day outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such as Adam Savage and NASA scientists.As part of the festival a projection of the tall Saturn V rocket was displayed on the east face of the tall Washington Monument from July 16 through the 20th from 930pm until 1130pm . The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of the Saturn V rocket. The projection was joined by a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20 with the last show on Saturday delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event.On July 19 2019 the Google Doodle paid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon Landing complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronaut Michael Collins.Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by President Donald Trump in the Oval Office.References.In some of the following sources, times are shown in the format , referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time , based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC . +Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit, and also the first human spaceflight to reach another astronomical object, namely the Moon, which the crew orbited without landing, and then departed safely back to Earth. These three astronauts—Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders—were the first humans to witness and photograph an Earthrise.Apollo 8 launched on December 21 1968 and was the second crewed spaceflight mission flown in the United States Apollo space program after Apollo7 which stayed in Earth orbit. Apollo8 was the third flight and the first crewed launch of the Saturn V rocket and was the first human spaceflight from the Kennedy Space Center located adjacent to Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida.Originally planned as the second crewed Apollo Lunar Module and command module test to be flown in an elliptical medium Earth orbit in early 1969 the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious command-module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December as the lunar module was not yet ready to make its first flight. Astronaut Jim McDivitt less training and preparation time than originally planned and replaced the planned lunar module training with translunar navigation training.Apollo 8 took 68 hours to travel the distance to the Moon. The crew orbited the Moon ten times over the course of twenty hours during which they made a Christmas Eve television broadcast in which they read the first ten verses from the Book of Genesis. At the time the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo11 to fulfill U.S. president John F. Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27 1968 when their spacecraft splashed down in the northern Pacific Ocean. The crew members were named "Time" magazine's "Men of the Year" for 1968 upon their return.Background.In the late 1950s and early 1960s the United States was engaged in the Cold War a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 the first artificial satellite. This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations around the world. It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances it challenged American claims of military economic and technological superiority. The launch precipitated the Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race.President John F. Kennedy believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations but that the perception of American power was at least as important as the actuality. It was therefore intolerable to him for the Soviet Union to be more advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the United States should compete and sought a challenge that maximized its chances of winning.The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting carrier rockets, which meant Kennedy needed to choose a goal that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, one where the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality—something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic, or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project: to land a man on the Moon and return him to the Earth. This project already had a name: Project Apollo.An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous under which a specialized spacecraft would land on the lunar surface. The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components a command module with a cabin for the three astronauts and the only part that would return to Earth a service module to provide the command module with propulsion electrical power oxygen and water and a two-stage lunar module which comprised a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to return the astronauts to lunar orbit. This configuration could be launched by the Saturn V rocket that was then under development.Prime crew.The initial crew assignment of Frank Borman as Commander, Michael Collins as Command Module Pilot and William Anders as Lunar Module Pilot for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Collins was replaced by Jim Lovell in July 1968, after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair. This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew: Lovell had flown twice before, on Gemini VII and Gemini XII. This would also be the first case of a commander of a previous mission flying as a non-commander. This was also the first mission to reunite crewmates from a previous mission .As of 2021 all three Apollo 8 astronauts remain alive.Backup crew.The backup crew assignment of Neil Armstrong as Commander, Lovell as CMP, and Buzz Aldrin as LMP for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced at the same time as the prime crew. When Lovell was reassigned to the prime crew, Aldrin was moved to CMP, and Fred Haise was brought in as backup LMP. Armstrong would later command Apollo11, with Aldrin as LMP and Collins as CMP. Haise served on the backup crew of Apollo11 as LMP and flew on Apollo13 as LMP.Support personnel.During Projects Mercury and Gemini each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo a third crew of astronauts was added known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan checklists and mission ground rules and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised of any changes. The support crew developed procedures in the simulators especially those for emergency situations so that the prime and backup crews could practice and master them in their simulator training. For Apollo8 the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly Vance Brand and Gerald Carr.The capsule communicator was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo8, the CAPCOMs were Michael Collins, Gerald Carr, Ken Mattingly, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Vance Brand, and Fred Haise.The mission control teams rotated in three shifts each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo8 were Clifford E. Charlesworth Glynn Lunney and Milton Windler .Mission insignia and callsign.The triangular shape of the insignia refers to the shape of the Apollo CM. It shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth and Moon to reflect both the mission number and the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the bottom of the8 are the names of the three astronauts. The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell, who reportedly sketched it while riding in the back seat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston shortly after learning of Apollo8's re-designation as a lunar-orbital mission.The crew wanted to name their spacecraft but NASA did not allow it. The crew would have likely chosen in part for that reason.Preparations.Mission schedule.On September 20 1967 NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions with the final step being a Moon landing. Apollo4 and Apollo6 were missions tests of the SaturnV launch vehicle using an uncrewed Block I production model of the command and service module (CSM) in Earth orbit. Apollo5 was a mission would be the finale the Moon landing.Production of the LM fell behind schedule and when Apollo8's LM-3 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center in June 1968 more than a hundred significant defects were discovered leading Bob Gilruth the director of the Manned Spacecraft Center and others to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in 1968. Indeed it was possible that delivery would slip to February or March 1969. Following the original seven-step plan would have meant delaying the mission had to be delayed and the plan for lunar landing in mid-1969 could remain on timeline.On August 9, 1968, Low discussed the idea with Gilruth, Flight Director Chris Kraft, and the Director of Flight Crew Operations, Donald Slayton. They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, where they met with KSC Director Kurt Debus, Apollo Program Director Samuel C. Phillips, Rocco Petrone, and Wernher von Braun. Kraft considered the proposal feasible from a flight control standpoint; Debus and Petrone agreed that the next Saturn V, AS-503, could be made ready by December 1; and von Braun was confident the pogo oscillation problems that had afflicted Apollo6 had been fixed. Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing confidence in both the hardware and the personnel, along with the potential for a circumlunar flight providing a significant morale boost. The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. Backed by the full support of his agency, Webb authorized the mission. Apollo8 was officially changed from a lunar-orbit mission.With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Slayton asked McDivitt if he still wanted to fly it. McDivitt turned it down; his crew had spent a great deal of time preparing to test the LM, and that was what he still wanted to do. Slayton then decided to swap the prime and backup crews of the Dand Emissions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104, since CM-104 could not be made ready by December. David Scott was not happy about giving up CM-103, the testing of which he had closely supervised, for CM-104, although the two were almost identical, and Anders was less than enthusiastic about being an LMP on a flight with no LM. Instead, in order that the spacecraft would have the correct weight and balance, Apollo8 would carry LM test article, a boilerplate model of LM-3.Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union's Zond5 mission, which flew some living creatures, including Russian tortoises, in a cislunar loop around the Moon and returned them to Earth on September 21. There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch cosmonauts on a similar circumlunar mission before the end of 1968.The Apollo 8 crew now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh the night before the launch. They talked about how before his 1927 flight Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total he had carried was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo8 from a nearby dune.Saturn V redesign.The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo8 was designated AS-503 or the "03rd" model of the SaturnV Rocket to be used in the Apollo-Saturn program. When it was erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building on December 20 1967 it was thought that the rocket would be used for an uncrewed Earth-orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate command and service module. Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage two second-stage engine failures and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified NASA administrators could not justify risking a crewed mission until additional uncrewed test flights proved the Saturn V was ready.Teams from the MSFC went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation which would not only hamper engine performance but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors NASA agency representatives and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system that used helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed.Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two it had accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches.The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the MSFC. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems had been solved, they gave their approval for a crewed mission using AS-503.The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow journey to the launch pad on October9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch including various levels of readiness testing from December5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation ruptured fuel lines and bad igniter lines took place on December 18 three days before the scheduled launch.Parameter summary.As the first crewed spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of , with an inclination of 32.51° to the Equator, and an orbital period of 88.19 minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by over the 2hours, 44 minutes, and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit.This was followed by a trans-lunar injection burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds accelerating the command and service module and LM test article from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of which set a record for the highest speed relative to Earth that humans had ever traveled. This speed was slightly less than the Earth's escape velocity of but put Apollo8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit close enough to the Moon to be captured by the Moon's gravity.The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune of and an apolune of , at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at , with an orbital period of 128.7 minutes. The effect of lunar mass concentrations on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the ten lunar orbits lasting twenty hours, the orbital distance was perturbated to .Apollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of .Launch and trans-lunar injection.Apollo 8 was launched at 125100 UTC (075100 Eastern Standard Time) on December 21 1968 using the Saturn V's three stages to achieve Earth orbit. The S-IC first stage landed in the Atlantic Ocean at and the S-II second stage landed at . The S-IVB third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit and remained attached to perform the TLI burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon.Once the vehicle reached Earth orbit, both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial, and in the last uncrewed test, it had failed to reignite for this burn. Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty, and at 2hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch he radioed, This communication meant that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo8 to go to the Moon. The S-IVB engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly. Over the next five minutes, the spacecraft's speed increased from .After the S-IVB had placed the mission on course for the Moon the command and service modules the remaining Apollo8 spacecraft separated from it. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it—this marked the first time humans had viewed the whole Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the small reaction control system thrusters on the service module to add to their velocity away from the Earth but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in the Earth direction to increase speed but at instead. The time needed to prepare and perform the additional burn put the crew an hour behind their onboard tasks.Five hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB to vent its remaining fuel, changing its trajectory. The S-IVB, with the test article attached, posed no further hazard to Apollo8, passing the orbit of the Moon and going into a solar orbit with an inclination of 23.47° from the plane of the ecliptic, and an orbital period of 340.80 days. It became a , and will continue to orbit the Sun for many years, if not retrieved.The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray, or 1milligray . To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth, as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew members experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy.Lunar trajectory.Lovells horizon. This task was made difficult by a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft which made it hard to distinguish the stars.By seven hours into the mission the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC) also called "barbecue roll" in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight parts of the spacecraft's outer surface could be heated to over while the parts in shadow would be . These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger.The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight. The crew had been awake for more than 16 hours. Before launch NASA had decided at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises. Testing on the ground had shown that the service propulsion system engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was "coated" first by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about velocity prograde . This change was less than the planned because of a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled because the Apollo8 trajectory was found to be perfect.About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman obtained permission from ground control to take a Seconal sleeping pill. The pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep, and then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as well as they could. Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments".The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room . The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft , because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo command module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo9.The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle lens, and a telephoto lens.During this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally without proper filters the Earth image became saturated by any bright source. In the end all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday.By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours into the flight – three-and-a-half hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill. The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the silicone sealant, and the attitude required for passive thermal control. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. This time the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth what was visible and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23 minutes.Lunar sphere of influence.At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, and 13 hours before entering lunar orbit, the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. In other words, the effect of the Moon's gravitational force on Apollo8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo8 was from the Moon and had a speed of relative to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew, since they were still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit.The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second mid-course correction. It was in retrograde and slowed the spacecraft down by , effectively reducing the closest distance at which the spacecraft would pass the Moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass from the lunar surface.At 64 hours into the flight the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion1 . This maneuver had to be performed perfectly and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a and for the first time in history humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.With ten minutes remaining before LOI-1 the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in its correct position. At that time they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.Lunar orbit.The SPS was ignited at 69 hours 8minutes and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4minutes and 7seconds placing the Apollo8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even been flung off into space. If it had lasted too long they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working they finally had a chance to look at the Moon which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine, or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would have appeared early from behind the Moon. Exactly at the calculated moment, however, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a orbit around the Moon.After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like:Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that was planned as the Apollo11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record one frame per second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew had taken over eight hundred 70 mm still photographs and of 16 mm movie film.Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit, they performed an 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to .Throughout the next two orbits the crew continued to check the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's Episcopal Church near Seabrook Texas but due to the Apollo8 flight he was unable to attend. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control Rod Rose suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front the crew witnessed an "Earthrise" in person for the first time in human history. NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 had taken the first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon on August 23 1966. Anders saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. Anders asked Lovell for color film and then took "Earthrise" a now famous color photo later picked by "Life" magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century.Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. This is because as seen from any one place on the Moons limb where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon.Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so that Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and had to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. Anders initially protested, saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. Anders finally agreed under the condition that Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic pictures of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching, he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits, Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm.As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the astronauts began the second television transmission. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the trans-Earth injection (TEI) which was scheduled for hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours 28 minutes and 39 seconds the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained Lovell announced The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25 Christmas Day.Unplanned manual realignment.Later Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory which caused the inertial measurement unit to contain data indicating that the module was in the same relative orientation it had been in before lift-off the IMU then fired the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude.Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude they realized that they would have to reenter data to tell the computer the module's actual orientation. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later during the Apollo13 mission Lovell would have to perform a similar manual realignment under more critical conditions after the module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy.Cruise back to Earth and reentry.The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-a-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific.On Christmas afternoon the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker a real turkey dinner with stuffing in the same kind of pack given to the troops in Vietnam.Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles of brandy, which Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight. There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth, during a four-minute broadcast. After two uneventful days, the crew prepared for reentry. The computer would control the reentry, and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, with the blunt end forward. In the event of computer failure, Borman was ready to take over.Separation from the service module prepared the command module for reentry by exposing the heat shield and shedding unneeded mass. The service module would burn up in the atmosphere as planned. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been calculated by the trajectory specialists. As the module hit the thin outer atmosphere, the crew noticed that it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down, and the deceleration peaked at . With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft, Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At , the drogue parachute deployed, stabilizing the spacecraft, followed at by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as in the North Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii at 15:51:42 UTC on December 27, 1968.When the spacecraft hit the water the parachutes dragged it over and left it upside down in what was termed Stable2 position. As they were buffeted by a swell Borman was sick waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft. About six minutes after splashdown the command module was righted into a normal apex-up orientation by its inflatable bag uprighting system. The first frogman from aircraft carrier arrived 43 minutes after splashdown. Forty-five minutes later the crew was safe on the flight deck of the "Yorktown".Historical importance.Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world. Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the Prague Spring, "Time" magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 as its Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo8 was summed up in a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that stated simply, "Thank you Apollo8. You saved 1968."One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the "Earthrise" picture that the crew took as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera, and it has been credited as one of the inspirations of the first Earth Day in 1970. It was selected as the first of "Life" magazine's "100 Photographs That Changed the World".Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, . It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo8 broadcasts won an Emmy Award, the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.Madalyn Murray OHair wanted the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States, apparently for lack of jurisdiction in outer space, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo11, self-communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the Moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and referred to it only obliquely at the time.In 1969 the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp commemorating the Apollo8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve and the words the first words of the book of Genesis. In January 1969 just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth they appeared in the Super Bowl III pre-game show reciting the Pledge of Allegiance before the national anthem was performed by trumpeter Lloyd Geisler of the Washington National Symphony Orchestra.Spacecraft location.In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka, Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at Expo '70. It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the space suit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's Glenn Research Center. Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the Science Museum in London, United Kingdom.In popular culture.Apollo 8's historic mission has been depicted and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo8 were compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary "Debrief: Apollo8", hosted by Burgess Meredith. In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission, including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight. Other documentaries include "Race to the Moon" as part of season 18 of "American Experience" and "In the Shadow of the Moon" . Apollo's Daring Mission aired on PBS' "" in December 2018, marking the flight's 50th anniversary.Parts of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries by the band Public Service Broadcasting.In the credits of the animated film A documentary film, was released in 2018.The choral music piece "Earthrise" by Luke Byrne commemorates the mission. The piece was premired on January 19 2020 by Sydney Philharmonia Choirs at the Sydney Opera House. +An astronaut (from the Greek ) is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists and tourists. technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality or allegiance however astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian also borrowed from Greek) in order to distinguish them from American or otherwise NATO-oriented space travellers. Comparatively recent developments in manned spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin ) although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In Mainland China the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called .From 1961 to late 2021 600 astronauts flew in space. Until 2002 astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004 a new category of astronaut was created the commercial astronaut.Definition.The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The Fdration Aronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Krmn line, at an altitude of . In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of are awarded astronaut wings. 552 people from 36 countries have reached or more in altitude of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon. Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice. under the U.S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space above altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded in altitude only one Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 kilometers and he did it two times becoming the first person in space twice. Space travelers have spent over 41790 man-days in space including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks. the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman 377 days.Terminology.In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called "astronauts" or "cosmonauts". Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader "cosmos", while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term. When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut".A professional space traveler is called an .The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950 and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency is called a . Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the .Coinage of the term has been credited to Soviet aeronautics pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov . The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Russians with German Titov Yevgeny Khrunov Andriyan Nikolayev Pavel Popovich and Grigoriy Nelyubov who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961. Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963. On 14 March 1995 Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle and thus became the first .In Chinese, the term is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general, while is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.The term since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups.Parastronaut.For its 2022 Astronaut Group ESA envisions recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability a category they called with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight. The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital) leg length difference or a short stature (less than ).Other terms.With the rise of space tourism NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.While no nation other than Russia the United States and China have launched a crewed spacecraft several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries e.g. the Soviet-led Interkosmos program. Inspired partly by these missions other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example the term .As of 2021 in the United States astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agencyOn July 20 2021 the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. The new criteria states that one must have "emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety or contributed tohuman space flight safety" in order to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson.Space travel milestones.The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961 on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard 's mission STS-7 on 18 June 1983. In 1992 Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity , , on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.The Soviet Union through its Intercosmos program allowed people from other countries to fly on its missions with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13 respectively. An example is Czechoslovak Vladimr Remek the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket. Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard Soyuz T-11 on 2 April 1984.On 23 July 1980 Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. Also in 1980 Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Mndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space and in 1983 Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985 Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry in 1985. In 1985 Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space. In 1988 Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space spending nine days aboard the "Mir" space station.With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983 Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984 Marc Garneau became the first of eight Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010).In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space.In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident.On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.On 30 May 2020 Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft Crew Dragon.Age milestones.The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight lasting 7 minutes on July 20th 2021. Daemen who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space twice.On the same flight as Daemen was 82 year 6 month old Wally Funk one of the women dubbed the Mercury 13 and now the oldest person in space. She is the first of the Mercury 13 to reach space although the group was trained concurrently with the all-male Mercury 7 who would all engage in space travel. The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn one of the Mercury 7 who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. For suborbital age records see .Duration and distance milestones.438 days is the longest time spent in space by Russian Valeri Polyakov.As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was , when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency.Civilian and non-government milestones.The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 .Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight.The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990 Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million deal with a Japanese TV station although at the time the term used to refer to Akiyama was . Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission which affected his productivity.The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001.Self-funded travelers.The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist. Seven others have paid the Russian Space Agency to fly into space:The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959. Early in the space program military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter had any university degree in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots and were often test pilots.Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Astronauts-in-training may also experience short periods of weightlessness in an aircraft called the the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s which perform parabolic flights. Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from Edwards Air Force Base.Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle and it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.NASA candidacy requirements.The master's degree requirement can also be met by:Mission Specialist Educator.Mission Specialist Educators or "Educator Astronauts" were first selected in 2004 and as of 2007 there are three NASA Educator astronauts Joseph M. Acaba Richard R. Arnold and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.Barbara Morgan selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985 is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media but she trained as a mission specialist.The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s.Health risks of space travel.Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that "Salmonella typhimurium", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.On 31 December 2012 a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.Over the last decade flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP) has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.In October 2018 NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space including travel to the planet Mars may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts and age them prematurely.Researchers in 2018 reported after detecting the presence on the International Space Station of five bacterial strains none pathogenic to humans that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills but also slightly weaker vision both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.Food and drink.An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about packaging mass per meal).Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about per day.In Russia cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed in altitude., eighteen astronauts have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian , and one was Israeli., eleven people have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service.The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant. +A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the Publick, commonly referred to as A Modest Proposal, is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729. The essay suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food to rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical hyperbole mocked heartless attitudes towards the poor, predominately Irish Catholic as well as British policy toward the Irish in general.In English writing, the phrase "a modest proposal" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire.Swift's essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states: "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout."Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument including a list of possible preparation styles for the children and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential William Petty and the social engineering popular among followers of Francis Bacon. These lampoons include appealing to the authority of .In the tradition of Roman satire Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by paralipsisPopulation solutions.George Wittkowsky argued that Swift's main target in "A Modest Proposal" was not the conditions in Ireland but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills. Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution. A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company". In response Swift's "Modest Proposal" was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor" that were in vogue during the early 18th century. to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics.Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically .Author Charles K. Smith argues that Swifts specific strategy is twofold, using a Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry" to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound".Swift uses the proposers time . The contrast between the .Influences.Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote .Tertullian's .James William Johnson argues that over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor.Defoe's "The Generous Projector".It has also been argued that by Swift's rival Daniel Defoe.Mandeville's "Modest Defence of Publick Stews".Bernard Mandeville's "Modest Defence of Publick Stews" asked to introduce public and state controlled bordellos. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests andwhile not being a completely satirical texthas also been discussed as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title. Mandeville had by 1705 already become famous for the Fable of The Bees and deliberations on private vices and public benefits.John Locke's "First Treatise of Government".John Locke commented: . (First Treatise, sec. 59).Economic themes.Robert Phiddian's article .While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of ."People are the riches of a nation".At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less. Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity".Louis A. Landa composed a conducive analysis when he noted that it would have been healthier for the Irish economy to more appropriately utilize their human assets by giving the people an opportunity to Landa presents Swifts case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy. The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer. Swift also recognises the implications of this fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens. Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticising economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanising them by viewing them as a mere commodity.The public's reaction.Swift's essay created a backlash within the community after its publication. The work was aimed at the aristocracy and they responded in turn. Several members of society wrote to Swift regarding the work. Lord Bathurst's letter intimated that he certainly understood the message and interpreted it as a work of comedy12 February 1729–30.Modern usage."A Modest Proposal" is included in many literature courses as an example of early modern western satire. It also serves as an introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language lending itself to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies "A Modest Proposal" is included in many comparative and global literature and history courses as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts humanities and even the social sciences.The essays work in a social conservative polemic against abortion and euthanasia imagining a future dystopia that advocates recycling of aborted embryos fetuses and some disabled infants with compound intellectual physical and physiological difficulties. In his book "A Modest Proposal for America" (2013), statistician Howard Friedman opens with a satirical reflection of the extreme drive to fiscal stability by ultra-conservatives.In the 1998 edition of before the introduction."A Modest Video Game Proposal" is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney Jack Thompson on 10 October 2005. He proposed that someone should "create manufacture distribute and sell a video game" that would allow players to act out a scenario in which the game character kills video game developers.Hunter S. Thompson's "Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist" includes a letter in which he uses Swift's approach in connection with the Vietnam War. Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he is going to use napalm to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. The letter protests against the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas.The 2013 horror film "Butcher Boys" written by the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre scribe Kim Henkel is said to be an updating of Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal." Henkel imagined the descendants of folks who actually took Swift up on his proposal. The film opens with a quote from J. Swift.On 30 November 2017, Jonathan Swift's 350th birthday, "The Washington Post" published a column entitled "Why Alabamians should consider eating Democrats' babies", by Alexandra Petri.In July 2019, E. Jean Carroll published a book titled , discussing problematic behaviour of male humans.On 3 October 2019 a satirist spoke up at an event for Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez claiming that a solution to the climate crisis was "we need to eat the babies". The individual also wore a T-shirt saying "Save The Planet Eat The Children". This stunt was understood by many as a modern application of "A Modest Proposal". +The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium sodium potassium rubidium caesium and francium . Together with hydrogen they constitute group 1 which lies in the s-block of the periodic table. All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table with elements exhibiting well-characterised homologous behaviour. This family of elements is also known as the lithium family after its leading element.The alkali metals are all shiny soft highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen . Because of their high reactivity they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free elements. Caesium the fifth alkali metal is the most reactive of all the metals. All the alkali metals react with water with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of abundance, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity; francium occurs only in minute traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium , which is likely to be the next member of the group; none was successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues.Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp which emits light very efficiently. Table salt or sodium chloride has been used since antiquity. Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an anode in lithium batteries. Sodium and potassium are also essential elements having major biological roles as electrolytes and although the other alkali metals are not essential they also have various effects on the body both beneficial and harmful.Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word "salary", referring to "salarium", money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance caustic soda by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different.Petalite was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist Jos Bonifcio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Ut, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jns Jacob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore. This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name ""lithion"/"lithina"", from the Greek word "o" , to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium". Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Dbereiner in 1850 as having similar properties.Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope invented in 1859 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff. The next year they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Drkheim Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg Germany finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra a bright red line for rubidium and a sky-blue line for caesium .Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens.After 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the boron group. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of group IB, and once as part of a comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong alkalis when dissolved in water.There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium-227 which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product one that was separated during purification but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium radium lead bismuth or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal which led Perey to believe that it was element 87 caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6% a figure that she later revised to 1%.The next element below francium in the periodic table would be ununennium element 119. The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of einsteinium-254 with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley California. No atoms were identified leading to a limiting yield of 300 nb.It is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254 which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass relatively long half-life of 270 days and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan. Currently none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet and it is also possible due to drip instabilities that only the lower period 8 elements up to around element 128 are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals due to their extremely high atomic number they would require new more powerful methods and technology to make.Occurrence.In the Solar System.The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron , oxygen , silicon , magnesium , sulfur , nickel , calcium , and aluminium ; with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to planetary differentiation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron , with smaller amounts of nickel , sulfur , and less than 1% trace elements.The alkali metals due to their high reactivity do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii.Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth both being among the ten most common elements in Earths larger size makes its salts less soluble and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.Despite its chemical similarity lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity it can be found in seawater in large amounts it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially the most important lithium mineral is spodumene which occurs in large deposits worldwide.Rubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, zinnwaldite, and lepidolite, although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten, but is much less abundant than rubidium.Francium-223, the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the product of the alpha decay of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the earth's crust at any time, due to its extremely short half-life of 22 minutes.Properties.Physical and chemical.The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation, and dissociation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, as well as very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity; thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium rubidium and caesium due to their similar ionic radii lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance when moving down the table all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius decreasing electronegativity increasing reactivity and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general their densities increase when moving down the table with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials lithium's value is anomalous being more negative than the others. This is because the Li+ ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly causing a higher change in entropy this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.The stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium which has a pale golden tint it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured . Additionally the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium strontium and barium as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium are pale yellow though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this they are usually stored in mineral oil or kerosene . They react aggressively with the halogens to form the alkali metal halides which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all soluble in water except lithium fluoride . The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones for example when dropped into water caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods of the periodic table because of their low effective nuclear charge and the ability to attain a noble gas configuration by losing just one electron. Not only do the alkali metals react with water but also with proton donors like alcohols and phenols gaseous ammonia and alkynes the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus thus they almost always lose a single electron forming cations. The alkalides are an exception they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form anions and were thought to be able to appear in salts only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and low ionisation potentials. Alkalides are chemically similar to the electrides which are salts with trapped electrons acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is H+Na− as opposed to the usual sodium hydride Na+H− it is unstable in isolation due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium although several derivatives are predicted to be metastable or stable.In aqueous solution the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula + ion.The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li+ cation polarises anions and gives its compounds a more covalent character. Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship due to their similar atomic radii so that they show some similarities. For example lithium forms a stable nitride a property common among all the alkaline earth metals (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition among their respective groups only lithium and magnesium form organometallic compounds with significant covalent character (e.g. LiMe and MgMe2).Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent. Conversely lithium perchlorate and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals probably because Li+ has a high solvation energy. This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form because the anhydrous forms are extremely hygroscopic this allows salts like lithium chloride and lithium bromide to be used in dehumidifiers and air-conditioners.Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high atomic weight causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making relativistic effects more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing electronegativities and ionisation energies of the alkali metals franciums due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons also its atomic radius is expected to be abnormally low. Thus contrary to expectation caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium such as the first ionisation energy electron affinity and anion polarisability though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule . The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr− showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally francium superoxide is expected to have significant covalent character unlike the other alkali metal superoxides because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers hence their isotopes must be either odd–odd (both proton and neutron number are odd) or odd–even (proton number is odd but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even mass numbers whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd primordial nuclides are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay because the decay products are even–even and are therefore more strongly bound due to nuclear pairing effects.Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even . For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number free to beta decay toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. Beryllium is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope: sodium-22 and sodium-24 are trace radioisotopes produced cosmogenically, potassium-40 and rubidium-87 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally, and all isotopes of francium are radioactive. Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 in 1925. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87.Caesium-137 with a half-life of 30.17 years is one of the two principal medium-lived fission products along with strontium-90 which are responsible for most of the radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the Chernobyl accident. Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable barium-137. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way but must be allowed to decay. Caesium-137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies analogous to the use of tritium. Small amounts of caesium-134 and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents most notably the Goinia accident and the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2005 caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts and is taken up by the body which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.Periodic trends.The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.Atomic and ionic radii.The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the shielding effect when an atom has more than one electron shell each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals the outermost electron only feels a net charge of +1 as some of the nuclear charge is cancelled by the inner electrons the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group the atomic radius must also increase down the group.The ionic radii of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different electron shell than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the effective nuclear charge has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.First ionisation energy.The first ionisation energy of an element or molecule is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one mole of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with electric charge +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge the amount of shielding by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus which is always an outer electron in main group elements. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled electron shell and is thus difficult to remove.Reactivity.The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors the first ionisation energies and atomisation energies of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in chemical reactions thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the metallic bond of an element which falls down the group as the atoms increase in radius and thus the metallic bond must increase in length making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to the activation energy of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group and so does the activation energy thus chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.Electronegativity.Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons towards itself. If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom . However if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence the larger alkali metal atoms will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously francium is expected to be an exception.Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, lithium iodide will dissolve in organic solvents, a property of most covalent compounds. Lithium fluoride is the only alkali halide that is not soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent.Melting and boiling points.The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes state from solid to liquid while the boiling point of a substance is the point where the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group , the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius which increases going down the group thus the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii if figures for these two factors are known the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium sodium and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water in fact lithium is the least dense known solid at room temperature.The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na.Hydroxides.All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an aqueous solution of a strongly basic alkali metal hydroxide and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with effervescence, but sodium and potassium can ignite and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing hydrogen gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water . The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a Coulomb explosion rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give oligomeric alkoxides. They easily react with carbon dioxide to form carbonates or bicarbonates or with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfides or bisulfides and may be used to separate thiols from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides for example the oxides of aluminium zinc tin and lead react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates zincates stannates and plumbates. Silicon dioxide is acidic and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack silicate glass.Intermetallic compounds.The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each other and the elements from groups 2 to 13 in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the sodium amalgams with mercury, including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and CsAu are semiconductors. NaK is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The eutectic mixture melts at −12.6 °C. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C.Compounds with the group 13 elements.The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements such as NaTl are poor conductors or semiconductors unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the Zintl anions involved. Nevertheless while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example NaTl consists of a polymeric anion n with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.Boron is a special case being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal borides tend to be boron-rich involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving deltahedral structures and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high vapour pressure at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore exceptionally in this group reactivity with boron decreases down the group lithium reacts completely at 700 °C but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known such as LiB10 NaB6 NaB15 and KB6. Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following Wade's rules to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13.Compounds with the group 14 elements.Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides Li2C2 and Na2C2 which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene. Potassium rubidium and caesium react with graphite their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC60 (dark grey almost black) MC48 (dark grey almost black) MC36 (blue) MC24 (steel blue) and MC8 (bronze) (M = K Rb or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). Upon heating of KC8 the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24 KC36 KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water. While the larger alkali metals (K Rb and Cs) initially form MC8 the smaller ones initially form MC6 and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce buckminsterfullerene to produce solid fullerides M"n"C60 sodium potassium rubidium and caesium can form fullerides where "n" = 2 3 4 or 6 and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve "n" = 1.When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the carbon group (silicon, germanium, tin, and lead), ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the silicides M4Si4 (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M+ and tetrahedral ions. The chemistry of alkali metal germanides, involving the germanide ion Ge4− and other cluster (Zintl) ions such as , , , and [(Ge9)2]6−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion (Sn4−), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9). The monatomic plumbide ion (Pb4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.Nitrides and pnictides.Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions, and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen exothermic, forming lithium nitride. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic, so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. Sodium nitride (Na3N) and potassium nitride (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions. Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless azide salts involving the linear anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a pnictogen – phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10.3, and KP15. While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some metallic bonding. The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine (SbH3). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.Oxides and chalcogenides.All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides such as simple oxides peroxides superoxides and many others. Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide. Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group while lithium sodium and potassium merely burn in air rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric .The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium at the bottom of the group are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions however all the alkali metals with the exception of francium are known to form their oxides peroxides and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers the presence of water vapour naturally present in breath makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO3) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium rubidium and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3 which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides .Rubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1. Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured suboxides, such as Cs7O , Cs4O , Cs11O3 , Cs3O , CsO, Cs3O2, as well as Cs7O2. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O.The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known . Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example sodium can react with sulfur to form the sulfide and various polysulfides with the formula Na2S containing the ions. Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the and ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present and are colourless water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal polonides are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C.Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides.The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table, the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine), forming salts known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well-known of the twenty is certainly sodium chloride, otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water except for lithium fluoride (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li+ and F− ions, causing the electrostatic interactions between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for magnesium fluoride, consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the hydride anion acts as a pseudohalide: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the cyanides. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for lithium cyanide, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO , Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.Coordination complexes.Alkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size thus the Li+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less . Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits coordination numbers from 1 to 12 although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In aqueous solution the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ([M6)]+) with the exception of the lithium ion which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ([Li4)]+) the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as desiccants. Alkali metals also readily form complexes with crown ethers and cryptands due to electrostatic attraction.Ammonia solutions.The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia, forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated metal cation M+ and solvated electron e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide : this was first noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a catalyst. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides, europium and ytterbium. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause identified the colour as being due to the presence of solvated electrons, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations , the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride; at higher concentrations , the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like mercury. In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation , the neutral alkali metal atom , diatomic alkali metal molecules and alkali metal anions . These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis.Organometallic.Organolithium.Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds, which are bonded covalently. Organolithium compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form oligomers with the structure where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a carbanion, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. For use as bases, butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium (), which exists in tetrameric and hexameric forms. Organolithium compounds, especially -butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the Grignard reaction. For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise aldehydes and ketones by reaction with metal carbonyls. The reaction with nickel tetracarbonyl, for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes electrophilic substitution to give the desired aldehyde or ketone product.Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with "N","N"-disubstituted amides to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with carbon monoxide. They thermally decompose to eliminate a -hydrogen, producing alkenes and lithium hydride: another route is the reaction of ethers with alkyl- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic carboxylic acids (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal-halogen exchange.Heavier alkali metals.Unlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide. Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is Schlosser's base, a mixture of -2-butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas isomerisation is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble in nonpolar solvents.Alkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of ethers generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because Wurtz coupling occursAs such, they have to be made by reacting alkylmercury compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the nickel arsenide structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons for example cyclopentadienes and terminal alkynes to give salts. Liquid ammonia ether or hydrocarbon solvents are used the most common of which being tetrahydrofuran. The most important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide NaC5H5 an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly the alkali metals react with cyclooctatetraene in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal cyclooctatetraenides for example dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives such as uranocene. The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large aromatic polarisable radical anions such as the dark-green sodium naphthalenide Na+− a strong reducing agent.Representative reactions of alkali metals.Reaction with oxygenUpon reacting with oxygen, alkali metals form oxides, peroxides, superoxides and suboxides. However, the first three are more common. The table below shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion.The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation and it is hydrolysed forming stronger covalent bonds.The other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water.Reaction with sulfurWith sulfur, they form sulfides and polysulfides.Because alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions.Reaction with nitrogenLithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature.Li3N can react with water to liberate ammonia.Reaction with hydrogenWith hydrogen, alkali metals form saline hydrides that hydrolyse in water.Reaction with carbonLithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give dilithium acetylide. Na and K can react with acetylene to give acetylides.Reaction with waterOn reaction with water they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs.Reaction with other saltsThe alkali metals are very good reducing agents. They can reduce metal cations that are less electropositive. Titanium is produced industrially by the reduction of titanium tetrachloride with Na at 4000C .Reaction with organohalide compoundsAlkali metals react with halogen derivatives to generate hydrocarbon via the Wurtz reaction.Alkali metals in liquid ammoniaAlkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia or other donor solvents like aliphatic amines or hexamethylphosphoramide to give blue solutions. These solutions are believed to contain free electrons.Due to the presence of solvated electrons, these solutions are very powerful reducing agents used in organic synthesis.Reaction 1) is known as Birch reduction.Other reductions that can be carried by these solutions are:Extensions.Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first period 8 element, the undiscovered element ununennium is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties. Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as periodic trends, ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununenniums electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium. On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 °C and 30 °C.The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm very close to that of rubidium so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand the ionic radius of the Uue+ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb+ because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state which is not seen in any other alkali metal in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character due to the involvement of the 7p3/2 electrons in the bonding.Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169 unhexennium under ununennium Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165 unhexpentium which is predicted to have the electron configuration 6g1 it returns to the alkali-metal-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p-shell in energy and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium.The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium, unhexpentium, and unsepttrium stems from the fact that they are located close to the expected locations of islands of stability, centered at elements 122 and 164 .Pseudo-alkali metals.Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called . These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.The element hydrogen, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal; when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule ; however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens, but the similarities mostly end there because of the small size of a bare proton H+ compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration. It is sometimes placed above fluorine due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute.The first ionisation energy of hydrogen is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high pressures, such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as metallic hydrogen. The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.The 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals , is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H+, or gain one to form the hydride ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogens ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge-transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals .Ammonium and derivatives.The ammonium ion has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium and is often considered a close relative. For example most alkali metal salts are soluble in water a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal at very high pressures and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.Other include the alkylammonium cations in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular the quaternary ammonium cations () are very useful since they are permanently charged and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides like alkali metal hydroxides are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus arsenic or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic pnictogens) creating a phosphonium () or arsonium () cation that can itself be substituted similarly while stibonium () itself is not known some of its organic derivatives are characterised.Cobaltocene and derivatives.Cobaltocene, Co2, is a metallocene, the cobalt analogue of ferrocene. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the 18-electron rule. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and decamethylcobaltocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability.Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl+ , K+ and Ag+ ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer's 1868 periodic table. However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3, which no known alkali metal displays . The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium. While Tl+ is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.Copper, silver, and gold.The group 11 metals copper silver and gold are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled "d" subshell and free "s" electron of Cu Ag and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between "s" electrons and the partially filled "d" subshell that lower electron mobility." Chemically the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB" paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are paramagnetic and contribute no colour to their salts like those of the alkali metals.In Mendeleevs main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper and gold compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals . However the similarities are largely confined to the stoichiometries of the +1 compounds of both groups and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore they have higher melting points hardnesses and densities and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium in which it forms the auride ion which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution here gold behaves as a pseudohalogen because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of mercury.Production and isolation.The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their silicate ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium ions from the ore , whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide. The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, is more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product then undergoes fractional distillation for purification. Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the pyrolysis of the corresponding alkali metal azide, which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs brine pools and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride.Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals such as sylvite . Previously potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide found extensively in places such as Canada Russia Belarus Germany Israel United States and Jordan in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C.Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite. Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and caesium alum (Cs, Rb)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with calcium metal at 750 °C and low pressure.As a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n, yielding francium-209, francium-210, and francium-211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238.Applications.Lithium sodium and potassium have many applications while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is often used in lithium-ion batteries and lithium oxide can help process silica. Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases it is produced from lithium hydroxide which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide in space capsules and submarines. Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.Sodium compounds have many applications the most well-known being sodium chloride as table salt. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications including use in sodium-vapour lamps which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent it is often used to reduce many other metals such as titanium and zirconium from their chlorides. Furthermore it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point viscosity and cross-section towards neutron absorption.Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.Rubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs it would be off by less than four seconds . For that reason caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.Francium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory.Biological role and precautions.Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas except for lithium which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air even under oil because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide for the same reason potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides nucleic acid constituents carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams although there are side-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness slurred speech and vomiting among other symptoms and poisons the central nervous system which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume blood pressure osmotic equilibrium and pH the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet and is used as seasoning and preservative such as for pickling and jerky most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day the minimum amount that promotes hypertension this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.Potassium is the major cation inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions.Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate metabolism, and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency. Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia arrythmia and acute cardiac arrest but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The median lethal dose value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goinia accident of 1987 in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goinia Brazil was scavenged from a junkyard and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium-134 iodine-131 and strontium-90 caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk. +An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols or graphemes that represent the phonemes of certain spoken languages. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a syllable, for instance, and logographic systems use characters to represent words, morphemes, or other semantic units.The first fully phonemic script the Proto-Canaanite script later known as the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet and is the ancestor of most modern alphabets including Arabic Cyrillic Greek Hebrew Latin and possibly Brahmic. It was created by Semitic-speaking workers and slaves in the Sinai Peninsula by selecting a small number of hieroglyphs commonly seen in their Egyptian surroundings to describe the sounds as opposed to the semantic values of their own Canaanite language. However Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida or alphasyllabary a set of graphemes that represent consonantal base letters which diacritics modify to represent vowels an abjad in which letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants and an "alphabet" a set of graphemes that represent both consonants and vowels. In this narrow sense of the word the first true alphabet was the Greek alphabet which was developed on the basis of the earlier Phoenician alphabet.Of the dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular is the Latin alphabet, which was derived from the Greek, and which is now used by many languages world-wide, often with the addition of extra letters or diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines , there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille. The Khmer alphabet is the longest, with 74 letters.Alphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of "numbering" ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements.The English word .Sometimes, like in the alphabet song in English, the term , in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything.Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts.The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language plus a vowel to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms to write grammatical inflections and later to transcribe loan words and foreign names.In the Middle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the Sinai peninsula dated to circa the 15th century BC apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999 John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time. Based on letter appearances and names it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs. This script had no characters representing vowels although originally it probably was a syllabary but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the following vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit.The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called consonants are sometimes used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable . These letters have a dual function since they are also used as pure consonants.The Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically.The script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean. In Greece the script was modified to add vowels giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. It was the first alphabet in which vowels have independent letter forms separate from those of consonants. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent vowels. Vowels are significant in the Greek language and the syllabical Linear B script that was used by the Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols including 5 vowels. In its early years there were many variants of the Greek alphabet a situation that caused many different alphabets to evolve from it.European alphabets.The Greek alphabet, in its Euboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the Italic languages. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin and then for most of the other languages of western and central Europe.Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures such as in Danish and Icelandic and in Algonquian by borrowings from other alphabets such as the thorn in Old English and Icelandic which came from the Futhark runes and by modifying existing letters such as the eth of Old English and Icelandic which is a modified "d". Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet such as Hawaiian and Italian which uses the letters "j k x y" and "w" only in foreign words.Another notable script is Elder Futhark, which is believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century.The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular.The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic and became together with the Greek uncial script the basis of the Cyrillic script. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian Macedonian Bulgarian Russian Belarusian and Ukrainian. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by Clement of Ohrid who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by Greek and Hebrew.The longest European alphabet is the Latin-derived Slovak alphabet, which has 46 letters.Asian alphabets.Beyond the logographic Chinese writing many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The Arabic alphabet Hebrew alphabet Syriac alphabet and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet.Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the Brahmi script, which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic.In Korea the Hangul alphabet was created by Sejong the Great. Hangul is a unique alphabet it is a featural alphabet where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation its design was planned by the government of the day and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions in the same way as Chinese characters to allow for mixed-script writing .Zhuyin is a semi-syllabary used to phonetically transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China. After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin the use of Zhuyin today is limited but it is still widely used in Taiwan where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not rather each possible final is represented by its own symbol. For example . While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system—that is for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones.European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad and sometimes as a complete alphabet .The term alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters. The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin , Cyrillic and Hebrew .Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts true alphabets include Latin Cyrillic and Korean hangul and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya Amharic Hindi and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply since each glyph stands for a consonant that is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. Ugaritic for example is basically an abjad but has syllabic letters for . (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet but has syllabic letters for ( ) Coptic has a letter for . Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels though some traditions use as a zero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels.The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short "a" was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For tonal languages further classification can be based on their treatment of tone though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load as in Somali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly tones are indicated with diacritics the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for Vietnamese and Thai . In Thai tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant with diacritics for disambiguation. In the Pollard script an abugida vowels are indicated by diacritics but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely a script may have separate letters for tones as is the case for Hmong and Zhuang. For most of these scripts regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used the most common tone is not marked just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas in Zhuyin not only is one of the tones unmarked but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone like the virama of Indic.The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book Pahlavi script an abjad had only twelve letters at one point and may have had even fewer later on. Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters. While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been "conflated"—that is the graphic distinctions had been lost over time and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in Arabic another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example a comma-shaped letter represented "g" "d" "y" "k" or "j". However such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi papyri up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is they had become logograms as in Egyptian Demotic.The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari. When written in Devanagari, Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the "visarga" mark for final aspiration and special letters for "k" and "j," though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the "khutma" letters to represent sounds from Persian and English. Thai has a total of 59 symbols, consisting of 44 consonants, 13 vowels and 2 syllabics, not including 4 diacritics for tone marks and one for vowel length.The largest known abjad is Sindhi, with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz , with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and Slovak , with 46. However, these scripts either count di- and tri-graphs as separate letters, as Spanish did with "ch" and "ll" until recently, or uses diacritics like Slovak "".The Georgian alphabet is an alphabetic writing system. With 33 letters it is the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent. The original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters were removed in the 19th century by Ilia Chavchavadze. The Georgian alphabet is much closer to Greek than the other Caucasian alphabets. The letter order parallels the Greek with the consonants without a Greek equivalent organized at the end of the alphabet. The origins of the alphabet are still unknown. Some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mesrop Mashtots also known as Mesrob the Vartabed who was an early medieval Armenian linguist theologian statesman and hymnologist best known for inventing the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD other Georgian and Western scholars are against this theory. Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia a core Georgian kingdom of Kartli. The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430 contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet.Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script.The Armenian alphabet ( ' or ') is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language. It was created in year 405 A.D. originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters (o) and (f) were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform a new letter (capital ) was added which was a ligature before + while the letter was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter (which was a digraph before).The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left-to-right like the Latin and Greek alphabets. It also uses bicameral script like those. The Armenian word for "alphabet" is "" named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet ayb and ben.Alphabetical order.Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of collation—namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called .The basic ordering of the Latin alphabet (AZ) which is derived from the Northwest Semitic and in 2010 the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies changed it so they were no longer letters at all.In German words starting with and are not distinguished in the spoken language.The Danish and Norwegian alphabets end with at the end.It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic. Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years.Runic used an unrelated Futhark sequence which was later simplified. Arabic uses its own sequence although Arabic retains the traditional abjadi order for numbering.The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on phonology The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia Tibet Korean hangul and even Japanese kana which is not an alphabet.Names of letters.The Phoenician letter names in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound continue to be used to varying degrees in Samaritan Aramaic Syriac Hebrew Greek and Arabic.The names were abandoned in Latin which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel before or after the consonant the two exceptions were Y and Z which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan and were known as "Y Graeca" "Greek Y" and "zeta" —this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages as in the term "zed" for Z in all forms of English other than American English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added as in "double U" for W the English name for Y and American "zee" for Z. Comparing names in English and French gives a clear reflection of the Great Vowel Shift A B C and D are pronounced in today's English but in contemporary French they are . The French names preserve the qualities of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast the names of F L M N and S remain the same in both languages because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift.In Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin.Letters of Armenian alphabet also have distinct letter names.Orthography and pronunciation.When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an orthography generally comes into being, providing rules for the spelling of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes of the spoken language. In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However this ideal is not usually achieved in practice; some languages come close to it, while others deviate from it to a much larger degree.The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several waysNational languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. Some national languages like Finnish Armenian Turkish Russian Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard Spanish one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling but not vice versa as certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation but its rules on pronunciation though complex are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy.At the other extreme are languages such as English where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general albeit complex rules that predict pronunciation from spelling and these rules are successful most of the time rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet, and as when Kazakh changes from an Arabic script to a Cyrillic script due to the Soviet Union's influence, and in 2021, having a transition to the Latin alphabet, just like Turkish. The Cyrillic script used to be official in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan before they all switched to the Latin alphabets, including Uzbekistan that is having a reform of the alphabet to use diacritics on the letters that is marked by apostrophes and the letters that are digraphs.The standard system of symbols used by linguists to represent sounds in any language independently of orthography is called the International Phonetic Alphabet. +The atomic number or proton number of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.The sum of the atomic number .Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers, and hence different mass numbers, are known as isotopes. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes , and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard atomic weight. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century.The conventional symbol "Z" comes from the German word "" 'number', which, before the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order is approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this "Z" number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word (and its English equivalent "atomic number") come into common use in this context.The periodic table and a natural number for each element.Loosely speaking the existence or construction of a periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements and so they can be numbered in order.Dmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables in order of atomic weight . However in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium ahead of iodine . This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number but that number was not known or suspected at the time.A simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium later several other pairs of elements were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements whose atomic number was not obvious led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium onward .The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek.In 1911 Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which in units of the electron's charge was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 a month after Rutherford's paper appeared Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was "exactly" equal to its place in the periodic table . This proved eventually to be the case.Moseley's 1913 experiment.The experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913. Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab , decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of "Z".To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions produced by the elements from aluminum to gold used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube. The square root of the frequency of these photons increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion that the atomic number does closely correspond to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i.e. the element number "Z". Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time.Missing elements.After Moseley's death in 1915 the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium were examined by his method. There were seven elements which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered corresponding to atomic numbers 43 61 72 75 85 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947 all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium .The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons.In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of , which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called Prouts hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms.In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 . It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of +79, consistent with its atomic number.The discovery of the neutron makes the proton number.All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwicks atomic number was also realized to be identical to the proton number of its nuclei.The symbol of "Z".The conventional symbol was used for an element's assigned number in the periodic table.Chemical properties.Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom which is mixture of atoms with a given atomic number.New elements.The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of , all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life of a nuclide becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though undiscovered nuclides with certain numbers of protons and neutrons may have relatively longer half-lives and comprise an island of stability. +Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine.The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic. Macroscopic anatomy or gross anatomy is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures known as histology and also in the study of cells.The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging.Definition.Derived from the Greek (from ), anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale along with histology and embryology .Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection, in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in which a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels.The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy. However substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term "zootomy" is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy.Animal tissues.The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile . Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells.Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic. All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue.Connective tissue.Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue adipose tissue fibrous connective tissue cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins the chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals as well as in many of those less developed.Epithelium.Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina the upper layer of the basement membrane the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin. The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins. In more advanced animals many glands are formed of epithelial cells.Muscle tissue.Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body.Nervous tissue.Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians , the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.Vertebrate anatomy.All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives mostly in the embryonic stage share the major chordate characteristics a stiffening rod the notochord a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material the neural tube pharyngeal arches and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm connective tissues are derived from mesoderm and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However a few vertebrates such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages fins or legs which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution.Fish anatomy.The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton are generally laterally flattened have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.Amphibian anatomy.Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs salamanders and caecilians. They are tetrapods but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales but contains many mucous glands and in some species poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist.In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.Reptile anatomy.Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles tuataras lizards snakes and crocodiles. They are tetrapods but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization with a copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid.Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living species . The skull has two openings on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead.Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds with the trunk held off the ground by short sideways-facing legs but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.Snakes are closely related to lizards having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull a hyoid bone spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids the eyes being covered by transparent scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.Bird anatomy.Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.Mammal anatomy.Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.Mammals are amniotes and most are viviparous giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment but in marsupials the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its development.Human anatomy.Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a head neck trunk two arms and hands and two legs and feet.Generally students of certain biological sciences paramedics prosthetists and orthotists physiotherapists occupational therapists nurses podiatrists and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models skeletons textbooks diagrams photographs lectures and tutorials and in addition medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations under a microscope.Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology.Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy and research into certain systems organs tissues or cells.Invertebrate anatomy.Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus lobster and dragonfly. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia food may be gathered by phagocytosis energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods. Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods . Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria. Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians and the collagenous cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles.Marcello Malpighi the father of microscopical anatomy discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves and being captured above the ring.Arthropod anatomy.Arthropods comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species.Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ.In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain eye liver reproductive organs and the nervous system.The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states.Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.Great feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands but the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the "Hippocratic Corpus" an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins. Also in the 4th century BCE Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.Medieval to early modern.Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century as the historian Marie Boas writes of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections starting with the abdomen then the thorax then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.Andreas Vesalius professor of anatomy at the University of Padua is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Originally from Brabant Vesalius published the influential book a large format book in seven volumes in 1543. The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar a pupil of Titian.In England anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science these were given by the Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians.Late modern.In the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins. A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers. Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832, while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of .The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching. Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.Before the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and inspection, palpation and auscultation of the living. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens. The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy.Equally important advances have occurred in "non-invasive" techniques for examining the interior structures of the body. X-rays can be passed through the body and used in medical radiography and fluoroscopy to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. Magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and ultrasound imaging have all enabled examination of internal structures in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations. +Affirming the consequent sometimes called converse error fallacy of the converse or confusion of necessity and sufficiency is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement and invalidly inferring its converse even though the converse may not be true. This arises when a consequent has more than one possible antecedent .Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes.The opposite statement denying the consequent "is" a valid form of argument.Formal description.Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement formula_1 and invalidly concluding its converse formula_2. The name "affirming the consequent" derives from using the consequent "Q" of formula_1 to conclude the antecedent "P". This illogic can be summarized formally as formula_4 or alternatively formula_5.The root cause of such a logic error is sometimes failure to realize that just because may follow from another condition as well.Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements "having" true converses. If "P" and "Q" are "equivalent" statements, i.e. formula_6, it "is" possible to infer "P" under the condition "Q". For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday" formula_1 and "It is my birthday, so it is August 13" formula_2 are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement "August 13 is my birthday" . Using one statement to conclude the other is "not" an example of affirming the consequent, but some people may misapply the approach.Additional examples.One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For exampleOwning Fort Knox is not the way to be rich. Any number of other ways to be rich exist.However, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone is not rich" , then "this person does not own Fort Knox" . This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true.Here is another useful obviously-fallacious example but one that does not require familiarity with who Bill Gates is and what Fort Knox isHere it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents can give rise to the consequent and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else. This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious.Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing as in the following exampleBeing thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death.Affirming the consequent is commonly used in rationalization, and thus appears as a coping mechanism in some people.In "Catch-22" the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington" who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter but with the Chaplain's name signed. +Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian film director, screenwriter, and film theorist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in Russian and world cinema. His films explored spiritual and metaphysical themes, and are noted for their slow pacing and long takes, dreamlike visual imagery, and preoccupation with nature and memory.Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK under filmmaker Mikhail Romm and subsequently directed his first five features in the Soviet Union . He died of cancer later that year.Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards at the Cannes Film Festival throughout his career (including the FIPRESCI prize the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury and the Grand Prix Spcial du Jury) and winner of the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival for his debut film "Ivan's Childhood". In 1990 he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious Lenin Prize. Three of his films—"Andrei Rublev" "Mirror" and "Stalker"—featured in "Sight & Sound"'s 2012 poll of the 100 greatest films of all time.Life and career.Childhood and early life.Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the Yuryevetsky District of the Ivanovo Industrial Oblast to the poet and translator Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky, a native of Yelisavetgrad, Kherson Governorate, and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute who later worked as a corrector; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate.Andreis maternal grandmother Vera Nikolaevna Vishnyakova belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian nobility that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov, a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of the Kaluga Governorate who studied law at the Moscow State University and served as a judge in Kozelsk.According to the family legend Tarkovskys side were princes from the Shamkhalate of Tarki Dagestan although his sister Marina Tarkovskaya who did a detailed research on their genealogy called it stressing that none of the documents confirms this version.Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. He returned home in 1943, having been awarded a Red Star after being shot in one of his legs (which he would eventually need to amputate due to gangrene). Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press.In 1939 Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war the three evacuated to Yuryevets living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943 the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school where the poet Andrei Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the Zamoskvorechye District in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with tuberculosis. Many themes of his childhood—the evacuation his mother and her two children the withdrawn father the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film .In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureyka near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province. During this time in the taiga, Tarkovsky decided to study film.Film school student.Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush whom he married in April 1957.The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953 annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953 more films were produced many of them by young directors. The Khrushchev Thaw relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the Italian neorealists French New Wave and of directors such as Kurosawa Buuel Bergman Bresson Wajda (whose film "Ashes and Diamonds" influenced Tarkovsky) and Mizoguchi.Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm, who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956 Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, "The Killers", from a short story of Ernest Hemingway. The longer television film "There Will Be No Leave Today" followed in 1959. Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students. Classmate Aleksandr Gordon, who married Tarkovsky's sister, in particular directed, wrote, edited, and acted in the two films with Tarkovsky.An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray, who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film "Clear Skies". Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects.During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky. They found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films. In 1959 they wrote the script , which they sold to Mosfilm. This became Tarkovsky's graduation project, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning First Prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961.Film career in the Soviet Union.Tarkovsky's first feature film was "Ivan's Childhood" in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival in the year 1962. In the same year on 30 September his first son Arseny Tarkovsky was born.In 1965, he directed the film was not, except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966, immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. Nevertheless, the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles – a significant sum for that period. A version of the film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and won the FIPRESCI prize.He divorced his wife Irina in June 1970. In the same year he married Larisa Kizilova who had been a production assistant for the film . Their son Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky was born in the same year on 7 August.In 1972 he completed "Solaris" an adaptation of the novel "Solaris" by Stanisaw Lem. He had worked on this together with screenwriter Friedrich Gorenstein as early as 1968. The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival won the Grand Prix Spcial du Jury and was nominated for the Palme d'Or.From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film "Mirror", a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles "Confession", "White day" and "A white, white day". From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category", a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry.During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay "Hoffmanniana", about the German writer and poet E. T. A. Hoffmann. In December 1976, he directed "Hamlet", his only stage play, at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow. The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn, who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay "Sardor" together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin.The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was "Stalker" inspired by the novel "Roadside Picnic" by the brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel "Dead Mountaineer's Hotel" and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on "Roadside Picnic". Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to the point where he hired Alexander Knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978 resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. In a question and answer session at the Edinburgh Filmhouse on 11 February 1981 Tarkovsky trenchantly rejected suggestions that the film was either impenetrably mysterious or a political allegory.In 1979 Tarkovsky began production of the film "The First Day" based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of Peter the Great and starred Natalya Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov. To get the project approved by Goskino Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script omitting several scenes that were critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film.Film career outside the Soviet Union.During the summer of 1979 Tarkovsky traveled to Italy where he shot the documentary . During this period he took Polaroid photographs depicting his personal life.Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting "Nostalghia" but Mosfilm then withdrew from the project so he sought and received financial backing from the Italian RAI. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983 and it was presented at the Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called "Grand Prix du cinma de creation" with Robert Bresson. Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film from winning the Palme d'Or a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. After Cannes he went to London to stage and choreograph the opera "Boris Godunov" at the Royal Opera House under the musical direction of Claudio Abbado.At a press conference in Milan on 10 July 1984 he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Western Europe. He stated "I am not a Soviet dissident I have no conflict with the Soviet Government" but if he returned home he added "I would be unemployed." At that time his son Andriosha was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985 Tarkovsky was processed as a Soviet Defector at a refugee camp in Latina Italy registered with the serial number 13225/379 and officially welcomed to the West.Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 preparing the film . It was finally shot in 1985 in Sweden, with many of the crew being alumni from Ingmar Bergmans style.While in a particularly poignant scene writer/director Michal Leszczylowski follows Tarkovsky on a walk as he expresses his sentiments on death — he claims himself to be immortal and has no fear of dying. Ironically at the end of the year Tarkovsky was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986 he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son Andre Jr who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. What would be Tarkovsky's final film was dedicated to him. was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spcial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son.In Tarkovsky's last entry , he wrote: and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991.Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Genevive-des-Bois in France. The inscription on his gravestone which was erected in 1994 was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife Larisa reads . Larisa died in 1998 and is buried beside her husband.A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes but was assassinated by the KGB. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause.As with Tarkovsky his wife Larisa and actor Anatoly Solonitsyn all died from the very same type of lung cancer. Vladimir Sharun sound designer in is convinced that they were all poisoned by the chemical plant where they were shooting the film.Influences.Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period referred to as the Khrushchev Thaw, during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music, among other things. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience that influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, Mikhail Romm, allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director.Tarkovsky was according to fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves".Tarkovsky was also a deeply religious Orthodox Christian who believed great art should have a higher spiritual purpose. He was a perfectionist not given to humor or humility his signature style was ponderous and literary having many characters that pondered over religious themes and issues regarding faith.Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that by Hiroshi Teshigahara. Among his favorite directors were Buuel Mizoguchi Bergman Bresson Kurosawa Michelangelo Antonioni Jean Vigo and Carl Theodor Dreyer.With the exception of Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of science fiction, largely dismissing it for its , but was nevertheless impressed by the film.Cinematic style.In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued: "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart." His films are characterized by metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said: "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema."Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films most notably . To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water clouds and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value as well as their symbolism such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film sight and sound and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection.Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another.Up to, and including, his film , he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by Aristotle: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day.Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome "Andrei Rublev", which features a color epilogue of Rublev's authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in "Stalker's" case sepia sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing "Andrei Rublev", Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life.Bergman on Tarkovsky.Ingmar Bergman a renowned director commented on TarkovskyContrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that "with "Autumn Sonata" Bergman does Bergman", adding: "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that Fellini began to make Fellini films Buuel nearly always made Buuel films." This pastiche of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke".Vadim Yusov.Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration. Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed.Sven Nykvist.In his last film Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist who had worked on many films with director Ingmar Bergman. Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it but ultimately stated that choosing to work with Tarkovsky was one of the best choices he had ever made.Personal life.Film scholars Vita T. Johnson and Graham Petrie, in "" , wrote that Tarkovsky was bisexual and speculated more controversially that he was also ephebophilic. Noting that Tarkovsky's favorite hair color was red, they argue that his work portrays female sexuality negatively except in the case of a sexually precocious red-haired child in "Mirror" who is also played by his own red-haired step-daughter. Film teacher David Pratt criticized the evidence given for the theory as insufficient. Dina Iordanova likewise found the claim on bisexuality too undeveloped. Donato Totaro, however, took this claim seriously and said that "perhaps the authors were 'protecting' their source, given that homosexuality is still a taboo subject in Russia."Filmography.Tarkovsky is mainly known as a film director. During his career he directed seven feature films, as well as three shorts from his time at VGIK. His features are:He also wrote several screenplays. Furthermore he directed the play "Hamlet" for the stage in Moscow directed the opera "Boris Godunov" in London and he directed a radio production of the short story "Turnabout" by William Faulkner. He also wrote "Sculpting in Time" a book on film theory.Tarkovskys screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator resulting in dead and monotonous films.Published books.A book of 60 photos, , taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984 was published in 2006. The collection was selected by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky.Unproduced screenplays."Concentrate".Concentrate is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the taiga as a member of a research expedition prior to his enrollment in film school. It's about the leader of a geological expedition who waits for the boat that brings back the concentrates collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery and its purpose is a state secret.Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon."Hoffmanniana".Hoffmanniana () is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author E. T. A. Hoffmann. In 1974 an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann, and also thought about Ibsen's "Peer Gynt". In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann. He planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his dacha. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October.Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to Goskino in February 1976 and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film the screenplay was never realized. In 1984 during the time of his exile in the West Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea.Awards and commemoration.Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime.Under the influence of Glasnost and Perestroika Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986 shortly before his death by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death an entire issue of the film magazine "Iskusstvo Kino" was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries the film committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile.Posthumously he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990 one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the "Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize" was established with its first recipient being the Russian animator Yuri Norstein. In three consecutive events the Moscow International Film Festival awarded the "Andrei Tarkovsky Award" in 1993 1995 and 1997.In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets, his childhood town. A minor planet, 3345 Tarkovskij, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1982, has been named after him.Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000.At the entrance to the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, Gennady Shpalikov and Vasily Shukshin.Reception and influence on others.Andrei Tarkovsky and his works have received praise from many filmmakers critics and thinkers.The Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying .The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as saying "His unusual sensitivity is both overwhelming and astounding. It almost reaches a pathological intensity. Probably there is no equal among film directors alive now." Kurosawa also commented "I love all of Tarkovsky's films. I love his personality and all his works. Every cut from his films is a marvelous image in itself. But the finished image is nothing more than the imperfect accomplishment of his idea. His ideas are only realized in part. And he had to make do with it."The Iranian filmmaker Abbas Kiarostami remarked that: "Tarkovsky's works separate me completely from physical life, and are the most spiritual films I have seen".The Polish filmmaker Krzysztof Kielowski commented that "Andrei Tarkovsky was one of the greatest directors of recent years" and regarded Tarkovsky's film Ivan's Childhood as an influence on his own work.The Armenian filmmaker Sergei Paradjanov remarked that watching Tarkovsky's film, "Ivan's Childhood" was his main inspiration to become a filmmaker by saying: "I did not know how to do anything and I would not have done anything if there had not been "Ivan's Childhood"".The Austrian filmmaker Michael Haneke voted for directors' poll and later said that he has seen the picture at least 25 times.The German filmmaker Wim Wenders dedicated his film to Tarkovsky .The French filmmaker Chris Marker directed a documentary film as a homage to Tarkovsky called One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich and used Tarkovsky's concept of "The Zone" for his film, Sans Soleil.The Greek filmmaker Theo Angelopoulos regarded Tarkokvsky's film as one of the films that influenced him.The Greek-Australian filmmaker Alex Proyas was as one his favorite films.The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre highly praised Tarkovsky's film "Ivan's Childhood" saying that it was one of the most beautiful films he had ever seen.The Japanese filmmaker Mamoru Oshii, known for his works such as Ghost in the Shell was influenced by Tarkovsky.The Indian-born British American novelist Salman Rushdie praised Tarkovsky and his work "Solaris" by calling it a "a sci-fi masterpiece".Film historian Steven Dillon says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky.Mexican filmmaker Alejandro Gonzlez Iarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky. He once said in an interview: "Andrei Rublev is maybe my favorite film ever", and in another interview, he added: "I remember, the first time I saw a Tarkovsky film, I was shocked by it. I did not know what to do. I was shocked by it. I was fascinated, because suddenly I realized that film could have so many more layers to it than what I had imagined before". There are many direct references and hidden tributes to Tarkovsky's movies in Iarritu's drama The Revenant.Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky's. He dedicated his film Antichrist to him, and, while discussing it with critic David Jenkins, asked: “Have you seen Mirror? I was hypnotised! I’ve seen it 20 times. It’s the closest thing I’ve got to a religion – to me he is a god".References.Bibliography +Ambiguity is a type of meaning in which a phrase, statement or resolution is not explicitly defined, making several interpretations plausible. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted , whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity.Linguistic forms.Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness.Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem in law, because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance.Lexical ambiguity.The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. . This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary or went to the apothecary .The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If for instance someone says "I buried $100 in the bank" most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word.Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context a task referred to as word sense disambiguation.The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "weasel words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science.More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity .Semantic and syntactic ambiguity.Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word phrase or sentence taken out of context has more than one interpretation. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist) the words "her duck" can refer eitherSyntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two different meanings because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression, such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch , or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers' license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your license. Or it could mean that you need your license AND you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a syntactic ambiguity.For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, formal languages (such as computer programming languages), see Ambiguous grammar.Usually semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand. The sentence "We saw her duck" is also syntactically ambiguous. Conversely a sentence like "He ate the cookies on the couch" is also semantically ambiguous. Rarely but occasionally the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning. For example the command "Cook cook!" can be parsed as "Cook cook !" but also as "Cook cook !". It is more common that a syntactically unambiguous phrase has a semantic ambiguity for example the lexical ambiguity in "Your boss is a funny man" is purely semantic leading to the response "Funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?"Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities which are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, . Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen.Metonymy involves referring to one entity by the name of a different but closely related entity (for example, using to refer to the stock exchanges located on that street or even the entire US financial sector). In the modern vocabulary of critical semiotics, metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humor.Philosophy.Philosophers spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think they oppose taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think they oppose only those taxes that they believe will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" or by changing "which" to "that" or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true—an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity . The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases.In continental philosophy there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous as is the relation of mind and body and part and whole. In Heidegger and balancing tension rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity.Literature and rhetoric.In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: .In the narrative ambiguity can be introduced in several ways motive plot character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel "The Great Gatsby".Mathematical notation.Mathematical notation, widely used in physics and other sciences, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguities remain.Names of functions.The ambiguity in the style of writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function which can be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several special functions still do not have established notations. Usually the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value sometimes the same name of the function is used causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functionsExpressions.Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts.It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also it is common to give the same name to a variable and a function for example formula_1. Then if one sees formula_2 there is no way to distinguish whether it means formula_1 multiplied by formula_4 or function formula_5 evaluated at argument equal to formula_4. In each case of use of such notations the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning.Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The Wolfram Language used in Mathematica allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran in addition does not allow use of the same name for different objects for example function and variable in particular the expression f=f is qualified as an error.The order of operations may depend on the context. In most programming languages, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, formula_7 is interpreted as formula_8; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity.In the scientific journal style one uses roman letters to denote elementary functions whereas variables are written using italics.For example, in mathematical journals the expressiondoes not denote the sine function but theproduct of the three variablesformula_10,formula_11,formula_12, although in the informal notation of a slide presentation it may stand for formula_13.Commas in multi-component subscripts and superscripts are sometimes omitted; this is also potentially ambiguous notation.For example in the notation formula_14 the reader can only infer from the context whether it means a single-index object taken with the subscript equal to product of variables formula_15 formula_12 and formula_17 or it is an indication to a trivalent tensor.Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions.An expression such as formula_18 can be understood to mean either formula_19 or formula_20. Often the author's intention can be understood from the context, in cases where only one of the two makes sense, but an ambiguity like this should be avoided, for example by writing formula_21 or formula_22.The expression formula_23 means formula_24 in several texts though it might be thought to mean formula_25 since formula_26 commonly means formula_27. Conversely formula_28 might seem to mean formula_29 as this exponentiation notation usually denotes function iteration in general formula_30 means formula_31. However for trigonometric and hyperbolic functions this notation conventionally means exponentiation of the result of function application.The expression formula_32 can be interpreted as meaning formula_33 however it is more commonly understood to mean formula_34.Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics.It is common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with formula_35 and states with fixed number of photons with formula_36. Then there is an "unwritten rule" the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument and formula_37photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse if formula_38 is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate and formula_39 means the state with certain value of the momentum which may be used in books on quantum mechanics. Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions especially if some normalized adimensional dimensionless variables are used. Expression formula_40 may mean a state with single photon or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1 or state with momentum equal to unity and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context.Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics.Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value , depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. Just like Ludwig Wittgenstein states in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: "...Only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning."A highly confusing term is "gain". For example the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled" without context means close to nothing.The term is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term.Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or resolution of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also Accuracy and precision and its talk.The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as . Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are satisfiable true false function property class relation cardinal and ordinal.Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity.In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of underdetermination—for example, formula_41 leaves open what the value of "X" is—while its opposite is a self-contradiction, also called inconsistency, paradoxicalness, or oxymoron, or in mathematics an inconsistent system—such as formula_42, which has no solution.Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher.Constructed language.Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages which have been created for this focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages although historically such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn.In structural biology ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying protein conformations. The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in dividing the macromolecule into subunits called domains. The difficulty of this task arises from the fact that different definitions of what a domain is can be used which sometimes results in a single protein having different—yet equally valid—domain assignments.Christianity and Judaism.Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans. The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts which he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases. In music, pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous meters or rhythms, and ambiguous phrasing, or (Stein 2005, p.79) any aspect of music. The music of Africa is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey (1935, p.195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value."Visual art.In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the Necker cube, which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called multistable perception.The opposite of such ambiguous images are impossible objects.Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance?Social psychology and the bystander effect.In social psychology ambiguity is a factor used in determining peoples' responses to various situations. High levels of ambiguity in an emergency make witnesses less likely to offer any sort of assistance due to the fear that they may have misinterpreted the situation and acted unnecessarily. Alternately non-ambiguous emergencies illicit more consistent intervention and assistance. With regard to the bystander effect studies have shown that emergencies deemed ambiguous trigger the appearance of the classic bystander effect far more than non-ambiguous emergencies.Computer science.In computer science the SI prefixes kilo- mega- and giga- were historically used in certain contexts to mean either the first three powers of 1024 contrary to the metric system in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand one million and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense.Subsequently the Ki Mi and Gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly also rendering k M and G ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k M and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). 1 M (where M is ambiguously 1000000 or 1048576) is uncertain than the engineering value 1.0e6 (defined to designate the interval 950000 to 1050000) and that as non-volatile storage devices began to commonly exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit) GB and TB almost always mean 109 and 1012 bytes. +Abel is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis within Abrahamic religions. He was the younger brother of Cain, and the younger son of Adam and Eve, the first couple in Biblical history. He was a shepherd who offered his firstborn flock up to God as an offering. God accepted his offering but not his brother's. Cain then killed Abel out of jealousy.According to Genesis, this was the first murder in the history of mankind.Interpretations.Jewish and Christian interpretations.According to the narrative in Genesis, Abel is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a root meaning "breath". Julius Wellhausen, have proposed that the name is independent of the root. Eberhard Schrader had previously put forward the Akkadian "ablu" as a more likely etymology.In Christianity, comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of Jesus, the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Jesus speaks of Abel as . The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance .Abel is invoked in the litany for the dying in the Roman Catholic Church, and his sacrifice is mentioned in the Canon of the Mass along with those of Abraham and Melchizedek. The Alexandrian Rite commemorates him with a feast day on December 28.According to the Coptic Book of Adam and Eve and the Syriac Cave of Treasures Abel's body after many days of mourning was placed in the "Cave of Treasures" before which Adam and Eve and descendants offered their prayers. In addition the Sethite line of the Generations of Adam swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the "unrighteous".In the Book of Enoch regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs crying for vengeance for the destruction of the seed of Cain. This view is later repeated in the Testament of Abraham where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls.Mandaean interpretation.According to Mandaean beliefs and scriptures including the Qolast, the Book of John and Genz Rabb, Abel is cognate with the angelic soteriological figure Hibil Ziwa, (, sometimes translated "Splendid Hibel"), who is spoken of as a son of Hayyi or of Manda d-Hayyi, and as a brother to Anush (Enosh) and to Sheetil (Seth), who is the son of Adam. Elsewhere, Anush is spoken of as the son of Sheetil, and Sheetil as the son of Hibil, where Hibil came to Adam and Eve as a young boy when they were still virgins, but was called their son. Hibil is an important lightworld being (uthra) who conquered the World of Darkness. As Yawar Hibil, he is one of multiple figures known as Yawar (), being so named by and after his father.In the , Hibil tells the figure Abatur to go and reside in the boundary between the World of Light and the World of Darkness, and weigh for purity those souls which have passed through all the purgatories and wish to return to the light.Descent to the World of Darkness.Hibil's soteriological descent to the World of Darkness and his baptisms before and after are detailed in book 5 of the Right Volume of the "Ginza Rabba" and also in a separate text named "Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa" . Hibil battles and defeats Krun and seals the abodes of the rulers of darkness. Some versions of this account have parallels with the Hymn of the Pearl included in the Acts of Thomas.In response to an upset of the dualistic balance of the universe Manda d-Hayyi summons Hibil whom the King of Light proceeds to baptise in 360000 or 360 yardeni. In connection with this baptism Hibil is bestowed with 360 robes of light the Great Mystery seven staves and the name Yawar amongst other attributes.Hibil is dispatched to the World of Darkness and enters the world of Ruha, lingering for many ages until the Great Mystery instructs him to descend further. He descends to the world of Zartai and Zartanai, remaining there undetected for many ages while aiding the beings of light accompanying him with prayers and supplications, before descending through the worlds of Hagh and Magh and of Gaf and Gafan, and confronting Shdum over the disturbance in the world of light. Shdum directs Hibil further down to Giuo, who directs Hibil further down to Giuo's brother Krun, whom Hibil battles. Krun surrenders and hands over seals to secure Hibil's passage through the World of Darkness.Hibil ascends sealing the abodes of Giuo and Shdum to the world of Qin. According to the "Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa" Qin-Anatan is the consort of Gaf according to the Right Ginza Hibil assumes the appearance of Anatan who is the husband of Qin. Hibil asks Qin what they are made from and Qin shows him the murky waters which the Great Mystery informs him is utter bitterness and the sole constant of the World of Darkness. Hibil then ascends back to the world of Gaf and Gafan. In the "Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa" Qin had also revealed the mysteries of the jewel mirror and bitter herb to Hibil in response to his questions and he had secretly taken them while in the Right Ginza Hibil marries Zahreil the daughter of Qin while undercover in the world of Gaf and Gafan and she shows him the spring with the mirror which he takes. In this version Hibil is said not to have copulated with Zahreil since his intention was to locate the mysteries rather than to get married although some other accounts consider Ptahil a son of Hibil and Zahreil.Hibil disguises himself as Gaf and appears to Ruha who is pregnant with Ur. He leads her out of the world of Gaf and Gafan sealing its gates seals the gates of the world of Zartai and Zartanai commands the Great Mystery to confound Ruha and seals her in her world. The also mentions Hibil taking away dark waters and Ptahil.Hibil offers prayers to the King of Light, who sends for Manda d-Hayyi to send a Letter of Kushta and phial of oil to Hibil, which are received, but Hibil and his companions remain detained by the powers of darkness, until a masiqta is performed, following which they ascend to the middle world. This alarms the guards, in response to which the Great Mana dispatches Yushamin, who interrogates Hibil's identity and permits him re-entry to the World of Light, upon which he is baptised 360 times again.Islamic interpretation.According to Shia are frequent visitors of this mosque for ziyarat. The mosque was built by Ottoman Wali Ahmad Pasha in 1599. +An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.Animal Animals or The Animal may also refer toThe aardvark is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike most other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a rating from the IUCN, although its numbers seem to be decreasing. Aardvarks are afrotheres, a clade which also includes elephants, manatees, and hyraxes.Name and taxonomy.The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the (not to be confused with the South American anteater), or the is Afrikaans (), comes from earlier Afrikaans (erdvark) and means (: pig), because of its burrowing habits. The name comes from the tubule-style teeth.The aardvark is not closely related to the pig rather it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus "Orycteropus" the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews tenrecs and golden moles. Along with the sirenians hyraxes elephants and their extinct relatives these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as "condylarths" are actually stem-aardvarks.Evolutionary history.Based on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably "Myorycteropus africanus" from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the genus "Orycteropus" was "Orycteropus mauritanicus" found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East.The mysterious Pleistocene "Plesiorycteropus" from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that "Plesiorycteropus" is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.Subspecies.The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listedThe 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica also mentions "O. a. capensis" or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.Description.The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex , resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at times to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone . The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favorable environment for plants and a variety of animals.An aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.The greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck and the end of the snout bears a disc which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity each tooth has a cluster of thin hexagonal upright parallel tubes of vasodentin with individual pulp canals held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth with the largest having about 1500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw and have a dental formula of These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area as it contains ten nasal conchae more than any other placental mammal.The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods.Digestive system.The aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of teats in the inguinal region.Genetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa.Habitat and range.Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa where suitable habitat and food is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few a exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia Ivory Coast and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar.Ecology and behaviour.Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quicklyThe aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites ; the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.During a foraging period they will stop to dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long sticky tongue—as many as 50000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful the aardvark's long tongue licks up the insects the termites' biting or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the "Odontotermes" "Microtermes" and "Pseudacanthotermes" genera.On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as in a night.Vocalization.The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly.When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main burrow is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog, ant-eating chat, and warthogs. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, which also serves as protection from its predators.Reproduction.Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season after a gestation period of seven months one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks the folds of skin disappear and after three the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age it is able to dig its own burrows but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.Conservation.Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers however this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits however their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa but due to their large range they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern northern and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as least concern. However they are a species in a precarious situation as they are so dependent on such specific food therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites the species as a whole would be affected drastically.Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was London Zoo in 1869 which had an animal from South Africa.Mythology and popular culture.In African folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.The ancient Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship.The titular character of (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded.Otis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming.An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon .The supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip which the F-4 was said to resemble. is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim.In Blackadder The Third after frustratingly being unable to rewrite the dictionary Blackadder remarks that if he ever met an aardvark he would "step on it's damned protruding nasal implement until it couldn't suck up an insect if it's life depended on it." Aardvark being the only word he had managed to define in five hours' work. +The aardwolf is an insectivorous mammal native to East and Southern Africa. Its name means "earth-wolf" in Afrikaans and Dutch. It is also called "maanhaar-jackal" "termite-eating hyena" and "civet hyena" based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland a characteristic shared with the African civet. The aardwolf is in the same family as the hyena. Unlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora the aardwolf does not hunt large animals. It eats insects and their larvae mainly termites one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250000 termites during a single night using its long sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites.The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is nocturnal resting in burrows during the day and emerging at night to seek food.The aardwolf is generally classified with the hyena family Hyaenidae, though it was formerly placed in its own family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena, which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years.The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic, or can be divided into subspecies "P. c. cristatus" of Southern Africa and "P. c. septentrionalis" of East Africa.The generic name "proteles" comes from two words both of Greek origin, "protos" and "teleos" which combined means "complete in front" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. The specific name, "cristatus", comes from Latin and means "provided with a comb", relating to their mane.Description.The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena, but with a more slender muzzle, black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct mane down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip.The aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller than the eastern version . This makes the aardwolf, the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena.As an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.Distribution and habitat.Aardwolves live in open dry plains and bushland avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements they are only found in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs including farmland. For most of the year aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens which are occupied for six weeks at a time.There are two distinct populations one in Southern Africa and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests.An adult pair, along with their most-recent offspring, occupies a territory of .Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat.They have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs with their young. If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a single territory.The territory is marked by both sexes as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries the marking frequency increases drastically to once every . At this rate an individual may mark 60 marks per hour and upwards of 200 per night.An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous feces middens, within their territory. When they deposit excreta at their middens, they dig a small hole and cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark, springhare, or porcupine dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day.Aardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore when threatened the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on "Trinervitermes". This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat "Trinervitermes bettonianus", in central Africa, they eat "Trinervitermes rhodesiensis", and in southern Africa, they eat "T. trinervoides". Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark, which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 termites per night using its long, sticky tongue.They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter the primary termites become scarce so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times the southern aardwolf will seek out "Hodotermes mossambicus" a type of harvester termite active in the afternoon which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf during the rainy season subsists on termites from the genera "Odontotermes" and "Macrotermes". They are also known to feed on other insects larvae eggs and some sources say occasionally small mammals and birds but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet.Unlike other hyenas aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths aardwolves do not eat carrion and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also contrary to some sources they do not like meat unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source "Trinervitermes" forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging the aardwolf can cover about per hour which translates to per summer night and per winter night.The breeding season varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into oestrus, they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with her. Copulation lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours.Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days producing two to five cubs during the rainy season when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open but initially are helpless and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months they begin supervised foraging and by four months are normally independent though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age.Conservation.The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern. In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf.Interaction with humans.Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos. Frankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months. +Adobe is a building material made from earth and organic materials, is Spanish for "mudbrick". In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like Pueblo Revival or Territorial Revival. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world.Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5100 B.C.Description.Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . The maximum sizes can reach up to ; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud , resulting in a different typology known as rammed earth.In dry climates adobe structures are extremely durable and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake.Distribution.Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States Mesoamerica and the Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages . Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture and economics.The word "adobe" has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word "bt" "mud brick" . Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian Demotic or "pre-Coptic" and finally to Coptic where it appeared as "tb". This was adopted into Arabic as "a-awbu" or "a-bu" with the definite article "al-" attached. "tuba" This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as "adobe" probably via Mozarabic. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century still referring to mudbrick construction.In more modern English usage the term has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America especially in New Mexico regardless of the construction method.Composition.An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains sand silt and clay. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay 10–30% silt and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight.No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays, with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition.Material properties.Adobe walls are load bearing i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in2 (2.07 newton/mm2) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in2 (0.345 newton/mm2) for the finished block.In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun and from the surrounding air before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material.Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material as its main thermodynamic property is inertia and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There is an effective R-value for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft2 °F/Btu which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall scale R0 by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for a 10-inch wall R0=4.1 hr ft2 °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K) specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft3 or 1700 kg/m3 giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft3 °F) or 1700 kJ/(m3 K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K) the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.013 ft2/h or 3.3x10−7 m2/s.Poured and puddled adobe walls.Poured and puddled adobe , today called is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.Adobe bricks.Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking.The same mixture without straw is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar, or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than clay, not less than sand, and never more than silt.Adobe wall construction.The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters.Adobe roof.The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe.Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking.The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams called vigas lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally the adobe layer is applied.To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain.Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed.Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls.In 1927 the Uniform Building Code was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story requirements for adobe mix and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity specifically lateral forces. By the 1980s however seismic related changes in the California Building Code effectively ended solid wall adobe construction in California however Post-and-Beam adobe and veneers are still being used.Adobe around the world.The largest structure ever made from adobe is the Arg- Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in Peru with 100 million signed bricks and the of Chan Chan and Tambo Colorado both in Peru. +An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is typically bold, sometimes risky. Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting or participating in extreme sports. Adventures are often undertaken to create psychological arousal or in order to achieve a greater goal such as the pursuit of knowledge that can only be obtained in a risky manner.Motivation.Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal, which can be interpreted as negative or positive . For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer Andr Malraux, in his .Similarly Helen Keller stated that "Life is either a daring adventure or nothing."Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of recreation or excitement: examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer Jason Lewis, for example, uses adventures to draw global sustainability lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. Adventure education intentionally uses challenging experiences for learning.Author Jon Levy suggests that an experience should meet several criteria to be considered an adventureMythology and fiction.Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as Homer's "The Odyssey".The knight errant was the form the character took in the late Middle Ages.The adventure novel exhibits these "protagonist on adventurous journey" characteristics as do many popular feature films such as "Star Wars" and "Raiders of the Lost Ark".Adventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the wilderness or Mother Nature. Examples include books such as such as in mythology or other adventure novels but more about surviving on their own living off the land gaining new experiences and becoming closer to the natural world.Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward whether it be a skill prize treasure or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way the hero must overcome various obstacles to obtain their reward.Video games.In video-game culture, an adventure game is a video game in which the player assumes the role of a protagonist in an interactive story driven by exploration and puzzle-solving. The genre's focus on story allows it to draw heavily from other narrative-based media, literature and film, encompassing a wide variety of literary genres. Many adventure games are designed for a single player, since this emphasis on story and character makes multi-player design difficult.Nonfiction works.From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as Marco Polo's journal by Lionel Terray. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well.Adventure sports.There are many sports classified as adventure games or sports due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include mountain climbing skydiving or other extreme sports. +Asia is Earths population.In general terms Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural linguistic and ethnic differences some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa and to the east of the Turkish Straits the Ural Mountains and Ural River and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas separating it from Europe.China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia attracting European commerce exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century but overall population growth has since fallen. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Hinduism Zoroastrianism Judaism Jainism Buddhism Confucianism Taoism Christianity Islam Sikhism as well as many other religions.Given its size and diversity the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups cultures environments economics historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia.Definition and boundaries.Asia–Africa boundary.The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa.Asia–Europe boundary.The threefold division of the Old World into Europe, Asia and Africa has been in use since the 6th century BC, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River in Georgia of Caucasus , a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BC. During the Hellenistic period, this convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais . This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy.The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when Peter the Great king of the Tsardom of Russia defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to the eastern lands and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was a former Swedish prisoner-of-war taken at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 and assigned to Tobolsk where he associated with Peter's Siberian official Vasily Tatishchev and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book.In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north.Asia–Oceania boundary.The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The Maluku Islands in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with New Guinea, to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there . Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."Ongoing definition.Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example Sir Barry Cunliffe the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia".Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate.The idea of a place called in other languages comes from Latin of the Roman Empire is much less certain, and the ultimate source of the Latin word is uncertain, though several theories have been published. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny. This metonymical change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as Scandinavia .Bronze Age.Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry.The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents though one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces caused the clay tablets holding the Mycenaean administrative records to be preserved by baking. These tablets were written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B. This script was deciphered by a number of interested parties most notably by a young World War II cryptographer Michael Ventris subsequently assisted by the scholar John Chadwick.A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods. Some of these are of women held in servitude . They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet "lawiaiai", "captives", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, "aswiai", identifies "women of Asia". Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, "Milatiai", appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased. The name is also in the singular, "Aswia", which refers both to the name of a country and to a female from there. There is a masculine form, . This "Aswia" appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia". This name, "Assuwa", has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia". The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE.Classical antiquity.Latin Asia and Greek appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated as Asia. The Romans named a province Asia located in western Anatolia . There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from but ancient transitions due to the lack of literary contexts are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians such as Herodotus who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus , not because he innovated it, but because his "Histories" are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt.Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were .In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became . Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains:The Iliad mentions two Phrygians in the Trojan War named Asios and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as . According to many Muslims the term came from Ancient Egypt's Queen Asiya the adoptive mother of Moses.The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes.The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands.The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated.The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force for this and other reasons the nomads who conquered states in China India and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local more affluent societies.The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.The Black Death one of the most devastating pandemics in human history is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia where it then travelled along the Silk Road.The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. The Empire of Japan controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of World War II.Geography and climate.Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area , and has the longest coastline, at . Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 49 countries, five of them are transcontinental countries lying partly in Europe. Geographically, Russia is partly in Asia, but is considered a European nation, both culturally and politically.The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north.Main regions.There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used among others by the UN statistics agency UNSD. This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories.Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan.A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan, China and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a semi-arid climate, the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003.A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asias recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use renewable energy.The ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations - Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Laos Malaysia Myanmar the Philippines Singapore Thailand and Vietnam - are among the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change in the world however ASEAN's climate mitigation efforts are not commensurate with the climate threats and risks it faces.Asia has the largest continental economy by both GDP Nominal and PPP in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region. , the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, South Korea, Indonesia and Turkey based on GDP in both nominal and PPP. Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68 percent of international firms have an office in Hong Kong.In the late 1990s and early 2000s the economies of China and India have been growing rapidly both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include Israel Malaysia Indonesia Bangladesh Thailand Vietnam and the Philippines and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Iran Brunei the United Arab Emirates Qatar Kuwait Saudi Arabia Bahrain and Oman.According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book "The World Economy A Millennial Perspective" India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE. Historically India was the largest economy in the world for most of the two millennia from the 1st until 19th century contributing 25% of the world's industrial output. China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world after surpassing the Soviet Union in 1990 and Germany in 1968. (NB A number of supernational economies are larger such as the European Union the North American Free Trade Agreement or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy.In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which have now all received developed country status, having the highest GDP per capita in Asia.It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2025. By 2027 according to Goldman Sachs China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist with the most developed being the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin and it is rich in natural resources such as petroleum forests fish water rice copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia particularly in China Taiwan South Korea Japan India the Philippines and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe North America South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure.According to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are Bangladesh China India Indonesia Iraq Mongolia the Philippines Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Asia has three main financial centers Hong Kong Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry India has become a major hub for outsourcing.Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Mal to East Africa Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa to Europe. A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out across the Pacific towards Los Angeles and Long Beach. In contrast to the sea routes, the Silk Road via the land route to Europe is on the one hand still under construction and on the other hand is much smaller in terms of scope. Intra-Asian trade, including sea trade, is growing rapidly.In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires , slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011 there were 18000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets while North America with 17000 people and Western Europe with 14000 people.With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.Demographics.East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.<br>Nepal a South Asian country emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school compared to just one in five 40 years ago.<br> Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI , followed by Singapore , Japan and South Korea . Afghanistan ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces.Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia including the five most practiced in the world which are Christianity Islam Hinduism Chinese folk religion and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the Great Flood for example as presented to Jews in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Noah—and later to Christians in the Old Testament and to Muslims in the Quran—is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology in the Enma Eli and . Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. Ancient Chinese mythology also tells of a Great Flood spanning generations one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control.The Abrahamic religions including Judaism Christianity Islam and Bah Faith originated in West Asia.Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Jews who remained in the Middle East and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel numbering at about 6.1 million, although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey , Azerbaijan , Iran , India and Uzbekistan , among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent.Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010, and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia and Georgia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the Levant, Syriac Christianity and Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations, which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan , India , Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shi'a country.The Bah Faith originated in Asia in Iran and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire Central Asia India and Burma during the lifetime of Bah'u'llh. Since the middle of the 20th century growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries because Bah activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Bah Temple in India.Indian and East Asian religions.Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits whereas another school of thought from India Crvka preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism Buddhism Jainism and Sikhism originated in India South Asia. In East Asia particularly in China and Japan Confucianism Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape. Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism alongside significant communities in Bangladesh Pakistan Bhutan Sri Lanka and Bali Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism.Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia Thailand Burma Japan Bhutan Sri Lanka Laos and Mongolia . Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore Taiwan South Korea Malaysia Nepal Vietnam China North Korea and small communities in India and Bangladesh. The Communist-governed countries of China Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported.Jainism is found mainly in India and in overseas Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China South Korea Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China Taiwan Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated.Modern conflicts.Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-Second World War were:Nobel prizes.The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India.Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata , Kenzabur e , Gao Xingjian , Orhan Pamuk , and Mo Yan . Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely "The Good Earth" and "The Mother" , as well as the biographies of her parents for their time in China, "The Exile" and "Fighting Angel", all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938.Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for .Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him".Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13.Amartya Sen, is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members.Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Malala Yousafzai, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, Jos Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman , Abdus Salam and Malala Yousafzai, , Arafat , Kim , and Horta and Belo .In 2006 Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank a community development bank that lends money to poor people especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low.The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career. On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1989.Political geography.Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UNReferences to articles:Special topics: +Aruba ( , ) is an island country in the mid-south of the Caribbean Sea, about north of the Venezuelan peninsula of Paraguan and northwest of Curaao. It measures long from its northwestern to its southeastern end and across at its widest point. Together with Bonaire and Curaao, Aruba forms a group referred to as the ABC islands. Collectively, these and the other three Dutch substantial islands in the Caribbean are often called the Dutch Caribbean, of which Aruba has about one-third of the population. In 1986 it became a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and acquired the formal name the Country of Aruba.Aruba is one of the four countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along with the Netherlands, Curaao, and Sint Maarten; the citizens of these countries are all Dutch nationals. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but, for census purposes, is divided into eight regions. Its capital is Oranjestad.Unlike much of the Caribbean region Aruba has a dry climate and an arid cactus-strewn landscape. The climate has helped tourism because visitors to the island can expect clear sunny skies all year. Its area is and it is quite densely populated with 101484 inhabitants as at the 2010 Census. A January 2019 estimate of the population placed it at 116600.There are different theories as to the origin of the name Aruba:Pre-colonial era.There has been a human presence on Aruba from as early as circa 2000 BC. The first identifiable group are the Arawak Caqueto Amerindians who migrated from South America about 1000 AD. Archaeological evidence suggests continuing links between these native Arubans and Amerindian peoples of mainland South America.Spanish Colonization.The first Europeans to visit Aruba were Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda in 1499, who claimed the island for Spain. Both men described Aruba as an "island of giants", remarking on the comparatively large stature of the native Caquetos. Vespucci returned to Spain with stocks of cotton and brazilwood from the island and described houses built into the ocean. Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba, and the Spanish began colonising the island. Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in 1508. From 1513 the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetos, sending many to a life of forced labour in the mines of Hispaniola. The island's low rainfall and arid landscape meant that it was not considered profitable for a slave-based plantation system, so the type of large-scale slavery so common on other Caribbean islands never became established on Aruba.Early Dutch period.The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain in 1636 in the course of the Thirty Yearss proximity to South America resulted in interactions with the cultures of the coastal areas for example architectural similarities can be seen between the 19th-century parts of Oranjestad and the nearby Venezuelan city of Coro in Falcn State. Historically Dutch was not widely spoken on the island outside of colonial administration its use increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Students on Curaao Aruba and Bonaire were taught predominantly in Spanish until the late 18th century.During the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire took control of the island, occupying it between 1806 and 1816, before handing it back to the Dutch as per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. Aruba subsequently became part of the Colony of Curaao and Dependencies along with Bonaire. During the 19th century, an economy based on gold mining, phosphate production and aloe vera plantations developed, but the island remained a relatively poor backwater.20th and 21st centuries.The first oil refinery in Aruba was built in 1928 by Royal Dutch Shell. The facility was built just to the west of the capital city, Oranjestad, and was commonly called the Eagle. Immediately following that, another refinery was built by Lago Oil and Transport Company, in an area now known as San Nicolas on the east end of Aruba. The refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields, bringing greater prosperity to the island. The refinery on Aruba grew to become one of the largest in the world.During World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. In 1940, the oil facilities in Aruba came under the administration of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, causing them to be attacked by the German navy in 1942.In August 1947 Aruba formulated its first (constitution) for Aruba's as an autonomous state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands prompted by the efforts of Henny Eman a noted Aruban politician. By 1954 the Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom. That created the Netherlands Antilles which united all of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean into one administrative structure. Many Arubans were unhappy with the arrangement however as the new polity was perceived as being dominated by Curaao.In 1972 at a conference in Suriname Betico Croes a politician from Aruba proposed the creation of a Dutch Commonwealth of four states Aruba the Netherlands Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles each to have its own nationality. Backed by his newly created party the Movimiento Electoral di Pueblo Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba with the long-term goal of independence adopting the trappings of an independent state in 1976 with the creation of a flag and national anthem. In March 1977 a referendum was held with the support of the United Nations. 82% of the participants voted for complete independence from the Netherlands. Tensions mounted as Croes stepped up the pressure on the Dutch government by organising a general strike in 1977. Croes later met with Dutch Prime Minister Joop den Uyl with the two sides agreeing to assign the Institute of Social Studies in The Hague to prepare a study for independence entitled "Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid achtergronden modaliteiten en mogelijkheden een rapport in eerste aanleg" .In March 1983, Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom for its independence, to be developed in a series of steps as the Crown granted increasing autonomy. In August 1985, Aruba drafted a constitution that was unanimously approved. On 1 January 1986, after elections were held for its first parliament, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles, officially becoming a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full independence planned for 1996. However, Croes was seriously injured in a traffic accident in 1985, slipping into a coma. He died in 1986, never seeing the enacting of "status aparte" for Aruba for which he had worked over many years.After his death Croes was proclaimed . Croess Party (AVP) became the first Prime Minister of Aruba. In 1985 Arubas complete independence was rescinded in 1995 although it was decided that the process could be revived after another referendum.Aruba is a generally flat riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc of the Lesser Antilles in the southern part of the Caribbean. It lies west of Curaao and north of Venezuela's Paraguan Peninsula. Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents. This is where the bulk of the population live and where most tourist development has occurred. The northern and eastern coasts lacking this protection are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched.The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills such as Hooiberg at and Mount Jamanota the highest on the island at above sea level. Oranjestad the capital is located at .The Natural Bridge was a large naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore. It was a popular tourist destination until its collapse in 2005.Cities and towns.The island with a population of about 116600 people (1 January 2019 estimate) does not have major cities. It is divided into six districts. Most of the island's population resides in or around the two major city-like districts of Oranjestad (the capital) and San Nicolaas. Oranjestad and San Nicolaas are both divided into two districts for census purposes only. The districts are as followsThe isolation of Aruba from the mainland of South America has fostered the evolution of multiple endemic animals. The island provides a habitat for the endemic Aruban Whiptail and Aruba Rattlesnake as well as an endemic subspecies of Burrowing Owl and Brown-throated Parakeet.The flora of Aruba differs from the typical tropical island vegetation. Xeric scrublands are common, with various forms of cacti, thorny shrubs, and evergreens. Aloe vera is also present, its economic importance earning it a place on the Coat of Arms of Aruba.Cacti like .Trees like are drought tolerant.Climate and natural hazards.By the Kppen climate classification, Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate . Rainfall is scarce, only 300 millimeters per year; in particular, rainy season is drier than it normally is in tropical climates; during the dry season, it almost never rains. Owing to the scarcity of rainfall, the landscape of Aruba is arid. Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies little from to , moderated by constant trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean, which come from the north-east. Yearly rainfall barely exceeds in Oranjestad, although it is extremely variable and can range from as little as during strong El Nio years to over in La Nia years like 1933/1934, 1970/1971 or 1988/1989.Aruba is south of the typical latitudes of hurricanes but was affected by two in their early stages in late 2020.Demographics.In terms of country of birth the population is estimated to be 66% Aruban 9.1% Colombian 4.3% Dutch 4.1% Dominican 3.2% Venezuelan 2.2% Curaaoan 1.5% Haitian 1.2% Surinamese 1.1% Peruvian 1.1% Chinese 6.2% other.In terms of ethnic composition, the population is estimated to be 75% mestizo, 15% black and 10% other ethnicities. Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands; although no full-blooded Aboriginals remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic Arawak heritage. Most of the population is descended from Caquetio Indians, African slaves, and Dutch settlers, and to a lesser extent the various other groups that have settled on the island over time, such as the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Sephardic Jews.Recently, there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighbouring South American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting foreign workers to a maximum of three years residency on the island. Most notable are those from Venezuela, which lies just to the south.In 2019, recently arrived Venezuelan refugees were estimated to number around 17,000, accounting for some 15% of the island’s population.The official languages are Dutch and Papiamento. While Dutch is the sole language for all administration and legal matters Papiamento is the predominant language used on Aruba. It is a creole language spoken on Aruba Bonaire and Curaao that incorporates words from Portuguese various West African languages Dutch and Spanish. English and Spanish are also spoken their usage having grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken based on the size of their community are Portuguese Cantonese French and German.In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of Papiamento. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island, with Aruba using etymological spelling, and Curaao and Bonaire a phonetic spelling. Some are more oriented towards Portuguese and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. ), where others are more oriented towards Dutch.The book , first published in 1678, states through eyewitness account that the natives on Aruba spoke Spanish already. Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia. Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island, and Aruba also has significant Venezuelan and Colombian communities. Around 13% of the population today speaks Spanish natively. Use of English dates to the early 19th century, when the British took Curaao, Aruba, and Bonaire. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, officials already noted wide use of the language.Aruba has newspapers published in Papiamento "Diario" "Bon Dia" "Solo di Pueblo" and "Awe Mainta" English "Aruba Daily" "Aruba Today" and "The News" and Dutch "Amigoe". Aruba has 18 radio stations and two television stations .Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion practiced by about 75% of the population. Various Protestant denominations are also present on the island.Aruba is cartographically split into eight for censuses these regions have no administrative function some allude to parishes which include a few charitable community facilitiesGovernment.Along with the Netherlands Curaao and Sint Maarten Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands with internal autonomy. Matters such as foreign affairs and defense are handled by the Netherlands. Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member Staten and an eight-member Cabinet the Staten's 21 members are elected by direct popular vote to serve a four-year term. The governor of Aruba is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are indirectly elected by the Staten for four-year terms.Aruba was formerly a part of the Netherlands Antilles however it separated from that entity in 1986 gaining its own constitution.Aruba is designated as a member of the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT) and is thus officially not a part of the European Union, though Aruba can and does receive support from the European Development Fund.The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model. In Aruba, legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg" on Aruba, the "Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie van Aruba, Curaao, Sint Maarten, en van Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" and the "Hoge Raad der Nederlanden" . The "Korps Politie Aruba" is the island's law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered.Deficit spending has been a staple in Arubas debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins. In 2006, the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. Direct taxes have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the IMF.Foreign relations.Aruba is one of the overseas countries and territories of the European Union and maintains economic and cultural relations with the European Union and the United States of America. Aruba is also a member of several International organizations such as the International Monetary Fund and Interpol.Defence on Aruba is the responsibility of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Dutch Armed Forces that protect the island include the Navy Marine Corps and the Coastguard including a platoon sized national guard.All forces are stationed at Marines base in Savaneta. Furthermore, in 1999, the U.S. Department of Defense established a Forward Operating Location (FOL) at the airport.Aruba's educational system is patterned after the Dutch system of education. The government of Aruba finances the public national education system.Schools are a mixture of public and private including the International School of Aruba the Schakel College and mostly the Colegio Arubano.There are three medical schools American University School of Medicine Aruba (AUSOMA) Aureus University School of Medicine and Xavier University School of Medicine as well as its own national university the University of Aruba.The island's economy is dominated by four main industries: tourism, aloe export, petroleum refining, and offshore banking. Aruba has one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region. The GDP per capita for Aruba was estimated to be $37,500 in 2017. Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the Netherlands.The agriculture and manufacturing sectors are fairly minimal. Gold mining was important in the 19th century. Aloe was introduced to Aruba in 1840 but did not become a big export until 1890. Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm, and over time the industry became very important to the economy. At one point, two-thirds of the island was covered in Aloe Vera fields, and Aruba became the largest exporter of aloe in the world. The industry continues today, though on a smaller scale.Access to biocapacity in Aruba is much lower than world average. In 2016, Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that Aruba contains. This is the extent of Aruba's biocapacity deficit.The official exchange rate of the Aruban florin is pegged to the US dollar at 1.79 florins to US$1. This fact and the majority of tourists being US means businesses of hotel and resort districts prefer to bank and trade with the consumer in US dollars.Aruba is a prosperous country. Unemployment is low and per capita income is one of the highest in the Caribbean . At the end of 2018 the labor force participation rate was 56.6% for women.Until the mid-1980s Aruba's main industry was oil refining. Then the refinery was shut down and the island's economy shifted towards tourism. Currently Aruba receives about 1235673 guests per year of which three-quarters are Americans. Tourism is mainly focused on the beaches and the sea. The refinery has been closed and restarted repeatedly during the last decades. In recent years a letter of intent was signed with CITGO to explore the possibility of reopening the refinery again.Until 2009, the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba. This aid was mainly for law enforcement, education, administrative development, health care and sustainable economic development. This aid was discontinued at Arubas debt has risen sharply to over 80% of GDP.Aruba also has two free trade zones where import and export and the movement of services are tax-free.About of the Aruban gross national product is earned through tourism and related activities. Most tourists are from North America, with a market-share of 73.3%, followed by Latin America with 15.2% and Europe with 8.3%.For private aircraft passengers bound for the United States, the United States Department of Homeland Security , U.S. Customs and Border Protection has a full pre-clearance facility since 1 February 2001 when Queen Beatrix Airport expanded. Since 2008, Aruba has been the only island to have this service for private flights.Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry, receiving 1,082,000 tourists who stayed overnight in its territory in 2018. The largest number of tourists come from North America , with a market share of 73.3%, in addition to 15.2% from Latin America and 8.3% from Europe. In 2018 there were 40,231 visitors from the Netherlands. There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels, concentrated mainly on the west coast beaches. In Palm Beach are the luxury hotels aimed at American tourists. This area is also called "Highrise-area", because most of the hotels are located in high-rise buildings. Eagle Beach, a short distance from Palm Beach in the direction of Oranjestad, offers hotels on a somewhat smaller and more intimate scale in low-rise buildings, hence the name "lowrise-area".Oranjestad is in addition to the capital an important place in the tourist industry. Here is the port for the many cruise ships that visit Aruba. The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism in Aruba since during a cruise a large part of the passengers go ashore to visit the island. With 334 and hospitality facilities. The main street called Caya G.F. Croes has been redesigned in recent years including new paving new palm trees and a streetcar line for tourists.Also elsewhere on the island you can find the necessary tourist accommodation even in apartment buildings.Aruba has a varied culture. According to the "Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister" , in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of "Sinterklaas" on 5 and 6 December and other national holidays like 27 April, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the King's birthday or "Dia di Rey" is celebrated.On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Day. Christmas and New Year's Eve are celebrated with the typical music and songs for gaitas for Christmas and the Dande for New Year, and "ayaca", "ponche crema", ham, and other typical foods and drinks. On 25 January, Betico Croes' birthday is celebrated. Dia di San Juan is celebrated on 24 June. Besides Christmas, the religious holy days of the Feast of the Ascension and Good Friday are also holidays on the island.The festival of Carnaval is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries. Its celebration in Aruba started in the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from Venezuela and the nearby islands who came to work for the oil refinery. Over the years, the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January until the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities .Tourism from the United States has recently increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as Halloween in October and Thanksgiving Day in November.Architecture.From the beginning of the colonization of the Netherlands until the beginning of the 20th century the architecture in the most inhabited areas of Aruba was influenced by the Dutch colonial style and also some Spanish elements from the Catholic missionaries present in Aruba who later settled in Venezuela as well. After the boom of the oil industry and the tourist sector in the 20th century the architectural style of the island incorporated a more American and international influence. In addition elements of the Art Deco style can still be seen in several buildings in San Nicolas. Therefore it can be said that the island's architecture is a mixture of Spanish Dutch American and Caribbean influences.Infrastructure.Aruba's Queen Beatrix International Airport is near Oranjestad.Aruba has three ports: Barcadera, the main cargo port, Paardenbaai, the cruise ship terminal in Oranjestad, and Commander's Bay in Savaneta. Paardenbaai services all the cruise-ship lines such as Royal Caribbean, Carnival, NCL, Holland America, MSC Cruises, Costa Cruises, P&O Cruises and Disney. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports."Arubus" is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until 12:30 a.m., 365 days a year. Private minibuses/people movers service zones such as the Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord.A streetcar service runs on rails on the Mainstreet of Oranjestad.Water- en Energiebedrijf Aruba N.V. (W.E.B.) produces potable water its eponymous plant was one of the world's largest desalination plants as of 2007. Average daily consumption in Aruba is about . N.V. Elmar is the sole provider of electricity on the island of Aruba.Communications.There are two telecommunications providers government-based Setar and privately owned Digicel. Digicel is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform. +The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first Frame of Government. It was approved after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777) by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after ratification by all the states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The weak central government established by the Articles received only those powers which the former colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' since its organization remained the same.As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government Rebellion some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger government. Initially some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly agreed that changes would not work and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4 1789 the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive courts and taxing powers.Background and context.The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen; others would weaken, especially in the degree of loyalty owed the Crown. Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures, such as the passage of what the colonials referred to as the Intolerable Acts in the British Parliament, and armed skirmishes which resulted in dissidents being proclaimed rebels. These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists among the colonials and, together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders, caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating for independence from the mother country. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government.It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution a for how the new nation should function. During the war Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political diplomatic military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions established and maintained an army issued fiat money created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time, he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a model treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.On June 12 1776 a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met frequently and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12 1776. Afterward there were long debates on such issues as state sovereignty the exact powers to be given to Congress whether to have a judiciary western land claims and voting procedures. To further complicate work on the constitution Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia twice for Baltimore Maryland in the winter of 1776 and later for Lancaster then York Pennsylvania in the fall of 1777 to evade advancing British troops. Even so the committee continued with its work.The final draft of the by state, and establishing a unicameral legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers.Ratification.The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land.The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following datesArticle summaries.The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions .Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles:Congress under the Articles.Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:Phelps wrote:The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.As Congress failed to act on the petitions Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened Once the war had been won the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile each of the states had an army and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783 George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788, the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.Foreign policy.The 1783 Treaty of Paris which ended hostilities with Great Britain languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders such as Washington John Adams John Hancock and Benjamin Franklin retired from public life served as foreign delegates or held office in state governments and for the general public local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence.Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth."Furthermore, the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 after the federal Constitution came into force.Taxation and commerce.Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.Congress was denied any powers of taxation it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779 George Washington wrote to John Jay who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and as a result all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.Accomplishments.Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty.The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township , the section , and the quarter section . This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi . Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers.The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles the land north of the Ohio River and west of the western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts Connecticut New York Pennsylvania and Virginia eventually became the states of Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan and Wisconsin and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states.No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland , Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.Presidents of Congress.Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as —chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779.U.S. under the Articles.The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary, and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.By 1783 with the end of the British blockade the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations incurred during the war or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87 Shays' Rebellion an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system threatened the stability of state government.The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists won Washington's endorsement and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.Signatures.The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared , and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.On July 9 1778 the prepared copy was ready. They dated it and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date delegates present from New Hampshire Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York Pennsylvania Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey Delaware and Maryland could not since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day since their delegations were absent.After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24 New Jersey on November 26 and Delaware on February 12 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne French Minister to the United States felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780 when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed" Maryland to ratify the Articles thus suggesting the two issues were related.On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.The signers and the states they represented wereRoger Sherman was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.Robert Morris signed three of the great state papers of the United States the United States Declaration of Independence the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.John Dickinson , Daniel Carroll and Gouverneur Morris , along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution .Parchment pages.Original parchment pages of the Articles of Confederation, National Archives and Records Administration.Revision and replacement.In September 1786, delegates from five states met at what became known as the Annapolis Convention to discuss the need for reversing the protectionist interstate trade barriers that each state had erected. At its conclusion, delegates voted to invite all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention , described the change this way:In May 1786 Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations however and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states especially after Shays' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.Historian Ralph Ketcham commented on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson point to the financial weakness as well as the norms rules and institutional structures of the Congress and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.Rakove identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.Legitimacy of closing down.Two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked that the issue had become moot: Nevertheless, it is a historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus . In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.Final months.On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution".By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote for a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day under the new Constitution. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital. +Asia Minor is an alternative name for Anatolia the westernmost protrusion of Asia comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey.Asia Minor may also refer to:The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceans with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the "Old World" of Europe and Asia from the "New World" of the Americas in the European perception of the World.The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south . The Atlantic Ocean is divided in two parts, by the Equatorial Counter Current, with the North Atlantic Ocean and the South Atlantic Ocean at about 8°N.Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the "Challenger" expedition the German "Meteor" expedition Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC and in "The Histories" of Herodotus around 450 BC where the name refers to "the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles" which is said to be part of the sea that surrounds all land. In these uses the name refers to Atlas the Titan in Greek mythology who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases. On the other hand to early Greek sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" this all-encompassing ocean was instead known as Oceanus the gigantic river that encircled the world in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to the Greeks the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In contrast the term "Atlantic" originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of millions of years ago.The term "Aethiopian Ocean", derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. During the Age of Discovery, the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the Great Western Ocean.The pond is a term often used by British and American speakers in reference to the Northern Atlantic Ocean as a form of meiosis or ironic understatement. It is used mostly when referring to events or circumstances "on this side of the pond" or "on the other side of the pond" rather than to discuss the ocean itself. The term dates to 1640 first appearing in print in pamphlet released during the reign of Charles I and reproduced in 1869 in Nehemiah Wallington's "Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I" where "great Pond" is used in reference to the Atlantic Ocean by Francis Windebank Charles I's Secretary of State.Extent and data.The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953, but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the CIA World Factbook. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas vary.The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait Greenland Sea Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea—one of its marginal seas—and in turn the Black Sea both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa.In the southeast the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean.The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures compared to for the Pacific.Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of or 23.5% of the global ocean and has a volume of or 23.3% of the total volume of the earth's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers and has a volume of . The North Atlantic covers (11.5%) and the South Atlantic (11.1%). The average depth is and the maximum depth, the Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench, is .Biggest seas in Atlantic Ocean.Top large seas:Bathymetry.The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . It runs from 87°N or south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 54°S.Mid-Atlantic Ridge.The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above along most of its length, but is interrupted by larger transform faults at two places: the Romanche Trench near the Equator and the Gibbs Fracture Zone at 53°N. The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other.The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and its rift valley is the divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates in the North Atlantic and the South American and African plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajkull, Iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep.The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault, the boundary between the Nubian and Eurasian plates, intersects the MAR at the Azores Triple Junction, on either side of the Azores microplate, near the 40°N. A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the North American and South American plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone, approximately at 16°N.In the 1870s the "Challenger" expedition discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge orThe remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the German expedition using echo-sounding equipment. The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. While nine of these have collectively been nominated a World Heritage Site for their geological value four of them are considered of "Outstanding Universal Value" based on their cultural and natural criteria ingvellir Iceland Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture Portugal Gough and Inaccessible Islands United Kingdom and Brazilian Atlantic Islands Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas Reserves Brazil.Ocean floor.Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southernmost South America, and north-eastern Europe.In the western Atlantic carbonate platforms dominate large areas for example the Blake Plateau and Bermuda Rise.The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins except at a few locations where active margins form deep trenches the Puerto Rico Trench in the western Atlantic and South Sandwich Trench in the South Atlantic. There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America western Europe and north-western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep-sea channels.In 1922 a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. The USS used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to draw a continuous map across the bed of the Atlantic. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straightforward with pulses being sent from the vessel which bounce off the ocean floor then return to the vessel. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps abyssal plains trenches seamounts basins plateaus canyons and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise.The mean depth between 60°N and 60°S is , or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between .In the South Atlantic the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise form barriers to ocean currents.The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada.Water characteristics.Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below to over . Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by .From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea.The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal that is two high tides occur every 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40° North some east–west oscillation known as the North Atlantic oscillation occurs.On average the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation precipitation river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic thermohaline circulation is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the Agulhas Leakage/Rings, which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the "Atmospheric Bridge", which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific.Water masses.The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for Subarctic Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Intermediate Water. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. North Atlantic Central Water flows into South Atlantic Central Water at 15°N.There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic Intermediate Water, flows from north to become the source for North Atlantic Deep Water south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water.The North Atlantic Deep Water is a complex of four water masses two that form by deep convection in the open ocean — Classical and Upper Labrador Sea Water — and two that form from the inflow of dense water across the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland sill — Denmark Strait and Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water. Along its path across Earth the composition of the NADW is affected by other water masses especially Antarctic Bottom Water and Mediterranean Overflow Water.The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon tests in the 1960s and CFCs.The clockwise warm-water North Atlantic Gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water South Atlantic Gyre appears in the southern Atlantic.In the North Atlantic surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents the Gulf Stream which flows north-east from the North American coast at Cape Hatteras the North Atlantic Current a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the Grand Banks and the Subpolar Front an extension of the North Atlantic Current a wide vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre. This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically.North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level.The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation. Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense current which flows around the continental margins of the Labrador Sea. A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the North Atlantic Deep Water . The NADW in its turn feeds the meridional overturning circulation the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale associated with the North Atlantic oscillation are especially pronounced in Labrador Sea Water the upper layers of the MOC.The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The South Atlantic Central Water originates in this gyre, while Antarctic Intermediate Water originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the Drake Passage and the Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic Angola Gyre lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre.The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced Ekman layer. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years. North Atlantic Deep Water flows southward below the thermocline of the subtropical gyre.Sargasso Sea.The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of float, an area wide and encircled by the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift, and North Equatorial Current. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former Tethys Ocean and has, if so, maintained itself by vegetative growth, floating in the ocean for millions of years.Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the sargassum fish a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the "Sargassum". Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean in what is now the Carpathian region that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The origin of the Sargasso fauna and flora remained enigmatic for centuries. The fossils found in the Carpathians in the mid-20th century often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage" finally showed that this assemblage originated in the Carpathian Basin from where it migrated over Sicily to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea.The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than and the latter . Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and Northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use Earth's magnetic field to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults.Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe the North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes the North Atlantic Drift warms the atmosphere over the oceans keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general winds transport moisture and air over land areas.Natural hazards.Every winter the Icelandic Low produces frequent storms. Icebergs are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The ice season is longer in the polar regions but there is little shipping in those areas.Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare.Geology and plate tectonics.The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense mafic oceanic crust made up of basalt and gabbro and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain. The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness felsic continental rock that is often much older than that of the seafloor. The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to 145 million years and situated off the west coast of Africa and east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic.In many places the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance on the North American side of the ocean large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the Georges Bank. Coarse sand boulders and rocks were transported into some areas such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the Gulf of Maine during the Pleistocene ice ages.Central Atlantic.The break-up of Pangaea began in the Central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma.The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea both of which were initiated by the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province one of the most extensive and voluminous large igneous provinces in Earth's history associated with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event one of Earth's major extinction events.Theoliitic dikes, sills, and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to of which covered what is now northern and central Brazil.The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the Great American Interchange, but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct.Geologically the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins Newfoundland and Iberia and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin. The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor the Iapetus Ocean and spread from the Central Atlantic in six stages Iberia–Newfoundland Porcupine–North America Eurasia–Greenland Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the Iceland hotspot.Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and formations of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between 105 and 84 million years ago although along the rift failed along with one leading into the Bay of Biscay.Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around 61 million years ago continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred.Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of basalt erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island Greenland the Faroe Islands and Scotland with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift of continental crust along the coast. For instance in spite of 7 km thick basalt Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland.South Atlantic.West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates.Geologically the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: Equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche Fracture Zone ;; Central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis Fracture Zone ; Southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas-Falkland Fracture Zone ; and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ.In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous intensive magmatism of the Paran–Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and in Africa. Dyke swarms in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49 Ma with two peaks between 143 and 121 Ma and 90–60 Ma.In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic (190 Ma) and the Early Cretaceous (126.7 Ma). Around 150 Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment. No later than 130 Ma rifting had reached the Walvis Ridge–Rio Grande Rise.In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the Benue Trough around 118 Ma. Rifting in the central segment however coincided with the Cretaceous Normal Superchron a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment.The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up but because it is located on the Equator magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period 120–96 Ma. This final stage nevertheless coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa.About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates. First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. 34–30 Ma a deeper seaway developed followed by an Eocene–Oligocene climatic deterioration and the growth of the Antarctic ice sheet.Closure of the Atlantic.An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile the Scotia Arc and Caribbean Plate in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might together with the Gibraltar system represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic Wilson cycle.Human origin.Humans evolved in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 mya; then developing stone tools around 2.6 mya; to finally evolve as modern humans around 200 kya. The earliest evidence for the complex behavior associated with this behavioral modernity has been found in the Greater Cape Floristic Region along the coast of South Africa. During the latest glacial stages, the now-submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans — probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals — survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains. The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Human history thus begins on the coasts of South Africa where the Atlantic Benguela Upwelling and Indian Ocean Agulhas Current meet to produce an intertidal zone on which shellfish, fur seal, fish and sea birds provided the necessary protein sources.The African origin of this modern behaviour is evidenced by 70000 years-old engravings from Blombos Cave South Africa.Mitochondrial DNA studies indicate that 80–60000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa derived from a single small population coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid MIS 5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa but also started to disperse out of Africa into Asia Europe and Australasia around 65000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the Last Glacial Maximum 20000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption the inundation of Doggerland and the formation of the Baltic Sea. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago.This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 kya-old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age . The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 kya-old Late Stone Age middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa.The same development can be seen in Europe. In La Riera Cave in Asturias Spain only some 26600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya. In contrast 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal Denmark and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The Erteblle middens in Denmark for example accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies — such as boats harpoons and fish-hooks — because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation however took place on the now submerged shelves and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland.During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America while Beringia connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973 late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey." Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over the Bering Land Bridge. These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the settlement of the Americas, a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in north-east Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg" nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast.Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the Solutrean hypothesis and some of the Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories.The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on Greenland was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early Little Ice Age. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local Inuit resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the Great Plague and Barbary pirates harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century.Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last however and temperatures quickly dropped at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of . The — and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as barley.Atlantic World.Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492 under Spanish flag. Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag by navigating south around the Cape of Good Hope thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500 in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre. Following these explorations Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England France and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable.In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, smallpox and others diseases, and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population of the Americas to the extent that the Atlantic slave trade had to be introduced to replace them — a trade that became the norm and an integral part of the colonization. Between the 15th century and 1888, when Brazil became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire and the United States in 1808, and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in 1838 and in the United States in 1865 after the Civil War.From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution Trans-Atlantic trade including colonialism and slavery became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries such as Britain and the Netherlands and more limited in absolutist monarchies such as Portugal Spain and France where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies.Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization in European countries facing the Atlantic urbanization grew from 8% in 1300 10.1% in 1500 to 24.5% in 1850 in other European countries from 10% in 1300 11.4% in 1500 to 17% in 1850. Likewise GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By end of the 17th century the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade.The Atlantic Ocean became the scene of one of the longest continuous naval military camapaigns throughout World War II, from 1939 to 1945.The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves.The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and precious stones.Gold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor however the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit.Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills marine debris and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea.The shelves of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest fishing resources. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Scotian Shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Fundy, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks.Fisheries have, however, undergone significant changes since the 1950s and global catches can now be divided into three groups of which only two are observed in the Atlantic: fisheries in the Eastern Central and South-West Atlantic oscillate around a globally stable value, the rest of the Atlantic is in overall decline following historical peaks. The third group, , is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific.In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod sole and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North-East Atlantic 21% of stocks are considered overfished.In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4.2 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.9 million tons in 2013. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery including Greenland halibut yellowtail flounder Atlantic halibut haddock spiny dogfish while other stocks shown no such signs including cod witch flounder and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates in contrast remain at record levels of abundance. 31% of stocks are overfished in the North-west Atlantic.In 1497 John Cabot became the first Western European since the Vikings to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of Atlantic cod off Newfoundland. Referred to as this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit haddock, mackerel, and lobster. From the 1950s to the 1970s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and the number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as redfish, Greenland halibut, witch flounder, and grenadiers. Overfishing in the area was recognised as early as the 1960s but, because this was occurring on international waters, it took until the late 1970s before any attempts to regulate was made. In the early 1990s, this finally resulted in the collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including American plaice, redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier.In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010.In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013. The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden, reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44% of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels.In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3.3 million tons in the early 1970s to 1.3 million tons in 2013. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep-water hake and shallow-water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in 2006 and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in 2013.In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mid-1980s and catches now fluctuate between 1.7 and 2.6 million tons. The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid, which reached half a million tons in 2013 or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella, with a production of 100,000 tons in 2013 it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead's round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished. The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished.Environmental issues.Endangered species.Endangered marine species include the manatee seals sea lions turtles and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins albatrosses and other seabirds hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.Waste and pollution.Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.Marine debris which is also known as marine litter describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The North Atlantic garbage patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size.Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.A USAF C-124 aircraft from Dover Air Force Base, Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered.Climate change.North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) or to anthropogenic climate change.A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. Therefore, these changes in SST must be caused by human activities.The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to sea level rise. 21st-century global warming will probably result in an equilibrium sea-level rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice-sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will probably result in a sea-level rise of 3–6 m over a millennium. +Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work which characterizes the phenomenal world as the product of a blind noumenal will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. He was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy such as asceticism denial of the self and the notion of the world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism.Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on aesthetics, morality, and psychology have influenced many thinkers and artists. Those who have cited his influence include philosophers Emil Cioran, Friedrich Nietzsche and Ludwig Wittgenstein, scientists Erwin Schrdinger and Albert Einstein, psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, writers Leo Tolstoy, Herman Melville, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Machado de Assis, Jorge Luis Borges, Marcel Proust and Samuel Beckett, and composers Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, Arnold Schoenberg and Gustav Mahler.Early life.Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22 1788 in Danzig (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth present-day Gdask Poland) on Heiligegeistgasse (present day w. Ducha 47) the son of Johanna Schopenhauer (ne Trosiener 1766–1838) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer (1747–1805) both descendants of wealthy German-Dutch patrician families. Neither of them was very religious both supported the French Revolution and were republicans cosmopolitans and Anglophiles. When Danzig became part of Prussia in 1793 Heinrich moved to Hamburg—a free city with a republican constitution. His firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. Adele Arthur's only sibling was born on July 12 1797.In 1797, Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with the family of his father's business associate, Grgoire de Blsimaire. He seemed to enjoy his two year stay there, learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship with Jean Anthime Grgoire de Blsimaire. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803, he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Holland, Britain, France, Switzerland, Austria and Prussia. Viewed as primarily a pleasure tour, Heinrich used the opportunity to visit some of his business associates abroad.Heinrich offered Arthur a choice he could stay at home and start preparations for university or he could travel with them and continue his merchant education. Arthur chose to travel with them. He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending school in Wimbledon where he was disillusioned by strict and intellectually shallow Anglican religiosity. He continued to sharply criticize Anglican religiosity later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father who became very critical of his educational results.In 1805 Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental his wife and son believed that it was suicide. He was prone to unsociable behavior such as anxiety and depression each becoming more pronounced later in his life. Heinrich had become so fussy even his wife started to doubt his mental health. "There was in the father's life some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg."Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father. There were other instances of serious mental health history on his father's side of the family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha, in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. While there, he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which deeply concerned his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he may have been expelled.Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father. During this time, he had doubts about being able to start a new life as a scholar. Most of his prior education was as a practical merchant and he had trouble learning Latin; a prerequisite for an academic career.His mother moved away with her daughter Adele to Weimarthe then centre of German literatureto enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother did not part on good terms. In one letter she wrote His mother Johanna was generally described as vivacious and sociable. After they split they did not meet again. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur's negative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother.Arthur moved to Hamburg to live with his friend Jean Anthime who was also studying to become a merchant.He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible flirtatious and seeking to remarry which he considered an insult to his fathers language instructor and roommate Franz Passow. Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann mistress of Karl August Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairsusually with women of lower social status such as servants actresses and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually did not find him very charming or physically attractive and his desires often remained unfulfilled.He left Weimar to become a student at the University of Gttingen in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous University of Jena, but Gttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose medicine due to his scientific interests. Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Friedrich Stromeyer, Heinrich Adolf Schrader, Johann Tobias Mayer and Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck. He studied metaphysics, psychology and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of "Aenesidemus", who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Kant. He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Gttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was Friedrich Bouterwek, whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Gttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included Friedrich Gotthilf Osann, Karl Witte, Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen, and William Backhouse Astor Sr.He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow, which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, but quickly found many points of disagreement with his ; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative termsseeing his philosophy as a lower quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very critical of religion and moving towards atheism. He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of Schelling, Fries, Jacobi, Bacon, Locke, and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by August Bckh and Friedrich August Wolf and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Paul Erman, Johann Elert Bode, Ernst Gottfried Fischer, Johann Horkel, Friedrich Christian Rosenthal and Hinrich Lichtenstein .Early work.Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the war against France. He returned to Weimar, but left after less than a month disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Mller von Gerstenbergk , a civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in Rudolstadt, hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian forest and writing his dissertation, "On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason". He completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and nationalistic. His mother had just published her second book, "Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805", a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus later claimed that his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus' reputation." He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in Leipzig for the edification of his new editors.Also contrary to his mothers extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon made Goethe become distant again and after 1816 their correspondence became less frequent. Schopenhauer later admitted that he was greatly hurt by this rejection, but he continued to praise Goethe, and considered his color theory a great introduction to his own.Another important experience during his stay in Weimar was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majera historian of religion, orientalist and disciple of Herderwho introduced him to Eastern philosophy . Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the by the Asiatic Society. Schopenhauer held a profound respect for Indian philosophy; although he loved Hindu texts, he was more interested in Buddhism, which he came to regard as the best religion. His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to Early Buddhism. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism.Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, "The World as Will and Representation" , as well as in his "Parerga and Paralipomena" , and commented,In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death.As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to Dresden. He continued his philosophical studies enjoyed the cultural life socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt Friedrich Laun Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. Schopenhauer's main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work "The World as Will and Representation" which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818.In September 1818 while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in Italy. He visited Venice Bologna Florence Naples and Milan travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in Rome where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Caff Greco among them Johann Friedrich Bhmer who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art architecture and ancient ruins attended plays and operas and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewomanbut despite his mentioning this several times no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzigin which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of hiswas near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur using his business knowledge took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family.He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Gttingen and Berlin and found Berlin most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whom Schopenhauer described as a , expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies.Later life.After his tenure in academia he continued to travel extensively visiting Leipzig Nuremberg Stuttgart Schaffhausen Vevey Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he left for his three-year travel Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him and the process lasted until May 1827 when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842.Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for Munich and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases . He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked Pedro Caldern de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, and especially Baltasar Gracin. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. Few attempts to revive his lecturesagain scheduled at the same time as Hegel'salso failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities.During his Berlin years Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygynyinstead musing about a polyamorous relationship that he called "tetragamy". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer Caroline Richter . They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock and later gave birth to another son this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat . As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831 due to a cholera epidemic he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone in his will he left her a significant sum of money but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son.Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a prophetic dream that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in Frankfurt, he supposedly had another supernatural experience, an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating paranormal phenomena and magic. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will.Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849.In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. In 1836, he published . That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative.Schopenhauer began to attract some followers mostly outside academia among practical professionals who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstdt who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish "Parerga and Paralipomena" believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas Frauenstdt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstdt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer.In 1848 Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt after General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grtz for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle. As Young Hegelians were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation.In 1851 Schopenhauer published "Parerga and Paralipomena", which, as the title says, contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. He was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors.Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856 the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauers to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age.He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his hearing had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with rheumatism. He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published posthumously under the title "Senilia". In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to "Parerga and Paralipomena" but was at peace with dying. He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72.Philosophy.The world as representation.Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension of Kant's and used the results of Kantian epistemological investigation (transcendental idealism) as starting point for his own. Kant had argued that the empirical world is merely a complex of appearances whose existence and connection occur only in our mental representations. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work "The world is my representation ("Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung")". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subjecta 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is therefore 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of "The World as Will and Representation" Schopenhauer considers the world from this anglethat is insofar as it is representation.Theory of perception.In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help him on his Theory of Colours. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the "a priori" nature of causality.Kant openly admitted that it was Hume's skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in his "Critique of Pure Reason" and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is "a priori". After G. E. Schulze had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter.The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He on the other hand was occupied with the questions how do we get this empirical content of perception how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as the objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me?Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality.By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance.Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in "On Vision and Colors", and, in the subsequent editions of "Fourfold Root", an extensive exposition is given in § 21.The world as will.In Book Two of its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things Schopenhauer argues is will (). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the of the will) each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings Schopenhauer argues serve the ends of willingan illogical directionless ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopenhauer's philosophy of the will as the essential reality behind the world as representation is often called metaphysical voluntarism.For Schopenhauer understanding the world as will leads to ethical concerns which he explores in the Fourth Book of "The World as Will and Representation" and again in his two prize essays on ethics "On the Freedom of the Will" and "On the Basis of Morality". No individual human actions are free Schopenhauer argues because they are events in the world of appearance and thus are subject to the principle of sufficient reason a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives and the given character of the individual human. Necessity extends to the actions of human beings just as it does to every other appearance and thus we cannot speak of freedom of individual willing. Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that "a man can "do" as he will but not "will" as he will." Yet the will as thing in-itself is free as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason.According to Schopenhauer salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being . The negation of the will in other words stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. Ascetic practices Schopenhauer remarks are used to aid the will's state of emptiness that is free from striving or suffering.Art and aesthetics.For Schopenhauer, human comes to the fore.From this aesthetic immersion one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but rather becomes a "pure will-less painless timeless subject of cognition". The pure will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas not individual things this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason and instead involves complete absorption in the object.Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music for Schopenhauer is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright "Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas but actually embodied the will itself". He deemed music a timeless universal language comprehended everywhere that can imbue global enthusiasm if in possession of a significant melody.Mathematics.Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly before the discovery of hyperbolic geometry demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect concepts to prove what he held was directly evident from intuitive perception.Throughout his writings Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts instead of from intuitive perceptions.Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms.This follows Kant's reasoning.Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given.According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality in itself is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct.Appearances are entirely subordinated to the principle of sufficient reason. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can.What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support and others than is usually made.Regarding how things "appear" to us the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals though they appear as distinct from himself.What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality.Eternal justice.Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the "principium individuationis". When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will as the only thing that exists has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will and cannot be circumvented.Unlike temporal or human justice which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state as requiting and punishing" eternal justice "rules not the state but the world is not dependent upon human institutions is not subject to chance and deception is not uncertain wavering and erring but infallible fixed and sure". Eternal justice is not retributive because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead punishment is tied to the offence "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering the [tormented] in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt."Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer deemed that this truth was expressed by the Christian dogma of original sin and, in Eastern religions, by the dogma of rebirth.He who sees through the as his own will see suffering everywhere and, instead of fighting for the happiness of his individual manifestation, will abhor life itself since he knows that it is inseparably connected with suffering. For him, a happy individual life in a world of suffering is like a beggar who dreams one night that he is a king.Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life but exhibit asceticism and quietism meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives are not concerned about their individual welfare and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death. Schopenhauer referred to asceticism as the denial of the will to live.Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction and, instead of continuing their struggle, ascetics break it. It does not matter if these ascetics adhere to the dogmata of Christianity or to Dharmic religions, since their way of living is the result of intuitive knowledge.Psychology.Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the necessity of sex but Schopenhauer addressed sex and related concepts forthrightlyHe named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life , defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing.Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's psyche guaranteeing the quality of the human raceIt has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the theory of evolution, a claim met with satisfaction by Darwin as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his "Descent of Man". This has also been noted about Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general.Political and social thought.Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his .In occasional political comments in his Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative judicial and executive branches of power and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice .He declared that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants to cranes in flight to wandering elephants to wolves in a pack in search of prey and to other animals". Intellect in monarchies he writes always has "much better chances against stupidity its implacable and ever-present foe than it has in republics but this is a great advantage." On the other hand Schopenhauer disparaged republicanism as being "as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences".By his own admission Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid Punishment.The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..." He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of Plato, Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach.Races and religions.Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern due to their sensitivity and creativity :The highest civilization and culture apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians are found exclusively among the white races and even with many dark peoples the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has therefore evidently immigrated for example the Brahmans the Incas and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north and there gradually became white had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need want and misery which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.Schopenhauer was fervently opposed to slavery. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the slave-holding states of the United States, he condemned "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for how they "treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a "disgrace to the whole of humanity".In his , Schopenhauer wrote:Further, the consideration as to the complexion is very decided. Blondes prefer dark persons, or brunettes; but the latter seldom prefer the former. The reason is, that fair hair and blue eyes are in themselves a variation from the type, almost an abnormity, analogous to white mice, or at least to grey horses. In no part of the world, not even in the vicinity of the pole, are they indigenous, except in Europe, and are clearly of Scandinavian origin. I may here express my opinion in passing that the white colour of the skin is not natural to man, but that by nature he has a black or brown skin, like our forefathers the Hindus; that consequently a white man has never originally sprung from the womb of nature, and that thus there is no such thing as a white race, much as this is talked of, but every white man is a faded or bleached one. Forced into the strange world, where he only exists like an exotic plant, and like this requires in winter the hothouse, in the course of thousands of years man became white. The gipsies, an Indian race which immigrated only about four centuries ago, show the transition from the complexion of the Hindu to our own. Therefore in sexual love nature strives to return to dark hair and brown eyes as the primitive type; but the white colour of the skin has become a second nature, though not so that the brown of the Hindu repels us. Finally, each one also seeks in the particular parts of the body the corrective of his own defects and aberrations, and does so the more decidedly the more important the part is.Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit:, who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.In his 1851 essay , and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others.Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists. His biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists.When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by the Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist. After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man."In the third, expanded edition of (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the .Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty."Heredity and eugenics.Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect as inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, to reinforce his hereditarian argument.Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of loveplacing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote:With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when in the fifth book of his he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent and give men of noble character a whole harem and procure men and indeed thorough men for all girls of intellect and understanding then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles.In another context Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis "If you want Utopian plans I would say the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy a genuine nobility achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Analysts have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-egalitarianist sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.Animal welfare.As a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers.In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter.Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized Spinoza's belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.Intellectual interests and affinities.Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts the Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Herder and an early Indologist. Schopenhauer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that between 1815 and 1817 Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This was through his neighbor of two years Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered Sanskrit unlike Schopenhauer and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.The book (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature .Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire , and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral.For Schopenhauer, will had ontological primacy over the intellect; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of pururtha or goals of life in Vednta Hinduism.In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by:Buddhist nirva is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirva is not the extinguishing of the "person" as some Western scholars have thought but only the "extinguishing" of the flames of greed hatred and delusion that assail a person's character. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religionsIf I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me inasmuch as . For up till 1818 when my work appeared there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.Buddhist philosopher Keiji Nishitani sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental:Philosophy ... is a science and as such has no articles of faith accordingly in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.This actual world of what is knowable in which we are and which is in us remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauers philosophy actually is to Buddhism.Magic and occultism.Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised animal magnetism as evidence for the reality of magic in his "On the Will in Nature", and went so far as to accept the division of magic into left-hand and right-hand magic, although he doubted the existence of demons.Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of magick and its emphasis on human will. Given the importance of the Will to Schopenhauer's overarching system, this amounts to "suggesting his whole philosophical system had magical powers." Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics."Neoplatonism including the traditions of Plotinus and to a lesser extent Marsilio Ficino has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer.Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature.In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library.Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Mozart, Rossini and Bellini. Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life.As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Goethe, Petrarch, Caldern and Shakespeare.If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him so to speak in the spirit of the age the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity.In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, Plato and the Upanishads. Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in "The World as Will and Representation":If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century may claim before all previous centuries if then the reader I say has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom and received it with an open heart he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange as to many others much less disagreeable for I might if it did not sound conceited contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.Thoughts on other philosophers.Giordano Bruno and Spinoza.Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still "one" being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself."Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck for the presentation of his philosophy with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition.Schopenhauer noted that their philosophies do not provide any ethics and it is therefore very remarkable that Spinoza called his main work .Immanuel Kant.The importance of Kant for Schopenhauer, in philosophy as well as on a personal level, cannot be overstated. Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the Transcendental Aesthetic section of Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason". Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and Plato, as Copernicus to Hicetas, Philolaus, and Aristarchus: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted.Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of :In his study room, one bust was of Buddha, the other was of Kant. The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Knigsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant :Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work to a detailed criticism of the Kantian philosophy.Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing-in-itself, whereas the general consensus in German idealism was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises.Post-Kantian school.The leading figures of post-Kantian philosophy—Johann Gottlieb Fichte, F. W. J. Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked "the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry." Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests . Diatribes against the vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example:Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner.Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag , Hegel was a Influence and legacy.Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen, Paul Deussen, Lazar von Hellenbach, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Ernst Otto Lindner, Philipp Mainlnder, Friedrich Nietzsche, Olga Plmacher and Agnes Taubert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, neo-Kantianism and positivism, to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. The French writer Maupassant commented that . Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include Hans Vaihinger, Volkelt, Solovyov and Weininger.Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, Schrdinger, Wolfgang Pauli, and Majorana. Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius. In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: Faraday, Maxwell, Schopenhauer. Konrad Wachsmann recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work."When Erwin Schrdinger discovered Schopenhauer he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. Wolfgang Pauli accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics that the thing-in-itself is will.But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy. The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!" So he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher". See also Influence of Schopenhauer on "Tristan und Isolde".Under the influence of Schopenhauer, Leo Tolstoy became convinced that the truth of all religions lies in self-renunciation. When he read Schopenhauer's philosophy, Tolstoy exclaimed .Jorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann, Thomas Hardy, Afanasy Fet, J.-K. Huysmans and George Santayana. In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote "Billy Budd", he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville "marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius." Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years.Sergei Prokofiev, although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading "Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life" in "Parerga and Paralipomena". "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness."Friedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading .Early in his career, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauers influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker. His friend Bertrand Russell had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it.Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics and wrote an essay on mysticism.Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel, "The Schopenhauer Cure", by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry Irvin Yalom.Schopenhauer's philosophy and the discussions on philosophical pessimism it has engendered has been the focus of contemporary thinkers such as David Benatar Thomas Ligotti and Eugene Thacker. Their work also served as an inspiration for the popular HBO TV series "True Detective". +Angola , officially the Republic of Angola , is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Lusophone country in both total area and population , and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the DR Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populated city is Luanda.Angola has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. Its formation as a nation-state originates from Portuguese colonisation which initially began with coastal settlements and trading posts founded in the 16th century. In the 19th century European settlers gradually began to establish themselves in the interior. The Portuguese colony that became Angola did not have its present borders until the early 20th century owing to resistance by native groups such as the Cuamato the Kwanyama and the Mbunda.After a protracted anti-colonial struggle, Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a Marxist–Leninist one-party Republic. The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year, between the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola , backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba, the insurgent anti-communist National Union for the Total Independence of Angola , supported by the United States and South Africa, and the militant organisation National Liberation Front of Angola , backed by the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The country has been governed by MPLA ever since its independence in 1975. Following the end of the war in 2002, Angola emerged as a relatively stable unitary, presidential constitutional republic.Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world especially since the end of the civil war. However economic growth is highly uneven with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the population and highly concentrated in China and in the United States. The standard of living remains low for most Angolans life expectancy is among the lowest in the world while infant mortality is among the highest.Since 2017, the government of Joo Loureno has made fighting corruption its flagship, so much so that many individuals of the previous government are either jailed or awaiting trial. Whilst this effort has been recognised by foreign diplomats to be legitimate, some skeptics see the actions as being politically motivated.Angola is a member of the United Nations OPEC African Union the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the Southern African Development Community. As of 2021 the Angolan population is estimated at 32.87 million. Angola is multicultural and multiethnic. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the Catholic Church intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.The name comes from the Portuguese colonial name , which appeared as early as Paulo Dias de Novais's 1571 charter. The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title held by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba. Ndongo in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lucala Rivers, was nominally a possession of the Kingdom of Kongo, but was seeking greater independence in the 16th century.Early migrations and political units.Modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San prior to the first Bantu migrations. The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists nor cultivators but rather hunter-gatherers. They were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north in the first millennium BC most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger. Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of bananas and taro as well as large cattle herds to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain.A number of political entities were established the best-known of these was the Kingdom of the Kongo based in Angola which extended northward to what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo the Republic of the Congo and Gabon. It established trade routes with other city-states and civilisations up to and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa and even with Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire although it engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as and right next to them lay the Kingdom of Matamba.Portuguese colonization.Portuguese explorer Diogo Co reached the area in 1484. The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the Kongo, which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda exclave. Paulo Dias de Novais founded So Paulo de Loanda in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Benguela was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617.The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in Angolan slaves for plantations. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire, usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s.Despite Portugals vast interior was minimal. In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow. John Iliffe notes that .During the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under Salvador de S retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the Kongo were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited. Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836 and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves. Four years later a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished slavery altogether. However these decrees remained largely unenforceable and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British Royal Navy to enforce their ban on the slave trade. This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far east as the Congo River and as far south as Mossmedes. Until the late 1880s, Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its colony in Mozambique but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition. In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola although many details were unresolved until the 1920s. Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective tariffs leading to increased development and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.Angolan independence.Under colonial law black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions. The first nationalist movements did not take root until after World War II spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class which included many mestios. During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from labour activism in the rural workforce. Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for self-determination provoked an armed conflict which erupted in 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and gradually evolved into a protracted war of independence that persisted for the next twelve years. Throughout the conflict three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces supported to varying degrees by the Portuguese Communist Party.The "National Front for the Liberation of Angola" (FNLA) recruited from Bakongo refugees in Zaire. Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Lopoldville and especially from a common border with Zaire Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families clans and traditions. People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo. Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola.A largely Ovimbundu guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and the . It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise.During the late 1950s the rise of the Marxist–Leninist "Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola" in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the Angolan Communist Party the organisation's leadership remained predominantly Ambundu and courted public sector workers in Luanda. Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the United States and its support for Portugal. This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front soliciting support from nonaligned governments in Morocco Ghana Guinea Mali and the United Arab Republic.The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from Conakry to Lopoldville in October 1961 renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA then known as the and its leader Holden Roberto. Roberto turned down the offer. When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the Angolan Civil War.Angolan Civil War.Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese. Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community. The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training. They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.The collapse of Portugal's Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence. Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman Agostinho Neto met in Mombasa in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government. This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975. All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces. The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities. With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority. Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold. Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked MPLA forces in March 1975. The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June. An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the Central Intelligence Agency to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.In August 1975 the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops. The Soviets declined offering to send advisers but no troops however Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies. By independence there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country. They were kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried out with Soviet aircraft. The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA. The FNLA was largely annihilated although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces. From there Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.Between 1975 and 1991 the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of scientific socialism incorporating central planning and a Marxist–Leninist one-party state. It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished. Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as . Under the MPLA Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation. However corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment. The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'tat by the Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola in 1977 which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead.The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared social democracy to be its new platform. Angola subsequently became a member of the International Monetary Fund; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment. By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the Bicesse Accords, which scheduled new general elections for September 1992. When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war. Following the election, the Halloween massacre occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.21st century.On 22 March 2002 Jonas Savimbi was killed in action against government troops. UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of a major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise regular democratic processes did not prevail until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010 all of which strengthened the prevailing dominant-party system.Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of minefields, and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the exclave of Cabinda (carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda conflict by the FLEC). While most of the internally displaced have now squatted around the capital, in musseques (shanty towns) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate.Drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years, affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's 18 provinces. Food prices rose and acute malnutrition rates doubled, with more than 95,000 children affected.Jos Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017 being peacefully succeeded by Joo Loureno Santos' chosen successor.At , Angola is the world's twenty-fourth largest country - comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E.Angola borders Namibia to the south Zambia to the east the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west.The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north has borders with the Republic of the Congo to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.Angola's capital Luanda lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.Angola had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.35/10 ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries.Angola although located in a tropical zone has a climate uncharacteristic of this zone due to the confluence of three factorsAngola's climate features two seasonsWhile the coastline has high rainfall rates decreasing from north to south and from to with average annual temperatures above one can divide the interior zone into three areasAdministrative divisions. +, Angola is divided into eighteen provinces and 162 municipalities. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes . The provinces are:Exclave of Cabinda.With an area of approximately , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo River. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population centre.According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom are citizens of neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil.The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, . Cabindas output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company from 1968 onwards.Ever since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups , the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola and Cabindan separatists. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions.Government and politics.The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers.The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature the National Assembly of Angola elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades political power has been concentrated in the presidency.After 38 years of rule in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership. The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister Joo Loureno as Santos' chosen successor.In what has been described as a political purge to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Loureno subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrsio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinrio Jos Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos. He also removed Isabel Dos Santos, daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol.Constitution.The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.The new constitution, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is Armed forces.The Angolan Armed Forces are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army , Navy and National Air Force . Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 .Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for training Czech-made L-39s for training and bombing and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar Sud Aviation Alouette III etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo .The National Police departments are Public Order Criminal Investigation Traffic and Transport Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities Taxation and Frontier Supervision Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6000 patrol officers 2500 taxation and frontier supervision officers 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas.A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law. There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women.In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.Foreign relations.Angola is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.On 16 October 2014 Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016.Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region . In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military.Human rights.Angola is classified as 'not free' by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report. The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections, in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.A 2012 report by the U.S. Department of State said, "The three most important human rights abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel."Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub-Saharan African countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa.In 2019, homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining.Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper and rich wildlife , forest and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped in the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002.Angolas highest annual average GDP growth at 11.1%.In 2004 the Exim Bank of China approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to be used for rebuilding Angola's infrastructure and to limit the influence of the International Monetary Fund there.China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest source of imports. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil glut led to a local price for unleaded gasoline of £0.37 a gallon.The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global recession the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production. Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 per cent in 2014 said the International Monetary Fund robust growth in the non-oil economy mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production.Angola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by the governor . According to a study on the banking sector carried out by Deloitte the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA) the Angolan national bank allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013 which contributed to the sectors economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality chiefly stems from persistent authoritarianism, "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of a pervasive corruption. The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated enormous wealth. are the middle strata that are about to become social classes. However almost half the population has to be considered poor with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities where slightly more than 50% of the people reside.A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatstica found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19% and an overall rate of 37%. In cities a majority of families well beyond those officially classified as poor must adopt a variety of survival strategies. In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda. In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group.In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the showed that U.S. consulting companies such as Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company, and PricewaterhouseCoopers had helped members of the family of former President Jos Eduardo dos Santos corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland.The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, telecommunications, and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises.Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects.With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy Abrao Gourgel the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa.On 19 December 2014 the Capital Market in Angola started. BODIVA received the secondary public debt market and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015 but the stock market should be a reality only in 2016.Natural resources."The Economist" reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy almost all of the country's revenue and all of its dominant exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006 Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC.According to the Heritage Foundation a conservative American think tank oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. "China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank one in 2004 the second in 2007 as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from China International Fund Ltd."Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for corruption according to a recent Human Rights Watch report 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010. Furthermore Sonangol the state-run oil company controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol " is a taxpayer it carries out quasi-fiscal activities it invests public funds and as concessionaire it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state."In 2002 Angola demanded compensation for oil spills allegedly caused by Chevron Corporation the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters.Operations in its diamond mines include partnerships between state-run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which operate in Angola.Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve.Agriculture.Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organization states that .In addition the World Bank estimates that .Before independence in 1975 Angola was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas coffee and sisal but three decades of civil war destroyed fertile countryside left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities.The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and Portugal, while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.Transport in Angola consists ofAngola centers its port trade in five main ports: Namibe, Lobito, Soyo, Cabinda and Luanda. The port of Luanda is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent.Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces leaving many severely potholed littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe for example was completed recently with funding from the European Union and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades but substantial efforts are already being made.Telecommunications.The telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola.In October 2014 the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally.On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in Luanda under the motto , to promote debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide. A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400 Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fibre installed in the country.The first Angolan satellite AngoSat-1 was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017. It was launched from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan on board a Zenit 3F rocket. The satellite was built by Russia's RSC Energia a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player Roscosmos. The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence & Space. Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment on 27 December RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca Secretary of State for Telecommunications the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services TV internet and e-government and was expected to remain in orbit for 18 years. A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in the works and is expected to be in service by 2020. As of February 2021 Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch is expected in about 17 months by July 2022.Technology.The management of the top-level domain passed from Portugal to Angola in 2015 following new legislation. A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies Jos Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology Maria Cndida Pereira Teixeira states that .Demographics.Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of Ovimbundu 37%, Ambundu 23%, Bakongo 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups as well as about 2% "mulattos" , 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people in 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population. However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatstica , states that Angola has a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants.It is estimated that Angola was host to 12100 refugees and 2900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers at least 220000 Portuguese and about 259000 Chinese living in Angola. 1 million Angolans are mixed race .Since 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small Brazilian community of about 5,000 people., the total fertility rate of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman , the 11th highest in the world.The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese, introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu, Kimbundu and Kikongo, in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country.Although the exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown a 2012 study mentions that Portuguese is the first language of 39% of the population. In 2014 a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatstica in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola use Portuguese as a first or second language.According to the 2014 census, Portuguese is spoken by 71.1% of Angolans, Umbundu by 23%, Kikongo by 8.2%, Kimbundu by 7.8%, Chokwe by 6.5%, Nyaneka by 3.4%, Ngangela by 3.1%, Fiote by 2.4%, Kwanyama by 2.3%, Muhumbi by 2.1%, Luvale by 1%, and other languages by 4.1%.There are about 1000 religious communities mostly Christian in Angola. While reliable statistics are nonexistent estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period the Congregationalists mainly among the Ovimbundu of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west the Methodists concentrating on the Kimbundu speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje the Baptists almost exclusively among the Bakongo of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed Adventists Reformed and Lutherans.In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "syncretic" Tocoists and in the north-west a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zare. Since independence, hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin.the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population, while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East , although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution.Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations.The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the which actively proselytize. Catholics as well as some major Protestant denominations provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds farm animals medical care and education.Epidemics of cholera malaria rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue filariasis leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola. Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria domestic violence and more.In September 2014 the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control was created by presidential decree and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in oncology policy implementation programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa.In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation.A yellow fever outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces.Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers. Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the Angolan Civil War , nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.The Ministry of Education recruited 20000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training. Teachers tend to be underpaid inadequately trained and overworked . Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils. Other factors such as the presence of landmines lack of resources and identity papers and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004 the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.According to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%. By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%. 82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities in Portugal and Brazil through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites.In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching".In 2010 the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive multimedia resources and computers with Internet access as well as areas for reading researching and socialising. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda Malanje Uge Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA the provinces of Luanda Benguela Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by Portuguese culture especially in language and religion and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola predominantly Bantu culture.The diverse ethnic communities—the Ovimbundu Ambundu Bakongo Chokwe Mbunda and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits traditions and languages but in the cities where slightly more than half of the population now lives a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times in Luanda since its foundation in the 16th century.In this urban culture Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature especially in the works of Angolan authors.In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme ”Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development.In 1972, one of Angolas highest prize.Literature.Angolan Writer Ndalu de Almeida pen name Ondjaki published a novel called in 2012 that takes place in Luanda Angola.Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola. Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup. Angola is home to one of Africa's first competitive leagues.In football Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations. The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup their first appearance in the World Cup finals. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won three COSAFA Cups and finished runner-up in the 2011 African Nations Championship.Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship for several years. The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art which were practised by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade. +This article is about the demographic features of the population of Angola, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014.Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a Bantu language: the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of the population, the Ambundu with 25%, and the Bakongo 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda, the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi , the Ovambo, the Herero, the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San. In addition, mixed race people amount to about 2%, with a small population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese.As a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975 Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200000 a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Currently over 300000 Angolans are white 1 million Angolans are mixed race and 50000 Angolans are from China which accounts for 1.35 million people. In 1974 white Angolans made up a population of 330000 to 350000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder "Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence The Politics of Numbers" "Africa Today" 21 1974 pp. 23 – 37. Today many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in O Pas Besides the Portuguese significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries can be found. From the 2000s many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises . Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300000 persons at the end of 2010 but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75 over 25000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War. Once this was over a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola either for personal reasons or as professionals .The largest religious denomination is Catholicism to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of Protestantism but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and African Initiated Churches. In 2006 one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses. Blacks from Mali Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain African traditional religions following different ethnic faiths.Population.According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or olderStructure of the population Vital statistics.Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations and the CIA World Factbook prepared the following estimates.Fertility and Births.Total Fertility Rate and Crude Birth Rate :Other demographics statistics.Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.Population growth.The population is growing by 3.52% annually. There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children born per woman as of 2017. The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 73.3 deaths for males and 61.8 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 60.2 years; 58.2 years for males and 62.3 years for females.According to the CIA World Factbook 2% of adults are living with HIV/AIDS . The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases bacterial and protozoal diarrhea hepatitis A and typhoid fever vectorborne diseases malaria African trypanosomiasis respiratory disease meningococcal meningitis and schistosomiasis a water contact disease as of 2005.Ethnic groups.Roughly 37% of Angolans are Ovimbundu, 25% are Ambundu, 13% are Bakongo, 2% are mestio, 1-2% are white Africans, and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population.Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics do not exist, however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are Catholic, the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pentecostal communities. Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies.Literacy is quite low, with 71.1% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82% of males and 60.7% of women are literate as of 2015.Portuguese is the official language of Angola, but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, Kikongo, Kimbundu, Umbundu, Tuchokwe, Nganguela, and Ukanyama have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language. +The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government executive legislative and judicial. For decades political power has been concentrated in the presidency with the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola.Since the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, the politics of Angola takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Angola is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the President, the government and parliament.Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola in place since independence in 1975 to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections President Jos Eduardo dos Santos won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbis elected MPs - while Jos Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA Jonas Savimbi was killed in action in 2002.From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the constitution of 1992 functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever-increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary.The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment schools are without books and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.Executive branch.The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint all of the followingThe President is also provided a variety of powers like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts) the President is the leader of the winning party.The only post that is not directly appointed by the President is the Vice-President which is the second in the winning party.Jos Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by Joo Loureno, Santos' chosen successor.Legislative branch.The National Assembly has 223 members elected for a four-year term 130 members by proportional representation 90 members in provincial districts and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% and the main opposition party won only 10% . The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair. A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008.Judicial branch.Supreme Court judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court with the power of judicial review contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President four by the National Assembly two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary and one elected by the public.Administrative divisions.Angola has eighteen provinces: Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, ZairePolitical pressure groups and leaders.Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC (Henrique N'zita Tiago; Antnio Bento Bembe)International organization participation.African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, AfDB, CEEAC, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, FAO, Group of 77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, International Criminal Court (signatory), ICFTU, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, International Organization for Migration, ISO (correspondent), ITU, Non-Aligned Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO +The economy of Angola remains heavily influenced by the effects of four decades of conflict in the last part of the 20th century the war for independence from Portugal (1961–75) and the subsequent civil war (1975–2002). Despite extensive oil and gas resources diamonds hydroelectric potential and rich agricultural land Angola remains poor and a third of the population relies on subsistence agriculture. Since 2002 when the 27-year civil war ended government policy prioritized the repair and improvement of infrastructure and strengthening of political and social institutions. During the first decade of the 21st century Angola's economy was one of the fastest-growing in the world with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010. High international oil prices and rising oil production contributed to strong economic growth although with high inequality at that time.Corruption is rife throughout the economy and the country remains heavily dependent on the oil sector, which in 2017 accounted for over 90 percent of exports by value and 64 percent of government revenue. With the end of the oil boom, from 2015 Angola entered into a period of economic contraction.The Angolan economy has been dominated by the production of raw materials and the use of cheap labor since European rule began in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese used Angola principally as a source for the thriving slave trade across the Atlantic; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Africa. After the Portuguese Empire abolished the slave trade in Angola in 1858, it began using concessional agreements, granting exclusive rights to a private company to exploit land, people, and all other resources within a given territory. In Mozambique, this policy spawned a number of companies notorious for their exploitation of local labor. But in Angola, only Diamang showed even moderate success. At the same time, Portuguese began emigrating to Angola to establish farms and plantations to grow cash crops for export. Although these farms were only partially successful before World War II, they formed the basis for the later economic growth.The principal exports of the post-slave economy in the 19th century were rubber, beeswax, and ivory. Prior to the First World War, exportation of coffee, palm kernels and oil, cattle, leather and hides, and salt fish joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and cotton also being produced. Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption. The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal. Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor "indentured" from the interior.Before World War II, the Portuguese government was concerned primarily with keeping its colonies self-sufficient and therefore invested little capital in Angola's local economy. It built no roads until the mid-1920s, and the first railroad, the Benguela Railway, was not completed until 1929. Between 1900 and 1940, only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola, and most worked in commerce in the cities, facilitating trade with Portugal. In the rural areas, Portuguese settlers often found it difficult to make a living because of fluctuating world prices for sugarcane and sisal and the difficulties in obtaining cheap labor to farm their crops. As a result, they often suspended their operations until the market prices rose and instead marketed the produce of Angolan farmers.But in the wake of World War II the rapid growth of industrialization worldwide and the parallel requirements for raw materials led Portugal to develop closer ties with its colonies and to begin actively developing the Angolan economy. In the 1930s Portugal started to develop closer trade ties with its colonies and by 1940 it absorbed 63 percent of Angolan exports and accounted for 47 percent of Angolan imports up from 39 percent and 37 percent respectively a decade earlier. When the price of Angola's principal crops—coffee and sisal—jumped after the war the Portuguese government began to reinvest some profits inside the country initiating a series of projects to develop infrastructure. During the 1950s Portugal built dams hydroelectric power stations and transportation systems. In addition Portuguese citizens were encouraged to emigrate to Angola where planned settlements were established for them in the rural areas. Finally the Portuguese initiated mining operations for iron ore manganese and copper to complement industrial activities at home and in 1955 the first successful oil wells were drilled in Angola. By 1960 the Angolan economy had been completely transformed boasting a successful commercial agricultural sector a promising mineral and petroleum production enterprise and an incipient manufacturing industry.Yet by 1976, these encouraging developments had been reversed. The economy was in complete disarray in the aftermath of the war of independence and the subsequent internal fighting of the liberation movements. According to the ruling MPLA-PT, in August 1976 more than 80 percent of the agricultural plantations had been abandoned by their Portuguese owners; only 284 out of 692 factories continued to operate; more than 30,000 medium-level and high-level managers, technicians, and skilled workers had left the country; and 2,500 enterprises had been closed (75 percent of which had been abandoned by their owners). Furthermore, only 8,000 vehicles remained out of 153,000 registered, dozens of bridges had been destroyed, the trading network was disrupted, administrative services did not exist, and files and studies were missing.Angolas overwhelmingly dominant trade partner—for both markets and machinery. Only the petroleum and diamond industries boasted a wider clientele for investment and markets. Most important the Portuguese had not trained Angolans to operate the larger industrial or agricultural enterprises nor had they actively educated the population. Upon independence Angola thus found itself without markets or expertise to maintain even minimal economic growth.As a result the government intervened nationalizing most businesses and farms abandoned by the Portuguese. It established state farms to continue producing coffee sugar and sisal and it took over the operations of all factories to maintain production. These attempts usually failed primarily because of the lack of experienced managers and the continuing disruptions in rural areas caused by the UNITA insurgency. Only the petroleum sector continued to operate successfully and by 1980 this sector had helped the gross domestic product reach US$3.6 billion its highest level up to 1988. In the face of serious economic problems and the continuing war throughout the countryside in 1987 the government announced plans to liberalize economic policies and promote private investment and involvement in the economy.United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation of the Lusaka Protocol, a 1994 peace accord that ultimately failed to end the civil war. The protocol prohibited UNITA from buying foreign arms, a provision the United Nations largely did not enforce, so both sides continued to build up their stockpile. UNITA purchased weapons in 1996 and 1997 from private sources in Albania and Bulgaria, and from Zaire, South Africa, Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Togo, and Burkina Faso. In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders, but the UN waited until July 1998 to limit UNITA's exportation of diamonds and freeze UNITA bank accounts. While the U.S. government gave US$250 million to UNITA between 1986 and 1991, UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds, primarily through Zaire to Europe. At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons from the governments of Belarus, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, and South Africa. While no arms shipment to the government violated the protocol, no country informed the U.N. Register on Conventional Weapons as required.Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note.An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the United Nations Human Development Index in 2000. In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund Staff-Monitored Program . The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists. The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people, 32% of the population, by 2001. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.Angola produced over of diamonds in 2003, and production was expected to grow to per year by 2007. In 2004 China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure. The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. By 2020, Angola had a national debt of $76 billion, of which $20 billion is to China.The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy with various housing projects stimulated by the government initiatives for example the projects. Not all public construction projects are functional. A case in point Kilamba Kiaxi where a whole new satellite town of Luanda consisting of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people was completely uninhabited for over four years because of skyrocketing prices but completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time thus made it affordable for middle-class people.ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 in January 2000 but production decreased to in 2007 due to poor-quality oil. Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1 2007. Cabinda Gulf Oil Company found Malange-1 an oil reservoir in Block 14 on August 9 2007.Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs to build roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation.In the last decade of the colonial period Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Severe wartime conditions including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward however notably in fisheries. Coffee production though a fraction of its pre-1975 level is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Expanding oil production is now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports at . Diamonds provided much of the revenue for Jonas Savimbi's UNITA rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development gold forest products fisheries iron ore coffee and fruits.This is a chart of trend of nominal gross domestic product of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data figures are in millions of units.The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation below 5% is in green.Agriculture.Angola produced, in 2018:In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like coffee (16 thousand tons).Foreign trade.Exports in 2004 reached US$10530764911. The vast majority of Angola's exports 92% in 2004 are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds 7.5% of exports were sold abroad that year. Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States in 2006 making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States and to China in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008 Angola became the main exporter of oil to China. The rest of its petroleum exports go to Europe and Latin America. U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services primarily oilfield equipment mining equipment chemicals aircraft and food to Angola while principally importing petroleum. Trade between Angola and South Africa exceeded US$300 million in 2007. From the 2000s many Chinese have settled and started up businesses.Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassing Nigeria in the 2000s. In January 2007 Angola became a member of OPEC. By 2010 production is expected to double the 2006 output level with development of deep-water offshore oil fields. Oil sales generated US$1.71 billion in tax revenue in 2004 and now makes up 80% of the government's budget, a 5% increase from 2003, and 45% of GDP.Chevron Corporation produces and receives 27% of Angolan oil. Total S.A. ExxonMobil Eni Petrobras and BP also operate in the country.Block Zero provides the majority of Angolas first producing deepwater section, Block 14, with .The United Nations has criticized the Angolan government for using torture rape summary executions arbitrary detention and disappearances actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output.Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from Kuwait just prior to the Gulf War in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested US$4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector.Oil makes up over 90% of Angola's exports.Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption human rights violations and diamond smuggling. Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama the national diamond company of Angola expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bi Malanje and Uge.The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 "Angola's Deadly Diamonds" report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "conflict diamonds". In December 2014, the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor" that classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that "there is little publicly available information on efforts to enforce child labor law". Diamonds accounted for 1.48% of Angolan exports in 2014.Under Portuguese rule Angola began mining iron in 1957 producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s 70% of Portuguese Angolas mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s. +Transport in Angola comprisesThere are three separate railway lines in Angola:Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and they are now all operational. The Benguela Railway connects to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.In April 2012 the Zambian Development Agency and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding to build a multi-product pipeline from Lobito to Lusaka Zambia to deliver various refined products to Zambia.Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years.Ports and harbors.The government plans to build a deep-water port at Barra do Dande north of Luanda in Bengo province near Caxito.Angolan Airlines.International and domestic services are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines Aeroflot British Airways Brussels Airlines Lufthansa Air France Cubana Ethiopian Airlines Emirates Delta Air Lines Royal Air Maroc Iberia Hainan Airlines Kenya Airways South African Airways TAP Air Portugal and several regional carriers. There are airstrips at Benguela Cabinda Huambo Momedes and Catumbela.References. +The Angolan Armed Forces () or FAA is the military of Angola. The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components: the Army (), the Navy () and the National Air Force (). Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000. The FAA is headed by the Chief of the General Staff Antnio Egdio de Sousa Santos since 2018, who reports to the Minister of National Defense, currently Joo Ernesto dos Santos.The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) following the abortive Bicesse Accord with the Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola (FALA) armed wing of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). As part of the peace agreement troops from both armies were to be demilitarized and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back to war in 1992. Later consequences for FALA personnel in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of vigilantism.The Angolan Armed Forces were created on 9 October 1991. The institutionalization of the FAA was made in the Bicesse Accords signed in 1991 between the Angolan Government and UNITA. The principles that would govern the FAA were defined in a joint proposal presented on September 24 1991 and approved on 9 October. On 14 November 1991 Generals Joo Baptista de Matos and Ablio Kamalata Numa were appointed to the Superior Command of the Armed Forces. The ceremony took place at the Hotel Presidente Luanda and was presided over by the then-minister Frana Vandnem.The Army is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions there are 25 motorized infantry brigades one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment the Military Artillery School the Army Military Academy an anti-aircraft defense group a composite land artillery group a military police regiment a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA.The National Air Force of Angola (FANA "Fora Area Nacional de Angola") is the air component of the FAA. It is organized in six aviation regiments each including several squadrons. To each of the regiments correspond an air base. Besides the aviation regiments there is also a Pilot Training School.The Air Force's personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft. In 2002 one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces.In 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters.The Angola Navy (MGA ) is the naval component of the FAA. It is organized in two naval zones (North and South) with naval bases in Luanda Lobito and Momedes. It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School based in Ambriz. The Navy numbers about 1000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges.The Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4200 personnel to around 1000 resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. In order to protect Angola's 1 600 km long coastline the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but is still lacking in many ways. Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate three corvettes three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats.Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several Fast Attack Craft for border protection in 2011.In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven Maca-class patrol vessels from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding covering the production of the vessels as part of Angolas economy.The navy's current known inventory includes the following:The navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrolSpecialized units.Special forces.The FAA include several types of special forces, namely the Commandos, the Special Operations and the Marines. The Angolan special forces follow the general model of the analogous Portuguese special forces, receiving a similar training.The Commandos and the Special forces are part of the Special Forces Brigade , based at Cabo Ledo, in the Bengo Province. The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos, a battalion of special operations and sub-units of combat support and service support. The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group , which is presently inactive and that was dedicated to long range reconnaissance, covert and sabotage operations. In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School . Both the BRIFE and the EFFE are directly under the Directorate of Special Forces of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.The marines constitute the Marines Brigade of the Angolan Navy. The Marines Brigade is not permanently dependent of the Directorate of Special Forces but can detach their units and elements to be put under the command of that body for the conduction of exercises or real operations.Since the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in 2004, the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit. However, elements of the commandos, special operations and marines are parachute qualified.Territorial troops.The Directorate of Peoples Vigilance Brigades also serve a similar purpose.Training establishments.Armed Forces Academy.The Military Academy is a military university public higher education establishment whos mission is to train officers of the Permanent Staff of the Army. It has been in operation since 21 August 2009 by presidential decree. Its headquarters are in Lobito. It trains in the following specialties:Institutions/other units.Military Hospitals.The Military hospital of the FAA is the Main Military Hospital. It has the following lineage:It provides specialized medical assistance in accordance with the military health system It also promotes post-graduate education and scientific research. Currently the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties. It is a headed by a Director General whose main supporting body is the Board of Directors.Supreme Military Court.The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of military courts. The Presiding Judge, the Deputy Presiding Judge and the other Counselor Judges of the Supreme Military Court are appointed by the President of the Republic. The composition, organization, powers and functioning of the Supreme Military Court are established by law.Military Bands.The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches and in individual units. The primary band is the 100-member Music Band of the Presidential Security Household. The music band of the Army Command was created on 16 June 1994 and four years later on 15 August 1998 the National Air Force created a music band within an artistic brigade. The navy has its own marching band as well as a small musical group known as "Banda 10 de Julho" based at the Luanda Naval Base.Foreign deployments.The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared South African Border War. The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1000 to 1500 troops to So Tom and Prncipe in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985.The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow Lusophone states Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'tat was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to "reform" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership.A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville). A presence during the unrest in Ivory Coast 2010–2011 were not officially confirmed. However the said that among President Gbagbos Presidential Guard Unit. Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the African Union and has formed special units for this purpose.Further reading.David Birmingham African Affairs Vol. 77 No. 309 pp. 554–564Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society +The foreign relations of Angola are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid.From 1975 to 1989 Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc in particular the Soviet Union Libya and Cuba. Since then it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993 it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo where Angolan troops remain in support of the Joseph Kabila government. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo to support the existing government in that country.Since 1998 Angola has successfully worked with the United Nations Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions on UNITA. More recently it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002. At the same time Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil in particular. Angola is a member of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa . +Albert Sidney Johnston served as a general in three different armies: the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in the Black Hawk War, the Texas War of Independence, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War, and the American Civil War.Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of Robert E. Lee, he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. Johnston was the highest-ranking Confederate officer killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston "was the turning point of our fate."Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston.Early life and education.Johnston was born in Washington Kentucky the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury Connecticut. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky he lived much of his life in Texas which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington Kentucky where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis. Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point New York Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826 Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry.Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri and served in the brief Black Hawk War in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt. Brig. Gen. Henry Atkinson.Marriage and family.In 1829 he married Henrietta Preston sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston. They had one son William Preston Johnston who became a colonel in the Confederate States Army. The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis.After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840 Johnston resigned and returned to Kentucky. In 1843 he married Eliza Griffin his late wifes two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. A sixth child was born later when the family lived in Los Angeles where they had permanently settled.Texian Army.In 1836 Johnston moved to Texas. He enlisted as a private in the Texian Army during the Texas War of Independence from the Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army.On February 5 1837 he fought in a duel with Texas Brig. Gen. Felix Huston who was angered and offended by Johnston's promotion. Johnston was shot through the hip and severely wounded requiring him to relinquish his post during his recovery.On December 22 1838 Mirabeau B. Lamar the second president of the Republic of Texas appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion and in 1839 conducted a campaign against Indians in northern Texas. In February 1840 he resigned and returned to Kentucky.United States Army.Johnston returned to Texas during the Mexican–American War under General Zachary Taylor as a colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The Polk administration's preference for officers associated with the Democratic Party prevented the promotion of those such as Johnston who were perceived as WhigsThe enlistments of Johnston's volunteers ran out just before the Battle of Monterrey. Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay and fight as he served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista. Future Union general, Joseph Hooker, was with Johnston at Monterrey. Hooker wrote: He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president Zachary Taylor to the U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier at Fort Mason and elsewhere in the West.In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry , a new regiment, which he organized, his lieutenant colonel being Robert E. Lee, and his majors William J. Hardee and George H. Thomas. Other subordinates in this unit included Earl Van Dorn, Edmund Kirby Smith, Nathan G. Evans, Innis N. Palmer, George Stoneman, R.W. Johnson, John B. Hood, and Charles W. Field, all future Civil War generals.As a key figure in the Utah War Johnston took command of the U.S forces in November 1857. This army was sent to install Alfred Cummings as governor of the Utah territory in place of Brigham Young. After the army wintered at Fort Bridger Wyoming a peaceful resolution was reached and in late June 1858 Johnston led the army through Salt Lake city without incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles distant. He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general in 1857 for his service in Utah. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21 when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific.Johnston was a proponent of slavery and a slaveholder. In 1846 he owned a family of four slaves in Texas. In 1855 having discovered that a slave was stealing from the army payroll Johnston refused to have him physically punished and instead sold him for $1000 to recoup the losses. Johnston explained that "whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit the whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest." In 1856 he called abolitionism "fanatical idolotrous negro worshipping" in a letter to his son fearing that the abolitionists would incite a servile insurrection in the South. Upon moving to California Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another Randolph or "Ran" who desired to accompany the family on the condition of a $12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the Civil War up until the latter's death. Johnston's wife Eliza celebrated the lack of black people in California writing "where the darky is in any numbers it should be as slaves."At the outbreak of the American Civil War Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific in California. Like many regular army officers from the South he was opposed to secession. But he resigned his commission soon after he heard of the secession of the Southern states. It was accepted by the War Department on May 6 1861 effective May 3. On April 28 he moved to Los Angeles the home of his wife's brother John Griffin. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home at Los Angeles where his eldest son Capt. Albert S. Johnston Jr. was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty in 1863.Soon, Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch May 27. He participated in their trek across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona on July 4, 1861. His escort was commanded by Alonzo Ridley, Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed.Early in the Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much of its territory as possible, and therefore distributed military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains.The most sensitive, and in many ways the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed under the command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that States action gave Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of Paducah, Kentucky, without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-Union majority in the State legislature.Confederate command in Western Theater.On September 10 1861 Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains except for coastal areas. He became commander of the Confederacys appointment as a full general by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis already had been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30 1861 making him the second highest ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead of him. After his appointment Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He was permitted to call on governors of Arkansas Tennessee and Mississippi for new troops although this authority was largely stifled by politics especially with respect to Mississippi. On September 13 1861 Johnston ordered Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer with 4000 men to occupy Cumberland Gap in Kentucky in order to block Union troops from coming into eastern Tennessee. The Kentucky legislature had voted to side with the Union after the occupation of Columbus by Polk. By September 18 Johnston had Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner with another 4000 men blocking the railroad route to Tennessee at Bowling Green Kentucky.Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price. Johnston did not quickly gain many recruits when he first requested them from the governors, but his more serious problem was lacking sufficient arms and ammunition for the troops he already had. As the Confederate government concentrated efforts on the units in the East, they gave Johnston small numbers of reinforcements and minimal amounts of arms and material. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months. Johnston's tactics had so annoyed and confused Union Brig. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he became paranoid and mentally unstable. Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces, and had to be relieved by Brig. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on November 9, 1861. However, in his Memoirs Sherman strongly refutes this account.Battle of Mill Springs.East Tennessee was held for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis Felix Zollicoffer a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of scarcity of transport and proximity of Union troops. When Union Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the Union forces could unite. At the Battle of Mill Springs on January 19 1862 the ill-prepared Confederates after a night march in the rain attacked the Union force with some initial success. As the battle progressed Zollicoffer was killed Crittenden was unable to lead the Confederate force and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a Union bayonet charge suffering 533 casualties from their force of 4000. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct.After the Confederate defeat at the Mill Springs Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd considered incompetent. He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated Union commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater. Union officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him but this was an exaggeration of his forces.Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Nashville.Based on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee in order to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, although in a better location, had a vulnerable land side and did not have enough heavy artillery to defend against gunboats.Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts when he took command. After Johnston took command Polk at first refused to comply with Johnston's order to send an engineer Lt. Joseph K. Dixon to inspect the forts. After Johnston asserted his authority Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened although they were not in ideal locations because much work had been done on them and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command the forts but President Davis appointed Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman as commander.To prevent Polk from dissipating his forces by allowing some men to join a partisan group Johnston ordered him to send Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow and 5000 men to Fort Donelson. Pillow took up a position at nearby Clarksville Tennessee and did not move into the fort until February 7 1862. Alerted by a Union reconnaissance on January 14 1862 Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders which in any event were too late to be adequately carried out.Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force which had not been sent to Fort Donelson before U.S. Grant's force could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862.Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12000 more men including those under Floyd and Pillow a curious decision in view of his thought that the Union gunboats alone might be able to take the fort. He did order the commanders of the fort to evacuate the troops if the fort could not be held. The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16 1862 Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1500 casualties with an estimated 12000 to 14000 taken prisoner. Union casualties were 500 killed 2108 wounded 224 missing.Johnston who had little choice in allowing Floyd and Pillow to take charge at Fort Donelson on the basis of seniority after he ordered them to add their forces to the garrison took the blame and suffered calls for his removal because a full explanation to the press and public would have exposed the weakness of the Confederate position. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green spreading his forces too thinly not concentrating his forces in the face of Union advances and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to imminent attack and it fell without resistance to Union forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25 1862 two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out in order to avoid having them captured as well.Concentration at Corinth.Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout his territory and retreating to the south to avoid being cut off. Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command the Army of Central Kentucky from the vicinity of Nashville. With Beauregards arrival on March 24 1862.Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which it had been organized by Beauregard on March 5.Johnston now planned to defeat the Union forces piecemeal before the various Union units in Kentucky and Tennessee under Grant with 40000 men at nearby Pittsburg Landing Tennessee and the now Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell on his way from Nashville with 35000 men could unite against him. Johnston started his army in motion on April 3 1862 intent on surprising Grants force and undetected by the evening of April 5 1862.Battle of Shiloh and death.Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his most famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the Union camps and was outraged to see a young lieutenant among them. "None of that sir" Johnston roared at the officer "we are not here for plunder." Then realizing he had embarrassed the man he picked up a tin cup off a table and announced "Let this be my share of the spoils today" before directing his army onward.At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a Union camp near the "Peach Orchard," he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery and his boot filled up with blood. There were no medical personnel on scene at the time, since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and Union prisoners earlier in the battle.Within a few minutes Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was Isham G. Harris the Governor of Tennessee who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale Harris asked and desperately tried to aid the general who had lost consciousness by this point. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnstons wounded leg. A few minutes later before a doctor could be found Johnston died from blood loss. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. Ironically it was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died.Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body in a blanket so as not to damage the troops' morale with the sight of the dead general. Johnston and his wounded horse, Fire Eater, were taken to his field headquarters on the Corinth road, where his body remained in his tent for the remainder of the battle. P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army and resumed leading the Confederate assault, which continued advancing and pushed the Union force back to a final defensive line near the Tennessee river. With his army exhausted and daylight almost gone, Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours, figuring he could finish off the Union army the following morning. However, Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio during the night, and led a successful counter-attack the following day, driving the Confederates from the field and winning the battle. As the Confederate army retreated back to Corinth, Johnston's body was taken to the home of Colonel William Inge, which had been his headquarters in Corinth. It was covered in the Confederate flag and lay in state for several hours.It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round as many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. Alonzo Ridley of Los Angeles commanded the bodyguard “the Guides” of Gen. A. S. Johnston and was by his side when he fell.Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side, and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him the best general in the country.Legacy and honors.Johnston was survived by his wife Eliza and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Elizas eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, after taking home leave in Los Angeles, Albert Jr. was on his way out of San Pedro harbor on a ferry. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident.Upon his passing General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government: accounts were published, on December 20, 1862, and thereafter, in the Los Angeles of his family's hometown. Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in northeast Los Angeles, are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood.Johnston was initially buried in New Orleans. In 1866 a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later the state appointed Elisabet Ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at the grave site installed in 1905.The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's plantation. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the Daughters of The Republic of Texas and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederate States of America.In 1916 the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans (including Johnston) with statues on its South Mall. On August 21 2017 as part of the wave of confederate monument removals in America Johnston's statue was taken down. Plans were announced to add it to the Briscoe Center for American History on the east side of the university campus.Johnston was inducted to the Texas Military Hall of Honor in 1980.In the fall of 2018 A.S. Johnston Elementary School in Dallas Texas was renamed Cedar Crest Elementary. Johnston Middle School in Houston Texas was also renamed to Meyerland Middle School. Three additional elementary schools named for Confederate veterans were renamed at the same time. +An android is a robot or other artificial being designed to resemble a man and often made from a flesh-like material. Historically androids were completely within the domain of science fiction and frequently seen in film and television but recent advances in robot technology now allow the design of functional and realistic humanoid robots.The word was coined from the Greek root - (as opposed to - ) and the suffix .The elaborate mechanical devices resembling humans performing human activities were displayed in exhibit halls.The term and the distinction between mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by Edmond Hamilton's Captain Future stories .Although Karel apek's robots in "R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)" (1921)—the play that introduced the word "robot" to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word "robot" has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term "android" can mean either one of these, while a cyborg ("cybernetic organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.The term "droid", popularized by George Lucas in the original "Star Wars" film and now used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of "android", but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form machines like R2-D2. The word "android" was used in "" episode "What Are Little Girls Made Of?" The abbreviation "andy", coined as a pejorative by writer Philip K. Dick in his novel "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", has seen some further usage, such as within the TV series "Total Recall 2070".Authors have used the term "android" in more diverse ways than "robot" or "cyborg". In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only superficial, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. In other stories, authors have used the word "android" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between.Eric G. Wilson who defines an android as a distinguishes between three types of android based on their body's compositionAlthough human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts (devices that exhibit likeness) and (devices that have independence).Several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway.Japanese robotics have been leading the field since the 1970s. Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967 and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1 the first android a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs and to grip and transport objects with hands using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese with an artificial mouth.In 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans.The Intelligent Robotics Lab directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in 2010. In 2006 Kokoro developed a new which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice.The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide.The Waseda University and NTT Docomos hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask.Prof Nadia Thalmann a Nanyang Technological University scientist directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's Siri or Microsoft's Cortana. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly.Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user's face and expressions displayed on the robot's face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements.South Korea.KITECH researched and developed EveR-1 an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary conversation having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve plus the letter "r" for "robot". EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis at the same time processing lip synchronization and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-CCD cameras with face recognition technology. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression body coordination and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face neck and lower body she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020. Several robot cities have been planned for the country the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won of which 50 billion is direct government investment. The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa.United States.Walt Disney and a staff of Imagineers created Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln that debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair.Dr. William Barry an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning at the United States Military Academy created an AI android character named as a well-behaved distant relative. Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the university level. Maria Bot has appeared as a keynote speaker as a duo with Barry for a TEDx talk in Everett Washington in February 2020.Resembling a human from the shoulders up, Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and engages in conversation about a variety of subjects. She uses AI to process and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk and engage. She collects data through conversations, direct data inputs such as books or articles, and through internet sources.Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty. Maria Bot is designed to create new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence. Barry also uses Maria Bot to demonstrate that programming a robot with life-affirming, ethical framework makes them more likely to help humans to do the same.Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology.Hanson Robotics, Inc., of Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein, using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called "Albert Hubo", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history. Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author Philip K. Dick , with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works. In 2005, the PKD android won a first-place artificial intelligence award from AAAI.Use in fiction.Androids are a staple of science fiction. Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series . One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots—such as the creation of strong artificial intelligence—are assumed to have been solved. Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them.The tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance—or even human ambitions—of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of their fictional depictions. Some android heroes seek, like Pinocchio, to become human, as in the film "Bicentennial Man", or Data in "". Others, as in the film "Westworld", rebel against abuse by careless humans. Android hunter Deckard in "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" and its film adaptation "Blade Runner" discovers that his targets appear to be, in some ways, more "human" than he is. Android stories, therefore, are not essentially stories "about" androids; they are stories about the human condition and what it means to be human.One aspect of writing about the meaning of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring racism in society as in also explores how androids are treated as second class citizens in a near future society.Female androids, or , although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and misogyny in society.The 2015 Japanese film . +Alberta is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west Saskatchewan to the east the Northwest Territories to the north and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. It is one of the only two landlocked provinces in Canada. The eastern part of the province is occupied by the Great Plains while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains. The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences quick temperature changes due to air aridity. Seasonal temperature swings are less pronounced in western Alberta due to occasional chinook winds.Alberta is the 6th largest province by area at 661848 square kilometres and the 4th most populous being home to 4067175 people. Alberta's capital is Edmonton while Calgary is its largest city. The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas and both exceed 1 million people. More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary which contributes to continuing the rivalry between the two cities. English is the official language of the province. In 2016 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone.The oil and gas industry is also a part of the provinces GDP.In the past Alberta's political landscape hosted parties like the left-wing Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta. Today Alberta is generally perceived as a conservative province. The right-wing Social Credit Party held office continually from 1935 to 1971 before the centre-right Progressive Conservatives held office continually from 1971 to 2015 the latter being the longest unbroken run in government at the provincial or federal level in Canadian history.Before becoming part of Canada Alberta was home to several First Nations and was a territory used by fur traders of the Hudson's Bay Company. The lands that would become Alberta were acquired by Canada as part of the NWT on July 15 1870. On September 1 1905 Alberta was separated from the NWT as a result of the Alberta Act and designated the 8th province of Canada. From the late 1800s to early 1900s many immigrants arrived the biggest wave of which was pushed by Wilfrid Laurier to prevent the prairies from being annexed by Americans. Massive oil resources were discovered in Alberta in 1947.Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty richness in fossils and for housing important nature reserves. Alberta is home to six UNESCO World Heritage Sites The Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks Dinosaur Provincial Park the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump Waterton–Glacier International Peace Park Wood Buffalo National Park and Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park. Other popular sites include Banff Canmore Drumheller Jasper Sylvan Lake and Lake Louise.Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta , the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Governor General of Canada . Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour.The name itself is a feminine Latinized form of Albert the name of Princess Louise's father the Prince Consort (cf. masculine) and its Germanic cognates ultimately derived from Proto-Germanic (compound of ).Alberta, with an area of , is the fourth-largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia.Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north, which separates it from the U.S. state of Montana. The 60th parallel north divides Alberta from the Northwest Territories. The 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan; while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains, and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N.The province extends north to south and east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border while its lowest point is on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast.With the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes Lake Claire () in Wood Buffalo National Park Lesser Slave Lake () and Lake Athabasca () which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca.The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River a tributary of the Mackenzie River.Alberta's capital city Edmonton is located at about the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. The region with its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. Calgary is about south of Edmonton and north of Montana surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the railways served as a means to populate the province in its early years.Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely forested . The southern quarter of the province is prairie ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests from Calgary north to Edmonton and then east to Lloydminster contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to dairy farming with mixed farming more common in the north and centre while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south.The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta, where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. Dinosaur Provincial Park, near Brooks, Alberta, showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape.Alberta extends for over from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from in the southwest to in the far north. The climate is also influenced by the presence of the Rocky Mountains to the southwest, which disrupt the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and cause them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from in the southeast to in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach annually.Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has a subarctic climate. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants. The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the Palliser Triangle, experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter chinook winds. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north.Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold arctic weather systems from the north which often produce extremely cold conditions in winter. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta although temperatures at these extremes are rare.In the summer continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from in the mountains to over in southeastern Alberta. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1900 up to just under 2600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. The average daytime temperatures range from around in the Rocky Mountain valleys and far north up to around in the dry prairie of the southeast. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. The south and east-central portions are prone to drought-like conditions sometimes persisting for several years although even these areas can receive heavy precipitation sometimes resulting in flooding.In the winter the Alberta clipper a type of intense fast-moving winter storm that generally forms over or near the province and pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream descends over the rest of Southern Canada and the northern tier of the United States. In southwestern Alberta the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm dry chinook winds blowing from the mountains which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one chinook recorded at Pincher Creek temperatures soared from in just one hour. The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks averaging 30 to 35 chinook days per year. Calgary has a 56% chance of a white Christmas while Edmonton has an 86% chance.After Saskatchewan Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year. Thunderstorms some of them severe are frequent in the summer especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada which is caused by orographic lifting from the nearby Rocky Mountains enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail.In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus anemone this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean and wild rose. Members of the sunflower family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass which dries up as summer lengthens to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower fleabane and sage. Both yellow and white sweet clover can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province.The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely deciduous typically aspen poplar and willow. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. Aspen poplar balsam poplar and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species. Conifers include jack pine Rocky Mountain pine lodgepole pine both white and black spruce and the deciduous conifer tamarack.The four climatic regions of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison, also known as buffalo, with its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then, buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta.Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province. Moose mule deer elk and white-tailed deer are found in the wooded regions and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits porcupines skunks squirrels and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one species of venomous snake the prairie rattlesnake.Alberta is home to many large carnivores such as wolves grizzly and black bears and mountain lions which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes red foxes Canada lynx and bobcats. Wolverines can also be found in the northwestern areas of the province.Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. Eagles, hawks, owls and crows are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other temperate regions, is home to mosquitoes, flies, wasps, and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with pike, walleye, whitefish, rainbow, speckled, brown trout, and sturgeon. Bull trout, native to the province, is Alberta's provincial fish. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta.Alberta is the only province in Canada—as well as one of the few places in the world—that is free of Norwegian rats. Since the early 1950s the Government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006 Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos universities and colleges and recognized research institutions. In 2009 several rats werefound and captured in small pockets in southern Alberta putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats were subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014.Paleontology.Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils in the world. Taxa are represented by complete fossil skeletons isolated material microvertebrate remains and even mass graves. At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in the province. The Foremost Formation Oldman Formation and Dinosaur Park Formations collectively comprise the Judith River Group and are the most thoroughly studied dinosaur-bearing strata in Alberta.Dinosaur-bearing strata are distributed widely throughout Alberta. The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation and Oldman Formation. In the central and southern regions of Alberta are intermittent Scollard Formation outcrops. In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies. Other formations have been recorded as well, like the Milk River and Foremost Formations. However, these latter two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs, primarily due to their lower total fossil quantity and neglect from collectors who are hindered by the isolation and scarcity of exposed outcrops. Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered from microvertebrate fossil sites. Additional geologic formations that have produced only few fossils are the Belly River Group and St. Mary River Formations of the southwest and the northwestern Wapiti Formation. The Wapiti Formation contains two "Pachyrhinosaurus" bone beds that break its general trend of low productivity, however. The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during a marine transgression. Dinosaurs are known from this formation, but represent specimens washed out to sea or reworked from older sediments.Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the last ice age. They are thought to have migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and then possibly moved down the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta to settle the Americas. Others may have migrated down the coast of British Columbia and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various First Nations peoples, including the Plains Indian tribes of southern Alberta such as those of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Plains Cree, who generally lived by hunting buffalo, and the more northerly tribes such as the Woodland Cree and Chipewyan who hunted, trapped, and fished for a living.After the British arrival in Canada, approximately half of the province of Alberta, south of the Athabasca River drainage, became part of Rupert's Land which consisted of all land drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. This area was granted by Charles II of England to the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670, and rival fur trading companies were not allowed to trade in it.The Athabasca River and the rivers north of it were not in HBC territory because they drained into the Arctic Ocean instead of Hudson Bay and they were prime habitat for fur-bearing animals. The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond who learned of the Methye Portage which allowed travel from southern rivers into the rivers north of Rupert's Land. Fur traders formed the North West Company of Montreal to compete with the HBC in 1779. The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory. Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche in 1778. Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca ten years later in 1788. His cousin Sir Alexander Mackenzie followed the North Saskatchewan River to its northernmost point near Edmonton then setting northward on foot trekked to the Athabasca River which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name—the Mackenzie River—which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to Lake Athabasca he followed the Peace River upstream eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean and so he became the first European to cross the North American continent north of Mexico.The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French territory of Louisiana, sold to the United States in 1803; in 1818, the portion of Louisiana north of the Forty-Ninth Parallel was ceded to Great Britain.Fur trade expanded in the north but bloody battles occurred between the rival HBC and NWC and in 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta until 1870 when the newly formed Canadian Government purchased Rupert's Land. Northern Alberta was included in the North-Western Territory until 1870 when it and Rupert's land became Canada's North-West Territories.First Nations negotiated treaties with the Crown in which the Crown gained title to the land that would later become Alberta and the Crown committed to ongoing support of the First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are Treaty 6 Treaty 7 and Treaty 8 .The District of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy in 1905 the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status with the election of Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier. Less than a decade later the First World War presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of volunteers left relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas.On June 21 2013 during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow Elbow Highwood and Oldman rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders.In 2016 a wildfire resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history as more than 80000 people were ordered to evacuate.Since 2020 Alberta has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.Demographics.The 2016 census reported Alberta had a population of 4,067,175 living in 1,527,678 of its 1,654,129 total dwellings, an 11.6% change from its 2011 population of 3,645,257. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. Statistics Canada estimated the province to have a population of 4,444,277 in Q2 of 2021.Since 2000 Albertas young and growing population.About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Albertas population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census.Census information.According to the 2016 census, Alberta has 779,155 residents between the ages of 0-14, 2,787,805 residents between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents aged 65 and over. English is the most common mother tongue, with 2,991,485 native speakers. This is followed by Tagalog, with 99,035 speakers, German, with 80,050 speakers, French, with 72,150 native speakers, and Hindi, with 68,695 speakers. 253,460 residents identify as Aboriginal, including 136,585 as First Nations, 114,370 as Mtis, and 2,500 as Inuit. There are also 933,165 residents who identify as a visible minority, including 230,930 South Asian people, 166,195 Filipinos, and 158,200 Chinese respondents. 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree.The 2006 census found that English with 2576670 native speakers was the most common mother tongue of Albertans representing 79.99% of the population. The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97275 native speakers followed by German with 84505 native speakers and French with 61225 . Other mother tongues include Punjabi with 36320 native speakers Tagalog with 29740 Ukrainian with 29455 Spanish with 29125 Polish with 21990 Arabic with 20495 Dutch with 19980 and Vietnamese with 19350 . The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17215 . Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13095 speakers Urdu with 11275 and Korean with 10845 then Hindi 8985 Farsi 7700 Portuguese 7205 and Hungarian 6770 .Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada many are descended from immigrants of Western European nations notably England Scotland Ireland Wales and France but large numbers later came from other regions of Europe notably Germany Ukraine and Scandinavia. According to Statistics Canada Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion of Francophones in western Canada . Despite this relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province after migration from other areas of Canada or descending from Mtis. As reported in the 2001 census the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population and South Asians represented more than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns and Calgary has Canada's third-largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. Aboriginal Albertans make up approximately three percent of the population.In the 2006 Canadian census the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were 885825 English 679705 German 667405 Canadian 661265 Scottish 539160 Irish 388210 French 332180 Ukrainian 172910 Dutch 170935 Polish 169355 North American Indian 144585 Norwegian and 137600 Chinese . Amongst those of British heritage the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names with the names of many cities and towns including Calgary Airdrie Canmore and Banff having Scottish origins.Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms of visible minorities after British Columbia and Ontario with 13.9% of the population consisting of visible minorities in 2006. Over one third of the populations of Calgary and Edmonton belong to a visible minority group. Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of the population in 2006 about half of whom consist of First Nations and the other half are Mtis. There are also small number of Inuit people in Alberta. The number of Aboriginal Identity Peoples have been increasing at a rate greater than the population of Alberta. As of the 2011 National Household Survey the largest religious group was Roman Catholic representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents among the provinces at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the United Church of Canada while 3.9% were Anglican. Lutherans made up 3.3% of the population while Baptists comprised 1.9%. The remainder belonged to a wide variety of different religious affiliations none of which constituted more than 2% of the population.Members of LDS Church are mostly concentrated in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites, and has a significant population of Seventh-day Adventists. Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canadas Jews live in the metropolitan areas of Calgary and Edmonton .Albertas per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland, and was the highest of any province in Canada at This was 56% higher than the national average of and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. According to the 2006 census, the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta . In 2014, Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario, with a GDP exceeding . The GDP of the province calculated at basic prices rose by 4.6% in 2017 to $327.4 billion, which was the largest increase recorded in Canada, and it ended two consecutive years of decreases.Alberta's debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to peak at 12.1% in fiscal year 2021–2022 falling to 11.3% the following year.The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million . It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time.The Fraser Institute states that Alberta also has very high levels of economic freedom and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada, and second-freest economy amongst U.S. states and Canadian provinces.In 2014 Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports were $2.7 billion. Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion and Alberta's ICT industries generated over $13 billion in revenue. In total Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars or $414.3 billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015 Alberta's GDP grew despite low oil prices however it was unstable with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Should the GDP remain at an average of 2.2% for the last two-quarters of 2015 Alberta's GDP should exceed $430 billion by the end of 2015. However RBC Economics research predicts Alberta's real GDP growth to only average 0.6% for the last two-quarters of 2015. This estimate predicts a real GDP growth of only 1.4% for 2015. A positive is the predicted 10.8% growth in Nominal GDP and possibly above 11% in 2016.Agriculture and forestry.Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the top producers of plains buffalo for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised.Wheat and canola are primary farm crops with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production other grains are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing farmers typically truck the grain to central points.Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need.Forestry plays a vital role in Albertas increased focus on Asian markets.Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil synthetic crude natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth-largest producer. Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton.The Athabasca oil sands surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels . Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta.Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 have made it profitable to extract this oil which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014 however rising costs and stabilizing oil prices were threatening the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn north project in the Athabasca region in May 2014.With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive liquid-crystal display systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds.Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the twentieth century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking and camping, shopping locales such as West Edmonton Mall, Calgary Stampede, outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. Banff, Jasper and the Rocky Mountains are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta tourism relies heavily on Southern Ontario tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries.There are also natural attractions like Elk Island National Park Wood Buffalo National Park and the Columbia Icefield. Albertas fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located within the province Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park Wood Buffalo National Park Dinosaur Provincial Park and Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. A number of these areas hold ski resorts most notably Sunshine Village Lake Louise Marmot Basin Norquay and Nakiska.About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede, a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's K-Days (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX). Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the Yukon gold fields, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous Chilkoot Pass.Another tourist destination that draws more than 650000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley located northeast of Calgary. Drumheller "Dinosaur Capital of The World" offers the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Another attraction in east-central Alberta is Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions a popular tourist attraction operated out of Stettler that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year.Government and politics.The Government of Alberta is organized as a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its unicameral legislature—the Legislative Assembly—consists of 87 members elected first past the post from single-member constituencies. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide.As Queen of Canada, Elizabeth II is the head of state for the Government of Alberta. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani. The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and constitutional convention. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the Queen. The government is headed by the premier. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The premier is Jason Kenney, sworn in on April 30, 2019.Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. Since the 1960s, Alberta has had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the Liberals, and the social democratic New Democrats. The Wildrose Party, a more conservative party formed in early 2008, gained much support in the 2012 election and became the official opposition, a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and succeeded by the new United Conservative Party created by the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives. The strongly conservative Social Credit Party was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971.For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the 2015 election to the NDP , suggesting at the time a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities. Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only five changes of government—only six parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the United Farmers of Alberta, from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971; the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015; from 2015 to 2019, the Alberta New Democratic Party; and from 2019, the United Conservative Party, with the most recent transfer of power being the first time in provincial history that an incumbent government was not returned to a second term.Administrative divisions.The province is divided into 10 types of local governments – urban municipalities specialized municipalities rural municipalities (including municipal districts improvement districts and special areas) Mtis settlements and Indian reserves. All types of municipalities are governed by local residents and were incorporated under various provincial acts with the exception of improvement districts and Indian reserves .Law enforcement.Policing in the province of Alberta upon its creation was the responsibility of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police. In 1917 due to pressures of World War I the Alberta Provincial Police was created. This organization policed the province until it was disbanded as a Great Depression-era cost-cutting measure in 1932. It was at that time the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police resumed policing of the province specifically RCMP Division. With the advent of the Alberta Sheriffs Branch the distribution of duties of law enforcement in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects such as traffic enforcement mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have been transferred to the Sheriffs. In 2006 Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany it. ALERT is made up of members of the RCMP Sheriffs Branch and various major municipal police forces in Alberta.Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake CFB Edmonton CFB Suffield and CFB Wainwright. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the Cold Lake Air Weapons Range. CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division. CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada.According to Alberta's 2009 budget government revenue in that year came mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources personal income taxes corporate and other taxes and grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects . In 2014 Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties. With the drop in the price of oil in 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion. In 2016 Alberta received "about $837 million in royalty payments from oil sands Royalty Projects". According to the 2018–21 fiscal plan the two top sources of revenue in 2016 were personal income tax at $10 763 million and federal transfers of $7976 million with total resource revenue at $3097 million. Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial sales tax. Alberta residents are still subject to the federal sales tax the Goods and Services Tax of 5%.From 2001 to 2016 Alberta was the only Canadian province to have a flat tax of 10% of taxable income which was introduced by then-Premier Ralph Klein as part of the Alberta Tax Advantage which also included a zero-percent tax on income below a "generous personal exemption".In 2016 under then-Premier Rachel Notley while most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate new tax brackets 12-per-cent 14-per-cent and 15-per-cent for those with higher incomes ($128145 annually or more) were introduced. Albertas municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. By 2018 most Albertans continued to pay the 10-per-cent income tax rate.According to a March 2015 Statistics Canada report, the median household income in Alberta in 2014 was about $100,000, which is 23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average.Based on Statistic Canada reports, low income Albertans, who earn less than $25,000 and those in the high-income bracket earning $150,000 or more, are the lowest-taxed people in Canada. Those in the middle income brackets representing those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more in provincial taxes than residents in British Columbia and Ontario. In terms of income tax, Alberta is the for those with a low income because there is no provincial income tax for those who earn $18,915 or less. Even with the 2016 progressive tax brackets up to 15%, Albertans who have the highest incomes, those with a $150,000 annual income or more—about 178,000 people in 2015, pay the least in taxes in Canada. — About 1.9 million Albertans earned between $25,000 and $150,000 in 2015.Alberta also privatized alcohol distribution. By 2010 privatization had increased outlets from 304 stores to 1726 1300 jobs to 4000 jobs and 3325 products to 16495 products. Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million.In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities. Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes. The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011. Most real property is assessed according to its market value. The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland, railways, machinery & equipment and linear property, all of which is assessed by regulated rates. Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board.Summer brings many festivals to the province of Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The Edmonton Fringe Festival is the worlds Churchill Square is home to a large number of the festivals, including the large Taste of Edmonton & The Works Art & Design Festival throughout the summer months.The City of Calgary is also famous for its Stampede, dubbed . The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as calf roping and bull riding. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts.The Banff Centre hosts a range of festivals and other events including the international Mountain Film Festival. These cultural events in Alberta highlight the provinces Arts Barns and the Francis Winspear Centre for Music. Both Calgary and Edmonton are home to Canadian Football League and National Hockey League teams . Soccer rugby union and lacrosse are also played professionally in Alberta.In 2019, the then Minister of Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in conjunction with the provinces 1st Artist in Residence. Alberta is the first province to launch an Artist in Residence program in Canada.As with any Canadian province the Alberta Legislature has exclusive authority to make laws respecting education. Since 1905 the Legislature has used this capacity to continue the model of locally elected public and separate school boards which originated prior to 1905 as well as to create and regulate universities colleges technical institutions and other educational forms and institutions .Elementary and secondary.There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta, and seventeen operating separate school jurisdictions. Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate, and one has a Protestant electorate. In addition, one Protestant separate school district, Glen Avon, survives as a ward of the St. Paul Education Region. The City of Lloydminster straddles the Albertan/Saskatchewan border, and both the public and separate school systems in that city are counted in the above numbers: both of them operate according to Saskatchewan law.For many years the provincial government has funded the greater part of the cost of providing K–12 education. Prior to 1994 public and separate school boards in Alberta had the legislative authority to levy a local tax on property as a supplementary support for local education. In 1994 the government of the province eliminated this right for public school boards but not for separate school boards. Since 1994 there has continued to be a tax on property in support of K–12 education the difference is that the mill rate is now set by the provincial government the money is collected by the local municipal authority and remitted to the provincial government. The relevant legislation requires that all the money raised by this property tax must go to the support of K–12 education provided by school boards. The provincial government pools the property tax funds from across the province and distributes them according to a formula to public and separate school jurisdictions and Francophone authorities.Public and separate school boards charter schools and private schools all follow the Program of Studies and the curriculum approved by the provincial department of education . Homeschool tutors may choose to follow the Program of Studies or develop their own Program of Studies. Public and separate schools charter schools and approved private schools all employ teachers who are certificated by Alberta Education they administer Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Examinations set by Alberta Education and they may grant high school graduation certificates endorsed by Alberta Education.Post-secondary.The University of Alberta located in Edmonton and established in 1908 is Alberta's oldest and largest university. The University of Calgary once affiliated with the University of Alberta gained its autonomy in 1966 and is now the second-largest university in Alberta. Athabasca University which focuses on distance learning and the University of Lethbridge are located in Athabasca and Lethbridge respectively.In early September 2009 Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university and in late September 2009 a similar move made MacEwan University Edmonton's second public university. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding along with two technical institutes Northern Alberta Institute of Technology and Southern Alberta Institute of Technology. Two of the colleges Red Deer College and Grande Prairie Regional College were approved by the Alberta government to become degree granting universities.There are also many private post-secondary institutions mostly Christian Universities bringing the total number of universities to 12. Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. There was some controversy in 2005 over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students . In 2005 Premier Ralph Klein made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs.Health care.Alberta provides a publicly funded fully integrated health system through Alberta Health Services —a quasi-independent agency that delivers health care on behalf of the Government of Albertas second province to adopt a Tommy Douglas-style program in 1950 a precursor to the modern medicare system.Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year , making it the best-funded health-care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour the province spends more than $2.5 million, , to maintain and improve health care in the province.Notable health education research and resources facilities in Alberta all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton. Health centres in Calgary includeHealth centres in Edmonton include:The Edmonton Clinic complex completed in 2012 provides a similar research education and care environment as the Mayo Clinic in the United States.All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services. AHS is the province's single health authority, established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine regional health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide Shock Trauma Air Rescue Society air ambulance service.Transportation.Alberta is well-connected by air, with international airports in both Calgary and Edmonton. Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport are the fourth- and fifth-busiest in Canada, respectively. Calgarys airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as airports in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean .Public transit.Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit systems. Edmonton LRT, which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the CBD, was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary C-Train has one of the highest number of daily riders of any LRT system in North America.There are more than of operating mainline railway in Alberta. The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies, which operate railway freight across the province. Additional railfreight service in the province is provided by two shortline railways: the Battle River Railway and Forty Mile Rail. Passenger trains include Via Rail's Canadian or Jasper–Prince Rupert trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The Rocky Mountaineer operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff and Calgary over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper.Alberta has over of highways and roads of which nearly are paved. The main north–south corridor is Highway 2 which begins south of Cardston at the Carway border crossing and is part of the CANAMEX Corridor. Highway 4 which effectively extends Interstate 15 into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province begins at the Coutts border crossing and ends at Lethbridge. Highway 3 joins Lethbridge to Fort Macleod and links Highway 2 to Highway 4. Highway 2 travels north through Fort Macleod Calgary Red Deer and Edmonton.North of Edmonton, the highway continues to Athabasca, then northwesterly along the south shore of Lesser Slave Lake into High Prairie, north to Peace River, west to Fairview and finally south to Grande Prairie, where it ends at an interchange with Highway 43. The section of Highway 2 between Calgary and Edmonton has been named the Queen Elizabeth II Highway to commemorate the visit of the monarch in 2005. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: Highway 22, west of Highway 2, known as , and Highway 21, east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the Peace River Country; Highway 63 travels northeast to Fort McMurray, the location of the Athabasca oil sands.Alberta has two main east–west corridors. The southern corridor part of the Trans-Canada Highway system enters the province near Medicine Hat runs westward through Calgary and leaves Alberta through Banff National Park. The northern corridor also part of the Trans-Canada network and known as the Yellowhead Highway runs west from Lloydminster in eastern Alberta through Edmonton and Jasper National Park into British Columbia. One of the most scenic drives is along the Icefields Parkway which runs for between Jasper and Lake Louise with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. A third corridor stretches across southern Alberta Highway 3 runs between Crowsnest Pass and Medicine Hat through Lethbridge and forms the eastern portion of the Crowsnest Highway. Another major corridor through central Alberta is Highway 11 which runs east from the Saskatchewan River Crossing in Banff National Park through Rocky Mountain House and Red Deer connecting with Highway 12 west of Stettler. The highway connects many of the smaller towns in central Alberta with Calgary and Edmonton as it crosses Highway 2 just west of Red Deer.Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and freeways are often called "trails". For example Highway 2 the main north–south highway in the province is called Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary but becomes Calgary Trail and Gateway Boulevard as it enters Edmonton and then turns into St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton for the City of St. Albert. Calgary in particular has a tradition of calling its largest urban expressways "trails" and naming many of them after prominent First Nations individuals and tribes such as Crowchild Trail Deerfoot Trail and Stoney Trail.Friendship partners.Alberta has relationships with many provinces states and other entities worldwide. +Actinopterygii (New Latin + Greek ), members of which are known as ray-finned fishes, is a clade of the bony fishes. They comprise over 50% of living vertebrate species.The ray-finned fishes are so-called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (rays) as opposed to the fleshy lobed fins that characterize the class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements the radials which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g. pelvic and pectoral girdles).By species count actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates and they comprise nearly 99% of the over 30000 species of fish. They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from at to the massive ocean sunfish at and the long-bodied oarfish at . The vast majority of Actinopterygii are teleosts.Characteristics.Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is the more derived structure.Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales but all teleosts the most advanced actinopterygians have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales and lack the hardened enamel or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.Ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes, including tetrapods, possessed lungs used for aerial respiration. Only bichirs retain ventrally budding lungs.Body shapes and fin arrangements.Ray-finned fish vary in size and shape, in their feeding specializations, and in the number and arrangement of their ray-fins.Reproduction.In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.Most families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in Middle Triassic species of a species for evolving male parental care.There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.Fossil record.The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is "Andreolepis hedei", dating back 420 million years . Remains have been found in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia.Classification.Actinopterygii is divided into the classes Cladistia and Actinopteri. The latter comprised subclasses Chondrostei and Neopterygii. The Neopterygii, in turn, is divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The cladogram shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.The polypterids are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, the Acipenseriformes are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei are the sister lineage of teleosts. The Elopomorpha appear to be the most basal teleosts.The listing below follows Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes with notes when this differs from Nelson ITIS and FishBase and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016 and Xu 2021. +Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of modern physics. His mass–energy equivalence formula , which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed .In 1905, a year sometimes described as his , Einstein published four groundbreaking papers. These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced special relativity, and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence. Einstein thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that nature "does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.Einstein was born in the German Empire but moved to Switzerland in 1895 forsaking his German citizenship the following year. In 1897 at the age of 17 he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zrich graduating in 1900. In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship which he kept for the rest of his life and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905 he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914 Einstein moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917 Einstein became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics he also became a German citizen again this time Prussian.In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein, of Jewish origin, objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons.Life and career.Early life and education.Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Wrttemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular Ashkenazi Jews. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded , a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of five for three years. At the age of eight he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.In 1894 Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current standard to the more efficient alternating current standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business the Einstein family moved to Italy first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia Einstein then 15 stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894 he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field".Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean theorem at age 12. A family tutor Max Talmud says that after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook after a short time .At age 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy , Einstein was introduced to Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason". Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: "At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him."In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zrich . He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the Argovian cantonal school in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul. In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Wrttemberg to avoid military service. In September 1896 he passed the Swiss "Matura" with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6. At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post.Einsteins friendship developed into a romance and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Mari that he preferred studying alongside her. In 1900 Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded a Federal teaching diploma. There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Mari might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his landmark 1905 papers known as the papers and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions.Marriages and children.Early correspondence between Einstein and Mari was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named , born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Mari was staying with her parents. Mari returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.Einstein and Mari married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son Hans Albert Einstein was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their son Eduard was born in Zrich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Mari returned to Zrich with their sons after learning that, despite their close relationship before, Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin Elsa Lwenthal; she was his first cousin maternally and second cousin paternally. Einstein and Mari divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed to give Mari his future Nobel Prize money.In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: regarding his love for Marie.Einstein married his cousin Elsa Lwenthal in 1919 after having had a relationship with her since 1912. They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936.In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mhsam. In a volume of letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006, Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa. Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the noted Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton).Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death.Patent office.After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office, as an assistant examiner – level III.Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903 his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent although he was passed over for promotion until he .Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.With a few friends he had met in Bern Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902 self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy" which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Mileva who attentively listened but did not participate. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincar Ernst Mach and David Hume which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.First scientific papers.In 1900, Einstein's paper .Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's , he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.Academic career.By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after he gave a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zrich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann.When the "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic "Manifesto to the Europeans".On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established. Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at Humboldt University of Berlin. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. He joined the academy and thus Berlin University on 1 April 1914. As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society .Based on calculations Einstein had made in 1911 using his new theory of general relativity light from another star should be bent by the Sun's gravity. In 1919 that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919 the leading British newspaper .In 1920 he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an "explanation" but merely as a "discovery of the law" as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1921. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.1921–1922 Travels abroad.Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921 where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Sciences on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London where he met several renowned scientific intellectual and political figures and delivered a lecture at King's College London.He also published an essay, (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: In 1922 his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour as he visited Singapore Ceylon and Japan where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest intelligent considerate and having a true feel for art. In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia he expresses some views on the Chinese Japanese and Indian people which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018.Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist.On his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923 where he briefly met Santiago Ramn y Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations in Geneva , a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and Giuseppe Motta to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing Gonzague de Reynold to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. Einstein's former physics professor Hendrik Lorentz and the Polish chemist Marie Curie were also members of the committee.1925: Visit to South America.In the months of March and April 1925 Einstein visited South America where he spent about a month in Argentina a week in Uruguay and a week in Rio de Janeiro Brazil. Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935) with the support of several Argentine scholars including Julio Rey Pastor Jakob Laub and Leopoldo Lugones. The visit by Einstein and his wife was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution.1930–1931 Travel to the US.In December 1930 Einstein visited America for the second time originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the US he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly he declined them all.After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of "The New York Times", and a performance of "Carmen" at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was "awkward", as Millikan "had a penchant for patriotic militarism", where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a .Chaplin's film "City Lights" was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson Einstein's biographer described this as "one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was "possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis".1933 Emigration to the US.In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.While at American universities in early 1933 he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933 the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March and during the trip they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March transforming Hitler's government into a "de facto" legal dictatorship and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp Belgium on 28 March Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.Refugee status.In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with , thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, "... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise." After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a "spontaneous emotional outburst" by those who "shun popular enlightenment", and "more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence".Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of . To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the "Daily Herald" on 24 July 1933.Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home and later Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately and sent his friend physicist Frederick Lindemann to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out they had lowered their "technical standards" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations including Turkey's Prime Minister smet nn to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1000 saved individuals".Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, New Jersey, US, to become a resident scholar.Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study.In October 1933, Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quotas, which lasted until the late 1940s.Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gdel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.World War II and the Manhattan Project.In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included migr physicist Le Szilrd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilrd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon." To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilrd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilrd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.The letter is believed to be to initiate the Manhattan Project.For Einstein "war was a disease ... he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt some argue he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954 a year before his death Einstein said to his old friend Linus Pauling "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ..." In 1955 Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists including British philosopher Bertrand Russell signed a manifesto highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.US citizenship.Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton New Jersey he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers and as a result individuals were encouraged he said to be more creative a trait he valued from his own early education.Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.In 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania a historically black college where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America adding "I do not intend to be quiet about it." A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student. Einstein has said "Being a Jew myself perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination".Personal life.Assisting Zionist causes.Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925 and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs.Among those he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed he suggested by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria which he called an that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments was also important.Einstein was not a nationalist; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. Einstein felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. His views were not shared by the majority of Jews seeking to form a new country; as a result, Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement.Chaim Weizmann later became Israels ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer that he could not accept it.Love of music.Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: "If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music."His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age.When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty." At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing Beethoven's violin sonatas. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was "remarkable and revealing of 'great insight. What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein "displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student."Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern Zrich and Berlin where he played with Max Planck and his son among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Kchel catalog of Mozart's work that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein who may have been a distant relation.In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet. Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was .Political views.In 1918 Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party a liberal party. Later in his life Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?" His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925 he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more moderated view criticizing their methods but praising them which is shown by his 1929 remark on Vladimir Lenin "In Lenin I honor a man who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain however men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience." Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. He wrote "I advocate world government because I am convinced that there is no other possible way of eliminating the most terrible danger in which man has ever found himself." The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932 and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1427 pages long.Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as . The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931 when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home in the town of Caputh. Sundaram was Gandhis home in 1925. During the visit Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi that was delivered to him through his envoy and Gandhi responded quickly with his own letter. Although in the end Einstein and Gandhi were unable to meet as they had hoped the direct connection between them was established through Wilfrid Israel.Religious and philosophical views.Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as nave. He clarified, however, that Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association which publishes In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything about them.On 17 April 1955 Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital but he did not live to complete it.Einstein refused surgery saying He died in Penn Medicine Princeton Medical Center early the next morning at the age of 76 having continued to work until near the end.During the autopsy the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton New Jersey and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."Einstein bequeathed his personal archives library and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel.Scientific career.Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word . In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.1905 – papers.The "Annus Mirabilis" papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect , Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the "Annalen der Physik" scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:Statistical mechanics.Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics.Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to . Two papers he published in 1902–1903 attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.Theory of critical opalescence.Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.Special relativity.Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper" was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds . The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. There is evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Mari, on this work. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown.This paper predicted that when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced 2 as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics . In 1908 Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity.General relativity.General relativity and the equivalence principle.General relativity is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and deflection of light.In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.Gravitational waves.In 1916 Einstein predicted gravitational waves ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves traveling outward from the source transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.The first indirect detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016 when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves detected on Earth on 14 September 2015 nearly one hundred years after the prediction.Hole argument and Entwurf theory.While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.In June 1913, the Entwurf theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915.Physical cosmology.In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einsteins static universe.Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was .In many Einstein biographies it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder". The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim suggesting that it may be exaggerated.In late 2013 a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript apparently written in early 1931 Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper "In what follows I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation that can account for Hubbel's facts and in which the density is constant over time" ... "If one considers a physically bounded volume particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space."It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle Bondi and Gold. However Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.Energy momentum pseudotensor.General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noethers prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrdinger and others.In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.Einstein–Cartan theory.In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.Equations of motion.The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations which describe how space curves. The geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein field equations.Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields like a black hole would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution like a black hole would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.Old quantum theory.Photons and energy quanta.In a 1905 paper Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles . Einsteins detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect and with the measurement of Compton scattering.Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency is Planck's constant. He does not say much more because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results notably the photoelectric effect.Quantized atomic vibrations.In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables.Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics.Bose–Einstein statistics.In 1924 Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Boses sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.Wave–particle duality.Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906 he had not given up on academia. In 1908 he became a concept and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new unified foundation.Zero-point energy.In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913 Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However after publishing the findings they promptly withdrew their support because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.Stimulated emission.In 1917 at the height of his work on relativity Einstein published an article in that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.Matter waves.Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrdinger's work of 1926.Quantum mechanics.Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics.Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God . Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.Bohr versus Einstein.The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the "EPR paper". In a thought experiment, he considered two particles which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way.Given Einstein's concept of local realism there were two possibilities either the other particle had these properties already determined or the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility .Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which "particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated."Although Einstein was wrong about local realism his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite entangled quantum states has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published in . It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory.Unified field theory.Following his research on general relativity Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950 he described his . Although he was lauded for this work his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which were well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long ignored Einstein's approaches to unification, Einstein's work has motivated modern quests for a theory of everything, in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.Other investigations.Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.Collaboration with other scientists.In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld Nathan Rosen Peter Bergmann and others Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.Einstein–de Haas experiment.Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.Schrdinger gas model.Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrdinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrdinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrdinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.Einstein refrigerator.In 1926, Einstein and his former student Le Szilrd co-invented the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Le Szilrd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.Non-scientific legacy.While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death . Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired that ruling was immediately appealed and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. Corbis successor to The Roger Richman Agency licenses the use of his name and associated imagery as agent for the university.In popular culture.Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. Despite the general public having little understanding of his work he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels films plays and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. .Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him.Awards and honors.Einstein received numerous awards and honors and in 1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics . None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. +Afghanistan officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south Iran to the west Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to the north and Tajikistan and China to the northeast. Occupying the country is predominately mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest that are separated by the Hindu Kush mountains. Its population as of 2020 is 31.4 million composed mostly of ethnic Pashtuns Tajiks Hazaras and Uzbeks. Kabul serves as its capital and largest city.Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of other parts of Asia as well as Europe leaving behind a mosaic of ethnolinguistic and religious groups that has influenced present Afghanistan. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns including those by Alexander the Great Mauryas Muslim Arabs Mongols British Soviets and the Coalition. The land also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and Mughals among others rose to form major empires. The various conquests and periods in the Indian and Persian cultural spheres made the area a center for Buddhism Zoroastrianism Hinduism and Islam throughout history.The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotaki and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country became free of foreign dominance eventually becoming the Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 under King Amanullah. This kingdom lasted almost fifty years until King Zahir was overthrown and a republic was established in 1973. Its history since the late 1970s has been dominated by prolonged warfare starting with the country becoming a socialist state provoking the Soviet–Afghan War followed by three civil wars territory control by the Taliban militia and its totalitarian regime the US invasion and a twenty-year-long war which concluded with the Taliban's summer offensive and the resulting fall of Kabul in August 2021.The country has high levels of terrorism poverty and child malnutrition. Afghanistans 96th largest with a gross domestic product of $72.9 billion by purchasing power parity the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP ranking 169th out of 186 countries as of 2018.The root name :Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Indo-Scythians, Kushans, Kidarites, Hephthalites, Alkhons, Nezaks, Zunbils, Turk Shahis, Hindu Shahis, Lawiks, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Khaljis, Kartids, Lodis, Surs, Mughals, and finally, the Hotak and Durrani dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state. Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely, Bactra , Alexandria on the Oxus , Kapisi, Sigal, Kabul, Kunduz, Zaranj, Firozkoh, Herat, Ghazna , Binban , and Kandahar.The country has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the , though it is unknown who coined the phrase.Prehistory and antiquity.Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50000 years ago and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites.Ancient era.Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak was a center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan, shows Afghanistan to have been a part of Indus Valley Civilization.After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia Western Asia and toward Europe via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to as Ariana.By the middle of the 6th century BCE the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia Aria and Bactria within its eastern boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered. The region of Arachosia around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexanders rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE.The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones mainly from the Badakhshan region.During the first century BCE the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire centered in Afghanistan became great patrons of Buddhist culture making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who in turn was replaced by the Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870 this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture.Medieval history.Islamic conquest.Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE and began spreading eastward some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the arrival of Islam the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions such as Zoroastrianism Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism Ancient Iranian religions Hinduism Christianity and Judaism. An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda Lady Nana Anahita or Mihr and portrayed Greek Gods like Heracles or Tyche as protectors of Buddha. The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th century.By the 11th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the wider region with the exception of Kafiristan. Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi. The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215.Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty.In 1219 CE Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as Bamyan. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of Timur who established the Timurid Empire in 1370. Under the rule of Shah Rukh the city served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance whose glory matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.In the early 16th century Babur arrived from Ferghana and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat. Between the 16th and 18th century the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara Iranian Safavids and Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory. During the Medieval Period the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan are now located in Afghanistan while the regions of Kandahar Zabulistan Ghazni Kabulistan and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan. However up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country Sir George Elphinstone wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan.Modern history.Hotak Dynasty.In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated Gurgin Khan and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais' son Mahmud for possibly planning to concede territories back to the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan, captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after the 1729 Battle of Damghan.Fall of the Hotak Dynasty.In 1738 Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the Siege of Kandahar the last Hotak stronghold from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after the Persian and Afghan forces invaded India Nader Shah had plundered Delhi alongside his 16 year old commander Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.Rise of the Durrani Empire.After the death of Nader Shah in 1747 Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4000 Pashtuns. the Abdalis had Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his acension in 1747 Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the Mughal Empire Maratha Empire and then receding Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Peshawar from the Mughal appointed governor Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat in 1750 and had also captured Kashmir in 1752. Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan and . His first campaign had seen the siege of Mashhad however he was forced to retreat after 4 months. In November 1750 he moved to siege Nishapur however he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754 he captured Tun and on 23 July he sieged Mashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December however Shah rokh was reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give up Torshiz Bakharz Jam Khaf and Turbat-e Haidari to the Afghans. Following this Ahmad Shah had sieged Nishapur once again and captured it.Objectives and Invasions of India.Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during his reign. With the capture of Peshawar, Ahmad Shah had used this as a convenient striking point to lead his military campaigns into Punjab and India.Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions, Ahmad Shah saw Afghanistan in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich neighboring country, which Ahmad Shah had capitalized on in multiple opportunities during his Invasions of India, he sought the reasons needed to fill his treasury in a war-plunder conquest based economy. Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in 1748, crossing the indus river, his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore into the Durrani Realm. Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at the Battle of Manupur , where he was defeated and forced to retreat to back to Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah had returned the next year in 1749, where he had captured the area around Lahore and Punjab, presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign. From 1749–1767, Ahmad Shah would lead 6 more invasions, the most important being his sixth invasion, with the Third Battle of Panipat, which created a power vacumn in northern india, halting Maratha expansion.Death of Ahmad Shah and his Successors.Ahmad Shah Durrani had died in October 1772 what followed would be a civil war in succession with his named successor Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of his brother Suleiman Mirza.Timur Shah had led a series of reforms to try and stabilize the empire, prominent of these would be the changing of the capital of the Durrani Kingdom from Kandahar to Kabul, which would layover to the modern foundations of Afghanistan with its capital being Kabul. Timur Shah had also led multiple campaigns into India as his father did, recapturing Multan from the Sikhs. However, his set of reforms and isolation of the Pashtuns had alienated the tribal aristocracy, and as he relied on the Qizilbash guards to protect him more to be more inclusive, this would ultimately lead to the downfall of the Durrani Empire just decades later. Timur Shah had died on 20 May 1793 at the age of 46. he would be succeeded by his son, Zaman Shah Durrani.Zaman Shah Durrani would succeed to the Durrani Throne following the death of his father Timur Shah Durrani. This instigated civil war with his brothers Mahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza revolting against him. With Humayun centered in Kandahar and Mahmud Shah centered in Herat. Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and also force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani. Securing his position on the throne Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into Punjab with the first two campaigns capturing Lahore but being forced to retreat due to issues from a possible Qajar invasion or his brother Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for Punjab in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh. However he was forced to withdraw with his brother Mahmud Shah Durrani revolting Zaman Shah would be toppled from his reign replaced by his brother Mahmud Shah Durrani. However just under 2 years in his reign Mahmud Shah Durrani would be deposed by his brother Shah Shuja Durrani on 13 July 1803. Shah Shuja would attempt to consolidate the Durrani Realm which had been long striven by civil war. Shah Shuja would later be deposed by his brother at the Battle of Nimla where Mahmud Shah Durrani would defeat and force Shah Shuja to flee with Shah Mahmud usurping the throne again for his second reign beginning on 3 May 1809.Barakzai dynasty and British wars.By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the Persians in the west and the Sikh Empire in the east. Afghanistan was divided, including the Emirate of Herat centred in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself emir in 1823. Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city of Peshawar at the Battle of Nowshera. In 1837, during the Battle of Jamrud near the Khyber Pass, Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud Fort from the Sikh Khalsa Army, but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus ending the Afghan-Sikh Wars. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the first major conflict during "the Great Game" was initiated.In 1838 a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan and arrested Dost Mohammad sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler Shah Shuja. Following an uprising the 1842 retreat from Kabul of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of Elphinstone's army and the Battle of Kabul that led to its recapture the British gave up on their attempts and allowed Dost Mohammad Khan as ruler and withdrew their military forces from Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan would go on to expand the Afghan Realm greatly with the capture of the Emirate of Herat in the Herat Campaign of 1862-63. Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863 a few months after his campaign to capture Herat. Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afghanistan between Sher Ali Khan Mohammad Afzal Khan and Mohammad Azam Khan in the Afghan Civil War . Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until In 1878 the British had returned in the Second Anglo-Afghan War which was fought over perceived Russian influence in the region Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan who had succeeded Sher Ali Khan after his death in 1879. Britain would gain control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the Treaty of Gandamak of 1879 making it an official British Protected State. In 1893 Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained politically independent until being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes. The "Iron Amir" viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as "trojan horses" and therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan. He died in 1901 succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan.During the First World War when Afghanistan was neutral Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition to declare full independence from the United Kingdom join them and attack British India as part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy. Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in February 1919 and Amanullah Khan eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions Amanullah Khan provoked the Third Anglo-Afghan War entering British India via the Khyber Pass.After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his countrys education and against their oppression.Some of the reforms that were put in place such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of several co-educational schools quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders and this led to the Afghan Civil War . Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929 and soon after Kabul fell to Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah Amanullah's cousin in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929 and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq a fifteen-year-old Hazara student who was an Amanullah loyalist.Mohammed Zahir Shah Nadir Shahs reign challenged by Zadran Safi Mangal and Wazir tribesmen led by Mazrak Zadran Salemai and Mirzali Khan among others many of whom were Amanullah loyalists. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq and Iran/Persia were also pursued while further international relations were sought by joining the League of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads infrastructure the founding of a national bank and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry. The country built close relationships with the Axis powers with Nazi Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the time along with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Japan.Contemporary history.Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a Pashtunistan, leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. Afterward, the 1964 constitution was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in.King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy.Democratic Republic and Soviet war.In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan seized power in a bloody coup d'tat against then-President Mohammed Daoud Khan, in what is called the Saur Revolution. The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, with its first leader named as People's Democratic Party general secretary Nur Muhammad Taraki. This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded country to a hotbed of international terrorism. The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of civil war by 1979, waged by guerrilla "mujahideen" against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a proxy war as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence , and the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime. Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham.In September 1979 PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin who assumed the new general secretary of the Peoples Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq) filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal marking the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War. The United States and Pakistan along with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and China continued supporting the rebels delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles. Lasting nine years the war caused the deaths of between 562000 and 2 million Afghans and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan mainly to Pakistan and Iran. Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages millions of landmines were planted and some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistans Democratic Party leader Mohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992.The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police private bodyguards openly armed civil defense groups and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter. The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy community elders intelligentsia and military in favor of powerful warlords.Post-Cold War conflict.Another civil war broke out after the creation of a dysfunctional coalition government between leaders of various factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion, while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting. Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders. The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students from Islamic madrassas in Pakistan, who soon had military support from Pakistan. Taking control of Kandahar city that year, they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of Rabbani from Kabul in 1996, where they established an emirate that gained international recognition from 3 countries: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially women. During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance later joined by others to resist the Taliban. Dostums Chief of Army Staff Pervez Musharraf began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name=></ref> By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001 Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir Valley. Around 400000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.21st century.In October 2001 the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over Osama Bin Laden the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks who was a of the Taliban and was operating his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country. During the initial invasion US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps and later working with the Northern Alliance the Taliban regime came to an end.In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security Assistance Force was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security. By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute famine at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest infant and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry, and infrastructure was in ruins. Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process. The Taliban began an insurgency to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment government corruption and the Taliban insurgency. Meanwhile Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country and the Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made often with the support of foreign donor countries to improve the country's economy healthcare education transport and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002 nearly five million Afghans were repatriated. The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140000 in 2011 dropping to about 16000 in 2018.In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF. Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces and continue their fight against the Taliban. It was estimated in 2015 that concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.On 14 April 2021 NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg said the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May. Soon after the withdrawal of NATO troops started the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government quickly advancing in front of collapsing Afghan government forces. On 15 August 2021 as the Taliban once again controlled a vast majority of Afghan territory the Taliban began capturing the capital city of Kabul and many civilians government officials and foreign diplomats were evacuated. President Ghani fled Afghanistan that day. As of 16 August 2021 an unofficial Coordination Council led by senior statesmen was in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban. On 17 August the First Vice President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Amrullah Saleh proclaimed himself the caretaker President of Afghanistan and announced the formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6000+ troops in the Panjshir Valley along with Ahmad Massoud. However on 6 September the Taliban took control of most of the Panjshir province with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains to continue fighting within the province. Fights in the valley ceased mid-September while resistances leaders Amrullah Saleh and Ahmad Massoud fled to neighboring Tajikistan.The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was swiftly restored as its opponents were defeated or left the country. It is apparently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund who took office on 7 September 2021. Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban and was a deputy Prime Minister in their previous Emirate his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners. A new all-male cabinet was formed including Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai as Minister of Justice. On 20 September 2021 United Nations Secretary-General Antnio Guterres received a letter from acting minister of Foreign Affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha Suhail Shaheen and asked to address the General Assembly. During the previous Taliban rule from 1996 to 2001 the United Nations never recognized their representatives and chose to work with the then-government in exile instead.Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021 and the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted payments. In October 2021 more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage. On 11 November 2021 the "Human Rights Watch" reported that Afghanistan was facing widespread famine due to collapsed economy and broken banking system.Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia. The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the , and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia. The renowned Urdu poet Allama Iqbal once wrote about the country:At over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country, slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is landlocked. Afghanistan shares its longest land border with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the north-east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the north-east; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered Kashmir. Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with the Sistan and Baluchestan Province, South Khorasan Province and Razavi Khorasan Province of Iran; Ahal Region, Mary Region and Lebap Region of Turkmenistan; Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan; Khatlon Region and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan; Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China; and the Gilgit-Baltistan territory, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and Balochistan province of Pakistan.The geography in Afghanistan is varied but is mostly mountainous and rugged with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. It is dominated by the Hindu Kush range the western extension of the Himalayas that stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Mountains in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys often considered part of the . The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands creating plains in the north and southwest namely the Turkestan Plains and the Sistan Basin these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts and hot windy deserts respectively. Forests exist in the corridor between Nuristan and Paktika provinces (see East Afghan montane conifer forests) and tundra in the north-east. The country's highest point is Noshaq at above sea level. The lowest point lies in Jowzjan Province along the Amu River bank at above sea level.Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. The Amu Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby Hari Rud flows west towards Herat, and the Arghandab River from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the Indus River, such as the Helmand River. One exception is the Kabul River which flows in an easternly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean. Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive, causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter. The last strong earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan. This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed.Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast , and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the Sistan Basin of the southwest, the Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the north, where temperatures average over in July and can go over . The country is generally arid in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the monsoon zone, except the Nuristan Province which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.Biodiversity.Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. Snow leopards Siberian tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation alpine tundra regions. The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes wolves otters deer wild sheep lynx and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains wildlife include a variety of birds hedgehogs gophers and large carnivores such as jackals and hyenas.Gazelles wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains of the south and west while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south. Marmots and ibex also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan and pheasants exist in some parts of the country. The Afghan hound is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair it is relatively known in the west.Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel Afghan snowfinch Afghanodon . Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as pine trees spruce trees fir trees and larches whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of broadleaf trees short grass perennial plants and shrublands. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants. Several regions are designated protected areas there are three national parks Band-e Amir Wakhan and Nuristan. Afghanistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10 ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.Demographics.The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million. In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million. About 23.9% of them are urbanite 71.4% live in rural areas and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name= ></ref> An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring Pakistan and Iran most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013 Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world a title held for 32 years.The current population growth rate is 2.37%, one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue. The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan. Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa. Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down. The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8.Ethnicity and languages.Afghans are divided into several ethnolinguistic groups. The Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group, comprising 39% (2019 sociological research data by The Asia Foundation), followed by Tajiks (or Farsiwans), comprising 37%. of the country's population. Generally the other three major ethnic groups are the Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the Afghan National Anthem.Dari and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common. Dari, which is a variety of and mutually intelligible with Persian (and very often called by some Afghans like in Iran) functions as the lingua franca in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called Farsiwans. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.According to CIA World Factbook Dari Persian is spoken by 78% and functions as the lingua franca while Pashto is spoken by 50% Uzbek 10% English 5% Turkmen 2% Urdu 2% Pashayi 1% Nuristani 1% Arabic 1% and Balochi 1% . Data represent the most widely spoken languages shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language.There are a number of smaller regional languages including Uzbek Turkmen Balochi Pashayi and Nuristani.When it comes to foreign languages among the populace many are able to speak or understand Hindustani (Urdu-Hindi) partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of Bollywood films respectively. English is also understood by some of the population and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s. Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian which was taught in public schools during the 1980s.An estimated 99.7% of the Afghan population is Muslim and most are thought to adhere to the Sunni Hanafi school. According to Pew Research Center, as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% Shia and 3% non-denominational. The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia. Dr Michael Izady estimated 70% of the population to be followers of Sunni Islam, 25% Imami Shia Islam, 4.5% Ismaili Shia Islam, and 0.5% other religions.Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in certain major cities accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs. According to Deutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced leave due to decades of warfare and religious prosecution. By the end of the twentieth century, the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with the exception of one person, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. After the second Taliban takeover, he left Afghanistan for the United States.Afghan Christians who number 500–8000 practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition and there are no public churches.Urbanization.As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants. Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.The only city with over a million residents is its capital Kabul located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands namely Kandahar in the south Herat in the west Mazar-i-Sharif and Kunduz in the north and Jalalabad in the east.Governance.Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September. As of 8 September 2021, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the "de jure" government of Afghanistan.A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the a Pashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new head of state adopting a new constitution or to settle national or regional issue such as war. Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747 with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.Development of Taliban government.On 17 August 2021 the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party Gulbuddin Hekmatyar met with both Hamid Karzai the former President of Afghanistan and Abdullah Abdullah the chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive in Doha Qatar with the aim of forming a government . President Ashraf Ghani having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan. the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with an unofficial Coordination Council led by senior statesmen in the process of coordinating the transfer of the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban. Taliban forces meanwhile exercise effective police authority in the country. The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings according to Fawzia Koofi former member of the Afghan National Assembly who stated that a men-only government would "not be complete". Many figures within the Taliban generally agree that continuation of the Constitution of Afghanistan may potentially be workable as the basis for the new state as their objections to the former government were religious and not political in nature. On 20 August Abdul Ghani Baradar arrived in Kabul from Kandahar to begin formal negotiations with the Coordination Council on the composition and structure of the new government.Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at the Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mohammad Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet.According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a unitary Deobandist Islamic republic. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime Minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai is likely to be promoted to Chief Justice. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.However later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations were not yet completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar and that the announcement of the new government would not take place until 4 September or later. Government formation was further delayed with the announcement postponed to some time during the week of 6 September due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community. It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan. It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11 September 2021 the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks with invitations possibly being extended to the governments of Turkey China Iran Pakistan and Qatar.As of early September the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only stating that women would not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the government and that women were "ruled out" from the Cabinet. Journalists and other human rights activists mostly women protested in Herat and Kabul calling for women to be included in the Cabinet. The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only and the Ministry of Women's Affairs appeared to have been abolished.Administrative divisions.Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces . Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:Foreign relations.Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946. Historically Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistans forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978 and India with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950. Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally unrecognized, but has had notable unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar. Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally.The Islamic Emirate Army inherited high amount of modern army ground forces and airforce weapons hardware vehicles aerocrafts and equipment including UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters.Afghanistans rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability. The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million mainly fruits and nuts. It has $2.8 billion in external debt. The service sector contributed the most to the GDP followed by agriculture and industry .While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations.Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the Afghani is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank.One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country. Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near Jalalabad. Similar development projects have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities. An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100000 jobs since 2003. Afghan rugs are becoming popular again allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.Afghanistan is a member of WTO SAARC ECO and OIC. It holds an observer status in SCO. In 2018 a majority of imports come from either Iran China Pakistan and Kazakhstan while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central bank, blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in U.S. bank accounts.Agriculture.Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018. The country is known for producing pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of opium – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium. It is also one of the world's top producers of cannabis.Saffron the most expensive spice grows in Afghanistan particularly Herat Province. In recent years there has been an uptick in saffron production which authorities and farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019 the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute. Production hit record high in 2019 (19469 kg of saffron) and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc, barite, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum. In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth at least .Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its mineral deposits, its gross national product would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs. The United States Geological Survey estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average of crude oil, of natural gas, and of natural gas liquids. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.The country has significant amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other minerals. The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains of rare earth elements. In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion, making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history. The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan. Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least . One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium". The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia, which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves. Other larger deposits are the ones of Bauxit and Cobalt. In a 2011 news story, the "CSM" reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016 Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.Infrastructure.According to the World Bank 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018 up from 28% in 2008. Overall the figure stands at 98.7%. As of 2016 Afghanistan produces 1400 megawatts of power but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. The majority of electricity production is via hydropower helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains. However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen including in Kabul. In recent years an increasing number of solar biomass and wind power plants have been constructed. Currently under development are the CASA-1000 project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. Power is managed by the Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat .Important dams include the Kajaki Dam, Dahla Dam, and the Sardeh Band Dam.Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016. In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity. Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the Wakhan Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including Herat, Kandahar and Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal. Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.The city of Ghazni has significant history and historical sites and together with Bamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively. The cities of Herat Kandahar Balkh and Zaranj are also very historic. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar a city founded by Alexander the Great and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The National Museum of Afghanistan is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist Bactrian Greek and early Islamic antiquities the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.Communication.Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by Afghan Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN Group, and Roshan. The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1, which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.Transportation.Due to Afghanistans road network is Highway 1, often called the , which extends for and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy. A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel, completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan. It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the Kabul–Kandahar and the Kabul–Jalalabad Road. Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier Ariana Afghan Airlines and by the private company Kam Air. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include Air India Emirates Gulf Air Iran Aseman Airlines Pakistan International Airlines and Turkish Airlines. The country has four international airports Hamid Karzai International Airport Kandahar International Airport Herat International Airport and Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. Including domestic airports there are 43. Bagram Air Base is a major military airfield.The country has three rail links: one, a line from Mazar-i-Sharif to the Uzbekistan border; a long line from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border ; and a short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki, which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan. These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between Khaf, Iran and Herat, western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019. About of the line will lie on the Afghan side. There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country.Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and auto rickshaws. In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, mules or horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads. Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 and higher education, which is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden girls and female teachers from returning to secondary schools. Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities around the country. About 21% of these are females. Former Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of formal learning.The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan followed by Kabul University , both of which are located in Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Balkh University and Kunduz University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education; from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978.As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% . The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses.According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancy is estimated to be around 60 years. The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is 66 to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births. The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 midwives, with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the Jamhuriat Hospital and Jinnah Hospital. In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility. Disability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war. It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs. Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures. Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on maternal death, among other things.Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country. Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a patriarch. In the southern and eastern region the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun way). Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality the provision of sanctuary to those seeking refuge and revenge for the shedding of blood. The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. The remaining Afghans are culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor. One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. There are various Afghan tribes, and an estimated 2–3 million nomads. Afghan culture is deeply Islamic, but pre-Islamic practices persist. One example is , a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys. Child marriage is prevalent in Afghanistan; the legal age for marriage is 16. The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's parallel cousin, and the groom is often expected to pay a bride price.In the villages families typically occupy mudbrick houses or compounds with mudbrick or stone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman a master for water distribution and a religious teacher . Men would typically work on the fields joined by women during harvest. About 15% of the population are nomadic locally called "kochis". When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea wheat and kerosene from the villagers villagers buy wool and milk from the nomads.Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of various forms of shalwar kameez, especially "perahan tunban" and "khet partug". Women would normally wear a "chador" for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the "burqa", a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the Taliban enforced this dress on women when they were in power. Another popular dress is the "chapan" which acts as a coat. The "karakul" is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President Hamid Karzai. The "pakol" is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud. The "Mazari hat" originates from northern Afghanistan.Architecture.The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages including Greek and Buddhist stupas monasteries monuments temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the Great Mosque of Herat the Blue Mosque the Minaret of Jam the Chil Zena the Qala-i Bost in Lashkargah the ancient Greek city of Ai-Khanoum. However many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country some of them dating back to the 2nd century. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan European-style architecture is rare but does exist the Victory Arch at Paghman and the Darul Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves.Art and ceramics.Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still handmade by tribal and nomadic people today. Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women. Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the Soviet-Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant of Afghan rugs, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs. In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery, and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries. Much of stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in Chinese porcelain as cobalt blue, later used in ancient Mesopotamia and Turkey.The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art with the world's earliest known usage of oil painting found in cave murals in the country. A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is Gandhara Art produced by a fusion of Greco-Roman art and Buddhist art between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style with Kamaleddin Behzad of Herat being one of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and early Safavid periods. Since the 1900s the nation began to use Western techniques in art. Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.Media and entertainment.Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations. Radio Television Afghanistan originating from 1925 is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as TOLO and Shamshad TV. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873 and there are hundreds of print outlets today. By the 1920s Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services. Voice of America BBC and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio. Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002 after more than two decades of tight controls.Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and listening to its filmi songs. It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry. The stereotypes of Afghans in India has also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors. Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Zarine Khan, Celina Jaitly, and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including .Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like raga. Genres of this style of music include ghazal and instruments such as the Indian tabla, sitar and harmonium, and local instruments like zerbaghali, as well as dayereh and tanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucusus and the Middle East. The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian sarod instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include Ustad Sarahang and Sarban.Pop music developed in the 1950s through Radio Kabul and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first Mermon Parwin. Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir, who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979. Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include Nashenas, Ubaidullah Jan, Mahwash, Ahmad Wali, Farhad Darya, and Naghma.Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds. The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops such as wheat maize barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk yogurt and whey. Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan. The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity. Afghanistan is known for its high quality pomegranates grapes and sweet melons. Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans and a typical diet consists of naan yoghurts rice and meat.Literature.Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. One of the poetic styles is called landay. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are Divs, monstrous creatures. Thursdays are traditionally in the city of Herat when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories , namely: Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic and Sufi saint in the 11th century, Sanai of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, Rumi of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres , movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include Rabi'a Balkhi, Jami, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak.Holidays and festivals.Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz an ancient tradition that started as a Zoroastrian celebration in present-day Iran and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the vernal equinox. In Afghanistan Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance as well as holding buzkashi tournaments.Yald, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts.Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Ashura are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh community and the Hindu festival Diwali by the Hindu community.National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 under King Amanullah Khan and the country's full independence. Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as International Workers' Day and International Women's Day. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the Wakhi and Kyrgyz peoples, the Red Flower Festival in Mazar-i-Sharif and the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province.Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation. Cricket and association football are the two most popular sports in the country. The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf, handball, boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodybuilding, track and field, skating, bowling, snooker, chess, and other sports.Afghanistans football team followed as it won the SAFF Championship.The Afghan national cricket team which was formed in 2001 participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One and the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007 2009 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the 2015 Cricket World Cup. The Afghanistan Cricket Board is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country including the Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium near Jalalabad. Domestically cricket is played between teams from different provinces.The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cup but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is buzkashi, mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The Afghan Hound originated in Afghanistan and was formerly used in wolf hunting. In 2002, traveler Rory Stewart reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas. +Albania officially the Republic of Albania is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea within the Mediterranean Sea and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest Kosovo to the northeast North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. Tirana is its capital and largest city followed by Durrs Vlor and Shkodr.Geographically, Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions, defined in an area of . It possesses significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps as well as the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains to the hot and sunny coasts of the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea along the Mediterranean Sea.Historically, Albania has been inhabited by different civilisations over time, such as the Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians and Ottomans. The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbr in the 12th century. The Kingdom of Albania and Principality of Albania formed between the 13th and 14th centuries. Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania in the 15th century, the Albanian resistance to Ottoman expansion into Europe led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim over most of Europe. Albania remained under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries, during which many Albanians attained high-ranking offices in the empire, especially in the Southern Balkans and Egypt. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the Balkan Wars, the modern nation state of Albania declared independence in 1912. In the 20th century, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy which formed Greater Albania before becoming a protectorate of Nazi Germany. Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II, modeled under the terms of Hoxhaism. The Revolutions of 1991 concluded the fall of communism in Albania and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania.Politically, Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a developing country with an upper-middle income economy dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from centralized planning to a market-based economy. Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO, NATO, WTO, COE, OSCE, and OIC. It is an official candidate for membership in the European Union. It is one of the founding members of the Energy Community, including the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and Union for the Mediterranean.The term Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country. It may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of Albani () recorded by Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer from Alexandria, who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of Albanopolis located northeast of Durrs. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country ' and referred to themselves as '.Nowadays, Albanians call their country "". The words "Shqipri" and "Shqiptar" are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename "Shqipria" and the ethnic demonym "Shqiptar" gradually replaced "Arbria" and "Arbresh" amongst Albanian speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles".Prehistory.The first attested traces of neanderthal presence in the territory of Albania dates back to the middle and upper Paleolithic period and were discovered in Xarr and at Mount Dajt in the adjacent region of Tirana. Archaeological sites from this period include the Kamenica Tumulus, Konispol Cave and Pellumbas Cave.The discovered objects in a cave near Xarr include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. They also demonstrate notable similarities with objects of the equivalent period found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and northwestern Greece.Multiple artifacts from the Iron and Bronze Ages near tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania, which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern Macedonia and Lefkada. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo-European people who spoke a Proto-Greek language. Hence, a part of this historical population later moved to Mycenae around 1600 BC and properly established the Mycenaean civilisation.In ancient times the incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples among them numerous Illyrian tribes Ancient Greeks and Thracians. In view of the Illyrian tribes there is no evidence that these tribes used any collective nomenclature for themselves while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used a common endonym. The endonym "Illyrians" seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe which was the first to come in liaison with the Ancient Greeks resulting in the endonym "Illyrians" to be applied "pars pro toto" to all people of similar language and customs.The territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of the Vjos. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the Bryges while the south was inhabited by the Ancient Greek-speaking tribe of the Chaonians, whose capital was at Phoenice. Other colonies such as Apollonia, Epidamnos and Amantia, were established by Ancient Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC.The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe centered in Montenegro ruled over most of the territory of Albania. Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron the son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well. Following Agrons forces extended their operations further southward to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions.Middle Ages.The Roman Empire was split in 395 upon the death of Theodosius I into an Eastern and Western Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the Barbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the Slavs crossed the Danube and largely absorbed the indigenous Ancient Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the Balkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century.In the 11th century the Great Schism formalised the break of communion between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Church that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of River Shkumbin and established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 under the leadership of Progon of Kruja. The realm was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri.Upon the death of Dhimiter the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem of Kruja. In the 13th century the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state that retained a semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of the Byzantine Empire under the Byzantine Doukai of Epirus or Laskarids of Nicaea.Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, Serbs and Venetians started to take possession over the territory. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianized.Few years after the dissolution of Arbanon, Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from the Despotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from Dyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down to Butrint. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrs. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta. During that time, several Albanian principalities were created, notably the Principality of Albania, Principality of Kastrioti, Lordship of Berat and Principality of Dukagjini. In the first half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania, and the League of Lezh was held under Skanderbeg as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history.Ottoman Empire.With the fall of Constantinople the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into Southeast Europe. They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 and erected their garrisons across Southern Albania in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe particularly to Calabria Naples Ragusa and Sicily whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania.The Albanians, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy taxes among others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the Janissary. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of Islamisation and the rapid construction of mosques which consequently modified the religious picture of Albania.A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the Assembly of Lezh until the Siege of Shkodr under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the Lord of Albania.Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe also among others financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa.When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of Vlor saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets cotton goods mohairs carpets spices and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlor even had business associates throughout Europe.The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, most Catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while Orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century.Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Enjoying this privileged position they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers. Others included members of the prominent Kprl family Zagan Pasha Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. Furthermore two sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III both had mothers of Albanian origin.The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an independent nation. Modern Albanian culture flourished too, especially Albanian literature and arts, and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles.Prior to the rise of nationalism, Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries, and Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. Through literature, Albanians started to make a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future.The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the Russian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Treaty of Berlin. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the League of Prizren.The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the Ottoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defense of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league Committee of the Real Muslims.Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from Vilayet of Scutari. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the Kararname that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia and Herzegovina are willing to defend the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro.Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league under Abdyl Frashri became focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets including Kosovo Shkodr Monastir and Ioannina into an unified vilayet the Albanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops such as the Battle of Novie the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan.Independence.Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912 accompanied with the establishment of the Senate and Government by the Assembly of Vlor on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London. On 29 July 1913 the Treaty of London delineated the borders of the country and its neighbors leaving many Albanians outside Albania predominantly partitioned between Montenegro Serbia and Greece.Headquartered in Vlor, the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrs and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Prmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet.In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land.In February 1914 the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastr by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania Prince Wied appointed their leader Prnk Bib Doda to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914 the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men mostly from Kosovo and northern Mirdita Catholics were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed and he left the country on 3 September 1914.First Republic.Following the end of the government of Fan Noli, the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King Zog I of Albania served as the head of state for a seven-year term. Immediately after, Tirana was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital.The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the country was eventually replaced by another monarchy with a strong support by the fascist regime of Italy however, both maintained close relations until the Italian invasion of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure.In an attempt at social modernisation, the custom of adding ones name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them.After being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943 the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency of the Kingdom of Italy governed by Victor Emmanuel III and his government. In October 1940 Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian invasion of Greece. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the German invasion. In April 1941 territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia a strip of eastern Montenegro the town of Tutin in central Serbia and most of Kosovo.Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government military and law enforcement. Balli Kombtar which had fought against Italy formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led National Liberation Movement of Albania.During the last years of the war the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government which the communists had formed at Berat in October administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as the head of government.By the end of the Second World War, the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mrtur, Dukagjin and Kelmend led by Prek Cali. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 Kelmendi people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border.In the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the Axis Powers, the country became initially a satellite state of the Soviet Union, and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established Peoples Republic of China.During this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a railway system that completely revamped transportation.The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became cooperative, and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country.The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average respectively. The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948 then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals instead taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations with much the same effect.Today a secular state without any official religion, religious freedoms and practices were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the waqfs along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the ulema and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone.After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist religious and antisocialist activity and propaganda. Preaching religion carried a three to ten-year prison sentence.Nonetheless many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later .Fourth Republic.After forty years of communism and isolation as well as the revolutions of 1989 people most notably students became politically active and campaigned against the government that led to the transformation of the existing order. Following the popular support in the first multi-party elections of 1991 the communists retained a stronghold in the parliament until the victory in the general elections of 1992 led by the Democratic Party.Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the International Monetary Fund Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes.The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees.The crisis led both Aleksandr Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police.Contemporary.Following the disintegration of the communist system, Albania focused on an active process of Westernisation with the goal of accession to the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation . In 2009, the country, together with Croatia, gained active membership in NATO, becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to do so. It also applied to join the European Union on 28 April 2009, receiving official candidate status on 24 June 2014.Between 2013 and 2017, Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections. As Prime Minister, he implemented numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy, as well as democratising state institutions, including the countrys history.On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with the epicenter positioned southwest of the town of Mamurras. The tremor was felt in Tirana and in places as far away as Taranto, Italy, and Belgrade, Serbia, while the most affected areas were the coastal city of Durrs and Kodr-Thuman. Response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid, designed to help the Albanian people, from the Albanian diaspora and several countries around the world.On 9 March 2020 the coronavirus disease 2019 was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June 2020 the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. The country's COVID-19 vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021 however as of 11 August 2021 the total number of vaccines administered so far in Albania amounts to 1280239 doses.On 27 April 2021 during the 2021 parliamentary elections the ruling Socialist Party led by Edi Rama secured its third consecutive victory winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone.Albania has an area of and is located on the Balkan Peninsula in South and Southeast Europe. Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and the Ionian Sea to the southwest along the Mediterranean Sea. Albania lies between latitudes 42° and 39° N and longitudes 21° and 19° E. Its northernmost point is Vrmosh at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude the southernmost is Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude the westernmost point is Sazan at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude and the easternmost point is Vrnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude. The highest point is Mount Korab at above the Adriatic the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at . The distance from the east to west is and from the north to south about .For a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest and the Skanderbeg Mountains in the centre.Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The Lake of Shkodr is the largest lake in Southern Europe and located in northwest. In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the Large and Small Lake of Prespa which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country measured from its mouth to its source is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters the Black and White Drin. Of particular concern is the Vjos which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe.The climate in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Defined by the Kppen classification, it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from mediterranean and subtropical in the western half to oceanic, continental and subarctic in the eastern half of Albania.The warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the northern and eastern highlands. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter to in summer. The highest temperature of was recorded in Kuov on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of was registered in the village of Shtyll, Librazhd on 9 January 2017.Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about . The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographical location. The northwestern and southeastern highlands receive the intenser amount of precipitation whilst the northeastern and southwestern highlands as well as the Western Lowlands the more limited amount.The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe receiving at least of rain annually. An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country particularly on the mountains in the north and east including the Albanian Alps and Korab Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the Ceraunian Mountains where it can lie even beyond March.Biodiversity.A biodiversity hotspot, Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of its geographical location at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and the great diversity in its climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most endangered species of the country, the lynx and brown bear, as well as the wildcat, gray wolf, red fox, golden jackal, egyptian vulture and golden eagle, the latter constituting the national animal of the country.The estuaries wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo pygmy cormorant and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country the dalmatian pelican. Of particular importance are the mediterranean monk seal loggerhead sea turtle and green sea turtle that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores.In terms of phytogeography, Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom and stretches specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal and Mediterranean Region. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm namely within the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests.Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a Mediterranean and Eurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of fir, oak, beech and pine.Protected areas.The protected areas of Albania are areas designated and managed by the Albanian government. There are 15 national parks, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated national parks scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous two-thousanders, Valbon Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory of within the rugged Albanian Alps in northern Albania. Shebenik-Jabllanic National Park and Prespa National Park protect the mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the Great and Small Lakes of Prespa.Divjak-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the Mediterranean Sea, the Lagoon of Karavasta. The Ceraunian Mountains in southern Albania, rising immediately along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, characterises the topographical picture of Llogara National Park and continue on the Peninsula of Karaburun within the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park. Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that is surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and Channel of Vivari on the eastern half of the Straits of Corfu. Dajti National Park is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana.Environmental issues.Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution climate change waste management biodiversity loss and nature conservation. Climate change is predicted to have serious effects on the living conditions in Albania. The country is recognised as vulnerable to climate change impacts ranked 80 among 181 countries in the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index of 2019. Factors that account for the country's vulnerability to climate change risks include geological and hydrological hazards including earthquakes flooding fires landslides torrential rains river and coastal erosion.As a party to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement Albania is committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45% and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 which along with national policies will help to mitigate the impacts of the climate change. The country has a moderate and improving performance in the Environmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2020.Albania's ranking has however decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012. In 2019, Albania had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77 from 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries.Governance.Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign state whose politics operate under a framework laid out in the constitution wherein the president functions as the head of state and the prime minister as the head of government. The sovereignty is vested in the Albanian people and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly.The government is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the legislative, judiciary and executive. The legislative power is held by the parliament and is elected every four years by a system of party-list proportional representation by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic suffrage by secret ballot.The civil law, codified and based on the Napoleonic Code, is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The judicial power is vested in the supreme court, constitutional court, appeal court and administrative court. Law enforcement in the country is primarily the responsibility of the Albanian Police, the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control.The executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the commander-in-chief of the military and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the confidence of the parliament and is elected for a five-year term by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister appointed by the president and approved by the parliament is authorized to constitute the cabinet. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers.Foreign relations.In the time since the end of communism and isolationism, Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs, developing and establishing friendly relations with other countries around the world. The country's foreign policy priorities are its accession into the European Union , the international recognition of Kosovo and the expulsion of Cham Albanians, as well as helping and protecting the rights of the Albanians in Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Greece, Serbia, Italy and the Diaspora.Albania's admission into the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was considered by Albanian politicians to be a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy. The country has been extensively engaged with the NATO and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and the European Union (EU) in the region of the Balkans. Albania maintains strong ties with the United States ever after it supported the Albania's independence and democracy. Nowadays, both countries have signed a number of agreements and treaties. In 2007, Albania welcomed George W. Bush who became the first President of the United States ever to visit the country.Albania and Kosovo are culturally socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population in Kosovo. In 1998 the country contributed in supporting allied efforts to end the humanitarian tragedy in Kosovo and secure the peace after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.Albania has been an active member of the United Nations since 1955. They country took on membership for the United Nations Economic and Social Council from 2005 to 2007 as well as in 2012. It served as vice president of the ECOSOC in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania is a full member of numerous international organisations inclusively the Council of Europe, International Organisation for Migration, World Health Organization, Union for the Mediterranean, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and La Francophonie.The Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and constitute the military and paramilitary forces of the country. They are led by a commander-in-chief under the supervision of the Ministry of Defence and by the President as the supreme commander during wartime however, in times of peace its powers are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister.The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the sovereignty and the territorial integrity of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. Military service is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty.Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in Georgia where it sent 3 military observers. Since February 2008 Albania has participated officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008 and it became a full member on 2 April 2009.Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65000 in 1988 to 14500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China such as tanks and SAM systems. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. Military spending has generally been low. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.Administrative divisions.Albania is defined within a territorial area of in the Balkan Peninsula. The country is divided into three regions, the Northern, Central and Southern Region, which consist of a number of counties and municipalities . The highest level of administrative divisions are the twelve constituent counties, all with the same status. They are further subdivided into 61 municipalities with each of them being responsible for geographical, economic, social and cultural purposes inside the counties.The counties were created on 31 July 2000 to replace the 36 former districts. The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015 whereby municipalities were reduced to 61 while the rurals were abolished. The defunct municipalities are known as neighborhoods or villages. There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country formerly known as localities. The municipalities are the first level of local governance responsible for local needs and law enforcement.The largest county in Albania, by population, is Tirana County with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is Gjirokastr County with over 70,000 people. The largest in the county, by area, is Kor County encompassing of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is Durrs County with an area of in the west of Albania.The transition from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist mixed economy in Albania has been largely successful. The country has a developing mixed economy classified by the World Bank as an upper-middle income economy. In 2016, it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The lek is the country's currency and is pegged at approximately 132,51 lek per euro.The cities of Tirana and Durrs constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest companies are the petroleum Tai Oil Albpetrol ARMO and Kastrati the mineral AlbChrome the cement Antea the investment BALFIN Group and the technology Albtelecom Vodafone Telekom Albania and others.In 2012 Albania's GDP per capita stood at 30% of the European Union average while GDP per capita was 35%. Albania was one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the global financial crisis. The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to "Forbes" the Gross Domestic Product was growing at 2.8%. The country had a trade balance of −9.7% and unemployment rate of 14.7%. The Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The economy is expected to expand in the near term driven by a recovery in consumption and robust investments. Growth is projected to be 3.2% in 2016 3.5% in 2017 and 3.8% in 2018.Primary sector.Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the economy of Albania. It employs 41% of the population and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the European Union farmers are being aided through IPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards.Albania produces significant amounts of fruits , vegetables , sugar beets, tobacco, meat, honey, dairy products, traditional medicine and aromatic plants. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian. The countrys fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels and crustaceans.Albania has one of Europes region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. During the communist era, the production area expanded to some .Secondary sector.The secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from electronics, manufacturing, textiles, to food, cement, mining, and energy. The Antea Cement plant in Fush-Kruj is considered one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula after Romania, and the largest oil reserves in Europe. The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the European Union (EU) in Albania. According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) , the textile production marked an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros.Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world's leading chromium producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel and coal. The Batra mine, Bulqiz mine, and Thekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation.Tertiary sector.The tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the countrys GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the banking industry is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to privatization and the commendable monetary policy.Previously one of the most isolated and controlled countries in the world, telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector. It developed largely through privatisation and subsequent investment by both domestic and foreign investors. Eagle, Vodafone and Telekom Albania are the leading telecommunications service providers in the country.Tourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well.The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, Lonely Planet named as a top travel destination, while The New York Times placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014.The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in the west of the country. However, the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches, and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast. Its coastline has a considerable length of . The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the Mediterranean. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the Albanian Alps, Ceraunian Mountains and Korab Mountains but also the historical cities of Berat, Durrs, Gjirokastr, Sarand, Shkodr and Kor.Transportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and entities such as the Albanian Road Authority , responsible for the construction and maintenance of the highways and motorways in Albania, as well as the Albanian Aviation Authority , with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country.The international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway to the country and is also the principal hub for Albania's national flag carrier airline Air Albania. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around Europe Africa and Asia. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in Sarand Gjirokastr and Vlor.The highways and motorways in Albania are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The Autostrada 1 (A1) represents an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway of the country. It will prospectively link Durrs on the Adriatic Sea across Pristina in Kosovo with the Pan-European Corridor X in Serbia. The Autostrada 2 (A2) is part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor as well as the Pan-European Corridor VIII and connects Fier with Vlor. The Autostrada 3 (A3) is currently under construction and will connect, after its completion, Tirana and Elbasan with the Pan-European Corridor VIII. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated of highway linking it with all of its neighboring countries.Durrs is the busiest and largest seaport in the country, followed by Vlor, Shngjin and Sarand. , it is as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic Sea with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with numerous islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece and Italy.The rail network is administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare which was extensively promoted by the dictator Enver Hoxha. There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. However, a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrs is currently planned. The specific location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, merely makes it an important economic development project.Infrastructure.In the country, education is secular, free, compulsory and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October, and ending in June or July. Albanian serves as the primary language of instruction in all academic institutions across the country. The study of a first foreign language is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools. The languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. The country has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 98.7%, with 99.2% for males and 98.3% for females.Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively. Pupils are required to attend school from the age of six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools with specialising in any particular field including arts, sports, languages, sciences or technology.The country's tertiary education, an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education, has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of the Bologna Process. There is a significant number of private and public institutions of higher education well dispersed in the major cities of Albania. Studies in tertiary education are organized at three successive levels which include the bachelor, master and doctorate.The constitution of Albania guarantees equal free and universal health care for all its citizens. The health care system of the country is currently organised in three levels among others primary secondary and tertiary healthcare and is in a process of modernisation and development. The life expectancy at birth in Albania is at 77.8 years and ranks 37th in the world outperforming several developed countries. The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and ranks as well 37th in the world. The country's infant mortality rate is estimated at 12 per 1000 live births in 2015. In 2000 the country had the 55th best healthcare performance in the world as defined by the World Health Organization.Cardiovascular disease remain the principal cause of death in the country accounting 52% of total deaths. Accidents injuries malignant and respiratory diseases are other primary causes of death. Neuropsychiatric disease has also increased due to recent demographic social and economic changes in the country.In 2009, the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth highest supply in Europe. In comparison to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity probably thanks to the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. According to World Health Organization data from 2016, 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically overweight, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 25 or more.Due to its geographical location and natural resources, Albania has a wide variety of energy resources ranging from gas, oil and coal, to wind, solar and water as well as other renewable sources. Currently, the electricity generation sector of Albania is dependent on hydroelectricity simultaneously ranking fifth in the world in percentage terms. The Drin, located in the north, hosts four hydroelectric power stations, including Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejs. Two other power stations, such as the Banj and Moglic, are located along the Devoll in the south.Albania has considerably large deposits of oil. It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe and the 58th in the world. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Myzeqe Plain within the Western Lowlands, where the country's largest reserve is located. Patos-Marinza, also located within the area, is the largest onshore oil field in Europe.After the completion of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) Albania will be significantly connected to the planned Southern Gas Corridor that will transport natural gas from the Caspian Sea through Albania to Europe. Withal the TAP runs for across Albania's territory before entering the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast approximately northwest of Fier. In 2009 the company Enel announced plans to build an 800 MW coal-fired power plant in the country to diversify electricity sources.The water resources of Albania are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and comprise lakes, rivers, springs and groundwater aquifers. The country's available average quantity of fresh water is estimated at per inhabitant per year, which is one of the highest rates in Europe. According to the data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access to improved sanitation.Technology.After the fall of communism in 1991, human resources in sciences and technology in Albania have drastically decreased. As of various reports, during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania. In 2009, the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015. It aims to triple public spending on research and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of GDE from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of the European Union, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Albania was ranked 83rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020.Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania. Vodafone Albania Telekom Albania and Albtelecom are the three large providers of mobile and internet in Albania. As of the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority in 2018 the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers. Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931000 mobile users Telekom Albania had about 605000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272000 users.Demography.As defined by the Institute of Statistics , the population of Albania was estimated in 2020 at 2,845,955. The country's total fertility rate of 1.51 children born per woman is one of the lowest in the world. Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years; 75.8 years for males and 81.4 years for females. The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans and ranks as the 137th most populous country in the world. The country's population rose steadily from 2.5 million in 1979 until 1989, when it peaked at 3.1 million. It is forecast that the population will continue shrinking for the next decade at least, depending on the actual birth rate and the level of net migration.The explanation for the recent population decrease is the fall of communism in Albania in the late twentieth century. That period was marked by economic mass emigration from Albania to Greece Italy and the United States. Four decades of total isolation from the world combined with its disastrous economic social and political situation had caused this exodus. The external migration was prohibited outright during the communist era while internal migration was quite limited hence this was a new phenomenon. At least 900000 people left Albania during this period with about 600000 of them settling in Greece. The migration affected the country's internal population distribution. It decreased particularly in the north and south while it increased in the center within the cities of Tirana and Durrs.About 53.4% of the country's population lives in cities. The three largest counties by population account for half of the total population. Almost 30% of the total population is found in Tirana County followed by Fier County with 11% and Durrs County with 10%. Over 1 million people are concentrated in Tirana and Durrs, making it the largest urban area in Albania. Tirana is one of largest cities in the Balkan Peninsula and ranks seventh with a population about 400,000. The second largest city in the country by population is Durrs, with a population of 113,000, followed by Vlor with a population of 104,513.Minorities.Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic and subject to debate. Contrary to official statistics that show an over 97 per cent Albanian majority in the country, minority groups have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. According to the disputed 2011 census, ethnic affiliation was as follows: Albanians 2,312,356 , Greeks 24,243 , Macedonians 5,512 , Montenegrins 366 , Aromanians 8,266 , Romani 8,301 , Balkan Egyptians 3,368 , other ethnicities 2,644 , no declared ethnicity 390,938 , and not relevant 44,144 . On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities stated that .Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities Aromanian Greek Macedonian Montenegrin Serb Roma Egyptian Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples. Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews. Regarding the Greeks "it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania". The estimates vary between 60000 and 300000 ethnic Greeks in Albania. According to Ian Jeffries most of Western sources put the number at around 200000. The 300000 mark is supported by Greek government as well.<ref name="RFE/RL Research Report Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute"></ref> The CIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9% of the total population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17% and other minorities 0.23% of the population. The latter questions the validity of the census data about the Greek minority due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott.Macedonians and some Greek minority groups have sharply criticised Article 20 of the Census law, according to which a $1,000 fine will be imposed on anyone who will declare an ethnicity other than what is stated on his or her birth certificate. This is claimed to be an attempt to intimidate minorities into declaring Albanian ethnicity; according to them the Albanian government has stated that it will jail anyone who does not participate in the census or refuse to declare his or her ethnicity. Genc Pollo, the minister in charge has declared that: . The amendments criticized do not include jailing or forced declaration of ethnicity or religion; only a fine is envisioned which can be overthrown by court.Greek representatives form part of the Albanian parliament and the government has invited Albanian Greeks to register as the only way to improve their status. On the other hand nationalists various organisations and political parties in Albania have expressed their concern that the census might artificially increase the numbers of the Greek minority which might be then exploited by Greece to threaten Albania's territorial integrity.The official language of the country is Albanian which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects Gheg and Tosk though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Also a dialect of Greek that preserves features now lost in standard modern Greek is spoken in areas inhabited by the Greek minority. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian Serbian Macedonian Bosnian Bulgarian Gorani and Roma. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census 2765610 or 98.8% of the population declared Albanian as their mother tongue .In recent years, the shrinking number of pupils in schools dedicated to the Greek minority has caused problems for teachers. The Greek language is spoken by an important percentage in the southern part of the country, due to cultural and economic links with adjacent Greece. In a 2017 study carried out by Instat, the Albanian government statistical agency, 39.9% of the 25–64 years old is able to use at least one foreign language, with English first at 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors.Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, and with two-thirds of mainly Albanian families having at least one member that speaks Greek, most having learned it in the post communist era due to private schools or migration to Greece. Outside of the small designated "minority area" in the south the teaching of Greek was banned during the communist era. As of 2003 Greek was offered at over 100 private tutoring centers all over Albania and at a private school in Tirana, the first of its kind outside Greece.Young people have shown a growing interest in German language in recent years. Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better. Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis. Young people, attracted by economic importance of Turkish investments and common values between the two nations, gain from cultural and academic collaboration of universities.As of the 2011 census, there were 1,587,608 Sunni Muslims, 280,921 Roman Catholics, 188,992 Eastern Orthodox, 58,628 Bektashi Muslims, 3,797 Evangelicals, 1,919 other Christians, 602 of other religions and 153,630 believers without denomination in Albania. 69,995 people were irreligious while 386,024 did not declare their religion. Albania is nevertheless ranked among the least religious countries in the world. Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population. In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God and 40% believed in life after death. However, 40% believed in hell, while 42% believed in heaven.The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to give widely different results with 70% of respondents refusing to declare belief in any of the listed faiths. The Albanian Orthodox Church officially refused to recognize the results claiming that 24% of the total population adhered to its faith. Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data claiming that many Muslims were not counted and that the number of adherents numbered some 70% of the Albanian population. The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on the census complaining that many of its believers were not contacted. The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country. Orthodox and Bektashis are mostly found in the south whereas Catholics mainly live in the north. In 2008 there were 694 Catholic churches and 425 orthodox churches 568 mosques and 70 bektashi tekkes in the country.Albania is a secular and religiously diverse country with no official religion and thus, freedom of religion, belief and conscience are guaranteed under the country's constitution.During classical times, there are thought to have been about seventy Christian families in Durrs, as early as the time of the Apostles. The Archbishopric of Durrs was purportedly founded by Paul the Apostle, while preaching in Illyria and Epirus. Meanwhile, in medieval times, the Albanian people first appeared within historical records from the Byzantines. At this point, they were mostly Christianised. Islam arrived for the first time in the late 9th century to the region, when Arabs raided parts of the eastern banks of the Adriatic Sea. It later emerged as the majority religion, during centuries of Ottoman rule, though a significant Christian minority remained.During modern times, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had an official religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion. The country was then officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom has returned, however, since the end of communism.Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania. Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals and several Protestant communities including Seventh-day Adventist Church, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned to Tirana in 1853, where he preached Protestantism. Due to that, he was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 Albanian Jews left in the country.Albania shares many symbols associated with its history culture and belief. These include the colours red and black animals such as the golden eagle living across the country costumes such as the fustanella plis and opinga which are worn to special events and celebrations plants such as the olive and red poppy growing as well across the country.The flag of Albania is a red flag with a black double-headed eagle positioned in the centre. The red colour used in the flag symbolises the bravery, strength and valour of the Albanian people, while the black colour appears as a symbol of freedom and heroism. The eagle has been used by Albanians since the Middle Ages including the establishment of the Principality of Arbr and by numerous noble ruling families such as the Kastrioti, Muzaka, Thopia and Dukagjini. Gjergj Kastrioti Sknderbeu, who fought and began a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire which halted Ottoman advance into Europe for nearly 25 years, placed the double-headed eagle on his flag and seal.The country's national motto, .The artistic history of Albania has been particularly influenced by a multitude of ancient and medieval people traditions and religions. It covers a broad spectrum with mediums and disciplines that include painting pottery sculpture ceramics and architecture all of them exemplifying a great variety in style and shape in different regions and period.The rise of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empire in the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art in the lands of Albania which are apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout the country. Centuries later, the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. However, Onufri, Kol Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art.The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to the classical antiquity. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings religious and commercial structures with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of various architectural styles. In the 20th century many historical as well as sacred buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during the communist era.Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania and most visible in Byllis, Amantia, Phoenice, Apollonia, Butrint, Antigonia, Shkodr and Durrs. Considering the long period of rule of the Byzantine Empire, they introduced castles, citadels, churches and monasteries with spectacular wealth of visible murals and frescos. Perhaps the best known examples can be found in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of Kor, Berat, Voskopoj and Gjirokastr. Involving the introduction of Ottoman architecture there was a development of mosques and other Islamic buildings, particularly seen in Berat and Gjirokastr.A productive period of Historicism Art Nouveau and Neoclassicism merged into the 19th century best exemplified in Kor. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern Italian style which is present in Tirana such as the Skanderbeg Square and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodr Vlor Sarand and Durrs. Moreover other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences.Socialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Albania after the Second World War. At this period many socialist-styled complexes wide roads and factories were constructed while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished. Notable examples of that style include the Mother Teresa Square Pyramid of Tirana Palace of Congresses and so on.Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These include the ancient remains of Butrint the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastr and Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region site shared with North Macedonia since 2019. Furthermore the royal Illyrian tombs the remains of Apollonia the ancient Amphitheatre of Durrs and the Fortress of Bashtov has been included on the tentative list of Albania.Throughout the centuries Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by Albanian culture geography and history and as such different parts of the country enjoy specific regional cuisines. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south owing to differing topography and climate that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs fruits and vegetables.Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs, and most notably, olives, which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary, and thyme are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, as well as legumes of all types.With a coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian in the Mediterranean Sea, fish, crustaceans, and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise, lamb is the traditional meat for different holidays and religious festivals for both Christians and Muslims, although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply.Tav kosi () is the national dish of Albania, consisting of lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Frges is another national dish, made up of peppers, tomatoes, and cottage cheese. Pite is also popular, a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjiz (curd) or mish (ground meat).Petulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served with powdered sugar or feta cheese and different sorts of fruit jams. Flia consists of multiple crpe-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream. Krofne, similar to Berliner doughnuts, are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during cold winter months.Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world. Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafs, bars, or restaurants. aj Mali is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties. Black tea with a slice of lemon and sugar, milk, or honey is also popular.Albanian wine is also common throughout the country and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production and belongs to the Old World of wine producing countries. Its wine is characterized by its sweet taste and traditionally indigenous varieties.The freedom of press and speech and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution of Albania. Albania was ranked 84th on the Press Freedom Index of 2020 compiled by the Reporters Without Borders with its score steadily declining since 2003. Nevertheless in the 2020 report of Freedom in the World the Freedom House classified the freedoms of press and speech in Albania as partly free from political interference and manipulation.Radio Televizioni Shqiptar is the national broadcaster corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations in the country. The three major private broadcaster corporations are Top Channel, Televizioni Klan and Vizion Plus whose content are distributed throughout Albania and beyond its territory in Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking territories.Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's declaration of independence. The first movie theater exclusively devoted to showing motion pictures was built in 1912 in Shkodr by an Austrian distribution company with strong efforts by Albanian painter Kol Idromeno. The opening of other movie theaters followed by 1920 in Shkodr Berat Tirana and Vlor.During the Peoples Republic of Albania Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration of the Kinostudio Shqipria e Re in Tirana. In 1953 the Albanian-Soviet epic film the Great Warrior Skanderbeg was released chronicling the life and fight of the medieval Albanian hero Skanderbeg. It went on to win the international prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival. In 2003 the Tirana International Film Festival was established the largest film festival in the country. Durrs is host to the Durrs International Film Festival the second largest film festival taking place at the Durrs Amphitheatre.Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overall Albanian music. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northern Gheg varieties, and southern Lab and Tosk varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music.Many songs concern events from Albanian history and culture, including traditional themes of honour, hospitality, treachery, and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians, Neo Muka and Koo akali, in Paris, during their work with Albanian soprano Tefta Tashko-Koo. Several gramophone compilations were recorded at the time by the three artists, which eventually led to the recognition of Albanian iso-polyphony as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.Festivali i Kngs is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster Radio Televizioni Shqiptar . The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including Vae Zela and Parashqevi Simaku. It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public.Contemporary artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Era Istrefi, Dua Lipa, Ava Max, Bleona, Elvana Gjata, Ermonela Jaho, and Inva Mula have achieved international recognition for their music, while soprano Ermonela Jaho has been described by some as the . Albanian opera singer Saimir Pirgu was nominated for the 2017 Grammy Award.Traditional clothing.Every cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of costume that vary in style material color shape detail and form. Presently national costumes are most often worn during special events and celebrations mostly at ethnic festivals religious holidays weddings and by performing dance groups. Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. Clothing was traditionally made mainly from local materials such as leather wool linen hemp fibre and silk Albanian textiles are still embroidered in elaborate ancient patterns.Literature.The Albanian language comprises an independent branch and is a language isolate within the Indo-European family of languages; it is not connected to any other known living language in Europe. Its origin is conclusively unknown, but it is believed to have descended from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language.The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the Catholic region in the northern of Albania, but also of the Orthodox in the south. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric Gjon Buzuku translated the Catholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian what Martin Luther had done for German. Meshari written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century.The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae Archbishop of Antivari who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books although their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include a baptism formula ("Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit") from 1462 written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of Durrs Pal Engjlli a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff a German who had travelled through Albania and a 15th-century fragment of the Bible from the Gospel of Matthew also in Albanian but written in Greek letters.Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who in his book Siege of Shkodr from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis from 1508. The "History of Skanderbeg" is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness.During the 16th and the 17th centuries the catechism from 1592 written by Lek Matrnga from 1618 and 1621 by Pjetr Budi the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry an apology for George Castriot by Frang Bardhi who also published a dictionary and folklore creations the theological-philosophical treaty by Pjetr Bogdani the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages were published in Albanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Ismail Kadare. He has been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature several times.Albania participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games since the games of 1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from 1987 to 2013.Popular sports in Albania include Football weightlifting basketball volleyball tennis swimming rugby union and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the Football Association of Albania ( F.SH.F.) which was created in 1930 and has membership in FIFA and UEFA. Football arrived in Albania early in the 20th century when the inhabitants of the northern city of Shkodr were surprised to see a strange game being played by students at a Christian mission.The Albania national football team, ranking 51st in the World in 2017 have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000, but had never participated in any major UEFA or FIFA tournament, until UEFA Euro 2016, Albanias football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat Romania by 1–0 in a UEFA Euro 2016 match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs in the country are Sknderbeu, KF Tirana, Dinamo Tirana, Partizani and Vllaznia.Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the European Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the World Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in 1972 a gold in 2002 a silver and in 2011 a bronze medal.Historically the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. The Albanian diaspora has been formed since the late Middle Ages when they emigrated to places such as Italy especially in Sicily and Calabria and Greece to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of Albania. Following the fall of communism large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia Canada France Germany Greece Italy Scandinavia Switzerland United Kingdom and the United States. Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of North Macedonia the east of Montenegro Kosovo in its entirety and southern Serbia. In Kosovo Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the country. Altogether the number of ethnic Albanian living abroad its territory is estimated to be higher than the total population inside the territory of Albania. +Allah ( ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from "al-ilh" which means "the god" and is linguistically related to the Hebrew words "El" ("Elohim") "Elah" and the Aramaic word (Alh) for God.The word "Allah" has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times. The origin of the title Allah goes back before Muhammad who found that the Meccans worshipped a supreme deity whom they called Allah. Along with Allah however they also worshipped a host of lesser gods and “daughters of Allah.” Later it has been used as a term for God by Muslims and even Arab Christians after the term "al-ilh" and "Allah" were used interchangeably in Classical Arabic by the majority of Arabs who had become Muslims. It is also often albeit not exclusively used in this way by Bbists Bahs Mandaeans Indonesian and Maltese Christians and Sephardi Jews. Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies.The etymology of the word . The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism.Cognates of the name "Allh" exist in other Semitic languages including Hebrew and Aramaic. The corresponding Aramaic form is "Elah" but its emphatic state is "Elaha" . It is written as in Biblical Aramaic and in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church both meaning simply "God". Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural form "Elohim" but more rarely it also uses the singular form "Eloah" .Pre-Islamic Arabians.Regional variants of the word "Allah" occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. According to the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God who created and controlled the Universe. Pagans believed worship of humans or animals who had lucky events in their life brought them closer to God. In Islam worshipping anyone other than God is considered as the greatest sin. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon. The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion. According to one hypothesis which goes back to Julius Wellhausen Allah was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal over the other gods. However there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities. According to that hypothesis the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca about a century before the time of Muhammad. Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier but nothing precise is known about this use. Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed. Allah is the only god in Mecca that did not have an idol. Muhammad's father's name was meaning "the slave of Allh".Christianity.Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word "Allah" to mean "God". The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for "God" than "Allah", except Jehovah's Witnesses who add the biblical name "Jehovah" () to the title "Allah". Similarly, the Aramaic word for "God" in the language of Assyrian Christians is "lh", or "Alaha". (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta, whose population is almost entirely Catholic, uses "Alla" for "God".) Arab Christians, for example, use the terms ' () for God the Father, ' () for God the Son, and "" () for God the Holy Spirit. (See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God.)Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim ' and also created their own Trinitized ' as early as the 8th century. The Muslim ' reads "In the name of God the Compassionate the Merciful." The Trinitized ' reads "In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit One God." The Syriac Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words "One God" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims.According to Marshall Hodgson, it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba, a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator.Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre-Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el-Jimal in Northern Jordan which initially according to Enno Littman contained references to Allah as the proper name of God. However on a second revision by Bellamy et al. the 5-versed-inscription was re-translated as "This was set up by colleagues of Ulayh son of Ubaydah secretary of the cohort Augusta Secunda Philadelphiana may he go mad who effaces it."The syriac word can be found in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia, as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdomsIn Ibn Ishaq's biography there is a Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, who was martyred in Najran in 523, as he had worn a ring that said "Allah is my lord".In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to 'l-ilah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic. The inscription starts with the statement "By the Help of 'l-ilah".In pre-Islamic Gospels the name used for God was "Allah" as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia. However most recent research in the field of Islamic Studies by Sydney Griffith et al. David D. Grafton Clair Wilde & ML Hjlm et al. assert that "all one can say about the possibility of a pre-Islamic Christian version of the Gospel in Arabic is that no sure sign of its actual existence has yet emerged." Additionally ML Hjlm in her most recent research inserts that "manuscripts containing translations of the gospels are encountered no earlier than the year 873"Irfan Shahd quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes that pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle. According to Shahid on the authority of 10th-century Muslim scholar Al-Marzubani was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia.According to Islamic belief Allah is the most common word to represent God and humble submission to his will divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith. Allah doesn't depend on anything. God is not a part of the Christian Trinity. God has no parents and no children.The concept correlates to the Tawhid, where chapter 112 of the Qur'an (, The Sincerity) reads:"Allah! There is no deity but "Him" the Alive the Eternal.Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh "Him".Unto belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth.Who could intercede in permission? knoweth that which is in front of them and that which is behind them,while they encompass nothing of "His" knowledge except what "He" wills."His" throne includeth the heavens and the earth,and is never weary of preserving them. +In Islamic tradition, there are 99 Names of God , each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Merciful" and "the Compassionate" , including the forementioned above "al-Aad" and "al-Wid" .Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase ' after references to future events. Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of ' . There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims including " " " or sometimes "l ilha ill inta/ huwa"" and "" as a devotional exercise of remembering God .In a Sufi practice known as "dhikr Allah" , the Sufi repeats and contemplates the name "Allah" or other associated divine names to Him while controlling his or her breath. For example, in countless references in the context from the Qur'an forementioned above:1) Allah is referred to in the second person pronoun in Arabic as ""Inta" (Arabic َِْ)" like the English ""You" or commonly in the third person pronoun "Huwa" (Arabic َُ)" like the English ""He" and uniquely in the case pronoun of the oblique form "Hu/ Huw" (Arabic /-ُ)" like the English "Him" which rhythmically resonates and is chanted as considered a sacred sound or echo referring Allah as the "Absolute Breath or Soul of Life" - "Al-Nafs al-Hayyah" (Arabic ّ "an-Nafsu 'l-ayyah") - notably among the 99 names of God "the Giver of Life" ("al-Muy") and "the Bringer of Death" ("al-Mumiyt")2) Allah is neither male or female , but who is the essence of the ;3) Allah is the originator of both before and beyond the cycle of creation, destruction and time, - notably among the 99 names of God, "the First, Beginning-less" , "the End/ Beyond / Endless" and "the Timeless" .According to Gerhard Bwering in contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism God in Islam does not have associates and companions nor is there any kinship between God and jinn. Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind powerful inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God.According to Francis Edward Peters, . Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh, and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites.Pronunciation.The word is generally pronounced exhibiting a heavy lm a velarized alveolar lateral approximant a marginal phoneme in Modern Standard Arabic. Since the initial alef has no hamza the initial is elided when a preceding word ends in a vowel. If the preceding vowel is the lm is light as in for instance the Basmala.As a loanword.English and other European languages.The history of the name seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies.Languages which may not commonly use the term (Arabic: ). This phrase literally means (in the sense of ). The German poet Mahlmann used the form as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey.Some Muslims leave the name "Allh" untranslated in English, rather than using the English translation "God". The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept.Malaysian and Indonesian language.Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use "Allah" to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages . Mainstream Bible translations in the language use "Allah" as the translation of Hebrew "Elohim" . This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century. The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl Justus Heurnius and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 recorded "Allah" as the translation of the Dutch word "". Ruyl also translated the Gospel of Matthew in 1612 into the Malay language (an early Bible translation into a non-European languagemade a year after the publication of the King James Version), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated the Gospel of Mark, published in 1638.The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term "Allah" in any other but Muslim contexts but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law ruling it unconstitutional. While "Allah" had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of "Allah" by the Roman Catholic newspaper "The Herald". The government appealed the court ruling and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the hearing of the appeal. In October 2013 the court ruled in favor of the government's ban. In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia. However the use of "Allah" is not prohibited in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years. Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia.In reaction to some media criticism the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution" to avoid confusion and misleading information. The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20-point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah.Typography.The word ' is always written without an to spell the ' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using ' to spell '. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic ' is added on top of the ' to indicate the pronunciation.In the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription, God is referred to by the term , that is, alif-lam-alif-lam-ha. This presumably indicates .Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah.Unicode has a code point reserved for ' = U+FDF2 in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block which exists solely for "compatibility with some older legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly" this is discouraged for new text. Instead the word ' should be represented by its individual Arabic letters while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature.The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Symbols range, at code point U+262B . +Algorithms is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal of mathematics covering design analysis and experiments on algorithms. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2008. The founding editor-in-chief was Kazuo Iwama . From May 2014 to September 2019 the editor-in-chief was Henning Fernau . The current editor-in-chief is Frank Werner .Abstracting and indexing.The journal is abstracted and indexed inJournals with similar scope includeAzerbaijan (, ; ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of the South Caucasus region, and is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia and Turkey to the west, and Iran to the south. Baku is the capital and largest city.The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence from the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in 1918 and became the first secular democratic Muslim-majority state taking its name from the adjacent region of northwestern Iran for political reasons.<ref name="Sochineniya vol II/1"></ref> In 1922 the country was incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan SSR.The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the same year. In September 1991, the ethnic Armenian majority of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region seceded to form the Republic of Artsakh. The region and seven surrounding districts, internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh through negotiations facilitated by the OSCE, became independent with the end of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994.Following the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, the seven districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh were returned to Azerbaijani control.Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic. It is one of six independent Turkic states and an active member of the Turkic Council and the TRKSOY community. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations including the United Nations the Council of Europe the Non-Aligned Movement the OSCE and the NATO PfP program. It is one of the founding members of GUAM the CIS and the OPCW. Azerbaijan is also an observer state of the WTO.The vast majority of the country's population is Muslim but the constitution does not declare an official religion and all major political forces in the country are secularist. Azerbaijan is a developing country and ranks 88th on the Human Development Index. It has a high rate of economic development literacy and a low rate of unemployment. The ruling party the New Azerbaijan Party in power since 1993 has been accused of authoritarian leadership and the deterioration of the country's human rights record including increasing restrictions on civil liberties particularly on press freedom and political repression.According to a modern etymology, the term .The name . On that basis Iran protested the newly adopted country name.During the Soviet rule, the country was also spelled in Latin from the Russian transliteration as "Azerbaydzhan" . The country's name was also spelled in Cyrillic script from 1940 to 1991 as "".The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates back to the late Stone Age and is related to the Guruchay culture of Azykh Cave.Early settlements included the Scythians during the 9th century BC. Following the Scythians Iranian Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras river. The Medes forged a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC which was integrated into the Achaemenid Empire around 550 BC. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of Zoroastrianism.From the Sasanid period to the Safavid period.The Sasanian Empire turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state in 252, while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century. Despite Sassanid rule, Albania remained an entity in the region until the 9th century, while fully subordinate to Sassanid Iran, and retained its monarchy. Despite being one of the chief vassals of the Sasanian emperor, the Albanian king had only a semblance of authority, and the Sasanian marzban held most civil, religious, and military authority.In the first half of the 7th century, Caucasian Albania, as a vassal of the Sasanians, came under nominal Muslim rule due to the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sasanians and Byzantines from Transcaucasia and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after Christian resistance led by King Javanshir, was suppressed in 667. The power vacuum left by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids, Sajids, and Shaddadids. At the beginning of the 11th century, the territory was gradually seized by the waves of Oghuz Turks from Central Asia, who adopted a Turkoman ethnonym at the time. The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the Seljuk Empire, which entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1067.The pre-Turkic population that lived on the territory of modern Azerbaijan spoke several Indo-European and Caucasian languages, among them Armenian and an Iranian language, Old Azeri, which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language, the early precursor of the Azerbaijani language of today. Some linguists have also stated that the Tati dialects of Iranian Azerbaijan and the Republic of Azerbaijan, like those spoken by the Tats, are descended from Old Azeri.Locally, the possessions of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled by Eldiguzids, technically vassals of the Seljuk sultans, but sometimes "de facto" rulers themselves. Under the Seljuks, local poets such as Nizami Ganjavi and Khaqani gave rise to a blossoming of Persian literature on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan.The local dynasty of the Shirvanshahs became a vassal state of Timur's Empire and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh. Following Timur's death two independent and rival states emerged Kara Koyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu. The Shirvanshahs returned maintaining for numerous centuries to come a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals as they had done since 861. In 1501 the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs and gained its possessions. In the course of the next century the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to Shia Islam as they did with the population in what is modern-day Iran. The Safavids allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power under Safavid suzerainty until 1538 when Safavid king Tahmasp I completely deposed them and made the area into the Safavid province of Shirvan. The Sunni Ottomans briefly managed to occupy parts of present-day Azerbaijan as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578–1590 by the early 17th century they were ousted by Safavid Iranian ruler Abbas I . In the wake of the demise of the Safavid Empire Baku and its environs were briefly occupied by the Russians as a consequence of the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723. Despite brief intermissions such as these by Safavid Iran's neighboring rivals the land of what is today Azerbaijan remained under Iranian rule from the earliest advent of the Safavids up to the course of the 19th century.Contemporary history.After the Safavids, the area was ruled by the Iranian Afsharid dynasty. After the death of Nader Shah , many of his former subjects capitalized on the eruption of instability. Numerous self-ruling khanates with various forms of autonomy emerged in the area. The rulers of these khanates were directly related to the ruling dynasties of Iran and were vassals and subjects of the Iranian shah. The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West.Thereafter the area was under the successive rule of the Iranian Zands and Qajars. From the late 18th century Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards its two neighbors and rivals to the south namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Russia now actively tried to gain possession of the Caucasus region which was for the most part in the hands of Iran. In 1804 the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. The militarily superior Russians ended the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 with a victory.Following Qajar Iran's loss in the 1804–1813 war it was forced to concede suzerainty over most of the khanates along with Georgia and Dagestan to the Russian Empire per the Treaty of Gulistan.The area to the north of the river Aras amongst which territory lies the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan was Iranian territory until Russia occupied it in the 19th century. About a decade later in violation of the Gulistan treaty the Russians invaded Irans disintegration subsequently became part of the border between Iran and the Azerbaijan Republic.Qajar Iran was forced to cede its Caucasian territories to Russia in the 19th century which thus included the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic while as a result of that cession the Azerbaijani ethnic group is nowadays parted between two nations Iran and Azerbaijan.Despite the Russian conquest throughout the entire 19th century preoccupation with Iranian culture literature and language remained widespread amongst Shia and Sunni intellectuals in the Russian-held cities of Baku Ganja and Tiflis . Within the same century in post-Iranian Russian-held East Caucasia an Azerbaijani national identity emerged at the end of the 19th century.After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was declared, constituting the present-day republics of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia.It was followed by the March Days massacres that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire. When the republic dissolved in May 1918 the leading Musavat party declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic adopting the name of for the new republic a name that prior to the proclamation of the ADR was solely used to refer to the adjacent northwestern region of contemporary Iran. The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim world. Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men. Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of Baku State University which was the first modern-type university founded in the Muslim East.By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack Baku. Vladimir Lenin said that the invasion was justified as Soviet Russia could not survive without Baku's oil. Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded it, establishing the Azerbaijan SSR on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. Within the ensuing early Soviet period, the Azerbaijani national identity was finally forged.On 13 October 1921 the Soviet republics of Russia Armenia Azerbaijan and Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey known as the Treaty of Kars. The previously independent Republic of Aras would also become the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Azerbaijan SSR by the treaty of Kars. On the other hand Armenia was awarded the region of Zangezur and Turkey agreed to return Gyumri .During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of the Soviet Union, with 80 percent of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front being supplied by Baku. By the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan were awarded orders and medals. Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy dynamo of the USSR. A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in the Second World War from 1941 to 1945. Approximately 681,000 people with over 100,000 of them women, went to the front, while the total population of Azerbaijan was 3.4 million at the time. Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed on the front. More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named Heroes of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijani Major-General Azi Aslanov was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union.Independence.Following the politics of and restored the flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the state flag. As a consequence of the failed coup which occurred in August in Moscow on 18 October 1991 the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991 while the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991. The country now celebrates its Independence Day on 18 October.The early years of independence were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by Armenia. By the end of the hostilities in 1994 Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent of Azerbaijani territory including Nagorno-Karabakh itself. During the war many atrocities were committed including the massacres at Malibeyli and Gushchular the Garadaghly massacre and the Khojaly massacres. Furthermore an estimated 30000 people have been killed and more than a million people have been displaced more than 800000 Azerbaijanis and 300000 Armenians. Four United Nations Security Council Resolutions demand for "the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan." Many Russians and Armenians left and fled Azerbaijan as refugees during the 1990s. According to the 1970 census there were 510000 ethnic Russians and 484000 Armenians in Azerbaijan.Heydar Aliyev, 1993-today.In 1993 democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel Surat Huseynov which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev. In 1994 Surat Huseynov by that time the prime minister attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev but he was arrested and charged with treason. A year later in 1995 another coup was attempted against Aliyev this time by the commander of the OMON special unit Rovshan Javadov. The coup was averted resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan's OMON units. At the same time the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy. In October 1998 Aliyev was reelected for a second term. Despite the much improved economy particularly with the exploitation of the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field Aliyev's presidency was criticized due to suspected election frauds high levels of economic inequality and domestic corruption.Ilham Aliyev, Heydar Aliyev's son, became chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party as well as President of Azerbaijan when his father died in 2003. He was reelected to a third term as president in October 2013. On 27 September 2020, new clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact. Both the armed forces of Azerbaijan and Armenia reported military and civilian casualties. The Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement and the end of the six-week war between Azerbaijan and Armenia was seen as a victory and was widely celebrated in Azerbaijan.Geographically, Azerbaijan is located in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia, straddling Western Asia and Eastern Europe. It lies between latitudes 38° and 42° N, and longitudes 44° and 51° E. The total length of Azerbaijan's land borders is , of which 1,007 kilometers are with Armenia, 756 kilometers with Iran, 480 kilometers with Georgia, 390 kilometers with Russia and 15 kilometers with Turkey. The coastline stretches for , and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is . The territory of Azerbaijan extends from north to south, and from west to east.Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan the Caspian Sea whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. There are also three mountain ranges the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Mountains together covering approximately 40% of the country. The highest peak of Azerbaijan is Mount Bazardz while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea . Nearly half of all the mud volcanoes on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan these volcanoes were also among nominees for the New7Wonders of Nature.The main water sources are surface waters. Only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than in length. All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country. The largest lake is Sarysu , and the longest river is Kur , which is transboundary with Armenia. Azerbaijan has several islands along the Caspian sea, mostly located in the Baku Archipelago.Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991 the Azerbaijani government has taken measures to preserve the environment of Azerbaijan. National protection of the environment accelerated after 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline. Within four years protected areas doubled and now make up eight percent of the country's territory. Since 2001 the government has set up seven large reserves and almost doubled the sector of the budget earmarked for environmental protection.Azerbaijan is home to a wide variety of landscapes. Over half of Azerbaijans terrain consists of plains and lowlands. Hypsometric marks within the Caucasus region vary from about −28 meters at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4466 meters .The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses of Scandinavian anticyclone temperate air masses of Siberian anticyclone and Central Asian anticyclone. Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country. The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north. That leads to the formation of subtropical climate on most foothills and plains of the country. Meanwhile plains and foothills are characterized by high solar radiation rates.9 out of 11 existing climate zones are present in Azerbaijan. Both the absolute minimum temperature and the absolute maximum temperature were observed in Julfa and Ordubad – regions of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lankaran and the minimum in Absheron .Rivers and lakes form the principal part of the water systems of Azerbaijan, they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period. This is particularly evidenced by remnants of ancient rivers found throughout the country. The countrys water systems. In terms of water supply, Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately per year of water per square kilometer. All big water reservoirs are built on Kur. The hydrography of Azerbaijan basically belongs to the Caspian Sea basin.The Kura and Aras are the major rivers in Azerbaijan. They run through the Kura-Aras Lowland. The rivers that directly flow into the Caspian Sea originate mainly from the north-eastern slope of the Major Caucasus and Talysh Mountains and run along the Samur–Devechi and Lankaran lowlands.Yanar Dag, translated as "burning mountain", is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea near Baku, which itself is known as the "land of fire." Flames jet out into the air from a thin, porous sandstone layer. It is a tourist attraction to visitors to the Baku area.Biodiversity.The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments ancient rocks and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on flora and fauna of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century.There are 106 species of mammals, 97 species of fish, 363 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians, and 52 species of reptiles which have been recorded and classified in Azerbaijan. The national animal of Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse, a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse endemic to Azerbaijan. The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper, speed, elegance, and intelligence. It is one of the oldest breeds, with ancestry dating to the ancient world, but today the horse is an endangered species.Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4500 species of higher plants. Due to the unique climate in Azerbaijan the flora is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus. 66 percent of the species growing in the whole Caucasus can be found in Azerbaijan. The country lies within four ecoregions Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests Caucasus mixed forests Eastern Anatolian montane steppe and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe. Azerbaijan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.55/10 ranking it 72nd globally out of 172 countries.Government and politics.The structural formation of Azerbaijan provisions.The Constitution of Azerbaijan states that it is a presidential republic with three branches of power – Executive Legislative and Judicial. The legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The Parliament of Azerbaijan called Milli Majlis consists of 125 deputies elected based on majority vote with a term of 5 years for each elected member. The elections are held every five years on the first Sunday of November. The Parliament is not responsible for the formation of the government but the Constitution requires the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers by Milli Majlis. The New Azerbaijan Party and independents loyal to the ruling government currently hold almost all of the Parliament's 125 seats. During the 2010 Parliamentary election the opposition parties Musavat and Azerbaijani Popular Front Party failed to win a single seat. European observers found numerous irregularities in the run-up to the election and on election day.The executive power is held by the President who is elected for a seven-year term by direct elections and the Prime Minister. The president is authorized to form the Cabinet a collective executive body accountable to both the President and the National Assembly. The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the prime minister his deputies and ministers. The president does not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly but has the right to veto its decisions. To override the presidential veto the parliament must have a majority of 95 votes. The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court Supreme Court and the Economic Court. The president nominates the judges in these courts. The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice report refers to the Azerbaijani justice model on the selection of new judges as best practice reflecting the particular features and the course of development towards ensuring the independence and quality of the judiciary in a new democracy.Azerbaijan's system of governance nominally can be called two-tiered. The top or highest tier of the government is the Executive Power headed by President. The President appoints the Cabinet of Ministers and other high-ranking officials. The Local Executive Authority is merely a continuation of Executive Power. The Provision determines the legal status of local state administration in Azerbaijan on Local Executive Authority () adopted 16 June 1999. In June 2012 the President approved the new Regulation which granted additional powers to Local Executive Authorities strengthening their dominant position in Azerbaijan's local affairs Chapter 9 of the Constitution of the Azerbaijan Republic addresses major issues of local self-government such as the legal status of municipalities types of local self-government bodies their basic powers and relationships to other official entities. The other nominal tier of governance is municipalities () and members of municipalities are elected by a general vote in Municipal elections every five years. Currently there are 1607 municipalities across the country. The Law on Municipal Elections and the Law on the Status of Municipalities were the first to be adopted in the field of local government (2 July 1999). The Law on Municipal Service regulates the activities of municipal employees their rights duties labor conditions and social benefits and outlines the structure of the executive apparatus and the organization of municipal service. The Law on the Status of Municipalities regulates the role and structure of municipal bodies and outlines state guarantees of legal and financial autonomy. The law pays special attention to the adoption and execution of municipal programs concerning social protection social and economic development and the local environment.The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president and he organizes it according to the Constitution. It was established on 10 April 1997. The administrative department is not a part of the president's office but manages the financial technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office.Although Azerbaijan has held several elections since regaining its independence and it has many of the formal institutions of democracy, it remains classified as On 17 March 2016, the President of Azerbaijan signed a decree pardoning more than a dozen of the persons regarded as political prisoners by some NGOs. This decree was welcomed as a positive step by the US State Department. On 16 March 2017 another pardon decree was signed, which led to the release of additional persons regarded as political prisoners.Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized for bribing foreign officials and diplomats to promote its causes abroad and legitimize its elections at home, a practice termed Caviar diplomacy. However, on 6 March 2017, ESISC published a report called , in which it attacked human rights NGOs and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in Azerbaijan.ESISC in that report asserted that the "Caviar Diplomacy" report elaborated by ESI aimed to create a climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war against Azerbaijan and that the network composed of European PMs Armenian officials and some NGOs (Human Rights Watch Amnesty International "Human Rights House Foundation" "Open Dialog European Stability Initiative and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights) was financed by the Soros Foundation. According to Robert Coalson (Radio Free Europe) ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion. Freedom Files Analytical Centre said that "The report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda".Foreign relations.The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland. The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year. The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain on 6 November 1996. Full diplomatic relations including mutual exchanges of missions were first established with Turkey Pakistan the United States Iran and Israel. Azerbaijan has placed a particular emphasis on its "special relationship" with Turkey.Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations. It holds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement and World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly. The term of office began on 19 June 2006. Azerbaijan was first elected as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council in 2011 with the support of 155 countries.Foreign policy priorities of Azerbaijan include, first of all, the restoration of its territorial integrity; elimination of the consequences of occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven other regions of Azerbaijan surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh; integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structure; contribution to international security; cooperation with international organizations; regional cooperation and bilateral relations; strengthening of defense capability; promotion of security by domestic policy means; strengthening of democracy; preservation of ethnic and religious tolerance; scientific, educational, and cultural policy and preservation of moral values; economic and social development; enhancing internal and border security; and migration, energy, and transportation security policy.Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism. Azerbaijan was one of the first countries to offer support after the September 11 attacks. The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo Afghanistan and Iraq. Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program. It also maintains good relations with the European Union and could potentially one day apply for membership.On 1 July 2021 the US Congress advanced legislation that will have an impact on the military aid that Washington has sent to Azerbaijan since 2012. This was due to the fact that the packages to Armenia instead are significantly smaller.The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 when the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918. When Azerbaijan gained independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the Law on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991. The original date of the establishment of the short-lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day in today's Azerbaijan.As of 2021, Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces. There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and 330,00 reserve personnel. The armed forces have three branches: the Land Forces, the Air Forces and the Navy. Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub-groups that can be involved in state defense when needed. These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service, which includes the Coast Guard as well. The Azerbaijan National Guard is a further paramilitary force. It operates as a semi-independent entity of the Special State Protection Service, an agency subordinate to the President.Azerbaijan adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties. Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO in programs such as Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan/pfp and ipa. Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its Peacekeeping Forces in Iraq and another 184 in Afghanistan.The defense budget of Azerbaijan for 2011 was set at US$3.1 billion. In addition to that, $1.36 billion was planned to be used for the needs of the defense industry, which bring up the total military budget to 4.6 billion. Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said on 26 June 2011 that the defence spending reached $3.3 billion that year.Azerbaijan's defense budget for 2013 is $3.7 billion.Azerbaijani defense industry manufactures small arms, artillery systems, tanks, armors and noctovision devices, aviation bombs, UAV'S/unmanned aerial vehicle, various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters.Administrative divisions.Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions; 66 rayons and 77 cities of which 12 are under the direct authority of the republic. Moreover, Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan. The President of Azerbaijan appoints the governors of these units, while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic."Note: The cities under the direct authority of the republic in italics".After gaining independence in 1991, Azerbaijan became a member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Islamic Development Bank, and the Asian Development Bank. The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, commercial banks, and non-banking credit organizations. The National Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank, an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR. The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank, empowered to issue the national currency, the Azerbaijani manat, and to supervise all commercial banks. Two major commercial banks are UniBank and the state-owned International Bank of Azerbaijan, run by Abbas Ibrahimov.Pushed up by spending and demand growth, the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6%. Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29% and 25% respectively against this figure, but price increases in the non-oil industry encouraged inflation. Azerbaijan shows some signs of the so-called because of its fast-growing energy sector, which causes inflation and makes non-energy exports more expensive.In the early 2000s, chronically high inflation was brought under control. This led to the launch of a new currency, the new Azerbaijani manat, on 1 January 2006, to cement the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.In 2008 Azerbaijan was cited as one of the top 10 reformers by the World Bank's Doing Business Report.Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th in the Global Competitiveness Report for 2010–2011, above other CIS countries. By 2012 the GDP of Azerbaijan had increased 20-fold from its 1995 level.According to World Bank's Doing Business report 2019 Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease of doing business rank from 57 to 25. As a result of implementing a record number of reforms mainly involving institutional changes among the 10 top improvers to do business in Azerbaijan became easier such as time and cost to get construction permit reduced significantly process of connecting electricity grid rationalized as well as getting credit simplified.Energy and natural resources.Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas.The history of the oil industry of Azerbaijan dates back to the ancient period. Arabian historian and traveler Ahmed Al-Belaruri discussed the economy of the Absheron peninsula in antiquity mentioning its oil in particular. There are many pipelines in Azerbaijan. The goal of the Southern Gas Corridor which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe is to reduce European Union's dependency on Russian gas.The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony. In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic and 13 oil companies, among them Amoco, BP, ExxonMobil, Lukoil and Equinor. As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development. Meanwhile, the State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure macroeconomic stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and safeguarding of resources for future generations.Access to biocapacity in Azerbaijan is less than world average. In 2016, Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, half the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan contains. As a result, Azerbaijan is running a biocapacity deficit.Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021.Azerbaijan is one of the sponsors of the east-west and north-south energy transport corridors. Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway line will connect the Caspian region with Turkey which is expected to be completed in July 2017. The Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline and Trans-Adriatic Pipeline will deliver natural gas from Azerbaijan's Shah Deniz gas to Turkey and Europe.Azerbaijan extended the agreement on development of ACG until 2050 according to the amended PSA signed on 14 September 2017 by SOCAR and co-ventures .Agriculture.Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural land. At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares of utilized agricultural area. In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m3. Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and subtropical crops, green vegetables, viticulture and wine-making, cotton growing and medicinal plants. In some areas it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and spirits are also important farm products. The Caspian fishing industry concentrates on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga. In 2002 the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships.Some products previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally. Among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD., beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan.Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. The fall of the Soviet Union and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1990s damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination.It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In the recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism. During winter, the Shahdag Mountain Resort offers skiing with state of the art facilities.The government of Azerbaijan has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination as a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy. These activities are regulated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan.There are 63 countries which have a visa-free score.E-visa – for a visit of foreigners of visa-required countries to the Republic of Azerbaijan.According to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 of the World Economic Forum, Azerbaijan holds 84th place.According to a report by the World Travel and Tourism Council, Azerbaijan was among the top ten countries showing the strongest growth in visitor exports between 2010 and 2016, In addition, Azerbaijan placed first among countries with the fastest-developing travel and tourism economies, with strong indicators for inbound international visitor spending last year.Transportation.The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries such as the Silk Road and the south–north corridor highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy. The transport sector in the country includes roads railways aviation and maritime transport.Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774 kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project.In 2002 the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions. In the same year the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. Priorities are upgrading the transport network and improving transportation services to better facilitate the development of other sectors of the economy.The 2012 construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway was meant to improve transportation between Asia and Europe by connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east to the European railway system in the west via Turkey. In 2010 Broad-gauge railways and electrified railways stretched for and respectively. By 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport.Science and technology.In the 21st century a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation in Azerbaijan's science and technology sectors. The government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and innovation. The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable to those from oil production.Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–2008; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years. Azerbaijan was ranked 82nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, up from 84th in 2019.The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies and an operator through its role in Aztelekom are both policy-makers and regulators. Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users. There are four GSM providers: Azercell, , Azerfon , Nakhtel mobile network operators and one CDMA.In the 21st century a number of prominent Azerbaijani geodynamics and geotectonics scientists inspired by the fundamental works of Elchin Khalilov and others designed hundreds of earthquake prediction stations and earthquake-resistant buildings that now constitute the bulk of The Republican Center of Seismic Service.The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into orbit on 7 February 2013 from Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana at orbital positions 46° East. The satellite covers Europe and a significant part of Asia and Africa and serves the transmission of TV and radio broadcasting as well as the Internet. The launching of a satellite into orbit is Azerbaijan's first step in realizing its goal of becoming a nation with its own space industry capable of successfully implementing more projects in the future.Demographics.As of January 2019 52.8% of Azerbaijan's total population of 9981457 is urban with the remaining 47.2% being rural. 50.1% of the total population is female. The sex ratio in the same year was 0.99 males per female.The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85%, compared to 1.09% worldwide. A significant factor restricting population growth is a high level of migration. In 2011 Azerbaijan saw a migration of −1.14/1,000 people.The Azerbaijani diaspora is found in 42 countries and in turn there are many centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan, including the German cultural society "Karelhaus", Slavic cultural center, Azerbaijani-Israeli community, Kurdish cultural center, International Talysh Association, Lezgin national center "Samur", Azerbaijani-Tatar community, Crimean Tatars society, etc.In total, Azerbaijan has 78 cities, 63 city districts, and one special legal status city. 261 urban-type settlements and 4248 villages follow these.The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 population census 91.6% Azerbaijanis 2.0% Lezgins 1.4% Armenians 1.3% Russians 1.3% Talysh 0.6% Avars 0.4% Turks 0.3% Tatars 0.3% Tats 0.2% Ukrainians 0.1% Tsakhurs 0.1% Georgians 0.1% Jews 0.1% Kurds other 0.2%.The official language is Azerbaijani which is a Turkic language. Azerbaijani is spoken by approximately 92% of the population as a mother tongue. Russian and Armenian (only in Nagorno-Karabakh) are also spoken and each are the mother tongue of around 1.5% of the population respectively. There are a dozen other minority languages spoken natively in the country. Avar Budukh Georgian Juhuri Khinalug Kryts Lezgin Rutul Talysh Tat Tsakhur and Udi are all spoken by small minorities. Some of these language communities are very small and their numbers are decreasing. Armenian was the majority language in Nagorno-Karabakh with around 76% in 1989. After the first Nagorno-Karabakh war the population is almost exclusively Armenian at around 95%.Azerbaijan is considered the most secular Muslim-majority country. Around 97% of the population are Muslims. 85% of the Muslims are Shia and 15% Sunni; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion of Shia Muslims of any country in the world. Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups. Under article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom. In a 2006–2008 Gallup poll, only 21% of respondents from Azerbaijan stated that religion is an important part of their daily lives.Of the nation's religious minorities the estimated 280000 Christians are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic . In 2003 there were 250 Roman Catholics. Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include Lutherans Baptists and Molokans. There is also a small Protestant community. Azerbaijan also has an ancient Jewish population with a 2000-year history Jewish organizations estimate that 12000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan which is home to the only Jewish-majority town outside of Israel and the United States. Azerbaijan also is home to members of the Bah Hare Krishna and Jehovah's Witnesses communities as well as adherents of the other religious communities. Some religious communities have been unofficially restricted from religious freedom. A U.S. State Department report on the matter mentions detention of members of certain Muslim and Christian groups and many groups have difficulty registering with the SCWRA.A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained some form of higher education most notably in scientific and technical subjects. In the Soviet era literacy and average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point despite two changes in the standard alphabet from Perso-Arabic script to Latin in the 1920s and from Roman to Cyrillic in the 1930s. According to Soviet data 100 percent of males and females were literate in 1970. According to the United Nations Development Program Report 2009 the literacy rate in Azerbaijan is 99.5 percent.Since independence, one of the first laws that Azerbaijan's Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a modified-Latin alphabet to replace Cyrillic. Other than that the Azerbaijani system has undergone little structural change. Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education and curriculum changes that have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language and have eliminated ideological content. In addition to elementary schools, the education institutions include thousands of preschools, general secondary schools, and vocational schools, including specialized secondary schools and technical schools. Education through the ninth grade is compulsory.The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences; that's why Azerbaijanis are, in many ways, bi-cultural. Today, national traditions are well preserved in the country despite Western influences, including globalized consumer culture. Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture are: music, literature, folk dances and art, cuisine, architecture, cinematography and Novruz Bayram. The latter is derived from the traditional celebration of the New Year in the ancient Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism. Novruz is a family holiday.The profile of Azerbaijan's population consists, as stated above, of Azerbaijanis, as well as other nationalities or ethnic groups, compactly living in various areas of the country. Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi. There are radio broadcasts in Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian and Talysh languages, which are financed from the state budget. Some local radio stations in Balakan and Khachmaz organize broadcasts in Avar and Tat. In Baku several newspapers are published in Russian, Kurdish , Lezgian and Talysh languages. Jewish society "Sokhnut" publishes the newspaper "Aziz".Music and folk dances.Music of Azerbaijan builds on folk traditions that reach back nearly a thousand years. For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge of monody, producing rhythmically diverse melodies. Azerbaijani music has a branchy mode system, where chromatization of major and minor scales is of great importance. Among national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments, eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments. According to "The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians", "in terms of ethnicity, culture and religion the Azerbaijani are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey."Mugham meykhana and ashiq art are among the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan. Mugham is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes. When performing mugham the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music. In contrast to the mugham traditions of Central Asian countries Azerbaijani mugham is more free-form and less rigid it is often compared to the improvised field of jazz. UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003. Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azerbaijani distinctive folk unaccompanied song usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject.Ashiq combines poetry storytelling dance and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art that stands as a symbol of Azerbaijani culture. It is a mystic troubadour or traveling bard who sings and plays the saz. This tradition has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs of ancient Turkic peoples. Ashiqss ashiq art was included in the list of Intangible Cultural Heritage by the UNESCO on 30 September 2009.Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced Azerbaijani pop music, in its various forms, that has been growing in popularity in Azerbaijan, while genres such as rock and hip hop are widely produced and enjoyed. Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music arose with the international popularity of performers like Alim Qasimov, Rashid Behbudov, Vagif Mustafazadeh, Muslim Magomayev, Shovkat Alakbarova and Rubaba Muradova. Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest. Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest. The country's entry gained third place in 2009 and fifth the following year. Ell and Nikki won the first place at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 with the song "Running Scared", entitling Azerbaijan to host the contest in 2012, in Baku. They have qualified for every Grand Final up until the 2018 edition of the contest, entering with X My Heart by singer Aisel.There are dozens of Azerbaijani folk dances. They are performed at formal celebrations and the dancers wear national clothes like the Chokha which is well-preserved within the national dances. Most dances have a very fast rhythm.Literature.Among the medieval authors born within the territorial limits of modern Azerbaijani Republic was Persian poet and philosopher Nizami called Ganjavi after his place of birth Ganja who was the author of the Khamseh composed of five romantic poems including "The Treasure of Mysteries" "Khosrow and Shrn" and "Leyli and Mejnn."The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoglu, who composed a divan consisting of Persian and Turkic ghazals. In Persian ghazals he used his pen-name, while his Turkic ghazals were composed under his own name of Hasanoghlu.Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed in the 14th century based on the various Early Middle Ages dialects of Tabriz and Shirvan. Among the poets of this period were Gazi Burhanaddin, Haqiqi , and Habibi. The end of the 14th century was also the period of starting literary activity of Imadaddin Nasimi, one of the greatest Turkic Hurufi mystical poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries and one of the most prominent early divan masters in Turkic literary history, who also composed poetry in Persian and Arabic. The divan and ghazal styles were further developed by poets Qasem-e Anvar, Fuzuli and Khatai .The was introduced in this period and developed by Shah Ismail and later by his son and successor Shah Tahmasp I.In the span of the 17th and 18th centuries, Fuzuli's unique genres as well Ashik poetry were taken up by prominent poets and writers such as Qovsi of Tabriz, Shah Abbas Sani, , Nishat, Molla Vali Vidadi, Molla Panah Vagif, Amani, Zafar and others. Along with Turks, Turkmens and Uzbeks, Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu , a legendary folk hero. Several documented versions of Koroglu epic remain at the Institute for Manuscripts of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan.Modern literature in Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly while in Iran it is based on the Tabrizi one. The first newspaper in Azerbaijani was published in 1875. In the mid-19th century it was taught in the schools of Baku Ganja Shaki Tbilisi and Yerevan. Since 1845 it was also taught in the University of Saint Petersburg in Russia.Azerbaijanis have a rich and distinctive culture, a major part of which is decorative and applied art. This art form is represented by a wide range of handicrafts, such as chasing, jeweling, engraving in metal, carving in wood, stone, bone, carpet-making, lasing, pattern weaving and printing, and knitting and embroidery. Each of these types of decorative art, evidence of the endowments of the Azerbaijan nation, is very much in favor here. Many interesting facts pertaining to the development of arts and crafts in Azerbaijan were reported by numerous merchants, travelers, and diplomats who had visited these places at different times.The Azerbaijani carpet is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes with a dense texture and a pile or pile-less surface whose patterns are characteristic of Azerbaijan's many carpet-making regions. In November 2010 the Azerbaijani carpet was proclaimed a Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage by UNESCO.Azerbaijan has been since ancient times known as a center of a large variety of crafts. The archeological dig on the territory of Azerbaijan testifies to the well-developed agriculture stock raising metalworking pottery ceramics and carpet-weaving that date as far back as to the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological sites in Dashbulaq Hasansu Zayamchai and Tovuzchai uncovered from the BTC pipeline have revealed early Iron Age artifacts.Azerbaijani carpets can be categorized under several large groups and a multitude of subgroups. Scientific research of the Azerbaijani carpet is connected with the name of Latif Karimov a prominent scientist and artist. It was his classification that related the four large groups of carpets with the four geographical zones of Azerbaijan Guba-Shirvan Ganja-Kazakh Karabakh and Tabriz.The traditional cuisine is famous for an abundance of vegetables and greens used seasonally in the dishes. Fresh herbs, including mint, cilantro (coriander), dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leeks, chives, thyme, marjoram, green onion, and watercress, are very popular and often accompany main dishes on the table. Climatic diversity and fertility of the land are reflected in the national dishes, which are based on fish from the Caspian Sea, local meat (mainly mutton and beef), and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and greens. Saffron-rice plov is the flagship food in Azerbaijan and black tea is the national beverage. Azerbaijanis often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as they have very strong tea culture. Popular traditional dishes include bozbash (lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables), qutab (fried turnover with a filling of greens or minced meat) and dushbara (sort of dumplings of dough filled with ground meat and flavor).Architecture.Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of East and West. Azerbaijani architecture has heavy influences from Persian architecture. Many ancient architectural treasures such as the Maiden Tower and Palace of the Shirvanshahs in the Walled City of Baku survive in modern Azerbaijan. Entries submitted on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list include the Ateshgah of Baku Momine Khatun Mausoleum Hirkan National Park Binagadi asphalt lake Lkbatan Mud Volcano Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve Baku Stage Mountain Caspian Shore Defensive Constructions Ordubad National Reserve and the Palace of Shaki Khans.Among other architectural treasures are Quadrangular Castle in Mardakan, Parigala in Yukhary Chardaglar, a number of bridges spanning the Aras River, and several mausoleums. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, little monumental architecture was created, but distinctive residences were built in Baku and elsewhere. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the Baku subways are noted for their lavish decor.The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architects skyline and promotes its contemporary identity.Visual art.Azerbaijani art includes one of the oldest art objects in the world which were discovered as Gamigaya Petroglyphs in the territory of Ordubad District are dated back to the 1st to 4th centuries BC. About 1500 dislodged and carved rock paintings with images of deer goats bulls dogs snakes birds fantastic beings and people carriages and various symbols were found on basalt rocks. Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer Thor Heyerdahl was convinced that people from the area went to Scandinavia in about 100 AD took their boat building skills with them and transmuted them into the Viking boats in Northern Europe.Over the centuries Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes. Azerbaijani painting is traditionally characterized by a warmth of colour and light as exemplified in the works of Azim Azimzade and Bahruz Kangarli and a preoccupation with religious figures and cultural motifs. Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus for hundreds of years from the Romanesque and Ottoman periods and through the Soviet and Baroque periods the latter two of which saw fruition in Azerbaijan. Other notable artists who fall within these periods include Sattar Bahlulzade Togrul Narimanbekov Tahir Salahov Alakbar Rezaguliyev Mirza Gadim Iravani Mikayil Abdullayev and Boyukagha Mirzazade.The film industry in Azerbaijan dates back to 1898. In fact Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved in cinematography. Therefore it is not surprising that this apparatus soon showed up in Baku – at the start of the 20th century this bay town on the Caspian was producing more than 50 percent of the worlds cinema. This also influenced the creation of Azerbaijani animation.In 1991, after Azerbaijan gained its independence from the Soviet Union, the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held in Baku. In December 2000, the former President of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, signed a decree proclaiming 2 August to be the professional holiday of filmmakers of Azerbaijan. Today Azerbaijani filmmakers are again dealing with issues similar to those faced by cinematographers prior to the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1920. Once again, both choices of content and sponsorship of films are largely left up to the initiative of the filmmaker.Television.There are three state-owned television channels: AzTV, Idman TV and Medeniyyet TV. There is one public channel and 6 private channels: ctimai Television, Space TV, Lider TV, Azad Azerbaijan TV, , and ARB.Human rights in Azerbaijan.The Constitution of Azerbaijan claims to guarantee freedom of speech, but this is denied in practice. After several years of decline in press and media freedom, in 2014, the media environment in Azerbaijan deteriorated rapidly under a governmental campaign to silence any opposition and criticism, even while the country led the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe . Spurious legal charges and impunity in violence against journalists have remained the norm. All foreign broadcasts are banned in the country.According to the 2013 Freedom House Freedom of the Press report Azerbaijan's press freedom status is "not free" and Azerbaijan ranks 177th out of 196 countries.Christianity is officially recognized. All religious communities are required to register to be allowed to meet, under the risk of imprisonment. This registration is often denied. "Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack of religious freedom, since many of the Christians are ethnic Armenian or Russian, rather than Azeri Muslim."Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Voice of America are banned in Azerbaijan. Discrimination against LGBT people in Azerbaijan is widespread.During the last few years, three journalists were killed and several prosecuted in trials described as unfair by international human rights organizations. Azerbaijan had the biggest number of journalists imprisoned in Europe in 2015, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists, and is the 5th most censored country in the world, ahead of Iran and China. Some critical journalists have been arrested for their coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan.A report by an Amnesty International researcher in October 2015 points to ... persecution of political dissent continued. Human rights organizations remained unable to resume their work. At least 18 prisoners of conscience remained in detention at the end of the year. Reprisals against independent journalists and activists persisted both in the country and abroad, while their family members also faced harassment and arrests. International human rights monitors were barred and expelled from the country. Reports of torture and other ill-treatment persisted."The Guardian" reported in April 2017 that "Azerbaijan's ruling elite operated a secret $2.9bn scheme to pay prominent Europeans, buy luxury goods and launder money through a network of opaque British companies ... Leaked data shows that the Azerbaijani leadership, accused of serial human rights abuses, systemic corruption and rigging elections, made more than 16,000 covert payments from 2012 to 2014. Some of this money went to politicians and journalists, as part of an international lobbying operation to deflect criticism of Azerbaijan's president, Ilham Aliyev, and to promote a positive image of his oil-rich country." There was no suggestion that all recipients were aware of the source of the money as it arrived via a disguised route.Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally regarded as Azerbaijan's national sport, in which Azerbaijan won up to fourteen medals, including four golds since joining the International Olympic Committee. Currently, the most popular sports include football and wrestling.Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan, and the Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan with 9,122 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country. The national football team of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance in the international arena compared to the nation football clubs. The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are Neftchi Baku, Qaraba, and Gabala. In 2012, Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage of a European competition, beating APOEL of Cyprus 4–2 on aggregate in the play-off round of the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League. In 2014, Qaraba became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to the group stage of UEFA Europa League. In 2017, after beating Copenhagen 2–2 in the play-off round of the UEFA Champions League, Qaraba became the first Azerbaijani club to reach the Group stage. Futsal is another popular sport in Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan national futsal team reached fourth place in the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship, while domestic club Araz Naxivan clinched bronze medals at the 2009–10 UEFA Futsal Cup and 2013–14 UEFA Futsal Cup. Azerbaijan was the main sponsor of Spanish football club Atltico de Madrid during seasons 2013/2014 and 2014/2015, a partnership that the club described should .Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses of world chess, having hosted many international chess tournaments and competitions and became European Team Chess Championship winners in 2009, 2013 and 2017. Notable chess players from the countrys home of Shamkir Chess a category 22 event and one of the highest rated tournaments of all time.Backgammon also plays a major role in Azerbaijani culture. The game is very popular in Azerbaijan and is widely played among the local public. There are also different variations of backgammon developed and analyzed by Azerbaijani experts.Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League is one of the strongest women leagues in the world. Its women's national team came fourth at the 2005 European Championship. Over the last years, clubs like Rabita Baku and Azerrail Baku achieved great success at European cups. Azerbaijani volleyball players include likes of Valeriya Korotenko, Oksana Parkhomenko, Inessa Korkmaz, Natalya Mammadova and Alla Hasanova.Other Azerbaijani athletes are Namig Abdullayev Toghrul Asgarov Rovshan Bayramov Sharif Sharifov Mariya Stadnik and Farid Mansurov in wrestling Nazim Huseynov Elnur Mammadli Elkhan Mammadov and Rustam Orujov in judo Rafael Aghayev in karate Magomedrasul Majidov and Aghasi Mammadov in boxing Nizami Pashayev in Olympic weightlifting Azad Asgarov in pankration Eduard Mammadov in kickboxing and K-1 fighter Zabit Samedov.Azerbaijan has a Formula One race-track made in June 2012 and the country hosted its first Formula One Grand Prix on 19 June 2016 and the Azerbaijan Grand Prix in 2017 2018 2019 and 2021. Other annual sporting events held in the country are the Baku Cup tennis tournament and the Tour d'Azerbadjan cycling race.Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions since the late 2000s including the 2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship 2012 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup 2011 AIBA World Boxing Championships 2010 European Wrestling Championships 2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships 2014 European Taekwondo Championships 2014 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships and 2016 World Chess Olympiad. On 8 December 2012 Baku was selected to host the 2015 European Games the first to be held in the competition's history. Baku also hosted the fourth Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017 and the 2019 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival and it is also one of the hosts of UEFA Euro 2020 which because of Covid-19 is being held in 2021. +Amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions in doing citizen science, such as by monitoring variable stars, double stars, sunspots, or occultations of stars by the Moon or asteroids, or by discovering transient astronomical events, such as comets, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies.Amateur astronomers do not use the field of astronomy as their primary source of income or support, and usually have no professional degree in astrophysics or advanced academic training in the subject. Most amateurs are hobbyists, while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and may often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Many astronomers have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework; however, since the beginning of the twentieth century, professional astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from amateur astronomy and associated activities.Amateur astronomers typically view the sky at night when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible but others observe during the daytime by viewing the Sun and solar eclipses. Some just look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes or binoculars but more dedicated amateurs often use portable telescopes or telescopes situated in their private or club observatories. Amateurs can also join as members of amateur astronomical societies which can advise educate or guide them towards ways of finding and observing celestial objects. They can also promote the science of astronomy among the general public.Objectives.Collectively amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun the Moon planets stars comets meteor showers and a variety of deep sky objects such as star clusters galaxies and nebulae. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects types of objects or types of events which interest them. One branch of amateur astronomy amateur astrophotography involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including digital cameras DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality CCD cameras.Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from space by Karl Jansky. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example.Common tools.Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the naked eye using binoculars and using a variety of optical telescopes of varying power and quality as well as additional sophisticated equipment such as cameras to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the spectrum. Commercial telescopes are available new and used but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy.Although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider field of view, which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky.Amateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple planispheres through to detailed charts of very specific areas of the night sky. A range of astronomy software is available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena.Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings. Although not professional information or credible it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences.The popularity of imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images and equipment. Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists. A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their nightly observing sessions, using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart.Common techniques.While a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are variations of a few specific techniques.Star hopping.Star hopping is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps to locate known landmark stars, and between them, often with the aid of a finderscope. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars.More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include telescope mounts with which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand .Mobile apps.The advent of mobile applications for use in smartphones has led to the creation of many dedicated apps. These apps allow any user to easily locate celestial objects of interest by simply pointing the smartphone device in that direction in the sky. These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware in the phone, such as GPS location and gyroscope. Useful information about the pointed object like celestial coordinates, the name of the object, its constellation, etc. are provided for a quick reference. Some paid versions give more information. These apps are gradually getting into regular use during observing, for the alignment process of telescopes.Setting circles.Setting circles are angular measurement scales that can be placed on the two main rotation axes of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an . Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescopes analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes digital setting circle computers contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions.To find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer one does not need to look up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource and then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather the object is chosen from the electronic database which causes distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values reach zero indicating that the telescope is properly aligned. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus "zeroed out" the object should be in the eyepiece. Many DSCs like go-to systems can also work in conjunction with laptop sky programs.Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the year, which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the to the exact instant of observation.GoTo telescopes.GOTO telescopes have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on research. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars in order to provide accurate tracking and positioning. However, several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session.Remote-controlled telescopes.With the development of fast Internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a great distance away in a dark location. The observer can image through the telescope using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the Bareket observatory, and there are telescope farms in New Mexico, Australia and Atacama in Chile.Imaging techniques.Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including film DSLR LRGB and CCD astrophotography. Because CCD imagers are linear image processing may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution.Scientific research.Scientific research is most often not the "main" goal for many amateur astronomers unlike professional astronomers. Work of scientific merit is possible however and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this the Astronomical Society of the Pacific annually gives Amateur Achievement Awards for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs.The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the American Association of Variable Star Observers and the British Astronomical Association, exist to help coordinate these contributions.Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars and supernovae helping to track asteroids and observing occultations to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the Moon as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment but still cheap in comparison to professional setups amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories much of which is available over the Internet.In the past and present amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new comets. Recently however funding of projects such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research and Near Earth Asteroid Tracking projects has meant that most comets are now discovered by automated systems long before it is possible for amateurs to see them.There are a large number of amateur astronomical societies around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy. Members range from active observers with their own equipment to who are simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals and activities which may depend on a variety of factors such as geographic spread local circumstances size and membership. For example a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and star parties whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by light pollution and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead. Major national or international societies generally publish their own journal or newsletter and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a scientific conference or convention. They may also have sections devoted to particular topics such as lunar observation or amateur telescope making. +Aikido is a modern Japanese martial art that is split into many different styles, including Iwama Ryu, Iwama Shin Shin Aiki Shuren Kai, Shodokan Aikido, Yoshinkan, Aikikai and Ki Aikido. Aikido is now practiced in around 140 countries. It was originally developed by Morihei Ueshiba, as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy and religious beliefs. Ueshibas philosophy, the primary goal in the practice of aikido is to overcome oneself instead of cultivating violence or aggressiveness. Morihei Ueshiba used the phrase to refer to this principle.Aikido's fundamental principles include: , , , and movements that redirect the opponent's attack momentum. Its curriculum comprises various techniques, primarily throws and joint locks. It also includes a weapons system encompassing the , and .Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Dait-ry Aiki-jjutsu but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the moto-ky religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term .Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido depending partly on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker.Etymology and basic philosophy.The word is formed of three kanjiThe term does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of bud. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word. is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine unite join together meet' examples being and . There is an idea of reciprocity and . is often used to describe a feeling or emotive action as in and it is used to mean energy or force as in and it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things as in . The characters aeteological history can be traced back to the much older Chinese character of that is used extensively in Traditional Chinese medicine and acupunture.The term in Aikido is found in many other Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo and in various non-martial arts such as Japanese calligraphy flower arranging and tea ceremony .Therefore from a purely literal interpretation aikido is the in which the term refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique.Aikido was created by , referred to by some aikido practitioners as . The term "aikido" was coined in the 20th century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.Initial development.Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Dait-ry Aiki-jjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Skaku, the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'y-ry with Tozawa Tokusabur in Tokyo in 1901, Gotha Yagy Shingan-ry under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with in Tanabe in 1911.The art of is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons such as those for the spear short staff and possibly the . Aikido also derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship .Ueshiba moved to Hokkaid in 1912 and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915 His official association with Dait-ry continued until 1937. However during the latter part of that period Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the . At that time Ueshiba referred to his martial art as but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.Religious influences.After Ueshiba left Hokkaid in 1919 he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi the spiritual leader of the moto-ky religion in Ayabe. One of the primary features of moto-ky is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution not only is the receiver unharmed but so is the attacker.In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.International dissemination.Aikido was first introduced to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France, where he demonstrated aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952, who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953. Later that year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for a full year, where he set up several dj. This trip was followed by several subsequent visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by Hiroshi Tada; and Germany in 1965 by Katsuaki Asai. Designated the "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa" by Morihei Ueshiba, Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961. Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dj throughout the world.Proliferation of independent organizations.The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However aikido has developed into many styles most of which were formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students.The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido, begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931, Yoshinkan Aikido, founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955, and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido.After Ueshibas chief instructor Koichi Tohei, in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido, and the organization that governs it, the Ki Society .A final major style evolved from Ueshibas son Hitohiro Saito.Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and are taught throughout the world.The study of is an important component of aikido. The term does not specifically refer to either physical or mental training, as it encompasses both. The kanji for was written in its older form as up until the Japanese governmental writing reforms after World War II, and now is more prevalently seen in its modern form of . This form has the removal of the eight directions denoting the pre and post natal energies of (Chinese – ) also known in the Art of Aikido as "Source energy".The character for is used in everyday Japanese terms such as or . has many meanings including largely follows Ueshiba proficiency in aikido techniques and development ranked separately.In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, beginners learn how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons.Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders flexibility and endurance with less emphasis on strength training. In aikido pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many djs begin each class with , which may include stretching and .Roles of and.Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the or also referred to as who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.Both halves of the technique that of and that of are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. learns to blend with and control attacking energy while learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous off-balance positions in which places them. This of the technique is called . continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities while uses position and timing to keep off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw .refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good involves attention to the technique, the partner, and the immediate environment—it is considered an active part of the process of learning aikido. The method of falling itself is also important, and is a way for the practitioner to receive an aikido technique safely and minimize risk of injury.Initial attacks.Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts attacks with intent are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.Many of the of aikido resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object which indicate its origins in techniques intended for armed combat. Other techniques which explicitly appear to be punches are practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous and that kicks were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan.Some basic strikes include:Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and the direction of the movement of force of a hold than it is for a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon whereupon a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker while they are grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabsBasic techniques.The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Dait-ry Aiki-jjutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles; the following are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.Implementations.Aikido makes use of body movement to blend the movement of with the movement of . For example, an technique consists of movements inward towards , while a technique uses a pivoting motion.Additionally, an technique takes place in front of , whereas an technique takes place to their side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of , and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of , usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture . Techniques where both and are standing are called , techniques where both start off in are called , and techniques performed with standing and sitting are called .From these few basic techniques there are numerous of possible implementations. For example can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance . Specific aikido are typically referred to with the formula for example refers to any technique executed when is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as .are strikes employed during an aikido technique. Some view as attacks against meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance Gozo Shioda described using in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider especially to the face to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques a strike even if it is blocked can startle the target and break their concentration. Additionally the target may also become unbalanced while attempting to avoid a strike which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba who considered them an essential element of technique.Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff , the wooden sword , and the knife . Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques, where either weapon-taking and/or weapon-retention may be taught. Some schools, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time practicing with both and , under the names of , and , respectively.The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword, spear and bayonet movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner.Multiple attackers and.One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called , or . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher-level ranks. exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in training. For instance, an technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.In Shodokan Aikido, differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo .In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of to prevent injury to by employing a speed and force of application that is appropriate with their partner's proficiency in . When injuries occur, they are often the result of a misjudging the ability of to receive the throw or pin.A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes. Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries caused by aggressive in a hazing context have been reported.Mental training.Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the 'enter-and-blend' movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.Uniforms and ranking.Aikido practitioners (commonly called outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" () followed by a series of "degrees" () pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades often simply white and black belts to distinguish and grades although some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. Some djs have an age requirement before students can take the rank exam.The uniform worn for practicing aikido is similar to the training uniform used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick , and thin cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow.Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers known as . In many schools the wear of is reserved for practitioners with ranks or for instructors while others allow all practitioners to wear a regardless of rank.Aikido styles.Aikido styles vary in their intention as due to its holistic nature. The most common differences noted in aikido, when observed externally, relate to the intensity and realism of training. Stanley Pranin has observed that some criticism may stem from weak attacks from , allowing for a conditioned response from , resulting in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners.To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time, but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practicing in a competitive format. Conversely other post-war styles emphasis spiritual development, enlightenment, peace studies, or the study of traditional medicine for health studies.Reasons for the difference and diversity of teachings intention and forms of aikido can be traced to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result strikes to vital points by entering and initiation of techniques by the distinction between and techniques and the use of weapons were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice.Conversely some styles of aikido place less importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of "Aikido Journal"O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts.In other words, aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional or are said to be diverging from what Ueshiba taught, as some critics urge practitioners: transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals of the paradigm that he demonstrated. +Art is a wide range of human activities that involve creative imagination and an aim to express technical proficiency beauty emotional power or conceptual ideas.There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art and ideas have changed over time. The three classical branches of visual art are painting sculpture and architecture. Theatre dance and other performing arts as well as literature music film and other media such as interactive media are included in a broader definition of the arts. Until the 17th century "art" referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century where aesthetic considerations are paramount the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general such as the decorative or applied arts.The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art.In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theorists feel that the typical concept of . However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the "Phaedrus ", and yet in the 'Republic' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In "Ion", Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the "Republic". The dialogue "Ion" suggests that Homer's "Iliad" functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.With regards to the literary art and the musical arts Aristotle considered epic poetry tragedy comedy Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art each varying in imitation by medium object and manner. For example music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy for instance is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character through change or no change and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.The more recent and specific sense of the word work of art.Within this latter sense, the word that are compelled by a personal drive and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret . Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.Often if the skill is being used in a common or practical way people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas such as in politically spiritually or philosophically motivated art to create a sense of beauty to explore the nature of perception for pleasure or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as "mimesis" or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as "the art world" has conferred "the status of candidate for appreciation". Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old."Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality) narrative (storytelling) expression communication of emotion or other qualities. During the Romantic period art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science".A shell engraved by was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them.Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations Ancient Egypt Mesopotamia Persia India China Ancient Greece Rome as well as Inca Maya and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature poise beauty and anatomically correct proportions.In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world and the place of humans in it reflected in the corporeality of the human body and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blakes propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.In "The Origin of the Work of Art", Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and a seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which "that which is" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.Historically art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the Silk Road where Hellenistic Iranian Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a cultural melting pot.Forms, genres, media, and styles.The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form. Art form refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work , such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include visual design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art focusing respectively on form content and context. Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal . Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials techniques and form. Unfortunately there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e. denotations and connotations – while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artists representation of Napoleon as .Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.Skill and craft.Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings thoughts and observations.There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it which facilitates one's thought processes.A common view is that the , particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandts most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's "My Bed" or Damien Hirst's "The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living" follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating "hands-on" works of art.Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is but that it has had many unique different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated and those that are motivated .Non-motivated functions.The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human transcend the individual or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense Art as creativity is something humans must do by their very nature and is therefore beyond utility.Motivated functions.Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change to comment on an aspect of society to convey a specific emotion or mood to address personal psychology to illustrate another discipline to sell a product or simply as a form of communication.The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive as many of them may overlap. For example art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product i.e. the movie or video game.Public access.Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite, though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society.Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe when printmaking began with small woodcuts mostly religious that were often very small and hand-colored and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.In 1661 the city of Basel in Switzerland opened the first public museum of art in the world the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600 and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries.Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories could be hired from shops outside.Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Muse du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However museums do not only provide availability to art but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience as studies found. Thus the museum itself is not only a blunt stage for the presentation of art but plays an active and vital role in the overall perception of art in modern society.Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is In the decades since these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works invitations to exclusive performance art pieces and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s artists and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."Controversies.Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Thodore Gricault's "Raft of the Medusa" , was in part a political commentary on a recent event. douard Manet's "Le Djeuner sur l'Herbe" , was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's "Madame Pierre Gautreau " , caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century.In the 20th century Pablo Picasso's (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's (1981) depicts a female nude hooded detainee strapped to a chair her legs open to reveal her sexual organs surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christs own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art the Realist whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view the Objectivist whereby it is also an absolute value but is dependent on general human experience and the Relativist position whereby it is not an absolute value but depends on and varies with the human experience of different humans.Arrival of Modernism.The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article . Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat abstract painting:After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond "high art" to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity for example Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting sculpting and music but also cooking medicine horsemanship geometry carpentry prophecy and farming etc.New Criticism and the .Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art including the literary arts and the visual arts to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning . At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art whatever its specific form should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art or if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.In 1946 William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy" in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley the words on the page were all that mattered importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant and potentially distracting.In another essay "The Affective Fallacy" which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically one of the leading theorists from this school Stanley Fish was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay "Literature in the Reader".As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that "Intentionalists unlike formalists hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of but terminating on the work of art itself." and its debate.The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy or the "innocent eye debate" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.Classification disputes.Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's "Fountain", the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art." According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the "Daily Mail" criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, "Fountain" , an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International, the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts however like the decorative arts or advertising it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting for example.Value judgment.Somewhat in relation to the above the word "art" is also used to apply judgments of value as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist) or "the art of deception" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered "art" is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience and is necessarily subjective it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also art often depicts terrible images made for social moral or thought-provoking reasons. For example Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction if any is required to define 'art'.The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed the reverse is often true that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality yet they all seem to agree in at least one point once their aesthetic choices are accepted the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the "zeitgeist". Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition that is what it is to be human. By extension it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of artificial intelligence especially in regard to its uses with images necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity.Art and law.An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are strongly based on other works of art.The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The UN UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums archivesart collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: +Agnostida is an order of arthropod which first developed near the end of the Early Cambrian period and thrived during the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from the Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida orders. The last agnostids went extinct in the Late Ordovician.Systematics.The Agnostida are divided into two suborders — Agnostina and Eodiscina — which are then subdivided into a number of families. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning their pygidium is similar in size and shape to their cephalon. Most agnostid species were eyeless.The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a stem group. The challenge to the status has focused on Agnostina partly due to the juveniles of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically from those of adult trilobites suggesting they are not members of the lamellipedian clade of which trilobites are a part. Instead the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans although they lack the proximal endite which defines that group. They are likely the sister taxon to the crustacean stem lineage and as such part of the clade Crustaceomorpha. Other researchers have suggested based on a cladistic analyses of dorsal exoskeletal features that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united and the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order Ptychopariida.Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic or a benthic lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites suggest a benthic mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor which received little or no light and fed on detritus which descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved ostracodan-type lifestyle. The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill-suited for benthic living. Recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly pack-hunting behavior.They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty hyolith conchs, within sponges, worm tubes and under the carapaces of bivalved arthropods, presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food. In the case of the tapering worm tubes "Selkirkia", trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter. +Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion" and occurs in approximately 30% to 40% of pregnancies. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an induced abortion, or less frequently "induced miscarriage". The unmodified word "abortion" generally refers to an induced abortion.When properly done, abortion is one of the safest procedures in medicine, but unsafe abortion is a major cause of maternal death, especially in the developing world, while making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths. It is safer than childbirth, which has a 14 times higher risk of death in the United States.Modern methods use medication or surgery for abortions. The drug mifepristone in combination with prostaglandin appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the first and second trimester of pregnancy. The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a suction device. Birth control such as the pill or intrauterine devices can be used immediately following abortion. When performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term mental or physical problems. In contrast unsafe abortions cause 47000 deaths and 5 million hospital admissions each year. The World Health Organization states that "access to legal safe and comprehensive abortion care including post-abortion care is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health".Around 56 million abortions are performed each year in the world, with about 45% done unsafely. Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008, before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to family planning and birth control increased. , 37% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason. Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed. Abortion rates are similar between countries that ban abortion and countries that allow it.Historically, abortions have been attempted using herbal medicines, sharp tools, forceful massage, or through other traditional methods. Abortion laws and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world. In some areas, abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape, fetal defects, poverty, risk to a woman's health, or incest. There is debate over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion. Those who oppose abortion often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a right to life, and thus equate abortion with murder. Those who support the legality of abortion often argue that it is part of a woman's right to make decisions about her own body. Others favor legal and accessible abortion as a public health measure.Approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide. Over a third are unintended and about a fifth end in induced abortion. Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies. In the United Kingdom 1 to 2% of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The manner selected often depends upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses. Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality regional availability and doctor or a woman's personal preference.Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman to prevent harm to the woman's physical or mental health to terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity or to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy. An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term generally refers to all scheduled surgery whether medically necessary or not.Spontaneous.Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is a . Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages, although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the first trimester. The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is aware of the conception, and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester.The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide.Medical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the antiprogestogen mifepristone (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s.The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with misoprostol up to 10 weeks gestational age, methotrexate in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone. Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone. This regimen is effective in the second trimester. Medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days' gestation.In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks gestation, medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion , especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue. Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94%. If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure.Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in Britain France Switzerland United States and the Nordic countries.Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second-trimester abortions in Canada, most of Europe, China and India, in contrast to the United States where 96% of second-trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation.A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion. Further research is required to determine if self-administered medical abortion is as safe as provider-administered medical abortion, where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion. Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion. Other research gaps that were identified include how to best support women who choose to take the medication home for a self-administered abortion.Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. uses an electric pump. These techniques can both be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later.MVA also known as only when suction aspiration is unavailable.Dilation and evacuation , used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening the cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. Intact dilation and extraction refers to a variant of D&E sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons.Abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy. Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy. Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy. Hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than D&E or induction abortion.First-trimester procedures can generally be performed using local anesthesia while second-trimester methods may require deep sedation or general anesthesia.Labor induction abortion.In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction or where preferred by practitioners an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary. This is sometimes called . This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor-induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries.Only limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction. Unlike D&E, labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor-induced abortion is legally risky in the United States.Other methods.Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine. Among these are: tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium.In 1978 one woman in Colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil.Because the indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause serious—even lethal—side effects such as multiple organ failure such use is not recommended by physicians.Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld.Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called . Such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion is legal and available.The health risks of abortion depend principally upon whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely. The World Health Organization defines unsafe abortions as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities. Legal abortions performed in the developed world are among the safest procedures in medicine. In the United States as of 2012, abortion was estimated to be about 14 times safer for women than childbirth. CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, while the US abortion mortality rate is 0.7 maternal deaths per 100,000 procedures. In the UK, guidelines of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that In Indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion, 4.5 million pregnancies were carried to term, and 14-16 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion.In the US from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a lower mortality rate than plastic surgery, and a similar or lower mortality rate than running a marathon. Five years after seeking abortion services, women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions. The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth. Outpatient abortion is as safe from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it before 63 days.There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation. Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion.Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a primary care office, abortion clinic, or hospital. Complications, which are rare, can include uterine perforation, pelvic infection, and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate. Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in the United States. The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office. Preventive antibiotics are typically given before abortion procedures, as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection; however, antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills. The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a mid-level practitioner.Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar to those after first-trimester abortion and depend somewhat on the method chosen. The risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more . It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies. The studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined although multiple possibilities have been suggested.Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groupsbut lack scientific support. For example, the question of a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer.In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe. Referring to the U.S. historian Linda Gordon states "In fact illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record." According to Rickie SolingerAuthors Jerome Bates and Edward Zawadzki describe the case of an illegal abortionist in the eastern U.S. in the early 20th century who was proud of having successfully completed 13,844 abortions without any fatality.In 1870s New York City the famous abortionist/midwife Madame Restell appears to have lost very few women among her more than 100000 patients—a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time. In 1936 the prominent professor of obstetrics and gynecology Frederick J. Taussig wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the U.S. was thatMental health.Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and mental health problems other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. A report by the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems however they did not use an appropriate control group.Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called , but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States.A long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made the right decision five years after they had an abortion. Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt. Social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later.Unsafe abortion.Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods, especially when it is legally restricted. They may attempt self-induced abortion or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities. This can lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis, hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs.Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in developing countries. Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries. Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all maternal deaths. The World Health Organization believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s. To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services. In response, opponents of abortion point out that abortion bans in no way affect prenatal care for women who choose to carry their fetus to term. The Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health, signed in 2012, notes, A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is legal and available. For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications, with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%. Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as Romania and Nepal. A 2011 study concluded that in the United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state. The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion. In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally. Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, "induced miscarriage", "menstrual regulation", "mini-abortion", and "regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation".Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical mental or socioeconomic criteria. While maternal mortality seldom results from safe abortions unsafe abortions result in 70000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year. Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide though this varies by region. Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women. The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008. Health education access to family planning and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon.There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortionIn many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable. For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error.The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women per year though it was 24 per 1000 women per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year for developing countries. The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008 the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries.On average the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely. The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives according to the Guttmacher Institute providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide.The rate of legal induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year to 30 per 1000 women per year in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% to 30% in the same group though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania whose statistics were deemed incomplete.An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using condoms and three-quarters of those using the birth control pill 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that .The abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years; this is referred to as "total abortion rate" (TAR).Gestational age and method.Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks' gestation, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 10% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1% at more than 21 weeks. 91% of these were classified as having been done by "curettage" , 8% by "medical" means , >1% by "intrauterine instillation" , and 1% by "other" . According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion.The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for <0.2% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 2% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries.Motivation.The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world. Some of the reasons may include an inability to afford a child domestic violence lack of support feeling they are too young and the wish to complete education or advance a career. Additional reasons include not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incestSome abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race, disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward population control . These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sex-selective abortion.Maternal and fetal health.An additional factor is maternal health which was listed as the main reason by about a third of women in 3 of 27 countries and about 7% of women in a further 7 of these 27 countries.In the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in "Roe v. Wade" and "Doe v. Bolton": "ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their "medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother." On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: "The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment."Public opinion shifted in America following television personality Sherri Finkbines life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.The rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for cervical cancer, the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment "cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless neoadjuvant chemotherapy is chosen)". Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection, radiation therapy, or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because lumpectomy is discouraged in favor of modified radical mastectomy unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth.Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of teratogenic effects on the fetus with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40 Gy of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester especially 8 to 15 weeks of development can cause intellectual disability or microcephaly and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in IQ. It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus.The process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. History and religion.Since ancient times abortions have been done using a number of methods including herbal medicines sharp tools with force or through other traditional methods. Induced abortion has a long history and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as ancient China ancient India since its Vedic age ancient Egypt with its Ebers Papyrus and the Roman Empire in the time of Juvenal . One of the earliest known artistic representations of abortion is in a bas relief at Angkor Wat . Found in a series of friezes that represent judgment after death in Hindu and Buddhist culture it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion.Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the Hippocratic Oath forbade Ancient Greek physicians from performing abortions other scholars disagree with this interpretation and state that the medical texts of Hippocratic Corpus contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the Oath. The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion as did Soranus although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work .In Christianity Pope Sixtus V was the first Pope before 1869 to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of pregnancy and his pronouncement of 1588 was reversed three years later by Pope Gregory XIV. Through most of its history the Catholic Church was divided on whether it believed that early abortion was murder and it did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century. Several historians have written that prior to the 19th century most Catholic authors did not regard termination of pregnancy before as an abortion. From 1750 excommunication became the punishment for abortions. Statements made in 1992 in the Catechism of the Catholic Church the codified summary of the Church's teachings opposed abortion.A 2014 Guttmacher survey of US abortion patients found that many reported a religious affiliation—24% were Catholic while 30% were Protestant.A 1995 survey reported that Catholic women are as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy Protestants are less likely to do so and Evangelical Christians are the least likely to do so. Islamic tradition has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus considered by various theologians to be at conception 40 days after conception 120 days after conception or quickening.<ref name=></ref> However abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the Middle East and North Africa.In Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques. Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in anti-abortion movements. In the US, according to some sources, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer. However, other sources maintain that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe.In addition some commentators have written that despite improved medical procedures the period from the 1930s until legalization also saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws and concomitantly an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime.Soviet Russia , Iceland , and Sweden were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion. In 1935, Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed , while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries.Society and culture.Abortion debate.Induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related to value systems. Opinions of abortion may be about fetal rights, governmental authority, and women's rights.In both public and private debate arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. The World Medical Association Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes . Generally the former position argues that a human fetus is a human person with a right to live making abortion morally the same as murder. The latter position argues that a woman has certain reproductive rights especially the right to decide whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term.Modern abortion law.Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws.In jurisdictions where abortion is legal certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a safe legal abortion . These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus often using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of legality or as in the U.S. on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' viability. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion. Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the consent of the fetus' father before aborting the fetus that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including "risks" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China which has ended their one-child policy and now has a two child policy has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy.Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship. In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as Nicaragua, medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies. Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene. This is also a terminology in traditional medicine. In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies. Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves.The organization Women on Waves has been providing education about medical abortions since 1999. The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container, which then travels on rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws. Because the ships are registered in the Netherlands, Dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters. While in port, the organization provides free workshops and education; while in international waters, medical personnel are legally able to prescribe medical abortion drugs and counseling.Sex-selective abortion.Sonography and amniocentesis allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to sex-selective abortion, or the termination of a fetus based on its sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common.Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan South Korea India and China. This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening. In China a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the one-child policy which was enacted in 1979.Many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate conditions also condemned by a PACE resolution in 2011. The World Health Organization and UNICEF along with other United Nations agencies have found that measures to reduce access to abortion are much less effective at reducing sex-selective abortions than measures to reduce gender inequality.Anti-abortion violence.In a number of cases, abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence, including murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, stalking, assault, arson, and bombing. Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism. In the U.S. and Canada, over 8,000 incidents of violence, trespassing, and death threats have been recorded by providers since 1977, including over 200 bombings/arsons and hundreds of assaults. The majority of abortion opponents have not been involved in violent acts.In the United States four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered David Gunn (1993) John Britton (1994) Barnett Slepian (1998) and George Tiller (2009). Also murdered in the U.S. and Australia have been other personnel at abortion clinics including receptionists and security guards such as James Barrett Shannon Lowney Lee Ann Nichols and Robert Sanderson. Woundings (e.g. Garson Romalis) and attempted murders have also taken place in the United States and Canada. Hundreds of bombings arsons acid attacks invasions and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred. Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include Eric Robert Rudolph Scott Roeder Shelley Shannon and Paul Jennings Hill the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider.Legal protection of access to abortion has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal. These laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction vandalism picketing and other actions or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment.Far more common than physical violence is psychological pressure. In 2003 Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a Planned Parenthood facility in Austin. The organizations released the personal information online of those involved with construction sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches. Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera.Non-human examples.Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example in sheep it may be caused by stress or physical exertion such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs. In cows abortion may be caused by contagious disease such as brucellosis or "Campylobacter" but can often be controlled by vaccination. Eating pine needles can also induce abortions in cows.Several plants, including broomweed, skunk cabbage, poison hemlock, and tree tobacco, are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle and in sheep and goats. In horses, a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has lethal white syndrome . Foal embryos that are homozygous for the dominant white gene are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth. In many species of sharks and rays, stress-induced abortions occur frequently on capture.Viral infection can cause abortion in dogs. Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in trap–neuter–return programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born.Female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the Bruce effect.Abortion may also be induced in animals in the context of animal husbandry. For example abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant or that are pregnant with twin foals. Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation although the frequency in the wild has been questioned. Male gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover causing miscarriage. +In law, an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers.Abstract of title.The abstract of title used in real estate transactions is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land a house or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds wills mortgages and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.Patent law.In the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step of an invention. Under United States patent law the abstract may be called "Abstract of the Disclosure".The American Revolutionary War also known as the Revolutionary War or the American War of Independence was initiated by delegates from thirteen American colonies of British America in Congress against Great Britain. The war was fought over the issue of U.S. independence from the British Empire. Engagements took place in North America the Caribbean Sea and in the seas surrounding England the North Sea the Irish Sea and the English Channel.From their founding in the 17th century, British North American colonies were largely left to govern themselves under charters granted by the English Stuart Kings and guaranteed by the English, then the British Parliament. They traded with the Mother Country primarily in Boston, Philadelphia, Charleston, Bermuda, Bahamas, and Jamaica, and with various other colonies and European powers via their Caribbean entrepts.The Stamp Act and Townshend Acts provoked colonial opposition and unrest, leading to the 1770 Boston Massacre and 1773 Boston Tea Party. In spring 1774 when Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by imposing punitive laws (dubbed by the Americans as the ) upon Massachusetts, twelve colonies sent delegates to the First Continental Congress (September 5 – October 26, 1774) to draft a Petition to the King and organize a boycott of British goods. Fighting broke out on 19 April 1775: the British army stationed at Boston was harassed by the Massachusetts militia at Lexington and Concord after destroying colonial Assembly powder stores. In June, the Second Continental Congress appointed George Washington to create a Continental Army and oversee the capture of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776). The Patriots sent the Olive Branch Petition (signed July 8, 1775) to the King and Parliament, both of whom rejected it. In response, they invaded British Quebec but were repulsed. In July 1776, Congress unanimously passed the Declaration of Independence.Hopes of a quick settlement were supported by American sympathizers within Parliament who opposed Lord North's "coercion policy" in the colonies. However after the British were driven out of Boston the new British commander-in-chief General Sir William Howe launched a counter-offensive and captured New York City. After crossing the Delaware Washington engaged and routed Hessian forces at the Battle of Trenton and the British at the Battle of Princeton. After British General Burgoyne surrendered at the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 Howe's 1777–1778 Philadelphia campaign captured that city. Washington retreated to Valley Forge during the winter of 1777–1778 where Prussian allied General von Steuben drilled the largely untrained Continental Army into an organized fighting unit.French Foreign Minister Vergennes saw the war as a way to create an America economically and militarily dependent on France and not Great Britain. Although talks on a formal alliance began in late 1776 they proceeded slowly until the Patriot victory at Saratoga in October 1777. Fears Congress might come to an early settlement with Great Britain resulted in France and the United States signing two treaties in February 1778. The first was a commercial treaty the second a Treaty of Alliance in return for a French guarantee of U.S. independence Congress agreed to join the war against Great Britain and defend the French West Indies. Although Spain refused to join the Franco-American alliance in the 1779 Treaty of Aranjuez they agreed to support France in its global war with Britain hoping to regain losses incurred in 1713.In other fronts in North America, Governor of Spanish Louisiana Bernardo Glvez routed British forces from Louisiana. The Spanish, along with American privateers supplied the 1779 American conquest of Western Quebec . Glvez then expelled British forces from Mobile during the Battle of Fort Charlotte and the siege of Pensacola, cutting off British military aid to their American Indian allies in the interior southeast. Howe's replacement, General Sir Henry Clinton, then mounted a 1778 "Southern strategy" from Charleston. After capturing Savannah, defeats at the Battle of Kings Mountain and the Battle of Cowpens forced Cornwallis to retreat to Yorktown, where his army was besieged by an allied French and American force. An attempt to resupply the garrison was repulsed by the French navy at the Battle of the Chesapeake, and Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781.Although their war with France and Spain continued for another two years the British fight against the U.S. ended with the Battle of Yorktown. The North Ministry was replaced by Lord Rockingham who accepted office on the basis George III agreed to U.S. independence. Preliminary articles were signed in November 1782 and in April 1783 Congress accepted British terms these included independence evacuation of British troops cession of territory up to the Mississippi River and navigation to the sea as well as fishing rights in the Newfoundland Colony. On September 3 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed between Great Britain and the United States then ratified the following spring.Prelude to revolution.The French and Indian War and the wider conflict known as the Seven Years' War ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris which expelled France from North America. At the same time the British rescinded provisions of colonial charters claiming to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific the Mississippi River became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in the Americas with free navigation on it . More American territory changed hands in 1763 than any settlement before or after destabilizing existing alliances and trade networks and leading to conflict between settlers and American Natives.The Proclamation Line of 1763 was intended to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia or south into Florida while separating American Natives and colonials by restricting settlement in the west. Both sides agreed with the principle but disagreed on where to set the border; keeping the peace required garrisons of regular troops along the frontier, and led to disputes with the colonial legislatures over who should bear the expense.Taxation and legislation.Although directly administered by the Crown, acting through a local Governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge costs of the Seven Years' War meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The outcome was a series of disputes as to how these expenses should be paid.The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry began by instructing the Royal Navy to stop the trade of smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act routinely ignored prior to 1763 it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765 the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act.However this did little to end the discontent in 1768 a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies the amount was minor but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans objected to.Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair, then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company, which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act, giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the Act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. Then, in December 1773, The Sons of Liberty protested the Tea Act by disguising themselves as Mohawk natives and dumping 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor. This event would be known as the Boston Tea Party. In response, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, also called the Intolerable Acts by the colonists. While aimed specifically at Massachusetts, many in America and within the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general; it led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, as well as in Parliament and the London press.Break with the British Crown.Over the course of the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their Royal Governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures, variously called Congresses, Conventions, and Conferences, effectively replacing Royal control. With the exception of Georgia, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed the Continental Association; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, this instituted economic sanctions against Britain.While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with the British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries. The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each Assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord which began the war.Political reactions.After the Patriot victory at Concord moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However since it was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms Colonial Secretary Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere he refused to present the petition to the king which was therefore rejected in early September. Although constitutionally correct since George could not oppose his own government it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement.Backed by the Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops. Within a year it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time.However, the use of German mercenaries and Catholics was opposed by many in Parliament and the Protestant-dominated colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, it allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet committed by George III.On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4, which Washington read to his troops in New York City on July 9. At this point, the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and became a civil war. The states as represented in Congress were engaged in a struggle with Britain, but each in turn was split between Patriots and Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists and those who were indifferent. Others calculate the spilt as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations.At the onset of the war, the Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776, it shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while Silas Deane was instrumental in securing French aid in Paris.War breaks out.As the American Revolutionary War unfolded in North America there were two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen states and a smaller but strategically important one west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River and north to the Great Lakes. The full-on military campaigning began in the states north of Maryland and fighting was most frequent and severest there between 1775 and 1778. Patriots achieved several strategic victories in the South the British lost their first army at Saratoga and the French entered the war as an American ally.In the expanded Northern theater and wintering at Valley Forge, General Washington observed British operations coming out of New York at the 1778 Battle of Monmouth. He then closed off British initiatives by a series of raids that contained the British army in New York City. The same year, Spanish-supplied Virginia Colonel George Rogers Clark joined by Francophone settlers and their Indian allies conquered Western Quebec, the US Northwest Territory.Starting in 1779, the British initiated a southern strategy to begin at Savannah, gather Loyalist support, and reoccupy Patriot-controlled territory north to Chesapeake Bay. Initially the British were successful, and the Americans lost an entire army at the siege of Charleston, which caused a severe setback for Patriots in the region. But then British maneuvering north led to a combined American and French force cornering a second British army at Battle of Yorktown, and their surrender effectively ended the Revolutionary War.Early engagements.On April 14 1775 Sir Thomas Gage who was Commander-in-Chief North America from 1763 to 1775 and appointed Governor of Massachusetts in 1774 received orders from Britain to take action against the Patriots. Acting on intelligence Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at Concord by way of Lexington and to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams considered the two principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to commence before midnight on April 19 and surprise the militia while completing their objectives and retreating to Boston before multitudes of patriot militias could respond. However Patriot intelligence which Paul Revere had helped organize learned of Gage's intentions and Revere alerted Captain John Parker commander of the Concord militia. The first action of the war was a brief skirmish at Lexington followed by a full-scale battle during the Battles of Lexington and Concord. After suffering some 300 casualties British troops withdrew to Boston followed by local militia who laid siege to the city.The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Sir Henry Clinton. On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill, a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London to send a large army to suppress the revolt, but instead they replaced him and Howe took command.On June 14, 1775, the Continental Congress officially assumed command of patriot forces in Boston, giving birth to the Continental Army, which now needed a Commander-in-Chief. To lead Patriot forces surrounding Boston, Congressional leader John Adams of Massachusetts nominated Virginia delegate George Washington for commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in June 1775. At this time the delegates were so impressed with Washington that his appointment was considered a done deal. On June 16, John Hancock officially announced that Washington was henceforth "General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies." Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in British combat commands during the French and Indian War. He proceeded to Boston to assume field command of the ongoing siege on July 3. Howe did not engage in a standoff with Washington, and Washington made no plan to assault the city; instead, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights.In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. Under the cover of darkness Washington placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights March 5, threatening Boston and the British ships in the harbor. Howe feared another battle like Bunker Hill, so he evacuated Boston. The British were permitted to withdraw without further casualties on March 17 , and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army south to New York.Beginning in August 1775, American privateers began raiding villages in Nova Scotia, first at Saint John, then Charlottetown and Yarmouth. In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy raided Canso and assaulted Fort Cumberland respectively.British officials in Quebec began negotiating with the Iroquois for their support, while the Americans urged them to maintain neutrality. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec in April 1775.The second American expedition into the former French territory was defeated at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, and after a loose siege the Americans withdrew on May 6, 1776. A failed American counter-attack at Trois-Rivires on June 8 ended their operations in Quebec. However, British pursuit was blocked by American ships on Lake Champlain until they were cleared on October 11 at the Battle of Valcour Island. The American troops were forced to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga, ending the campaign. In November 1776, a Massachusetts-sponsored uprising in Nova Scotia during the Battle of Fort Cumberland was dispersed. The cumulative failures cost the Patriots support in local public opinion, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated the Canadians. The Patriots made no further attempts to invade north.In Virginia Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted to disarm the Assembly's militia as tensions increased although no fighting broke out. He issued a proclamation on November 7 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the Battle of Great Bridge and Dunmore fled to British ships anchored off the nearby port at Norfolk. The Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law. In the last Royal Virginia Assembly session speaker Peyton Randolph did not respond to Lord Dunmore concerning Parliament's Conciliatory Resolution. Negotiations failed in part because Randolph was also president of the first Virginia Conventions of Burgesses and he deferred to the First Continental Congress where he was also President. Dunmore ordered the ship's crews to burn Norfolk on January 1 1776.The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign. Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, but it failed and left the South in Patriot control until 1780.Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas in the British West Indies to secure additional ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed and engaged the British at the Raid of Nassau, but the local militia offered no resistance. The expedition confiscated what supplies they could and sailed for home on March 17. A month later after a brief skirmish at the Battle of Block Island with the Royal Navy frigate , the squadron returned to the base of American naval operations during the Revolution at New London, Connecticut.British New York counter-offensive.After regrouping at Halifax Nova Scotia William Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. He sailed for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30 Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12 1776 Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers which included Nathan Hale became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence and with the aid of Benjamin Tallmadge they launched the six-man Culper spy ring. The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Over the course of the war Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on intelligence operations.Washington split his army into positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights, but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through the night of August 28, General Henry Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin's regiments as a rearguard.General Howe officially met with a delegation from Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference but it failed to conclude peace as the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15 Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kips army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value.Washingtons disorganized army but he was first required to commit 6000 troops to capture Newport Rhode Island to secure the Loyalist port. General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington but Howe ordered him to halt leaving Washington unmolested.The outlook was bleak for the American cause the reduced army had dwindled to fewer than 5000 men and would be reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered morale declined and Congress abandoned Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat especially in New York state.In London news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak and King George III awarded the Order of the Bath to Howe. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one his inexperienced staff misread the military situation and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. In the meantime the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring.Two weeks after Congress withdrew to safer Maryland Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver from Philadelphia on the night of December 25–26 1776. His approach over frozen trails surprised Hessian Colonel Johann Rall. The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton New Jersey and took 900 prisoners. The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale gave new hope to the Patriot cause and dispelled much of the fear of professional Hessian "mercenaries". Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was repulsed at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek in the night of January 2 Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped to convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies.Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 at Morristown New Jersey and he received the Congressional direction to inoculate all Continental troops against smallpox. Although a Forage War between the armies continued until March Howe did not attempt to attack the Americans over the winter of 1776–1777.British northern strategy fails.The 1776 campaign demonstrated regaining New England would be a prolonged affair which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the Hudson River allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776 Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Germain received this on February 23 1777 followed a few days later by a memorandum from Burgoyne then in London on leave.Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany, leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead.Burgoyne set out on June 14 1777 with a mixed force of British regulars German auxiliaries and Canadian militia and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated his troops blocked roads destroyed bridges dammed streams and stripped the area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions on one of these more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6 he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town.Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights, forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Riedesel, surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England.After securing additional supplies Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20 Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26 with the main force of 9000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown. Washington attacked them on October 4 but was repulsed.To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy, commanded by John Hazelwood. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter.On December 19 the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge while Washington victory at Saratoga foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Germantown which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter poor conditions supply problems and low morale resulted in 2000 deaths with another 3000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army he did this by training in each regiment who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away Howe made no effort to attack their camp an action some critics argue could have ended the war.Foreign intervention.Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. Although public opinion favored the American cause, Finance Minister Turgot argued they did not need French help to gain independence and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded Louis XVI to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean.Many Americans opposed a French alliance fearing to "exchange one tyranny for another" but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain Congress had three choices making peace on British terms continuing the struggle on their own or proclaiming independence guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had wide public support Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with France and over 20% of Congressmen voted against it. Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it.Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner while securing the French West Indies from American expansion. These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined. Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence.On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War. Charles III of Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into Louisiana, a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain.Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success in the Treaty of Aranjuez Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain outside America in return for help in recovering Gibraltar Menorca and Spanish Florida. The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims for example the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements' the US would not sign another treaty until the NATO agreement in 1949. This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress.To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence the US representative in Paris Silas Deane promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Although many proved incompetent one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier Marquis de Lafayette whom Congress appointed a major General. In addition to his military ability Lafayette showed considerable political skill in building support for Washington among his officers and within Congress liaising with French army and naval commanders and promoting the Patriot cause in France.When the war started Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America but pro-Patriot sentiment led the States General to refuse. Although the Republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780 a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality formed by Russia Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France.The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests. Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition, a role filled by Prussia in the Seven Years' War; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts.Meanwhile George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France but he believed the British victories over France in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France. Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France on the European continent. Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater and diverted major military resources away from America.Stalemate in the North.At the end of 1777 Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24 1778 with French entry into the war he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. On June 18 the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit the Battle of Monmouth on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties and the Americans held the field at the end of the day. That midnight the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York.A French naval force under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General John Sullivan commanding land forces. The resulting Battle of Rhode Island was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk. Further activity was limited to British raids on Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor in October.In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook. Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General William Tryon to raid Connecticut. In July, a large American naval operation, the Penobscot Expedition, attempted to retake Maine, then part of Massachusetts, but was defeated. Persistent Iroquois raids along the border with Quebec led to the punitive Sullivan Expedition in April 1779, destroying many settlements but failing to stop them.During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor, public support fell away in the long war, the Continental dollar was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the Pennsylvania Line and New Jersey Line regiments over the conditions in early 1780.In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated. A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield, effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. In July, Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact John Andr was captured and later executed. Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed "To the Inhabitants of America"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British.The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. Virginia militia, settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on July 4 then secured Vincennes, though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor Henry Hamilton. In early 1779, the Virginians counterattacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western British Quebec as the American Northwest Territory in the Treaty of Paris concluding the war.On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Glvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba, and on the Virginia county courthouse at Cahokia by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. The scale of violence in the Licking River Valley, such as during the Battle of Blue Licks, was extreme "even for frontier standards". It led to men of English and German settlements to join Clark's militia when the British and their auxiliaries withdrew to the Great Lakes. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success in the Battle of Piqua but did not end Indian raids.French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when Miami natives led by Little Turtle attacked the encamped settlers on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance.War in the South.The was developed by Lord Germain based on input from London-based Loyalists like Joseph Galloway. They argued it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain regardless of who governed it. On the other hand duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions in the south Canada to the north and Ohio on their western border with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic.Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prvost the British commander in East Florida to advance into Georgia in December 1778. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen captured Savannah on December 29 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1100 many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property. Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14 1779 although this was offset by British victory at Brier Creek on March 3.In June Prvost launched an abortive assault on Charleston before retreating to Savannah an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October a joint French and American operation under Admiral ds strategy he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces.Reinforced by Clinton, his troops captured Charleston in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Loyalist regular Banastre Tarleton defeated an American force of 400 at the Battle of Waxhaws; over 120 were killed, many allegedly after surrendering. Responsibility is disputed, Loyalists claiming Tarleton was shot at while negotiating terms of surrender, but it was later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots.Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south despite their success the two men left barely on speaking terms with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war. The Southern strategy depended on local support but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king they were now required to fight their former comrades while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral "grandees" to side with them. Skirmishes at Williamson's Plantation Cedar Springs Rocky Mount and Hanging Rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina.In July Congress appointed General Horatio Gates commander in the south he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on August 16 leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina. Despite battlefield success the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued before moving north Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support. In early October Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region. Despite this Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support while Washington replaced Gates with General Nathanael Greene in December 1780.Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under Daniel Morgan, who defeated Tarleton's British Legion at Cowpens on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force. The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina seeking supplies and reinforcements.The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte on April 15. On June 6, Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta, leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah. The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign.Western campaign.When Spain joined France's war against Britain in 1779 their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. However from the beginning of the war Bernardo de Glvez the Governor of Spanish Louisiana allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into New Orleans then ship them to Pittsburgh. This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast.The trade was organized by Oliver Pollock, a successful merchant in Havana and New Orleans who was appointed US . It also helped support the American campaign in the west; in the 1778 Illinois campaign, militia under General George Rogers Clark cleared the British from what was then part of Quebec, creating Illinois County, Virginia.Despite official neutrality Glvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. First he cleared British garrisons in Louisiana Fort Bute and Natchez Mississippi and captured five forts. In doing so Glvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburg.In 1781 Galvez and Pollock campaigned east along the Gulf Coast to secure West Florida including British-held Mobile and Pensacola. The Spanish operations crippled the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains.British defeat in the United States.Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot. In Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither of them informed Clinton.Washington and Rochambeau now discussed their options the former wanted to attack New York the latter Virginia where Cornwallis' forces were less well-established and thus easier to defeat. Washington eventually gave way and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York. Concerned by this threat he instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base where the Royal Navy could evacuate his troops to help defend New York.When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown, where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation. An agreement by the Spanish navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their co-ordination was planned more carefully. Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. Even worse, expecting to be withdrawn within a few days he abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat.On August 31 a British fleet under Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown. After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30 de Grasse had remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5 although the Battle of the Chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses Graves was forced to retreat leaving Cornwallis isolated. An attempted breakout over the York River at Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather. Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries to Washington to negotiate surrender after twelve hours of negotiations these were finalized the next day. Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis Clinton and Germain. Despite criticism from his junior officers Cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in obscurity.Subsequent to Yorktown American forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between Washington and Clinton made to facilitate British departure following the January 1782 law of Parliament forbidding any further British offensive action in North America. British-American negotiations in Paris led to preliminaries signed November 1782 acknowledging US independence. The enacted Congressional war aim for British withdrawal from its North American claims to be ceded to the US was completed for the coastal cities in stages.In the South, Generals Greene and Wayne loosely invested the withdrawing British at Savanna and Charleston. There they observed the British finally taking off their regulars from Charleston December 14, 1782. Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free blacks, as well as Loyalists with their slaves were transported in a relocation to Nova Scotia and the British Caribbean. Native American allies of the British and some freed blacks were left to escape through the American lines unaided.Washington moved his army to New Windsor on the Hudson River about sixty miles north of New York City and there the substance of the American army was furloughed home with officers at half pay until the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war on September 3 1783. At that time Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washingtons replacement General Sir Guy Carleton.Strategy and commanders.To win their insurrection, the Americans needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight. To restore the empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel the Congress to dissolve itself. Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare, the first being a colonial conflict in which objections to Imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war with all thirteen states split between Patriots, Loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved.The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic and Britain, with America as one of a number of different theaters. After entering the war in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under US command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and by capturing British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico denied bases to the Royal Navy, as well as retaking Menorca and besieging Gibraltar in Europe.Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain declared war in December 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to their economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality formed by Russia Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. While of limited effect these interventions forced the British to divert men and resources away from North America.American strategy.Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned into a protracted war. Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from their mother country that lay six to twelve weeks away by sail. They were spread across most of the North American Atlantic seaboard stretching 1000 miles. Most farms were remote from the seaports and controlling four or five major ports did not give British armies control over the inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems.Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. Together they took away French claims in North America west to the Mississippi River in the French and Indian War. The state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. In the American Revolution they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army each with their own state officer corps. Motivation was also a major asset each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers and the Patriots had more popular support than the Loyalists. British hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting but they fought less than expected.Continental Army.When the war began, Congress lacked a professional army or navy, and each colony only maintained local militias. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations. To compensate for this, Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, the origin of the modern United States Army, and appointed Washington as commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers.Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental Line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as Nathanael Greene, his chief of artillery, Henry Knox, and Alexander Hamilton, the chief of staff. One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer was Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.Washington designed the overall military strategy of the war in cooperation with Congress established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs personally recruited his senior officer corps and kept the states focused on a common goal. For the first three years until after Valley Forge the Continental Army was largely supplemented by local state militias. Initially Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers and officers. Over the course of the entire war Washington lost more battles than he won but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies and never gave up fighting for the American cause.By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics; the British in particular were constrained by the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men, while the combined Franco-American army at Yorktown was only about 19,000. At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militia for the Revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time.As a whole, American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at Boston , Saratoga , and Yorktown were won from trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. Nevertheless, after 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly by Baron von Steuben's training. Immediately after the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to match the British troops in action at the Battle of Monmouth, including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack then counter-charging for the first time in Washington's army. Here Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important in the long run. Washington informed Henry Laurens "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little."Although Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war there was never nearly enough. Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War which included members of the military. Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures Congress also created the post of Secretary of War and appointed Major General Benjamin Lincoln in February 1781 to the position. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army.Continental Navy.During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston. Congress established the Continental Navy on October 13, 1775, and appointed Esek Hopkins as its first commander; for most of the war, it consisted of a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by numerous privateers. On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines, forefather of the United States Marine Corps.John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero by capturing HMS in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to Congress. After Yorktown all US Navy ships were sold or given away it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas.Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. Overall they included 1700 ships that successfully captured 2283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself. About 55000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war.At the beginning of the war, the Americans had no major international allies, as most nation-states watched and waited to see how developments would unfold in British North America. Over time, the Continental Army acquitted itself well in the face of British regulars and their German auxiliaries known to all European great powers. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga, and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown, proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations including France and Spain, and the Dutch Republic; the latter moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them.The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France, who was already a long-time rival of Britain, to offer the Americans the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the US. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither made a formal reply.On June 13 1778 France declared war on Great Britain and it invoked the French military alliance with the US which ensured additional US privateer support for French possessions in the Caribbean. Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America primarily through Lafayette on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781.British strategy.The British military had considerable experience of fighting in North America, most recently during the Seven Years' War which forced France to give up New France in 1763. However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics, as well as support from the colonial militia, which was not available in the American Revolutionary War. Reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived.Prior to the conflict the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. This meant that unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia the seat of Congress New York and Charleston. British power was reliant on the Royal Navy whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However the majority of the American population was agrarian rather than urban supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the Dutch Caribbean their economy was able to survive.The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable one British statesman described it as "like trying to conquer a map". While Ferling argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle Ellis suggests the odds always favored the Americans especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776 an "opportunity that would never come again". The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory "within the realm of possibility".British Army.The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies in 1775 there were only 8500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million. The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined. With the end of the Seven Years' War the permanent army in Britain was also cut back which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later.Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief, the first of whom was Thomas Gage; appointed in 1763, his initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Rightly or wrongly, many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at Bunker Hill. His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America.The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy. However, it allowed the Patriots to take the initiative and British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities. Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as the delay in launching the New York campaign and failure to pursue Washington's beaten army. Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated. In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton, appointed instead of Carleton who was considered overly cautious. Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy, like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues. As a result, he was largely inactive in 1779 and much of 1780; in October 1780, he warned Germain of "fatal consequences" if matters did not improve.In addition Clintons army was still outside New York City. After the surrender at Yorktown Clinton was relieved by Carleton whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah Charleston and New York City.German Troops.During the 18th century, all states commonly hired foreign soldiers, especially Britain; during the Seven Years' War, they comprised 10% of the British army and their use caused little debate. When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ mercenaries. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, an historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments. An alternate source was readily available in the Holy Roman Empire, where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was Hesse-Cassel, known as "the Mercenary State".The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775 over the next decade more than 40000 Germans fought in North America Gibraltar South Africa and India of whom 30000 served in the American War. Often generically referred to as "Hessians" they included men from many other states including Hanover and Brunswick. Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly having seen them in action against the Ottomans however negotiations with Catherine the Great made little progress.Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain France and even Germany where Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war. In March 1776 the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to . The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers which reprinted key speeches and in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves. Provided by British sympathizers these were smuggled into North America from London by George Merchant a recently released American prisoner.The prospect of mercenaries being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence more so than taxation and other acts combined the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects leading to the idea there were now two separate governments. By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless while the employment of became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence. The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German-American immigrants.The presence of over 150,000 German-Americans meant both sides felt these mercenaries might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of "handbills" promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs. Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris. German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties.Revolution as civil war.Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown consequently British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support. Nevertheless they continued to deceive themselves on their level of American support as late as 1780 a year before hostilities ended.Approximately 25000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war. Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the Tidewater region and South Carolina who produced cash crops in tobacco and indigo comparable to global markets in Caribbean sugar.When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars. The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives. The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the Battle of Kings Mountain; the Patriot victory irreversibly crippled any further Loyalist militia capability in the South.When the early war policy was administered by General William Howe, the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods. The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists. After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in 1778 and Westminster turned to "hard war" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs. Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering.A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion—provided some of the best troops in British service that it received a commission in the British Army it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery. It was commanded by Banastre Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for "brutality and needless slaughter". In May 1779 the British Legion was one of five regiments that formed the American Establishment.Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted to do so. For example, throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps, and Frederika Charlotte Riedesel documented the Saratoga campaign. Women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps. They were a necessary part of eighteenth-century armies, and numbered in the thousands during the war.Women also assumed military roles: aside from auxiliary tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp, some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides of the Revolutionary War. Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army and wore men's clothes by the time the Battle of Germantown happened. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and .On April 26 1777 Sybil Ludington rode to alert militia forces of Putnam County New York and Danbury Connecticut to warn them of the British's approach she has been called the "female Paul Revere". A few others disguised themselves as men. Deborah Sampson fought until her gender was discovered and discharged as a result Sally St. Clair was killed in action during the war.African Americans.When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on Southern plantations. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned.The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed on farms to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers, he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape. As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783.Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25000 to 50000 excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30000 slaves in total escapes. In South Carolina nearly 25000 slaves either fled migrated or died which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war.Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in June 1788. Ultimately, around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions in old age; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom.As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in Nova Scotia, where they founded settlements such as Birchtown. White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica and the Bahamas. The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the British West Indies included regular soldiers from Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment, and those from Charleston who helped garrison the Leeward Islands.Native Americans.Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Natives fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes who deployed around 1,500 men.Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of North Carolina. Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, who perpetuated the Cherokee–American wars against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended.Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Native Americans were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.The Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga tribes sided with the British; members of the Mohawks fought on both sides; and many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split.In the western theater of the American Revolutionary War, conflicts between settlers and Native Americans led to lingering distrust. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, but the Indian inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations. Tribes in the Northwest Territory joined as the Western Confederacy and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the Northwest Indian War.Britain's "American war" and peace.Changing Prime Ministers.Lord North Prime Minister since 1770 delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich who was head of the Royal Navy from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778 and French declaration of war in June. With Spain also expected to join the conflict the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe Germain advocated the former Sandwich the latter.British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to Congress. The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body suspend any objectionable legislation surrender its right to local colonial taxation and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned British debts honored and locally enforced martial law accepted. However Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these bringing negotiations to a rapid end.When the commissioners returned to London in November 1778, they recommended a change in policy. Sir Henry Clinton, the new British Commander-in-Chief in America, was ordered to stop treating the rebels as enemies, rather than subjects whose loyalty might be regained. Those standing orders would be in effect for three years until Clinton was relieved.North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south but after the defeat of Yorktown he was forced to accept the fact that this policy had failed. It was clear the war was lost although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade. The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war while France was unable to provide further loans Congress could no longer pay its soldiers.On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes. North now resigned, obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to US independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the new government took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by Lord Shelburne who acknowledged American independence.American Congress signs a peace.When Lord Rockingham, the Whig leader and friend of the American cause was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. All were experienced in Congressional leadership. The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also an Enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of European great powers in Prussia, England's former ally, and Austria, a Catholic empire like Spain. Since the 1760s he had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. John Adams of Massachusetts had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. John Jay of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, Henry Laurens of South Carolina had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. He had been a successor to John Jay as president of Congress and with Franklin was a member of the American Philosophical Society. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty.The Whig negotiators for Lord Rockingham and his successor Prime Minister Lord Shelburne included long-time friend of Benjamin Franklin from his time in London David Hartley and Richard Oswald who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London. The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands independence territory up to the Mississippi navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico and fishing rights in Newfoundland.British strategy was to strengthen the US sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America and they had little interest in these proposals. However divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position starting with the American delegation in September 1782. The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain thus reversing the losses of 1763. Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans France proposed setting the western boundary of the US along the Appalachians matching the British 1763 Proclamation Line. The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin but required the cession of Georgia in violation of the Franco-American alliance.Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed. Key agreements for America in obtaining peace included recognition of United States independence, that she would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada; the granting of fishing rights in the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; the United States and Great Britain were to each be given perpetual access to the Mississippi River.An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence; the . Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring. On 25 November, the last British troops remaining in the US were evacuated from New York to Halifax.Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as "little short of a standing miracle". The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. The last uniformed British troops departed their last east coast port cities in Savannah, Charleston, and New York City, by November 25, 1783. That marked the end of British occupation in the new United States.On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, General Carleton issued a similar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to evacuate until a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect.As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed , when they would be automatically discharged. The US armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on Monday, June 2, 1783. Once the conclusive Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief at Congress, leaving for his Army retirement at Mount Vernon.The expanse of territory that was now the United States was ceded from its colonial Mother country alone. It included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes Line between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years of the Revolutionary War. Virginia's Kentucky County counted 150 men in 1775. By 1790 fifteen years later it numbered over 73000 and was seeking statehood in the United States.Britain's extended post-war policy for the US continued to try to establish an Indian buffer state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the War of 1812. The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so American Indian tribes that had been British allies for the most part. Though British forts on their lands had been ceded to either the French or the British prior to the creation of the United States, Natives were not referred to in the British cession to the US.While tribes were not consulted by the British for the treaty, in practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War , including erecting an additional British Fort Miami . British sponsorship of local warfare on the United States continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty went into effect. At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the US by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans.Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created United States, Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it. Its territory adjacent to the US was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida. It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans. Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to Southwestern Natives to resist American settlement. A former Continental Army General, James Wilkinson settled in Kentucky County Virginia in 1784, and there he fostered settler secession from Virginia during the Spanish-allied Chickamauga Cherokee war. Beginning in 1787, he received pay as Spanish Agent 13, and subsequently expanded his efforts to persuade American settlers west of the Appalachians to secede from the United States, first in the Washington administration, and later again in the Jefferson administration.Casualties and losses.The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782 a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America killing an estimated 130000 among all its populations during those years. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.Up to 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States. The Spanish lost a total of 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida.A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6046 in North America . Approximately 7774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4888 deserters of the former it is estimated 1800 were killed in combat.The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties and set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, and the constitutions of other free countries often bear a striking resemblance to the US Constitution, often word-for-word in places. It inspired the French, Haitian, Latin American Revolutions, and others into the modern era.Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality it did little to change the status of women despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war. While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some yet denying it to others the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780 many of the states banned the importation of slaves but the institution itself continued.In 1782 Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10000 slaves were given their freedom. With support from Benjamin Franklin in 1790 the Quakers petitioned Congress to abolish slavery the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it. However even many like Adams who viewed slavery as a 'foul contagion' opposed the 1790 petition as a threat to the Union. In 1808 Jefferson passed legislation banning the importation of slaves but allowed the domestic slave trade to continue arguing the federal government had no right to regulate individual states.Historiography.A large historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted and successfully broke away. The . Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united all 13 colonies. In turn that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and opposed aristocratic control. In Britain itself republicanism was a fringe view since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies and instead the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections which were open to the majority of white men. In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches.The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context including revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire.The approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages.The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts.Commemorations of the Revolutionary War.After the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849 the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events of the Revolutionary War. However it would be more than 140 years after the Revolution before any stamp commemorating that war was ever issued. The first such stamp was the 'Liberty Bell' issue of 1926.Bibliography.Further reading.These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.Primary sources.In addition to this selection many primary sources are available at the Princeton University Law School Avalon Project and at the Library of Congress Digital Collections . Original editions for titles related to the American Revolutionary War can be found open-sourced online at Internet Archive and Hathi Trust Digital Library. +The ampere often shortened to amp is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units . It is named after Andr-Marie Ampre French mathematician and physicist considered the father of electromagnetism along with the Danish physicist Hans Christian rsted.The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The earlier CGS system had two different definitions of current, one essentially the same as the SI's and the other using electric charge as the base unit, with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second. In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second.New definitions in terms of invariant constants of nature specifically the elementary charge took effect on 20 May 2019.Definition.The ampere is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge to be 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C which is equal to A⋅s where the second is defined in terms of the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom.The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, . Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:In general, charge is determined by steady current flowing for a time as .Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes and the charge accumulated over a period of time is expressed in coulombs . The relation of the ampere to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt to the joule.The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician Andr-Marie Ampre , who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics. In recognition of Ampre's contributions to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current.The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit now known as the abampere was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.The was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is .Since power is defined as the product of current and voltage the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter a device that can measure electrical voltage current and resistance.Former definition in the SI.Until 2019 the SI defined the ampere as followsThe ampere is that constant current which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular cross-section and placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length.Ampre's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere.The SI unit of charge the coulomb was then defined as . Conversely a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per secondIn general, charge was determined by steady current flowing for a time as .Realisation.The standard ampere is most accurately realised using a Kibble balance, but is in practice maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10 and involve realisations of the watt the ohm and the volt. +In mathematics and computer science an algorithm is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations data processing automated reasoning automated decision-making and other tasks. In contrast a heuristic is an approach to problem solving that may not be fully specified or may not guarantee correct or optimal results especially in problem domains where there is no well-defined correct or optimal result.As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time, and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. Starting from an initial state and initial input , the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.The concept of algorithm has existed since antiquity. Arithmetic algorithms such as a division algorithm were used by ancient Babylonian mathematicians c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians c. 1550 BC. Greek mathematicians later used algorithms in 240 BC in the sieve of Eratosthenes for finding prime numbers and the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers. Arabic mathematicians such as al-Kindi in the 9th century used cryptographic algorithms for code-breaking based on frequency analysis.The word "algorithm" is derived from the name of the 9th-century Persian mathematician Muammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm whose nisba was Latinized "as Algoritmi ."Muammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm was a mathematician astronomer geographer and scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad whose name means 'the native of Khwarazm' a region that was part of Greater Iran and is now in Uzbekistan. About 825 al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system which was translated into Latin during the 12th century. The manuscript starts with the phrase "Dixit Algorizmi" where "Algorizmi" was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name. Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe in the late Middle Ages primarily through another of his books the Algebra. In late medieval Latin "algorismus" English 'algorism' the corruption of his name simply meant the "decimal number system". In the 15th century under the influence of the Greek word 'number' the Latin word was altered to "algorithmus" and the corresponding English term 'algorithm' is first attested in the 17th century the modern sense was introduced in the 19th century.In English it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391. English adopted the French term but it was not until the late 19th century that took on the meaning that it has in modern English.Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled composed by Alexandre de Villedieu. It begins with:which translates to:The poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new styled Indian dice or Hindu numerals.A partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithm began with attempts to solve the . Those formalizations included the Gdel–Herbrand–Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Churchs Turing machines of 1936–37 and 1939.Informal definition.An informal definition could be "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations", which would include all computer programs , and any prescribed bureaucratic procedureor cook-book recipe.In general a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually—even though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable.A prototypical example of an algorithm is the Euclidean algorithm which is used to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers an example is described by the flowchart above and as an example in a later section.offer an informal meaning of the word in the following quotationNo human being can write fast enough or long enough or small enough† to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names one after another in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets They can give An "enumerably infinite set" is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers. Thus Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that "creates" output integers from an "arbitrary" "input" integer or integers that, in theory, can be arbitrarily large. For example, an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as "y = m + n" , but various authors' attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this, something on the order of :The concept of "algorithm" is also used to define the notion of decidability—a notion that is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related to the customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of "algorithm" that suits both concrete and abstract usage of the term.Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network , in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device.Formalization.Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data. Many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should perform—in a specific order—to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Authors who assert this thesis include Minsky , Savage and Gurevich :Minsky "But we will also maintain with Turing … that any procedure which could "naturally" be called effective can in fact be realized by a machine. Although this may seem extreme the arguments … in its favor are hard to refute".Gurevich .Turing machines can define computational processes that do not terminate. The informal definitions of algorithms generally require that the algorithm always terminates. This requirement renders the task of deciding whether a formal procedure is an algorithm impossible in the general case—due to a major theorem of computability theory known as the halting problem.Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from an input source, written to an output device and stored for further processing. Stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures.For some of these computational processes, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. This means that any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear .Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation is always crucial to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting "from the top" and going "down to the bottom"—an idea that is described more formally by "flow of control".So far, the discussion on the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming. This is the most common conception—one which attempts to describe a task in discrete, "mechanical" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation, which sets the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of "memory" as a scratchpad. An example of such an assignment can be found below.For some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see functional programming and logic programming.Expressing algorithms.Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation including natural languages pseudocode flowcharts drakon-charts programming languages or control tables . Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode flowcharts drakon-charts and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in the statements based on natural language. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer but are also often used as a way to define or document algorithms.There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given Turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (see finite-state machine, state transition table and control table for more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), or as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called (see Turing machine for more).Representations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine description, as follows:For an example of the simple algorithm "Add m+n" described in all three levels, see Algorithm#Examples.Algorithm design refers to a method or a mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories of operation research, such as dynamic programming and divide-and-conquer. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns, with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern.One of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource efficiency the big O notation is used to describe e.g. an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases.Typical steps in the development of algorithmsComputer algorithms.In computer systems an algorithm is basically an instance of logic written in software by software developers to be effective for the intended "target" computer to produce "output" from given "input". An optimal algorithm even running in old hardware would produce faster results than a non-optimal algorithm for the same purpose running in more efficient hardware that is why algorithms like computer hardware are considered technology.""Elegant" programs "good" programs " The notion of "simplicity and elegance" appears informally in Knuth and precisely in ChaitinChaitin prefaces his definition with: "I'll show you can't prove that a program is 'elegant—such a proof would solve the Halting problem .Unfortunately there may be a tradeoff between goodness (speed) and elegance (compactness)—an elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant. An example that uses Euclid's algorithm appears below. relative to the capability of the agent.Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's ; thereafter the instruction IF Z=0 THEN GOTO xxx is unconditional. execute. Stone gives an example of this when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computor must know how to take a square root. If they don't then the algorithm to be effective must provide a set of rules for extracting a square root.This means that the programmer must know a "language" that is effective relative to the target computing agent (computer/computor).But what model should be used for the simulation? Van Emde Boas observes instruction available rather than just subtraction .. Tausworthe augments the three Bhm-Jacopini canonical structures SEQUENCE IF-THEN-ELSE and WHILE-DO with two more DO-WHILE and CASE. An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction. in rectangles but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. The symbols and their use to build the canonical structures are shown in the diagram.Algorithm example.One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description in English prose, as:"High-level description" +Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code:Input A list of numbers "L".Output: The largest number in the list "L".if "L.size" = 0 return nullfor each , doEuclid's algorithm.In mathematics, the Euclidean algorithm, or Euclid's algorithm, is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor of two integers , the largest number that divides them both without a remainder. It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, who first described it in his . It is one of the oldest algorithms in common use. It can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form, and is a part of many other number-theoretic and cryptographic calculations.Euclid poses the problem thus: successively ( times) along longer length , the integer-fractional part left over after the division.For Euclid's method to succeed, the starting lengths must satisfy two requirements: (i) the lengths must not be zero, AND (ii) the subtraction must be "proper"; i.e., a test must guarantee that the smaller of the two numbers is subtracted from the larger (or the two can be equal so their subtraction yields zero).Euclid algorithm.Computer language for Euclid's algorithm.Only a few instruction are required to execute Euclid's algorithm—some logical tests unconditional GOTO assignment and subtraction.An inelegant program for Euclid's algorithm.The following algorithm is framed as Knuth, but, rather than using division to find the remainder, it uses successive subtractions of the shorter length . The high-level description, shown in boldface, is adapted from Knuth 1973:2–4:[Into two locations L and S put the numbers that represent the two lengths]E0 [Ensure .]IF R > S THENthe contents of L is the larger number so skip over the exchange-steps 4, 5 and 6:GOTO step 7swap the contents of R and S.E1: : Until the remaining length "r" in R is less than the shorter length "s" in S, repeatedly subtract the measuring number "s" in S from the remaining length "r" in R.IF S > R THENdone measuring someasure again,E2 EITHER the last measure was exact the remainder in R is zero and the program can halt OR the algorithm must continue the last measure left a remainder in R less than measuring number in S.IF R = 0 THENGOTO step 15CONTINUE TO step 11,E3 The nut of Euclid's algorithm. Use remainder "r" to measure what was previously smaller number "s" L serves as a temporary location. +HALT END STOP.An elegant program for Euclid's algorithm.The flowchart of can be found at the top of this article. In the (unstructured) Basic language, the steps are numbered, and the instruction LET [] = [] is the assignment instruction symbolized by ←.5 REM Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor6 PRINT "Type two integers greater than 0"10 INPUT AB20 IF B=0 THEN GOTO 8030 IF A > B THEN GOTO 6040 LET B=B-A60 LET A=A-B"How "Elegant" works" In place of an outer "Euclid loop" "Elegant" shifts back and forth between two "co-loops" an A > B loop that computes A ← A − B and a B ≤ A loop that computes B ← B − A. This works because when at last the minuend M is less than or equal to the subtrahend S the minuend can become "s" and the subtrahend can become the new "r" in other words the "sense" of the subtraction reverses.The following version can be used with programming languages from the C-family:// Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisorint euclidAlgorithm {while A=A-B;Testing the Euclid algorithms.Does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do? A few test cases usually give some confidence in the core functionality. But tests are not enough. For test cases, one source uses 3009 and 884. Knuth suggested 40902, 24140. Another interesting case is the two relatively prime numbers 14157 and 5950.But "exceptional cases" must be identified and tested. Will "Inelegant" perform properly when R > S, S > R, R = S? Ditto for "Elegant": B > A, A > B, A = B? . What happens when one number is zero, both numbers are zero? What happens if "negative" numbers are entered? Fractional numbers? If the input numbers, i.e. the domain of the function computed by the algorithm/program, is to include only positive integers including zero, then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm is a partial function rather than a total function. A notable failure due to exceptions is the Ariane 5 Flight 501 rocket failure .. Tausworthe proposes that a measure of the complexity of a program be the length of its correctness proof.Measuring and improving the Euclid algorithms. test that is needed only after the remainder is computed.—that is, it computes the function intended by its author—then the question becomes, can it be improved?The compactness of , at nine steps.The speed of computes the example-numbers faster whether this is always the case for any given A B and R S would require a detailed analysis.Algorithmic analysis.It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource is theoretically required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers ; for example, an algorithm which adds up the elements of a list of "n" numbers would have a time requirement of "O", using big O notation. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the sum of all the elements so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore, it is said to have a space requirement of "O", if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or "O" if it is counted.Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time space or 'effort' than others. For example a binary search algorithm (with cost "O") outperforms a sequential search (cost "O" ) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays.Formal versus empirical.The analysis and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or implementation. In this sense algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However ultimately most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code. For the solution of a "one off" problem the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences but for algorithms designed for fast interactive commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign.Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance. Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization.Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are not trivial to perform in a fair manner.Execution efficiency.To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms a recent significant innovation relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing) can decrease processing time up to 1000 times for applications like medical imaging. In general speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem which are very common in practical applications. Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power.Classification.There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.By implementation.One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means.By design paradigm.Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms each different from the other. Furthermore each of these categories includes many different types of algorithms. Some common paradigms areOptimization problems.For optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following:By field of study.Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are search algorithms sorting algorithms merge algorithms numerical algorithms graph algorithms string algorithms computational geometric algorithms combinatorial algorithms medical algorithms machine learning cryptography data compression algorithms and parsing techniques.Fields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields.By complexity.Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input sizeSome problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them.Continuous algorithms.The adjective can mean:Legal issues.Algorithms by themselves are not usually patentable. In the United States a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts numbers or signals does not constitute "processes" and hence algorithms are not patentable . However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example in Diamond v. Diehr the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The patenting of software is highly controversial and there are highly criticized patents involving algorithms especially data compression algorithms such as Unisys' LZW patent.Additionally some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions .History: Development of the notion of .Ancient Near East.The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in the Babylonian mathematics of ancient Mesopotamia . A Sumerian clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to circa 2500 BC described the earliest division algorithm. During the Hammurabi dynasty circa 1800-1600 BC, Babylonian clay tablets described algorithms for computing formulas. Algorithms were also used in Babylonian astronomy. Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events.Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics dating back to the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus circa 1550 BC. Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic mathematics. Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes which was described in the .Discrete and distinguishable symbols.Tally-marks: To keep track of their flocks, their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying: accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks or making discrete symbols in clay. Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and symbols, eventually Roman numerals and the abacus evolved . Tally marks appear prominently in unary numeral system arithmetic used in Turing machine and Post–Turing machine computations.Manipulation of symbols as for numbers algebra.Muhammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm, a Persian mathematician, wrote the was originally used to refer to the sets of rules and techniques used by Al-Khwarizmi to solve algebraic equations, before later being generalized to refer to any set of rules or techniques. This eventually culminated in Leibniz's notion of the calculus ratiocinator (ca 1680):Cryptographic algorithms.The first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by Al-Kindi a 9th-century Arab mathematician in . He gave the first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis the earliest codebreaking algorithm.Mechanical contrivances with discrete states."The clock" Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as "The key invention " in particular the verge escapement that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine" led immediately to "mechanical automata" beginning in the 13th century and finally to "computational machines"—the difference engine and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Countess Ada Lovelace mid-19th century. Lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computer—Babbage's analytical engine the first device considered a real Turing-complete computer instead of just a calculator—and is sometimes called "history's first programmer" as a result though a full implementation of Babbage's second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime."Logical machines 1870 – Stanley Jevons' "logical abacus" and "logical machine"": The technical problem was to reduce Boolean equations when presented in a form similar to what is now known as Karnaugh maps. Jevons describes first a simple "abacus" of "slips of wood furnished with pins, contrived so that any part or class of the ...". With this machine he could analyze a "syllogism or any other simple logical argument".This machine he displayed in 1870 before the Fellows of the Royal Society. Another logician John Venn however in his 1881 ."Jacquard loom Hollerith punch cards telegraphy and telephony – the electromechanical relay" Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the Jacquard loom (1801) precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards 1887) and "telephone switching technologies" were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers. By the mid-19th century the telegraph the precursor of the telephone was in use throughout the world its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as "dots and dashes" a common sound. By the late 19th century the ticker tape (ca 1870s) was in use as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the teleprinter (ca. 1910) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape."Telephone-switching networks" of electromechanical relays was behind the work of George Stibitz the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories he observed the "burdensome' use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device".Davis observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay Mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid-20th century.But Heijenoort gives Frege this kudos: Frege's is . The work of Frege was further simplified and amplified by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell in their Principia Mathematica .: At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature, in particular, the Burali-Forti paradox , the Russell paradox , and the Richard Paradox. The resultant considerations led to Kurt Gdel's paper —he specifically cites the paradox of the liar—that completely reduces rules of recursion to numbers."Effective calculability": In an effort to solve the Entscheidungsproblem defined precisely by Hilbert in 1928, mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an "effective method" or "effective calculation" or "effective calculability" . In rapid succession the following appeared: Alonzo Church, Stephen Kleene and J.B. Rosser's -calculus a finely honed definition of "general recursion" from the work of Gdel acting on suggestions of Jacques Herbrand and subsequent simplifications by Kleene. Church's proof that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable, Emil Post's definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yes-no decision about the next instruction. Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his "a- machine"—in effect almost identical to Post's "formulation", J. Barkley Rosser's definition of "effective method" in terms of "a machine". Kleene's proposal of a precursor to "Church thesis" that he called "Thesis I", and a few years later Kleene's renaming his Thesis "Church's Thesis" and proposing "Turing's Thesis".Emil Post and Alan Turing .Emil Post described the actions of a "computer" as follows:His symbol space would beAlan Turing's work preceded that of Stibitz ; it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing's biographer believed that Turing's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter, and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'". Given the prevalence of Morse code and telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and teletypewriters we might conjecture that all were influences.Turing—his model of computation is now called a Turing machine—begins, as did Post, with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and "states of mind". But he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers.Turing's reduction yields the following"It may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind. The most general single operation must, therefore, be taken to be one of the following:A few years later Turing expanded his analysis with this forceful expression of itJ.B. Rosser and S.C. Kleene .J. Barkley Rosser defined an 'effective method' in the following manner Rosser's footnote No. 5 references the work of Church and Kleene and their definition of -definability in particular Church's use of it in his "An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory" Herbrand and Gdel and their use of recursion in particular Gdel's use in his famous paper "On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I" and Post and Turing in their mechanism-models of computation.Stephen C. Kleene defined as his now-famous "Thesis I" known as the Church–Turing thesis. But he did this in the following context :History after 1950.A number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of "algorithm" and activity is on-going because of issues surrounding in particular foundations of mathematics and philosophy of mind . For more see Algorithm characterizations. diff --git a/synthdog/resources/corpus/jawiki.txt b/synthdog/resources/corpus/jawiki.txt new file mode 100755 index 00000000..e3a23513 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/resources/corpus/jawiki.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +アンパサンドは並立助詞を表す接続詞 "et" の合字を起源とする。現代のフォントでもTrebuchet MS など一部のフォントでは"et" の合字であることが容易にわかる字形を使用している。英語で教育を行う学校でアルファベットを復唱する場合、その文字自体が単語となる文字を用いて と訛っていき、この言葉は1837年までには英語の一般的な語法となった。アンドレ＝マリアンペールがこの記号を彼の著作で使いこれが広く読まれたためこの記号が "Ampre's and" と呼ばれるようになったという誤った語源俗説がある。アンパサンドの起源は1世紀の古ローマ筆記体にまで遡ることができる。古ローマ筆記体ではE と T はしばしば合字として繋げて書かれていた。現代のイタリック体のアンパサンドはルネサンス期に発展した筆記体での et の合字に遡る。1455年のヨーロッパにおける印刷技術の発明以降印刷業者はイタリック体とローマ筆記体のアンパサンドの両方を多用するようになった。アンパサンドのルーツはローマ時代に遡るためラテンアルファベットを使用する多くの言語でアンパサンドが使用されるようになった。アンパサンドはしばしばラテンアルファベットの最後の文字とされることがあった。例えば1011年のの文字表がその例である。同様に、"&" は英語アルファベットの27番目の文字とされ、アメリカ合衆国やその他の地域でも、子供達はアンパサンドはアルファベットの最後の文字だと教えられていた。1863年の M. B. Moore の著書 "The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks" にその一例を見ることができる。ジョージ・エリオットは、1859年に発表した小説の中で、Jacob Storey に次のセリフを語らせている。"He thought it had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see." よく知られた童謡の は "X, Y, Z, and ampersand, All wished for a piece in hand" という歌詞で締めくくられる。アンパサンドはティロ式記号の et とは別のものである。ティロ式記号の et はアンパサンドと意味は同じだが数字のに似た形の記号である。両者はともに古代から使用され中世を通してラテン語の "et" を表すために使用された。しかしアンパサンドとティロ式記号の et はそれぞれ独立に発明されたものである。ラテン文字から発展した古アイルランド語の文字ではアイルランド語の "agus"を表すためにティロ式記号の et が使用されていた。今日はゲール文字の一部として主に装飾的な目的で使用されている。この文字はアイルランドにおけるキリスト教時代初期に修道院の影響によって書き文字に加わった可能性がある。日常的な手書きの場合欧米では小文字の に縦線を加えた形の単純化されたアンパサンドがしばしば使われる。またエプシロンの上下に縦線または点を付けたものもしばしば使われる。くだけた用法として、プラス記号がアンパサンドの代わりに使われることもある。また、プラス記号に輪を重ねたような、無声歯茎側面摩擦音を示す発音記号のようなものが使われることもある。ティロの速記にはがある。この文字はドイツのフラクトゥールで使われたほか、ゲール文字でも使用される。ギリシア文字ではが使われることがある。プログラミング言語ではC など多数の言語で AND 演算子として用いられる。以下は C の例。PHPでは、変数宣言記号（$）の直前に記述することで、参照渡しを行うことができる。BASIC 系列の言語では文字列の連結演算子として使用される。codice_4 は codice_5 を返す。また主にマイクロソフト系では整数の十六進表記に codice_6 を用いcodice_7 のように表現する。SGML、XML、HTMLでは、アンパサンドを使ってSGML実体を参照する。 +広辞苑や大辞泉には次のように解説されている。『日本大百科事典』では、「言語」という語は多義である、と解説され、大脳のに蓄えられた《語彙と文法規則の体系》を指すこともあり、その体系を用いる能力としてとらえることもある、と解説され、一方では、抽象的に「すべての人間が共有する言語能力」を指すこともあるし、「個々の個別言語」を指すこともある、と解説されている。言語は、人間が用いる意志伝達手段であり、社会集団内で形成習得され、意志を相互に伝達することや、抽象的な思考を可能にし、結果として人間の社会的活動や文化的活動を支えている。言語には、文化の特徴が織り込まれており、共同体で用いられている言語の習得をすることによって、その共同体での社会的学習、および人格の形成をしていくことになる。ソシュールの研究が、言語学の発展の上で非常に重要な役割を果たしたわけであるが、ソシュール以降は、という用語で呼ばれるようになっている。と音韻形態素単語との間の結び付け方は社会的に作られている習慣である。2021年現在の言語学はソシュールの影響が下地にあるものの主として1950年代前後に始まり広がったチョムスキーによるものをはじめとする諸理論およびそれ以降のそれらへの修正あるいは反論に由来するものが多くを占めており普通の言語学の議論ではだけに拘ることはあまりしない。自然発生的にあるものとしての「自然」言語の他、近代以降、エスペラントなどの国際補助語など、人工言語も作られた。他にも言語にはさまざまな分類がある。口語口頭言語書記言語文語といった分類があるが重なる部分もありはっきり分類できるものでもない。また一例として「日本語対応手話」は一般の日本語の話し言葉や書き言葉と同一の言語の「視覚言語バージョン」であるが「日本手話」は一般の日本語とは異なる言語と考えられておりそちらは音声言語や文字言語とは異なる「視覚言語」ということになるなど分類は単純ではない。また屈折語膠着語孤立語といったような分類もある。詳細は言語類型論を参照。自然言語以外については人工言語形式言語コンピュータ言語などの各記事を参照。ジャック・デリダという、一般にポスト構造主義の代表的哲学者と位置づけられているフランスの哲学者は、の記事も参照。個別言語は、民族の滅亡や他言語による吸収によって使用されなくなることがある。このような言語は死語と呼ばれ、死語が再び母語として使用されたことは歴史上にただ一例、ヘブライ語の例しかない。しかし、ヘブライ語は自然に復活したわけでも完全に消滅していたわけでもなく、文章語として存続していた言語を、パレスチナに移住したユダヤ人たちが20世紀に入って日常語として人工的に復活させ、イスラエル建国とともに公用語に指定して完全に再生させたものである。このほかにも、古典アラビア語、ラテン語、古典ギリシャ語のように、日常語としては消滅しているものの文章語としては存続している言語も存在する。このほか、日常ではもはや用いられず、教典や宗教行為のみに用いられるようになった典礼言語も存在する。近年、話者数が非常に少ない言語が他言語に飲み込まれて消滅し、新たに死語と化すことが問題視されるようになり、消滅の危機にある言語を危機言語と呼ぶようになった。これは、世界の一体化が進み、交通網の整備や流通の迅速化、ラジオ・テレビといったマスメディアの発達によってそれまで孤立を保っていた小さな言語がそのコミュニティを維持できなくなるために起こると考えられている。より大きな視点では英語の国際語としての勢力伸張による他主要言語の勢力縮小、いわゆる英語帝国主義もこれに含まれるといえるが、すくなくとも21世紀初頭においては英語を母語とする民族が多数派を占める国家を除いては英語のグローバル化が言語の危機に直結しているわけではない。言語消滅は、隣接したより大きな言語集団との交流が不可欠となり、その言語圏に小言語集団が取り込まれることによって起きる。こうした動きは人的交流や文化的交流が盛んな先進国内においてより顕著であり、北アメリカやオーストラリアなどで言語消滅が急速に進み、経済成長と言語消滅との間には有意な相関があるとの研究も存在する。その他の地域においても言語消滅が進んでおり、2010年にはインド領のアンダマン諸島において言語が一つ消滅し、他にも同地域において消滅の危機にある言語が存在するとの警告が発せられた。言語がいつどのように生まれたのか生まれたのが地球上の一ヶ所か複数ヶ所かはわかっておらず複数の説が存在するが例えばデンマークの言語学者オットーイェスペルセンは以下のような説を唱えている。生物学的な観点から言語の起源を探ろうという試みもある。最近の分子生物学的研究によればFOXP2と名づけられている遺伝子に生じたある種の変異が言語能力の獲得につながった可能性がある。さらにその変異は現生人類とネアンデルタール人が分化する以前の30-40万年前にはすでに生じていたとの解析結果が発表されており現生人類が登場とともに既に言語を身につけていた可能性も考えられる。しかしFOXP2は言語能力を有しない他の動物の多くが持っていることFOXP2の変異が言語能力の獲得の必要条件であるとの直接的な証明はまだなされていないことなどに留意する必要がある。生物の場合には進化が止まった生物が現在も生き残っていると呼ばれるものがある。また一見似ている2種類が全然別の種類から進化していたというケースもある。言語にも同じような現象が起きておりその変化の速度は一定ではなく侵略交易移動等他民族との接触が多ければその時言語も大きく変化する。代表例として英語フランス語ルーマニア語アルバニア語アルメニア語等がある。逆に接触が少ないとほとんど変化しなくなる。代表例としてドイツ語アイスランド語ギリシャ語スラヴ語派バルト語派サンスクリット語等があり特にアイスランド語は基本文法が1000年前とほとんど変っていない。言語はもともといくつかの祖語から分化したと考えられており同一の祖語から発生したグループを語族と呼ぶ。語族はさらに語派語群そして言語と細分化されていく。世界の大多数の言語はなんらかの語族に属するがなかには現存する他の言語と系統関係が立証されておらず語族に分類できない孤立した言語も存在する。また地理文化的に近接する異なった系統の言語が相互に影響しあい顕著に類似する事例も見られこれは言語連合と呼ばれる。同一語族に属する言語群の場合、共通語彙から言語の分化した年代を割り出す方法も考案されている。一つの言語の言語史を作る場合、単語・綴り・発音・文法等から古代・中世・近代と3分割し、例えば等と呼ぶ。ある言語と他の言語が接触した場合、両言語の話者の交流が深まるにつれて様々な変化が発生する。これを言語接触という。言語接触によって、両言語には相手の言語から語彙を借用した借用語が発生するほか、交流が深まるにつれて商業や生活上の必要から混成言語が発生することがある。この混成言語は、初期にはピジン言語と呼ばれる非常に簡略化された形をとるが、やがて語彙が増え言語として成長してくると、クレオール言語という新しい言語となる。クレオール言語はピジン言語と比べ語彙も多く、何よりきちんと体系だった文法が存在しており、一個の独立した言語とみなして全く差し支えない。クレオール言語はピジン言語と違い、母語話者が存在するのも特徴である。中世の世界においてはしばしば文語と日常使用する言語との間には隔たりがみられなかには中世ヨーロッパにおけるラテン語のようにその土地の言葉と全く異なる言語を文章語として採用している世界も存在した。ラテン語は欧州において知識人の間の共通語として用いられルネサンスなどで大きな役割を果たしたがやがて印刷術の発展や宗教改革などによって各国において使用される日常言語が文語として用いられるようになった。この際それまで方言の連続体しか持たなかった各国においてその言語を筆記する標準的な表記法が定まっていき各国において国内共通語としての標準語が制定されるようになった。これは出版物などによって徐々に定まっていくものもあれば中央に公的な言語統制機関を置いて国家主導で標準語を制定するものもあったがいずれにせよこうした言語の整備と国内共通語の成立は国民国家を成立させるうえでの重要なピースとなっていった。一方で標準語の制定は方言連続体のその他の言語を方言とすることになり言語内での序列をつけることにつながった。最も新しい言語であり、また誕生する瞬間がとらえられた言語としては、ニカラグアの子供達の間で1970年代後半に発生したがある。これは、言語能力は人間に生得のものであるという考えを裏付けるものとなった。言語の数と範囲の不確定.現在世界に存在する言語の数は千数百とも数千とも言われる。1939年にアメリカのLHグレイは2796言語と唱え1979年にドイツのマイヤーが4200から5600言語と唱えており三省堂の言語学大辞典世界言語編では8000超の言語を扱っている。しかし、正確に数えることはほぼ不可能である。これは、未発見の言語や、消滅しつつある言語があるためだけではなく、原理的な困難があるためでもある。似ているが同じではないとするかの問題でもある。たとえば、旧ユーゴスラビアに属していたセルビア、クロアチア、ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ、モンテネグロの4地域の言語は非常に似通ったものであり、学術的には方言連続体であるセルビア・クロアチア語として扱われる。また旧ユーゴスラビアの政治上においても国家統一の観点上、これらの言語は同一言語として扱われていた。しかし1991年からのユーゴスラビア紛争によってユーゴスラビアが崩壊すると、独立した各国は各地方の方言をそれぞれ独立言語として扱うようになり、セルビア語、クロアチア語、ボスニア語の三言語に政治的に分けられるようになった。さらに2006年にモンテネグロがセルビア・モンテネグロから独立すると、モンテネグロ語がセルビア語からさらに分けられるようになった。こうした、明確な標準語を持たず複数の言語中心を持つ言語のことを複数中心地言語と呼び、英語などもこれに含まれる。逆に中国においては北京語やそれを元に成立した普通話と上海語や広東語といった遠隔地の言語とは差異が大きく会話が成立しないほどであるが書き言葉は共通でありまたあくまでも中国語群には属していて対応関係が明確であるためこれら言語はすべて中国語内の方言として扱われている。同じ言語かどうかを判定する基準として相互理解性を提唱する考えがある。話者が相手の言うことを理解できる場合には同一言語理解できない場合には別言語とする。相互理解性は言語間の距離を伝える重要な情報であるがこれによって一つの言語の範囲を確定しようとすると技術的難しさにとどまらない困難に直面する。一つはAの言うことをBが聞き取れてもBの言うことをAが聞き取れないような言語差があることである。もう一つは同系列の言語が地理的な広がりの中で徐々に変化している場合にどこでいくつに分割すべきなのかあるいはまったく分割すべきでないのかを決められないことである。こうした困難に際しても、単一の基準を決めて分類していくことは、理屈の上では可能である。しかしあえて単一基準を押し通す言語学者は現実にはいない。ある集団をとするかには、政治的・文化的アイデンティティの問題が深く関係している。どのような基準を設けようと、ある地域で多くの賛成を得られる分類基準は、別の地域で強い反発を受けることになる。そうした反発は誤りだと言うための論拠を言語学はもっていないので、結局は慣習に従って、地域ごとに異なる基準を用いて分類することになる。言語と方言の区別について現在なされる説明は二つである。第一は言語と方言の区別にはなんら言語学的意味はないとする。第二のものはまずどの方言もそれぞれ言語だとする。その上である標準語に対して非標準語の関係にある同系言語を方言とする。標準語の選定は政治によるからこれもまたとする点で第一と同じである。この定義では言語を秤にかけて判定しているのではなく人々がその言語をどう思っているかを秤にかけているのである。ある言語同士が独立の言語同士なのか同じ言語の方言同士なのかの判定は非常に恣意的であるがその一方で明確に系統関係が異なる言語同士はたとえ共通の集団で話されていても方言同士とはみなされないという事実も有る。たとえば中国甘粛省に住む少数民族ユーグ族は西部に住むものはテュルク系の言語を母語とし東部に住むものはモンゴル系の言語を母語としている。両者は同じ民族だという意識があるがその言語は方言同士ではなく西部ユーグ語東部ユーグ語と別々の言語として扱われる。また海南島にすむ臨高人も民族籍上は漢民族であるがその言語は漢語の方言としては扱われず系統どおりタイカダイ語族の臨高語として扱われる。使用する文字は同言語かどうかの判断基準としてはあまり用いられない。言語は基本的にどの文字でも表記可能なものでありある言語が使用する文字を変更することや二種以上の文字を併用することは珍しいことではなくまた文法などに文字はさほど影響を与えないためである。デーヴァナーガリー文字を用いるインドの公用語であるヒンディー語とウルドゥー文字を用いるパキスタンの公用語であるウルドゥー語はヒンドゥスターニー語として同一言語または方言連続体として扱われることがある。普段話されている言語の人口順位.上図の通り 最も話者の多い言語は中国語であるが公用語としている国家は中華人民共和国と中華民国それにシンガポールの3つの国家にすぎず世界において広く使用されている言語というわけではない。また共通語である普通話を含め 13個の方言が存在する。話者数2位の言語はスペイン語である。これはヨーロッパ大陸のスペインを発祥とする言語であるが、17世紀のスペインによる新大陸の植民地化を経て、南アメリカおよび北アメリカ南部における広大な言語圏を獲得した。2021年度においてスペイン語を公用語とする国々は21カ国にのぼる。さらにほぼ同系統の言語である5位のポルトガル語圏を合わせた新大陸の領域はラテンアメリカと呼ばれ、広大な共通言語圏を形成している。英語の話者人口は4位だが、公用語としては55か国と最も多くの国で話されている。さらに、英語はアメリカ合衆国やイギリスの公用語であるため世界で広く重要視されている。世界の一体化に伴い研究やビジネスなども英語で行われる場面が増え、非英語圏どうしの住民の交渉においても共通語として英語を使用する場合があるなど、英語の世界共通語としての影響力は増大していく傾向にある。英語に次ぐ国際語としては17世紀から19世紀まで西洋で最も有力な国際語であったフランス語が挙げられる。フランス語の話者は2億3000万人とトップ5にも入らないがフランス語を公用語とする国々はアフリカの旧フランス植民地を中心に29カ国にのぼる。話者数7位のアラビア語も広い共通言語圏を持つ言語である。アラビア語はクルアーンの言語としてイスラム圏全域に使用者がいるがとくに北アフリカから中東にかけて母語話者が多く公用語とする国々は23カ国にのぼっていてひとつのアラブ文化圏を形成している。ただしこれも文語であるフスハーと口語であるアーンミーヤに分かれておりアーンミーヤはさらに多数の方言にわかれている。国連の公用語は英語フランス語ロシア語中国語スペイン語アラビア語の6つであるがこれは安全保障理事会の常任理事国の言語に広大な共通言語圏を持つスペイン語とアラビア語を加えたものである。言語は国家を成立させるうえでの重要な要素でありカナダにおける英語とフランス語やベルギーにおけるオランダ語とフランス語のように異なる言語間の対立がしばしば言語戦争と呼ばれるほどに激化して独立問題に発展し国家に大きな影響を及ぼすことも珍しくない。東パキスタンのように西パキスタンの言語であるウルドゥー語の公用語化に反発してベンガル語を同格の国語とすることを求めたことから独立運動が起き最終的にバングラデシュとして独立したような例もある。こうした場合、言語圏別に大きな自治権を与えたり、国家の公用語を複数制定したりすることなどによって少数派言語話者の不満をなだめる政策はよく用いられる。言語圏に強い自治権を与える典型例はベルギーで、同国では1970年に言語共同体が設立され、数度の変更を経てフラマン語共同体、フランス語共同体、ドイツ語共同体の3つの言語共同体の併存する連邦国家となった。公用語を複数制定する例ではスイスが典型的であり、それまでドイツ語のみであった公用語が1848年の憲法によってドイツ語・フランス語・イタリア語の三公用語制となり、さらに1938年にはロマンシュ語が国語とされた。この傾向が特に強いのはインドであり、1956年以降それまでの地理的な区分から同系統の言語を用いる地域へと州を再編する、いわゆる政策を取っている。国家における言語の構造は公用語-共通語-民族語の三層の構造からなっている。もっとも公用語と共通語また三層すべてが同じ言語である場合はその分だけ層の数は減少する。日本を例にとれば、各地方ではその地方の方言を使っている。つまり、同じ地方のコミュニティ内で通用する言語を使用している。これが他地方から来た人を相手にする場合となると、いわゆる標準語を使用することとなる。日本では他に有力な言語集団が存在しないため、政府関係の文書にも日本標準語がそのまま使用される。つまり、共通語と公用語が同一であるため、公用語-方言の二層構造となっている。公用語と共通語は分離していない国家も多いがアフリカ大陸の諸国家においてはこの三層構造が明確にあらわれている。これらの国においては政府関係の公用語は旧宗主国の言語が使用されている。学校教育もこの言語で行われるが民族語とかけ離れた存在であることもあり国民の中で使用できる層はさほど多くない。この穴を埋めるために各地域においては共通語が話されている。首都がある地域の共通語が強大化し国の大部分を覆うようになることも珍しくない。しかし文法の整備などの遅れや国内他言語話者の反対公用語の使用能力がエリート層の権力の源泉となっているなどの事情によって共通語が公用語化はされないことがほとんどである。その下に各民族の民族語が存在する。詳細は心理言語学及び、神経言語学を参照言語機能は基本的にヒトに固有のものであるため言語の研究には少数の例外を除き動物モデルを作りにくい。そのため脳梗塞などで脳の局所が破壊された症例での研究や被験者に2つの単語を呈示しその干渉効果を研究するなどの心理学的研究が主になされてきたが1980年代後半より脳機能イメージング研究が手法に加わり被験者がさまざまな言語課題を行っているときの脳活動を視覚化できるようになった。言語に関する脳の領域.古典的なブローカ領域、ウェルニッケ領域のほか、シルヴィウス裂を囲む広い範囲にわたっている。脳梗塞などで各部が損傷されると、それぞれ違ったタイプの失語が出現する。例えば左前頭前野付近の損傷で生じるブローカ失語は運動失語であり、自発語は非流暢性となり復唱、書字も障害される。左側頭葉付近の障害で生じるウェルニッケ失語は感覚失語であり自発語は流暢であるが、言語理解や復唱が障害され、文字による言語理解も不良である。ほとんどの右利きの人では単語文法語彙などの主要な言語機能は左半球優位である。しかし声の抑揚（プロソディ）の把握比喩の理解については右半球優位であると言われている。文字の認識には左紡錘状回、中・下後頭回が関与するが、漢字（表意文字）とひらがな（表音文字）で活動する部位が異なると言われている。ヒトの発達における言語機能の獲得.これも多方面から研究されている。個人の言語能力は、読字障害、ウィリアムズ症候群、自閉症などのように全体的な知的能力とは乖離することがあり、個体発生やヒトの進化における言語の起源などにヒントを与えている。また、ヒトは環境の中で聴取する音声から自力で文法などの規則を見出し学習する機能を生得的に備えているため、特に教わらなくても言語を学習できるとする生得論という考えも存在する。最近の近赤外線分光法を用いた研究において生後2から5日の新生児が逆再生よりも順再生の声を聞いたほうがあるいは外国語より母国語を聞いたときの方が聴覚皮質の血流増加が大きかったと報告されており出産前から母体内で言語を聴いていることが示唆される。 +日本語は日本国内やかつての日本領だった国そして日本人同士の間で使用されている言語。日本は法令によって公用語を規定していないが法令その他の公用文は全て日本語で記述され各種法令において日本語を用いることが規定され学校教育においてはの教科として学習を行う等事実上日本国内において唯一の公用語となっている。使用人口について正確な統計はないが日本国内の人口及び日本国外に住む日本人や日系人日本がかつて統治した地域の一部住民など約1億3千万人以上と考えられている。統計によって前後する場合もあるがこの数は世界の母語話者数で上位10位以内に入る人数である。日本で生まれ育ったほとんどの人は日本語を母語とする。日本語の文法体系や音韻体系を反映する手話として日本語対応手話がある。2019年4月現在インターネット上の言語使用者数は英語中国語スペイン語アラビア語ポルトガル語マレー語/インドネシア語フランス語に次いで8番目に多い。2021年9月単語検索ツールWordtipsは世界各国で語学学習をするに当たりどの言語が最も人気があるかをGoogleキーワードプランナーを利用し調査。アメリカカナダオーストラリアニュージーランドといった英語圏を中心に日本語が最も学びたい言語に選ばれた。日本語の音韻は、を除いて母音で終わる開音節言語の性格が強く、また標準語を含め多くの方言がモーラを持つ。アクセントは高低アクセントである。なお元来の古い大和言葉では原則として文はの語順で構成される。修飾語は被修飾語の前に位置する。また名詞の格を示すためには語順や語尾を変化させるのでなく文法的な機能を示す機能語。語彙は古来の大和言葉。待遇表現の面では文法的語彙的に発達した敬語体系があり叙述される人物どうしの微妙な関係を表現する（「待遇表現」の節参照）。日本語は地方ごとに多様な方言がありとりわけ琉球諸島で方言差が著しい。表記体系はほかの諸言語と比べて極めて複雑かつ柔軟性の高さが特徴である。漢字。音韻はの存在無声化母音語の組み立てに伴って移動する高さアクセントなどの特徴がある。日本語は主に日本国内で使用される。話者人口についての調査は国内国外を問わずいまだないが日本の人口に基づいて考えられることが一般的である。日本国内に法令上日本語を公用語ないし国語と定める直接の規定はない。しかし法令は日本語で記されており裁判所法においてはとして教えられている。日本では、テレビやラジオ、映画などの放送、小説や漫画、新聞などの出版の分野でも、日本語が使われることがほとんどである。国外のドラマや映画が放送される場合でも、基本的には日本語に訳し、字幕を付けたり声を当てたりしてから放送されるなど、受け手が日本語のみを理解することを当然の前提として作成される。原語のまま放送・出版されるものも存在するが、それらは外国向けに発表される前提の論文、もしくは日本在住の外国人、あるいは原語の学習者など限られた人を対象としており、大多数の日本人に向けたものではない。日本国外では、主として、中南米などの地域では、日本語教育を受けた人々の中に、現在でも日本語を記憶して話す人がいる。台湾では先住民の異なる部族同士の会話に日本語が用いられることがあるだけでなく、宜蘭クレオールなど日本語とタイヤル語のクレオール言語も存在している。また、パラオのアンガウル州では歴史的経緯から日本語を公用語の一つとして採用しているが、現在州内には日本語を日常会話に用いる住民は存在せず、象徴的なものに留まっている。日本国外の日本語学習者は2015年調査で365万人にのぼり中華人民共和国の約95万人インドネシアの約75万人大韓民国の約56万人オーストラリアの約36万人台湾の約22万人が上位となっている。地域別では東アジア東南アジアで全体の学習者の約8割を占めている。日本語教育が行われている地域は137か国地域に及んでいる。また日本国内の日本語学習者はアジア地域の約16万人を中心として約19万人に上っている。の範囲を本土方言のみとした場合、琉球語が日本語と同系統の言語になり両者は日琉語族を形成する。琉球列島」とする場合もありこのような場合は日本語はという位置づけにされる。日本語の系統は明らかでなく1963年や1978年の書物ではと記述された。学問的にどの系統だとも断言できないので言語学的にはしばしばと分類されることが多い。アルタイ諸語に属するとする説は、明治時代末から特に注目されてきた。その根拠として、古代の日本語が立たないこと、一種の母音調和が見られることなどが挙げられる。古代日本語に上記の特徴が見られることは、日本語が類型としての言語である根拠とされる。また、日本語にはトルコ系言語の基礎語彙と似ている部分もあって、などがある。アルタイ諸語に属するとされるそれぞれの言語の親族関係を支持する学者のほうがまだ多いが、最近のイギリスではアルタイ諸語の親族関係を否定する学者も現れている。アイヌ語は語順において日本語と似る。ただし文法形態は類型論的に異なる抱合語に属し音韻構造も有声無声の区別がなく閉音節が多いなどの相違がある。基礎語彙の類似に関する指摘もあるが例は不充分である。一般に似ているとされる語の中には日本語からアイヌ語への借用語が多く含まれるとみられる。朝鮮語とは語順や文法構造で類似点が非常に多い。音韻の面でも固有語において語頭に流音が立たないこと一種の母音調和が見られることなど共通の類似点がある。世界の諸言語の広く比較した場合広くとされている。ただし閉音節や子音連結が存在する有声無声の区別が無いといった相違もある。基礎語彙は共通点もあるがかなり相違する面もある。なお基礎語彙に関連して朝鮮半島の死語である高句麗語とは数詞など重要な基礎語彙でも似るものがあると新村出などから指摘されている。中国語との関係に関しては日本語は中国の漢字を借用語として広範囲に取り入れており語彙のうち漢字を用いたものに関して大きな影響を受けている。だが語順も文法も音韻も大きく異なるので系統論的には別系統の言語とされる。南方系のオーストロネシア語族とは音韻体系や語彙に関する類似も指摘されている。ドラヴィダ語族との関係を主張する説もあるがこれを認める研究者は少ない。大野晋は日本語が語彙文法などの点でタミル語と共通点を持つとの説を唱えるが比較言語学の方法上の問題から批判が多いまた、レプチャ語・ヘブライ語などとの同系論も過去に存在したが、これに関してはほとんど疑似科学の範疇に収まる。日本語話者は普通、「いっぽんと称している。日本語のモーラは、大体は仮名に即して体系化することができる。は、音声学上は後続の音によって などと変化するが、日本語の話者自らは同一音と認識しているので、音韻論上は1種類のモーラとなる。日本語ではほとんどのモーラが母音で終わっている。それゆえに日本語は開音節言語の性格が強いということができる。もっとも特殊モーラのには母音が含まれない。モーラの種類は、以下に示すように111程度存在する。ただし、研究者により数え方が少しずつ異なる。「が行」の音は、語中語尾では鼻音（いわゆる鼻濁音）の「」音となる場合があるが、「が行」と「」との違いは何ら弁別の機能を提供せず、単なる異音どうしに過ぎない。そこで、「」を除外して数える場合、モーラの数は103程度となる。これ以外に、「外来語の表記」第1表にもある「シェ」「チェ」「ツァ・ツェ・ツォ」「ティ」「ファ・フィ・フェ・フォ」その他の外来音を含める場合は、さらにまた数が変わってくる。このほか、外来語の表記において用いられる「ヴァ・ヴィ・ヴ・ヴェ・ヴォ」については、バ行として発音されることが多いものの、独立した音韻として発音されることもあり、これらを含めるとさらに増えることとなる。なお、五十音図は、音韻体系の説明に使われることがしばしばあるが、上記の日本語モーラ表と比べてみると、少なからず異なる部分がある。五十音図の成立は平安時代にさかのぼるものであり、現代語の音韻体系を反映するものではないことに注意が必要である。母音はの文字で表される。音韻論上は日本語の母音はこの文字で表される5個であり音素記号では以下のように記される。一方、音声学上は、基本の5母音は、それぞれに近い発音と捉えられる。̈ は中舌寄り、̠ は後寄り、̜ は弱めの円唇、̹ は強めの円唇、˕ は下寄り、˔ は上寄りを示す補助記号である。日本語のは半狭母音 と半広母音 の中間音である。日本語の「う」は東京方言では英語などの のような円唇後舌母音より少し中舌よりでそれに伴い円唇性が弱まり中舌母音のような張唇でも円唇でもないニュートラルな唇かそれよりほんの僅かに前に突き出した唇で発音される半後舌微円唇狭母音である。これは舌と唇の動きの連関で前舌母音は張唇中舌母音は平唇ニュートラル（ただしニュートラルは現行のIPA表記では非円唇として張唇と同じカテゴリーに入れられている）後舌母音は円唇となるのが自然であるという法則に適っている。しかし「う」は母音融合などで見られるように音韻上は未だに円唇後舌狭母音として機能する。また[] という表記も行われる。円唇性の弱さを強調するために、 を使うこともあるが、これは本来朝鮮語に見られる、iのような完全な張唇でありながら、u のように後舌の狭母音を表す記号であり、円唇性が減衰しつつも残存し、かつ後舌よりやや前よりである日本語の母音は東京方言よりも奥舌で、唇も丸めて発音し、 に近い。音韻論上、という特定の音があるわけではなく、長母音 の後半部分に相当するものである。を と発音する話者も多い。単語末や無声子音の間に挟まれた位置において、などはそれぞれ と発音されることがある。ただしアクセント核がある拍は無声化しにくい。個人差もあり、発話の環境や速さ、丁寧さによっても異なる。また方言差も大きく、たとえば近畿方言ではほとんど母音の無声化が起こらない。は前後の母音に近似の鼻母音になる。子音は、音韻論上区別されているものとしては、現在の主流学説によれば「か・さ・た・な・は・ま・や・ら・わ行」の子音、濁音「が・ざ・だ・ば行」の子音、半濁音「ぱ行」の子音である。音素記号では以下のように記される。ワ行とヤ行の語頭子音は、音素 u と音素 i の音節内の位置に応じた変音であるとする解釈もある。特殊モーラの「ん」と「っ」は、音韻上独立の音素であるという説と、「ん」はナ行語頭子音 n の音節内の位置に応じた変音、「っ」は単なる二重子音化であるとして音韻上独立の音素ではないという説の両方がある。一方音声学上は子音体系はいっそう複雑な様相を呈する。主に用いられる子音を以下に示す。基本的に「か行」は 「さ行」は （ を用いる地方話者もある）「た行」は 「な行」は 「は行」は 「ま行」は 「や行」は 「だ行」は 「ば行」は 「ぱ行」は を用いる。「ら行」の子音は語頭では 「ん」の後のら行は英語の に近い音を用いる話者もある。一方「あらっ？」というときのように語中語尾に現れる場合は舌をはじく もしくは となる。標準日本語およびそれの母体である首都圏方言。外来音と2モーラで発音する話者も多い。の子音は語頭では破裂音の を用いるが語中では鼻音の を用いることが一般的だった。現在ではこの を用いる話者は減少しつつあり代わりに語頭と同じく破裂音を用いるか摩擦音の を用いる話者が増えている。「ざ行」の子音は、語頭や「ん」の後では破擦音（破裂音と摩擦音を合わせた などの音）を用いるが、語中では摩擦音（ など）を用いる場合が多い。いつでも破擦音を用いる話者もあるが、「手術（しゅじゅつ）」などの語では発音が難しいため摩擦音にするケースが多い。なお、「だ行」の「ぢ」「づ」は、一部方言を除いて「ざ行」の「じ」「ず」と同音に帰しており、発音方法は同じである。母音のように記すが、外来語などにしか使われない。の子音は ではなく硬口蓋音 である。また、に無声硬口蓋破裂音 を用いる話者もある。そのほかの後ろでのハ行の音の変化をより体系的合理的に表しうる。また、のように記すは、外来語で用いることがある。促音。文末などでは を用いる話者が多い。日本語は、一部の方言を除いて、音。となる。共通語のアクセントでは、単語の中で音の下がる場所があるか、あるならば何モーラ目の直後に下がるかを弁別する。音が下がるところを下がり目またはアクセントの滝といい、音が下がる直前のモーラをアクセント核または下げ核という。たとえばにはアクセント核がない。アクセント核は1つの単語には1箇所もないか1箇所だけあるかのいずれかであり、一度下がった場合は単語内で再び上がることはない。アクセント核を で表すと、2拍語には ○○、○、○ の3種類、3拍語には ○○○、○○、○○、○○ の4種類のアクセントがあり、拍数が増えるにつれてアクセントの型の種類も増える。アクセント核が存在しないものを平板型といい、第1拍にアクセント核があるものを頭高型、最後の拍にあるものを尾高型、第1拍と最後の拍の間にあるものを中高型という。頭高型・中高型・尾高型をまとめて起伏式または有核型と呼び、平板型を平板式または無核型と呼んで区別することもある。また共通語のアクセントでは単語や文節のみの形で発音した場合のように表記する場合があるがこれは1文節を1つの句として発音するときのもので句音調とアクセント核の両方を同時に表記したものである。日本語ではと考えるほうが、より適当である。上記の文は、いずれもと誤った作文をすることがある。また、日本語文では、主述構造とは別に、が付く。たとえば、などの文では、「象は」はいずれも題目を示している。4の「象は」は「象が」に言い換えられるもので、事実上は文の主語を兼ねる。しかし、5以下は「象が」には言い換えられない。5は「象を」のことであり、6は「象に」のことである。さらに、7の「象は」は何とも言い換えられないものである（「象の」に言い換えられるともいう）。これらの「象は」という題目は、「が」「に」「を」などの特定の格を表すものではなく、「私は象について述べる」ということだけをまず明示する役目を持つものである。これらの文では、題目である。大野晋は、はそれぞれ未知と既知を表すと主張した。たとえばにおいては前者はとは言えない。日本語と同様に題述構造の文を持つ言語は、東アジアなどに分布する。たとえば、中国語・朝鮮語・ベトナム語・マレー語・タガログ語にもこの構造の文が見られる。上述のを唱えた。三上によればという文において「甲ガ」「乙ニ」「丙ヲ」はいずれも「紹介シ」という行為を説明するために必要な要素であり優劣はない。重要なのはそれらをまとめる述語「紹介シタ」の部分である。「甲ガ」「乙ニ」「丙ヲ」はすべて述語を補足する語（補語）となる。いっぽう英語などでの文で主語は述語と人称などの点で呼応しており特別の存在である。この考え方に従えば英語式の観点からはとしかいいようがない文をうまく説明することができる。たとえばなどはいわゆる主語のない文である。しかし日本語の文では述語に中心があり補語を必要に応じて付け足すと考えれば上記のいずれも省略のない完全な文と見なして差し支えない。今日の文法学説では主語という用語概念は作業仮説として有用な面もあるためなお一般に用いられている。一般的には格助詞を伴う文法項を主語と見なす。ただし三上の説に対する形で日本語の文に主語が必須であると主張する学説は生成文法や鈴木重幸らの言語学研究会グループなど主語に統語上の重要な役割を認める学派を除いて少数派である。森重敏は日本語の文においても主述関係が骨子であるとの立場を採るがこの場合の主語述語も一般に言われるものとはかなり様相を異にしている。現在一般的に行われている学校教育における文法では主語述語を基本とした伝統的な文法用語を用いるのが普通だが教科書によっては主語を特別扱いしないものもある。文を主語述語から成り立つと捉える立場でもこの2要素だけでは文の構造を十分に説明できない。主語述語にはさらに修飾語などの要素が付け加わってより複雑な文が形成される。文を成り立たせるこれらの要素をと称する。学校文法については載せていない教科書が主流である。なおも厳密にいえばそれだけでは成分にはなり得ず常に被修飾語と連文節を構成して文の成分になる。学校図書を除く四社の教科書では単文節でできているものをと呼んでいる。以下、学校文法の区分に従いつつ、それぞれの文の成分の種類と役割とについて述べる。文を成り立たせる基本的な成分である。ことに述語は、文をまとめる重要な役割を果たす。「雨が降る。」「本が多い。」「私は学生だ。」などは、いずれも主語・述語から成り立っている。教科書によっては、述語を文のまとめ役として最も重視する一方、主語については修飾語と併せて説明するものもある（前節「主語廃止論」参照）。用言に係る修飾語である。などの成分は欠いてもそれほど事実の伝達に支障がない。ここから前者は文の根幹をなすとして補充成分と称し後者に限って修飾成分と称する説もある。国語教科書でもこの2者を区別して説明するものがある。体言に係る修飾語であると呼んでいる。「疲れたので動けない。」「買いたいが金がない。」の「疲れたので」「買いたいが」のようにあとの部分との論理関係を示すものである。また「今日は晴れた。だからピクニックに行こう。」「君は若い。なのになぜ絶望するのか。」における「だから」「なのに」のように前の文とその文とをつなぐ成分も接続語である。品詞分類では常に接続語となる品詞を接続詞とする。のように、他の部分に係ったり、他の部分を受けたりすることがないものである。係り受けの観点から定義すると、結果的に、独立語には感動・呼びかけ・応答・提示などを表す語が該当することになる。品詞分類では、独立語としてのみ用いられる品詞は感動詞とされる。名詞や形容動詞語幹なども独立語として用いられる。現行の学校文法では英語にあるようなは前置詞とともに付け加えられた修飾語と考えられる。一方日本語ではのように文型であると解釈される。鈴木重幸鈴木康之らはであるとし文の基本成分として認めている。「明日学校で運動会がある。」の「明日」「学校で」など出来事や有様の成り立つ状況を述べるために時や場所原因や目的（「雨だから」（「体力向上のために」など）を示す文の成分のことを「状況語」とも言う（鈴木重幸『日本語文法形態論』高橋太郎他『日本語の文法』他）。学校文法では「連用修飾語」に含んでいるが（連用）修飾語が述語の表す内的な属性を表すのに対して状況語は外的状況を表す「とりまき」ないしは「額縁」の役目を果たしている。状況語は出来事や有様を表す部分の前に置かれるのが普通であり主語の前に置かれることもある。なお「状況語」という用語はロシア語スペイン語中国語（中国語では「状語」と言う）などにもあるが日本語の「状況語」と必ずしも概念が一致しているわけではなく修飾語を含んだ概念である。日本語では修飾語はつねに被修飾語の前に位置する。の修飾語である。修飾語が長大になっても位置関係は同じでたとえばという短歌は冒頭からに係る長い修飾語である。法律文や翻訳文などでも長い修飾語を主語述語の間に挟み文意を取りにくくしていることがしばしばある。たとえば日本国憲法前文の一節にとあるが、主語と主語・述語が隣り合うのとは対照的である。もっとも、修飾語が後置される英語でも、修飾関係の分かりにくい文が現れることがある。次のような文は「袋小路文」() と呼ばれる。この場合日本語の文ではなのかを検討しなければならなくなる。名詞や動詞形容詞といったを付けて述語にもなる。動詞形容詞形容動詞も修飾語にもなれば述語にもなる。もっとも副詞は多く連用修飾語として用いられまた連体詞は連体修飾語に接続詞は接続語に感動詞は独立語にもっぱら用いられるが必ずしも特定の品詞が特定の文の成分に1対1で対応しているわけではない。では、それぞれの品詞の特徴を形作るものは何かということが問題になるが、これについては、さまざまな説明があり、一定しない。俗に、事物を表す単語が名詞、動きを表す単語が動詞、様子を表す単語が形容詞などといわれることがあるが、例外がいくらでも挙がり、定義としては成立しない。橋本進吉は品詞を分類するにあたり単語の表す意味には踏み込まず主として形式的特徴によって品詞分類を行っている。橋本の考え方は初学者にも分かりやすいため学校文法もその考え方に基づいている。学校文法では語のうちなどそれだけで文節を作り得るものを自立語とする。なお日本語では自立語の後に接辞や付属語を次々につけ足して文法的な役割などを示すため言語類型論上は膠着語に分類される。自立語は活用のないものと活用のあるものとに分けられる。自立語で活用のないもののうち主語になるものを名詞とする。名詞のうち代名詞数詞を独立させる考え方もある。一方主語にならず単独で連用修飾語になるものを副詞連体修飾語になるものを連体詞（副体詞）接続語になるものを接続詞独立語としてのみ用いられるものを感動詞とする。副詞連体詞についてはそれぞれ一品詞とすべきかどうかについて議論がありさらに細分化する考え方や他の品詞に吸収させる考え方などがある。自立語で活用のあるもののうち、命令形のあるものを動詞、命令形がなく終止・連体形がで終わるものを形容詞とする。形容動詞を一品詞として認めることについては、時枝誠記や鈴木重幸など、否定的な見方をする研究者もいる。付属語も、活用のないものと、活用のあるものとに分けられる。付属語で活用のないものを助詞と称する。などの太字部分はすべて助詞である。助詞は名詞について述語との関係。付属語で活用のあるものを助動詞と称する。などの太字部分はすべて助動詞である。助動詞の最も主要な役割は動詞名詞および動詞・形容詞・形容動詞は、それが文中でどのような成分を担っているかを特別の形式によって表示する。名詞の場合「が」「を」「に」などの格助詞を後置することで動詞との関係（格）を示す。語順によって格を示す言語ではないため日本語は語順が比較的自由である。すなわちなどは強調される語は異なるがいずれも同一の内容を表す文でしかも正しい文である。主な格助詞とその典型的な機能は次の通りである。このように、格助詞は、述語を連用修飾する名詞が述語とどのような関係にあるかを示すなど、上記に収まらない機能を担う場合も多い。格助詞のうち、などの格助詞は、話し言葉においても脱落しない。題述構造の文では、特定の格助詞がの付き方は、以下のようにそれぞれの格助詞によって異なる。格助詞は、下に来る動詞が何であるかに応じて、必要とされる種類と数が変わってくる。たとえば、格が必要である。ところが格はなくとも文は不完全な印象はない。名詞が格助詞を伴ってさまざまな格を示すのに対し、用言および助動詞は、語尾を変化させることによって、文中のどの成分を担っているかを示したり、時制・相などの情報や文の切れ続きの別などを示したりする。この語尾変化をという。学校文法では、口語の活用語について、6つの活用形を認めている。以下、動詞・形容詞・形容動詞の活用形を例に挙げる。一般に終止形は述語に用いられる。「（選手が球を）打つ。」「（この子は）強い。」「（消防士は）勇敢だ。」など。連用形は文字通り連用修飾語にも用いられる。「強く（生きる。）」「勇敢に（突入する。）」など。ただし「選手が球を打ちました。」の「打ち」は連用形であるが連用修飾語ではなくこの場合は述語の一部である。このように活用形と文中での役割は1対1で対応しているわけではない。仮定形は、文語では已然形と称する。口語のは「已のごとく命令形が存在する。動詞の活用は種類が分かれている。口語の場合は、五段活用・上一段活用・下一段活用・カ行変格活用の5種類である。ある言語の語彙体系を見渡して特定の分野の語彙が豊富であるとか別の分野の語彙が貧弱であるとかを決めつけることは一概にはできない。日本語でもたとえばといわれるがこれは人々の直感から来る評判という意味以上のものではない。実際に、旧版によって分野ごとの語彙量の多寡を比べた結果によれば、名詞のうちなどを表す語彙のほうが多いことになる。ただし、これも、他の言語と比較して多いということではなく、この結果がただちに日本語の語彙の特徴を示すことにはならない。日本語の人称はあまり固定化していない。現代語・標準語の範疇としては、一人称は「わたくし・わたし・あたし・ぼく・おれ・うち・自分・我々」など、二人称は「あなた・あんた・おまえ・おめえ・てめえ・きみ」などが用いられる。方言・近代語・古語まで含めるとこの限りではなく、文献上では他にも「あたくし・あたい・わし・わい・わて・我が輩・おれ様・おいら・われ・わー・わん・朕・わっし・こちとら・てまえ・小生・それがし・拙者・おら」などの一人称、「おまえさん・てめえ・貴様・おのれ・われ・お宅・なんじ・おぬし・その方・貴君・貴兄・貴下・足下・貴公・貴女・貴殿・貴方（きほう）」などの二人称が見つかる。上の事実は、現代英語の一人称・二人称代名詞がほぼ のみであることと比較すれば、特徴的ということができる。もっとも、日本語においても、本来の人称代名詞は、一人称にのように二人称に転用することが可能であるのも、日本語の人称語彙が一般名詞的であることの現れである。なお敬意表現の観点から目上に対しては二人称代名詞の使用が避けられる傾向がある。たとえば「あなたは何時に出かけますか」とは言わず「何時にいらっしゃいますか」のように言うことが普通である。音象徴語彙（オノマトペ）.また、音象徴語、いわゆるオノマトペの語彙量も日本語には豊富である（オノマトペの定義は一定しないが、ここでは、擬声語・擬音語のように耳に聞こえるものを写した語と、擬態語のように耳に聞こえない状態・様子などを写した語の総称として用いる）。擬声語は、人や動物が立てる声を写したものである。擬態語の中で、心理を表す語を特に擬情語と称することもある。オノマトペ自体は多くの言語に存在する。たとえば猫の鳴き声は、英語でなどである。しかしながら、その語彙量は言語によって異なる。日本語のオノマトペは欧米語や中国語の3倍から5倍存在するといわれ、とりわけ擬態語が多く使われるとされる。新たなオノマトペが作られることもある。「オノマトペの例である。漫画などの媒体ではとりわけ自由にオノマトペが作られる。漫画家の手塚治虫は漫画を英訳してもらったところと記している。また漫画出版社社長の堀淵清治もアメリカで日本漫画を売るに当たり独特の擬音を訳すのにスタッフが悩んだことを述べている。日本語の語彙を品詞ごとにみると、圧倒的に多いものは名詞である。その残りのうちで比較的多いものは動詞である。の収録語の場合、名詞が82.37%、動詞が9.09%、副詞が2.46%、形容動詞が2.02%、形容詞が1.24%となっている。このうち、とりわけ目を引くのは形容詞・形容動詞の少なさである。かつて柳田國男はこの点を指摘して「形容詞饑饉」と称した。英語の場合、『オックスフォード英語辞典』第2版では、半分以上が名詞、約4分の1が形容詞、約7分の1が動詞ということであり、英語との比較の上からは、日本語の形容詞が僅少であることは特徴的といえる。ただし、これは日本語で物事を形容することが難しいことを意味するものではなく、他の形式による形容表現が多く存在する。例えばを伴う形式などが形容表現に用いられる。もともと少ない形容詞を補う主要な形式は形容動詞である。漢語外来語の輸入によっての形式の形容動詞が増大した。上掲ので名詞扱いになっている漢語外来語のうちにも形容動詞の用法を含むものが多数存在する。現代の二字漢語であり二字漢語の7%程度が形容動詞として用いられていることが分かる。それぞれの語はばらばらに存在しているのではなく意味用法などの点で互いに関連をもったグループを形成している。これを語彙体系と称する。日本語の語彙自体一つの大きな語彙体系といえるがその中にはさらに無数の語彙体系が含まれている。以下体系をなす語彙の典型的な例として指示語色彩語彙親族語彙を取り上げて論じる。日本語ではものを指示するために用いる語彙は一般にと呼ばれる4系列をなしている。これらの指示語にまたがるためここでは語彙体系の問題として論じる。「こそあど」の体系は、伝統的には「近称・中称・遠称・不定（ふじょう、ふてい）称」の名で呼ばれた。明治時代に、大槻文彦は以下のような表を示している。ここで、「近称」は最も近いもの、「中称」はやや離れたもの、「遠称」は遠いものを指すとされた。ところが、「そこ」などを「やや離れたもの」を指すと考えると、遠くにいる人に向かって「そこで待っていてくれ」と言うような場合を説明しがたい。また、自分の腕のように近くにあるものを指して、人に「そこをさすってください」と言うことも説明しがたいなどの欠点がある。佐久間鼎（かなえ）は、この点を改め、「こ」は「わ（＝自分）のなわばり」に属するもの、「そ」は「な（＝あなた）のなわばり」に属するもの、「あ」はそれ以外の範囲に属するものを指すとした。すなわち、体系は下記のようにまとめられた。このように整理すれば、上述ので表されることになる。この説明方法は、現在の学校教育の国語でも取り入れられている。とはいえ、すべての場合を佐久間説で割り切れるわけでもない。たとえば、道でと言うときも同様である。また、目の前にあるものを直接指示する場合とも、で示すものである。このように、指示語の意味体系は、詳細に見れば、なお研究の余地が多く残されている。なお、指示の体系は言語によって異なる。不定称を除いた場合、3系列をなす言語は日本語（こ、そ、あ）や朝鮮語（、、）などがある。一方、英語（、）や中国語（、）などは2系列をなす。日本人の英語学習者が「これ、それ、あれ」に「、、」を当てはめて考えることがあるが、「」は文脈指示の代名詞で系列が異なるため、混用することはできない。日本語で色彩を表す語彙（色彩語彙）は古来「アカ」「シロ」「アヲ」「クロ」の4語が基礎となっている。「アカ」は明るい色（明しの語源か）「シロ」は顕（あき）らかな色（白しの語源か）「アヲ」は漠然とした色（淡しの語源か）「クロ」は暗い色（暗しの語源か）を総称した。今日でもこの体系は基本的に変わっていない。葉の色空の色顔色などをいずれも「アオ」と表現するのはここに理由がある。文化人類学者のバーリンとケイの研究によれば種々の言語で最も広範に用いられている基礎的な色彩語彙は「白」と「黒」であり以下「赤」「緑」が順次加わるという。日本語の色彩語彙もほぼこの法則に合っているといってよい。このことは日本語を話す人々が4色しか識別しないということではない。特別の色を表す場合にはなど植物その他の一般名称を必要に応じて転用する。ただしこれらは基礎的な色彩語彙ではない。日本語の親族語彙は、比較的単純な体系をなしている。英語の基礎語彙で、同じ親から生まれた者を「」「」の2語のみで区別するのに比べれば、日本語では、男女・長幼によって「アニ」「アネ」「オトウト」「イモウト」の4語を区別し、より詳しい体系であるといえる（古代には、年上のみ「アニ」「アネ」と区別し、年下は「オト」と一括した）。しかしながら、たとえば中国語の親族語彙と比較すれば、はるかに単純である。中国語では、父親の父母を「」「」、母親の父母を「」「」と呼び分けるが、日本語では「ジジ」「ババ」の区別しかない。中国語では父の兄弟を「」「」、父の姉妹を「」、母の兄弟を「」、母の姉妹を「」などというが、日本語では「オジ」「オバ」のみである。「オジ」「オバ」の子はいずれも「イトコ」の名で呼ばれる。日本語でも、「伯父（はくふ）」「叔父（しゅくふ）」「従兄（じゅうけい）」「従姉（じゅうし）」などの語を文章語として用いることもあるが、これらは中国語からの借用語である。親族語彙を他人に転用する虚構的用法が多くの言語に存在する。例えば朝鮮語と呼びかける。日本語にもこの用法があり赤の他人をと呼ぶのが失礼になりうるのと同じく失礼にさえなるという。一族内で一番若い世代から見た名称で自分や他者を呼ぶことがあるのも各国語に見られる用法である。例えば、父親が自分自身を指してと呼んだりする用法である。この用法は、中国語・朝鮮語・モンゴル語・英語・フランス語・イタリア語・デンマーク語・チェコ語などを含め諸言語にある。日本語の語彙を出自から分類すれば、大きく、和語・漢語・外来語、およびそれらが混ざった混種語に分けられる。このように、出自によって分けた言葉の種類をという。和語は日本古来の大和言葉、漢語は中国渡来の漢字の音を用いた言葉、外来語は中国以外の他言語から取り入れた言葉である。もっとも、和語とされる「ウメ。和語は日本語の語彙の中核部分を占める。などの助詞や、助動詞の大部分など、文を組み立てるために必要な付属語も和語である。一方抽象的な概念や社会の発展に伴って新たに発生した概念を表すためには漢語や外来語が多く用いられる。和語の名称がすでにある事物を漢語や外来語で言い換えることもある。などと称するのはその例である。このような語種の異なる同義語には微妙な意味ニュアンスの差異が生まれとりわけ和語には易しいまたは卑俗な印象漢語には公的で重々しい印象外来語には新しい印象が含まれることが多い。一般に、和語の意味は広く、漢語の意味は狭いといわれる。たとえば、「しづむ（しずめる）」という1語の和語に、「沈」「鎮」「静」など複数の漢語の造語成分が相当する。「しづむ」の含む多様な意味は、「沈む」「鎮む」「静む」などと漢字を用いて書き分けるようになり、その結果、これらの「しづむ」が別々の語と意識されるまでになった。2字以上の漢字が組み合わさった漢語の表す意味はとりわけ分析的である。たとえば、「弱」という造語成分は、「脆」「貧」「軟」「薄」などの成分と結合することにより、「脆弱」「貧弱」「軟弱」「薄弱」のように分析的・説明的な単語を作る（「語彙史」の節の「漢語の勢力拡大」および「語彙の増加と品詞」を参照）。漢語は、「学問」「世界」「博士」などのように、古く中国から入ってきた語彙が大部分を占めるのは無論であるが、日本人が作った漢語（和製漢語）も古来多い。現代語としても、「国立」「改札」「着席」「挙式」「即答」「熱演」など多くの和製漢語が用いられている。漢語は音読みで読まれることから、字音語と呼ばれる場合もある。外来語は、もとの言語の意味のままで用いられるもの以外に、日本語に入ってから独自の意味変化を遂げるものが少なくない。英語の "claim" はといえば料理の種類を指す。外来語を組み合わせて、と言う。日本語の語彙は、語構成の面からは単純語と複合語に分けることができる。単純語は、のように複数の語種が合わさった語は、語構成の面からはすべて複合語ということになる。日本語では、限りなく長い複合語を作ることが可能である。などの語例がまれにある。接辞は、複合語を作るために威力を発揮する。たとえば、「感」は、「音感」「語感」「距離感」「不安感」など漢字2字・3字からなる複合語のみならず、「透け感」「懐かし感」「しゃきっと感」「きちんと感」など動詞・形容詞・副詞との複合語を作り、さらには「『昔の名前で出ています』感」（＝昔の名前で出ているという感じ）のように文であったものに下接して長い複合語を作ることもある。日本語の複合語は難しい語でも表記を見れば意味が分かる場合が多い。たとえば英語のであると推測できる。これは表記に漢字を用いる言語の特徴である。現代の日本語は漢字平仮名片仮名を用いて常用漢字現代仮名遣いに基づいて表記されることが一般的である。アラビア数字やローマ字なども必要に応じて併用される。正書法の必要性を説く主張やその反論がしばしば交わされてきた。平仮名・片仮名は、2017年9月現在では以下の46字ずつが使われる。このうち、の字が存在し、その他にも変体仮名がある。漢字は日常生活において必要とされる2136字の常用漢字と子の名づけに用いられる861字の人名用漢字が法で定められている。実際にはこれら以外にも一般に通用する漢字の数は多いとされ日本産業規格として約6300字を電算処理可能な漢字として挙げている。なお漢字の本家である中国においても同様の基準は存在し現代漢語常用字表によりとして1000字が定められている。これに加え現代漢語通用字表ではさらに3500字が追加されている。一般的な文章では、上記の漢字・平仮名・片仮名を交えて記すほか、アラビア数字・ローマ字なども必要に応じて併用する。基本的には、漢語には漢字を、和語のうち概念を表す部分（名詞や用言語幹など）には漢字を、形式的要素（助詞・助動詞など）や副詞・接続詞の一部には平仮名を、外来語（漢語以外）には片仮名を用いる場合が多い。公的な文書では特に表記法を規定している場合もあり、民間でもこれに倣うことがある。ただし、厳密な正書法はなく、表記のゆれは広く許容されている。文章の種類や目的によって、などの表記がありうる。多様な文字体系を交えて記す利点として、単語のまとまりが把握しやすく、速読性に優れるなどの点が指摘される。日本語の単純な音節構造に由来する同音異義語が漢字によって区別され、かつ字数も節約されるという利点もある。計算機科学者の村島定行は、日本語では、表意文字と表音文字の二重の文章表現ができるため、記憶したり、想起したりするのに手がかりが多く、言語としての機能が高いと指摘している。一方で中国文学者の高島俊男は、漢字の表意性に過度に依存した日本語の文章は、他の自然言語に類を見ないほどの同音異義語を用いざるを得なくなり、しばしば実用の上で支障を来たすことから、言語としてと評している。歴史上、漢字を廃止して、仮名またはローマ字を国字化しようという主張もあったが、広く実行されることはなかった。今日では漢字・平仮名・片仮名の交ぜ書きが標準的表記の地位をえている。日本語の表記体系は中央語を書き表すために発達したものであり、方言の音韻を表記するためには必ずしも適していない。たとえば、東北地方ではを のように発音するが、この両語を通常の仮名では書き分けられない。もっとも、方言は書き言葉として用いられることが少ないため、実際上に不便を来すことは少ない。岩手県気仙方言について山浦玄嗣により文法形式を踏まえた正書法が試みられているというような例もある。ただしこれは実用のためのものというよりは学術的な試みのひとつである。琉球語は伝統的な表記法では次のように記す。この表記法では、たとえば、がどちらも と発音されるように、かな表記と発音が一対一で対応しない場合が多々ある。表音的に記せば、 のようになるところである。漢字表記の面では、地域文字というべきものが各地に存在する。たとえば、名古屋市の地名などと読まれる国字で、中国地方ほかで定着しているという。文は目的や場面などに応じてさまざまな異なった様式を採る。この様式のことを書き言葉ではと称する。日本語では、とりわけ文末の助動詞・助詞などに文体差が顕著に現れる。このことは、などの名称に典型的に表れている。それぞれの文体・話体の差は大きいが、日本語話者は、複数の文体・話体を常に切り替えながら使用している。日本語の文体は、大きく普通体の2種類に分かれる。日本語話者は日常生活で両文体を適宜使い分ける。日本語学習者は、初めに丁寧体を、次に普通体を順次学習することが一般的である。普通体は相手を意識しないかのような文体であるため独語体と称し、丁寧体は相手を意識する文体であるため対話体と称することもある。普通体と丁寧体の違いは次のように現れる。普通体では文末に名詞形容動詞副詞などが来る場合にはと呼ぶこともある。丁寧体では、文末に名詞・形容動詞・副詞などが来る場合には、助動詞を避けることがある。談話の文体は話し手の性別年齢職業場面など位相の違いによって左右される部分が大きい。という丁寧体は話し手の属性によってたとえば次のような変容がある。このように異なる言葉遣いのそれぞれを位相語と言い、それぞれの差を位相差という。物語作品やメディアにおいて位相が極端にステレオタイプ化されて現実と乖離したりあるいは書き手などが仮想的。日本語では待遇表現が文法的語彙的な体系を形作っている。とりわけ相手に敬意を示す言葉において顕著である。と言われることがあるが、日本と同様に敬語が文法的・語彙的体系を形作っている言語としては、朝鮮語・ジャワ語・ベトナム語・チベット語・ベンガル語・タミル語などがあり、尊敬・謙譲・丁寧の区別もある。朝鮮語ではたとえば動詞「の形を持つ。敬語体系は無くとも、敬意を示す表現自体は、さまざまな言語に広く観察される。相手を敬い、物を丁寧に言うことは、発達した社会ならばどこでも必要とされる。そうした言い方を習得することは、どの言語でも容易でない。金田一京助などによれば、現代日本語の敬語に特徴的なのは次の2点である。朝鮮語など他の言語の敬語ではたとえば自分の父親はいかなる状況でも敬意表現の対象であり他人に彼のことを話す場合も「私のお父様は…」という絶対的敬語を用いるが日本語では自分の身内に対する敬意を他人に表現することは憚られ「私の父は…」のように表現しなければならない。ただし皇室では絶対敬語が存在し皇太子は自分の父親のことを「天皇陛下は…」と表現する。どんな言語も敬意を表す表現を持っているが、日本語や朝鮮語などはそれが文法体系となっているため、表現・言語行動のあらゆる部分に、高度に組織立った体系が出来上がっている。そのため、敬意の種類や度合いに応じた表現の選択肢が予め用意されており、常にそれらの中から適切な表現を選ばなくてはならない。以下日本語の敬語体系および敬意表現について述べる。日本語の敬語体系は一般に大きく尊敬語謙譲語丁寧語に分類される。文化審議会国語分科会は2007年2月に「敬語の指針」を答申しこれに丁重語および美化語を含めた5分類を示している。尊敬語は、動作の主体を高めることで、主体への敬意を表す言い方である。動詞になどが用いられる。語によっては、特定の尊敬語が対応するものもある。たとえば、である。謙譲語は古代から基本的に動作の客体への敬意を表す言い方であり現代ではなどが用いられる。語によっては特定の謙譲語が対応するものもある。たとえばである。なお、「夜も更けてまいりました」の「まいり」など、謙譲表現のようでありながら、誰かを低めているわけではない表現がある。これは、「夜も更けてきた」という話題を丁重に表現することによって、聞き手への敬意を表すものである。宮地裕は、この表現に使われる語を、特に「丁重語」と称している。丁重語にはほかに「いたし（マス）」「申し（マス）」「存じ（マス）」「小生」「小社」「弊社」などがある。文化審議会の「敬語の指針」でも、「明日から海外へまいります」の「まいり」のように、相手とは関りのない自分側の動作を表現する言い方を丁重語としている。丁寧語は、文末を丁寧にすることで、聞き手への敬意を表すものである。動詞・形容詞の終止形で終わる常体に対して、名詞・形容動詞語幹などにを付けた形等の丁寧語を用いた文体を敬体という。一般に目上の人には丁寧語を用い同等目下の人には丁寧語を用いないといわれる。しかし実際の言語生活に照らして考えればこれは事実ではない。母が子を叱るときと丁寧語を用いる場合もある。丁寧語が用いられる多くの場合は敬意や謝意の表現とされるが稀に一歩引いた心理的な距離をとろうとする場合もある。日本語で敬意を表現するためには、文法・語彙の敬語要素を知っているだけではなお不十分であり、時や場合など種々の要素に配慮した適切な表現が必要である。これを敬意表現（敬語表現）ということがある。婉曲表現の一部は、敬意表現としても用いられる。たとえば、相手に窓を開けてほしい場合は、命令表現によらずに、とだけ言って、窓を開けてほしい気持ちを含意することもある。日本人が商取引で「考えさせてもらいます」という場合は拒絶の意味であると言われる。英語でも （誘ってくれてありがとう）とは誘いを断る表現である。また京都では京都弁で帰りがけの客にその気がないのに「ぶぶづけ（お茶漬け）でもあがっておいきやす」と愛想を言うとされる（出典は落語「京のぶぶづけ」「京の茶漬け」よるという）。これらは相手の気分を害さないように工夫した表現という意味では広義の敬意表現と呼ぶべきものであるがその呼吸が分からない人との間に誤解を招くおそれもある。日本語には多様な方言がみられそれらはいくつかの方言圏にまとめることができる。どのような方言圏を想定するかは区画するために用いる指標によって少なからず異なる。1967年の相互理解可能性の調査より、関東地方出身者に最も理解しにくい方言はでした。この調査は、12〜20秒の長さ、135〜244の音素の老人の録音に基づいており、42名若者が聞いて翻訳した。受験者は関東地方で育った慶應大学の学生でした。東条操は、全国で話されている言葉を大きく東部方言・西部方言・九州方言および琉球方言に分けている。またそれらは、北海道・東北・関東・八丈島・東海東山・北陸・近畿・中国・雲伯とする立場と、独立言語として琉球語とする立場とがある。また金田一春彦は近畿四国を主とする内輪方言関東中部中国九州北部の一部を主とする中輪方言北海道東北九州の大部分を主とする外輪方言沖縄地方を主とする南島方言に分類した。この分類はアクセントや音韻文法の特徴が畿内を中心に輪を描くことに着目したものである。このほか幾人かの研究者により方言区画案が示されている。一つの方言区画の内部も変化に富んでいる。たとえば、奈良県は近畿方言の地域に属するが、十津川村や下北山村周辺ではその地域だけ東京式アクセントが使われ、さらに下北山村池原にはまた別体系のアクセントがあって東京式の地域に取り囲まれている。香川県観音寺市伊吹町。これらは特に顕著な特徴を示す例であるが、どのような狭い地域にも、その土地としての言葉の体系がある。したがって、ものである。一般に、方言差が話題になるときには、文法の東西の差異が取り上げられることが多い。東部方言と西部方言との間には、およそ次のような違いがある。否定辞に東で「ナイ」、西で「ン」を用いる。完了形には、東で「テル」を、西で「トル」を用いる。断定には、東で「ダ」を、西で「ジャ」または「ヤ」を用いる。アワ行五段活用の動詞連用形は、東では「カッタ（買）」と促音便に、西では「コータ」とウ音便になる。形容詞連用形は、東では「ハヤク（ナル）」のように非音便形を用いるが、西では「ハヨー（ナル）」のようにウ音便形を用いるなどである。方言の東西対立の境界は、画然と引けるものではなく、どの特徴を取り上げるかによって少なからず変わってくる。しかし、おおむね、日本海側は新潟県西端の糸魚川市、太平洋側は静岡県浜名湖が境界線とされることが多い。糸魚川西方には難所親不知があり、その南には日本アルプスが連なって東西の交通を妨げていたことが、東西方言を形成した一因とみられる。日本語のアクセントは、方言ごとの違いが大きい。日本語のアクセント体系はいくつかの種類に分けられるが、特に広範囲で話され話者数も多いのは東京式アクセントと京阪式アクセントの2つである。東京式アクセントは下がり目の位置のみを弁別するが、京阪式アクセントは下がり目の位置に加えて第1拍の高低を弁別する。一般にはアクセントの違いは日本語の東西の違いとして語られることが多いが、実際の分布は単純な東西対立ではなく、東京式アクセントは概ね北海道、東北地方北部、関東地方西部、甲信越地方、東海地方の大部分、中国地方、四国地方南西部、九州北東部に分布しており、京阪式アクセントは近畿地方・四国地方のそれぞれ大部分と北陸地方の一部に分布している。すなわち、近畿地方を中心とした地域に京阪式アクセント地帯が広がり、その東西を東京式アクセント地域が挟む形になっている。日本語の標準語・共通語のアクセントは、東京の山の手言葉のものを基盤にしているため東京式アクセントである。九州西南部や沖縄の一部には型の種類が2種類になっている二型アクセントが分布し、宮崎県都城市などには型の種類が1種類になっている一型アクセントが分布する。また、岩手県雫石町や山梨県早川町奈良田などのアクセントは、音の下がり目ではなく上がり目を弁別する。これら有アクセントの方言に対し、東北地方南部から関東地方北東部にかけての地域や、九州の東京式アクセント地帯と二型アクセント地帯に挟まれた地域などには、話者にアクセントの知覚がなく、どこを高くするという決まりがない無アクセントの地域がある。これらのアクセント大区分の中にも様々な変種があり、さらにそれぞれの体系の中間型や別派なども存在する。と発音される。このように、ある地方で同じアクセントの型にまとめられる語群は、他の地方でも同じ型に属することが一般的に観察される。この事実は日本の方言アクセントが過去の同一のアクセント体系から分かれ出たことを意味する。服部四郎はこれを原始日本語のアクセントと称しこれが分岐し互いに反対の方向に変化して東京式と京阪式を生じたと考えた。現在有力な説は院政期の京阪式アクセントもある。発音の特徴によって本土方言を大きく区分すると表日本方言裏日本方言薩隅ととんで島根県出雲地方を中心とした地域に分布する。その特徴はイ段とウ段の母音に中舌母音を用いることとエが狭くイに近いことである。関東のうち千葉県や埼玉県東部などと越後中部佐渡富山県石川県能登の方言は裏日本式と表日本式の中間である。また薩隅式方言は大量の母音脱落により閉音節を多く持っている点で他方言と対立している。薩隅方言以外の九州の方言は薩隅式と表日本式の中間である。音韻の面では、母音のを、東日本、北陸、出雲付近では中舌寄りで非円唇母音の または で、西日本一般では奥舌で円唇母音の で発音する。また、母音は、東日本や北陸、出雲付近、九州で無声化しやすく、東海、近畿、中国、四国では無声化しにくい。またこれとは別に、近畿・四国（・北陸）とそれ以外での対立がある。前者は京阪式アクセントの地域であるが、この地域ではアクセント以外にも、「木」を「きい」、「目」を「めえ」のように一音節語を伸ばして二拍に発音し、また「赤い」→「あけー」のような連母音の融合が起こらないという共通点がある。また、西日本（九州・山陰・北陸除く）は母音を強く子音を弱く発音し、東日本や九州は子音を強く母音を弱く発音する傾向がある。母音の数は奈良時代およびそれ以前には現在よりも多かったと考えられる。橋本進吉は江戸時代の上代特殊仮名遣いの研究を再評価し記紀や『万葉集』などの万葉仮名において「きひみけへめこそとのもよろ」の表記に2種類の仮名が存在することを指摘した（甲類乙類と称する。「も」は『古事記』のみで区別される）。橋本はこれらの仮名の区別は音韻上の区別に基づくもので特に母音の差によるものと考えた。橋本の説は後続の研究者らによって「母音の数がアイウエオ五つでなく合計八を数えるもの」という8母音説と受け取られ定説化した（異説として服部四郎の6母音説などがある）。8母音の区別は平安時代にはなくなり現在のように5母音になったとみられる。なお上代日本語の語彙では母音の出現の仕方がウラル語族やアルタイ語族の母音調和の法則に類似しているとされる。は になった。現代でも引き続きこのように発音されている。平安時代以降、語中・語尾の「は行」音が「わ行」音に変化するハ行転呼が起こった。たとえば、「かは（川）」「かひ（貝）」「かふ（買）」「かへ（替）」「かほ（顔）」は、それまで であったものが、 になった。「はは（母）」も、キリシタン資料では「faua」（ハワ）と記された例があるなど、他の語と同様にハ行転呼が起こっていたことが知られる。このように、を唇を丸めて発音するのに対し、関東では唇を丸めずに発音するが、これも唇音退化の例ととらえることができる。の発音はともに になっていた。が同一に帰した。3が同音になったのは11世紀末頃1と2が同音になったのは12世紀末頃と考えられている。藤原定家のではの仮名の書き分けが問題になっている。当時の発音は、1は現在の のようであった。3が現在のように になったのは江戸時代であったとみられる。18世紀のではと発音しないように説いている。2が現在のように 以降、の記述からすれば18世紀中葉頃とみられる。のように書くこともある。に当たる であったことも分かっている。関東では室町時代末にすでに の発音であったがこれはやがて西日本にも広がり19世紀中頃には京都でも一般化した。現在は東北や九州などの一部に が残っている。平安時代から発音を簡便にするために単語の音を変える音便現象が少しずつ見られるようになった。とするなどのイ音便の例も見出される。鎌倉時代以降になると音便は口語では盛んに用いられるようになった。鎌倉時代・室町時代には連声と前の部分とが連声を起こすと、となった。また、この時代には、 の音が になったになった。京都では、一般の話し言葉では17世紀に開合の区別は失われた。しかし方言によっては今も開合の区別が残っているものもある。漢語が日本で用いられるようになると、古来の日本に無かった合拗音が一般化した。ただし一部の方言には今も残っている。漢語は平安時代頃までは原語である中国語に近く発音され日本語の音韻体系とは別個のものと意識されていた。入声韻尾の 鼻音韻尾の なども原音にかなり忠実に発音されていたと見られる。鎌倉時代には漢字音の日本語化が進行し はウに統合され韻尾の と の混同も13世紀に一般化し撥音の に統合された。入声韻尾の は開音節化してキクと発音されるようになり も などの語形が記録されている。江戸時代に入ると開音節の形が完全に一般化した。近代以降には、外国語の音の影響で新しい音が使われ始めた。比較的一般化したのように、これまで無かった音は、書き言葉では書き分けても、実際に発音されることは少ない。動詞の活用種類は平安時代には9種類であった。すなわち四段上一段上二段下一段下二段カ変サ変ナ変ラ変に分かれていた。これが時代とともに統合され江戸時代には5種類に減った。上二段は上一段に下二段は下一段にそれぞれ統合されナ変は四段に統合された。これらの変化は古代から中世にかけて個別的に起こった例もあるが顕著になったのは江戸時代に入ってからのことである。ただしナ変は近代に入ってもなお使用されることがあった。このうち最も規模の大きな変化は二段活用の一段化である。二段→一段の統合は室町時代末期の京阪地方ではまだまれであった」のようにの1段だけで活用するようになった。しかもこの変化の過程では終止連体形の合一が起こっているため鎌倉室町時代頃には前後の時代とは異なった活用の仕方になっている。次に時代ごとの活用を対照した表を掲げる。形容詞は、平安時代にはのシク活用が存在した。この区別は、終止・連体形の合一とともに消滅し、形容詞の活用種類は一つになった。今日では文法用語の上で四段活用が五段活用（実質的には同じ）と称され已然形が仮定形と称されるようになったものの活用の種類および活用形は基本的に江戸時代と同様である。かつての日本語には、係り結びと称される文法規則があった。文中の特定の語を「ぞ」「なむ」「や」「か」「こそ」などの係助詞で受け、かつまた、文末を連体形（「ぞ」「なむ」「や」「か」の場合）または已然形（「こそ」の場合）で結ぶものである（奈良時代には、「こそ」も連体形で結んだ）。係り結びをどう用いるかによって、文全体の意味に明確な違いが出た。たとえば、「山里は、冬、寂しさ増さりけり」という文において、「冬」という語を「ぞ」で受けると、「山里は冬ぞ寂しさ増さりける」（『古今集』）という形になり、「山里で寂しさが増すのは、ほかでもない冬だ」と告知する文になる。また仮に、「山里」を「ぞ」で受けると、「山里ぞ冬は寂しさ増さりける」という形になり、「冬に寂しさが増すのは、ほかでもない山里だ」と告知する文になる。ところが、中世には、などの係助詞は次第に形式化の度合いを強め、単に上の語を強調する意味しか持たなくなった。そうなると、係助詞を使っても、文末を連体形または已然形で結ばない例も見られるようになる。また、逆に、係助詞を使わないのに、文末が連体形で結ばれる例も多くなってくる。こうして、係り結びは次第に崩壊していった。今日の口語文には、規則的な係り結びは存在しない。ただし、のような形で化石的に残っている。活用語のうち四段活用以外の動詞形容詞形容動詞および多くの助動詞は平安時代には終止形と連体形とが異なる形態を採っていた。たとえば動詞は「対面す。」（終止形）と「対面する（とき）」（連体形）のようであった。ところが係り結びの形式化とともに上に係助詞がないのに文末を連体形止め（「対面する。」）にする例が多く見られるようになった。たとえば『源氏物語』にはなどの言い方があるが、本来ならばの形で終止すべきものである。このような例は中世には一般化した。その結果動詞形容詞および助動詞は形態上連体形と終止形との区別がなくなった。形容動詞は終止形連体形活用語尾がともにとなっている。このことは用言の活用に連体形終止形の両形を区別すべき根拠の一つとなっている。文語の終止形が化石的に残っている場合もある。文語の助動詞といった形で使われている。今日、のような語形で用いられるようになった。これらの可能動詞は、江戸時代前期の上方でも用いられ、後期の江戸では普通に使われるようになった。従来の日本語にもなどの可能動詞が出来上がったものと考えられる。近代以降、とりわけ大正時代以降には、この語法を四段動詞のみならず一段動詞にも及ぼす、いわゆるという類である。この語法は、地方によっては早く一般化し、第二次世界大戦後には全国的に顕著になっている。受け身の表現において人物以外が主語になる例は近代以前には乏しい。もともと日本語の受け身表現は自分の意志ではどうにもならないにとある例などは受け身表現と解することもできるがむしろ自然の状態を観察して述べたものというべきものである。一方のような言い方は古くは存在しなかったと見られる。これらの受け身は状態を表すものではなく事物が人から働き掛けを受けたことを表すものである。式の受け身は英語などの欧文脈を取り入れる中で広く用いられるようになったと見られる。明治時代にはのような欧文風の受け身が用いられている。漢字（中国語の語彙）が日本語の中に入り始めたのはかなり古く文献の時代にさかのぼると考えられる。今日和語と扱われる「ウメ（梅）」「ウマ（馬）」なども元々は漢語からの借用語であった可能性もあるが上古漢字の場合馬と梅の発音は違う。異民族が中国をよく支配してから漢語の発音は変わっていた。中国の文物思想の流入や仏教の普及などにつれて漢語は徐々に一般の日本語に取り入れられていった。鎌倉時代最末期のの見出し語でも漢語はなお25%ほどに止まっている。漢字がよく使われるようになったのは幕末から明治時代にかけてである。その他、西洋の文物を漢語により翻訳したなどと言っていたという。漢字は今もよく使っている。雑誌調査では、延べ語数・異なり語数ともに和語を上回り、全体の半数近くに及ぶまでになっている。漢字を除き他言語の語彙を借用することは古代にはそれほど多くなかった。このうち梵語の語彙は多く漢語に取り入れられた後に仏教と共に日本に伝えられた。なども梵語由来であるとされる。西洋語が輸入され始めたのは、中世にキリシタン宣教師が来日した時期以降である。室町時代には、ポルトガル語からなどのスペイン語が用いられるようになった。また江戸時代には蘭学などの興隆とともになどのオランダ語が伝えられた。幕末から明治時代以後には、英語を中心とする外来語が急増した。などという英語が多く出てくる。このような語のうち、日本語として定着した語も多い。第二次世界大戦が激しくなるにつれて外来語を禁止または自粛する風潮も起こったが戦後はアメリカ発の外来語が爆発的に多くなった。現在では報道交通機関通信技術の発達により新しい外来語が瞬時に広まる状況が生まれている。雑誌調査では異なり語数で外来語が30%を超えるという結果が出ており現代語彙の中で欠くことのできない存在となっている。漢語が日本語に取り入れられた結果、名詞・サ変動詞・形容動詞の語彙が特に増大することになった。漢語は活用しない語であり、本質的には体言として用いることができた。漢語により厳密な概念を簡潔に表現することが可能になった。一般に和語は一語が広い意味で使われる。たとえばなどの形容動詞によって厳密に表現することができるようになった。外来語は、漢語ほど高い造語力を持たないものの、漢語と同様に、特に名詞・サ変動詞・形容動詞の部分で日本語の語彙を豊富にした。「インキ」「バケツ」「テーブル」など名詞として用いられるほか、「する」を付けて「スケッチする」「サービスする」などのサ変動詞として、また、「だ」をつけて「ロマンチックだ」「センチメンタルだ」などの形容動詞として用いられるようになった。漢語外来語の増加によって形容詞と形容動詞の勢力が逆転した。元来和語には形容詞形容動詞ともに少なかったが数の上では形容詞が形容表現の中心であり形容動詞がそれを補う形であった。でも名詞42.5%動詞44.6%形容詞5.3%形容動詞5.1%であった。ただし一方で漢語外来語に由来する名詞サ変動詞なども増えているため語彙全体から見ればなお形容詞形容動詞の割合は少ない。形容詞の造語力は今日ではほとんど失われており近代以降のみ確例のある新しい形容詞は「甘酸っぱい」「黄色い」「四角い」「粘っこい」などわずかにすぎない。一方形容動詞は今日に至るまで高い造語力を保っている。特に「科学的だ」「人間的だ」など接尾語「的」を付けた語の大多数や「エレガントだ」「クリーンだ」など外来語に由来するものは近代以降の新語である。しかも新しい形容動詞の多くは漢語外来語を語幹とするものである。現代雑誌の調査によれば形容動詞で語種のはっきりしているもののうち和語は2割ほどであり漢語は3割強外来語は4割強という状況である。元来日本に文字と呼べるものはなく言葉を表記するためには中国渡来の漢字を用いたは純漢文で記されている。このような史料から大和政権の勢力伸長とともに漢字使用域も拡大されたことが推測される。6世紀～7世紀になると儒教仏教道教などについて漢文を読む必要が出てきたため識字層が広がった。漢字で和歌などの大和言葉を記す際、「波都波流能。9世紀には万葉仮名の字体をより崩したが生まれさらに草仮名をより崩した平仮名の誕生をみるに至った。これによって初めて日本語を自由に記すことが可能になった。平仮名を自在に操った王朝文学は10世紀初頭のなどの物語作品群で頂点を迎えた。僧侶や学者らが漢文を訓読する際には、漢字の隅に点を打ち、その位置によってなどの助詞その他を表すことがあった。しかし、次第に万葉仮名を添えて助詞などを示すことが一般化した。やがて、それらは、字画の省かれた簡略な片仮名になった。平仮名も、片仮名も、発生当初から、1つの音価に対して複数の文字が使われていた。たとえば、にが出され、小学校で教える仮名は1字1音に整理された。これ以降使われなくなった仮名を、今日では変体仮名と呼んでいる。変体仮名は、現在でも料理屋の名などに使われることがある。平安時代までは、発音と仮名はほぼ一致していた。その後、発音の変化に伴って、発音と仮名とが1対1の対応をしなくなった。たとえば、のいずれにすべきか、判断の基準が不明になってしまった。ここに、仮名をどう使うかという仮名遣いの問題が発生した。その時々の知識人は仮名遣いについての規範を示すこともあったが。また従う者も歌人国学者などある種のグループに限られていた。万人に用いられる仮名遣い規範は明治に学校教育が始まるまで待たなければならなかった。漢字の字数字体および仮名遣いについては近代以降たびたび改定が議論されまた実施に移されてきた。仮名遣いについては早く小学校令施行規則はこの棒引き仮名遣いに従った。しかしこれは評判が悪く規則の改正とともに次期1910年の教科書から元の仮名遣いに戻った。第二次世界大戦後の1946年にはが内閣告示された。これに伴い一部の漢字の字体に略字体が採用されそれまでの歴史的仮名遣いによる学校教育は廃止された。1946年および1950年の米教育使節団報告書では、国字のローマ字化について勧告および示唆が行われ、国語審議会でも議論されたが、実現しなかった。1948年には、GHQの民間情報教育局 の指示による読み書き能力調査が行われた。漢字が日本人の識字率を抑えているとの考え方に基づく調査であったが、その結果は、調査者の予想に反して日本人の識字率は高水準であったことが判明した。1981年には、当用漢字表・現代かなづかいの制限色を薄めたが内閣告示され、今日に至っている。戦後の国語政策は、必ずしも定見に支えられていたとはいえず、今に至るまで議論が続いている。平安時代までは、朝廷で用いる公の書き言葉は漢文であった。これはベトナム・朝鮮半島などと同様である。当初漢文は中国語音で読まれたとみられるが、日本語と中国語の音韻体系は相違が大きいため、この方法はやがて廃れ、日本語の文法・語彙を当てはめて訓読されるようになった。いわば、漢文を日本語に直訳しながら読むものであった。漢文訓読の習慣に伴い漢文に日本語特有のと呼ばれる。漢文の読み添えには片仮名が用いられるようになり、やがてこれが本文中に進出して、漢文訓読体を元にしたのように、漢文訓読に用いられるものが多いことが特徴である。一方、平安時代の宮廷文学の文体は、基本的に和語を用いるものであって、漢語は少ない。また、漢文訓読に使う言い回しもあまりない。たとえば、漢文訓読ふうので始まるの文体は典型例の一つである。両者の文体はやがて合わさり『平家物語』に見られるような和漢混淆文が完成した。ここではといった和文の語彙言い回しも使われている。今日、最も普通に用いられる文章は、和語と漢語を適度に交えた一種の和漢混淆文である。というような和語の多い文章とを、適宜混ぜ合わせ、あるいは使い分けながら文章を綴っている。話し言葉は時代と共にきわめて大きな変化を遂げるがそれに比べて書き言葉は変化の度合いが少ない。そのため何百年という間には話し言葉と書き言葉の差が生まれる。日本語の書き言葉がひとまず成熟したのは平安時代中期であり、その頃は書き言葉・話し言葉の差は大きくなかったと考えられる。しかしながら、中世のキリシタン資料のうち、語り口調で書かれているものを見ると、書き言葉と話し言葉とにはすでに大きな開きが生まれていたことが窺える。江戸時代の洒落本・滑稽本の類では、会話部分は当時の話し言葉が強く反映され、地の部分の書き言葉では古来の文法に従おうとした文体が用いられている。両者の違いは明らかである。明治時代の書き言葉は依然として古典文法に従おうとしていたが単語には日常語を用いた文章も現れた。こうした書き言葉は一般にと称された。普通文は以下のように小学校の読本でも用いられた。普通文は、厳密には、古典文法そのままではなく、新しい言い方も多く混じっていた。たとえば、16条を告示した。一方、明治20年代頃から、二葉亭四迷・山田美妙ら文学者を中心に、書き言葉を話し言葉に近づけようとする努力が重ねられた。二葉亭は体といわれる文章をそれぞれ試みた。このような試みが広まる中で、新聞・雑誌の記事なども話し言葉に近い文体が多くなっていく。古来の伝統的文法に従った文章を文語文、話し言葉を反映した文章を口語文という。第二次世界大戦後は、法律文などの公文書ももっぱら口語文で書かれるようになり、文語文は日常生活の場から遠のいた。日本語は文献時代に入ったときにはすでに方言差があった。『万葉集』の巻14「東歌」や巻20「防人歌」には当時の東国方言による歌が記録されている。820年頃成立の『東大寺諷誦文稿』には「此当国方言毛人方言飛騨方言東国方言」という記述が見えこれが国内文献で用いられた「方言」という語の最古例とされる。平安初期の中央の人々の方言観が窺える貴重な記録である。平安時代から鎌倉時代にかけては中央の文化的影響力が圧倒的であったため方言に関する記述は断片的なものにとどまったが室町時代とりわけ戦国時代には中央の支配力が弱まり地方の力が強まった結果地方文献に方言を反映したものがしばしば現われるようになった。洞門抄物と呼ばれる東国系の文献が有名であるが古文書類にもしばしば方言が登場するようになる。安土桃山時代から江戸時代極初期にかけてはポルトガル人の宣教師が数多くのキリシタン資料を残しているがその中に各地の方言を記録したものがある。京都のことばを中心に据えながらも九州方言を多数採録したはその代表である。この時期には琉球方言が質量ともに他を圧倒している。奈良時代以来、江戸幕府が成立するまで、近畿方言が中央語の地位にあった。朝廷から徳川家へ征夷大将軍の宣下がなされて以降、江戸文化が開花するとともに、江戸語の地位が高まり、明治時代には東京語が日本語の標準語と見なされるようになった。明治政府の成立後は、政治的・社会的に全国的な統一を図るため、また、近代国家として外国に対するため、言葉の統一・標準化が求められるようになった。学校教育では「東京の中流社会」の言葉が採用され、放送でも同様の言葉が「共通用語」（共通語）とされた。こうして標準語の規範意識が確立していくにつれ、方言を矯正しようとする動きが広がった。教育家の伊沢修二は、教員向けに書物を著して東北方言の矯正法を説いた。地方の学校では方言を話した者に首から「方言札」を下げさせるなどの罰則も行われた。軍隊では命令伝達に支障を来さないよう、初等教育の段階で共通語の使用が指導された。一方、戦後になると各地の方言が失われつつあることが危惧されるようになった。NHK放送文化研究所は、各地の純粋な方言は80歳以上の老人の間でのみ使われているにすぎないとして、1953年から5年計画で全国の方言の録音を行った。この録音調査には、柳田邦夫、東条操、岩淵悦太郎、金田一春彦など言語学者らが指導にあたった。また、経済成長とともに地方から都市への人口流入が始まると、標準語と方言の軋轢が顕在化した。1950年代後半から、地方出身者が自分の言葉を笑われたことによる自殺・事件が相次いだ。このような情勢を受けて、方言の矯正教育もなお続けられた。鎌倉市立腰越小学校では、1960年代に、など関東方言特有の語尾をつけないようにしようとする運動が始められた。同趣の運動は全国に広がった。高度成長後になると、方言に対する意識に変化が見られるようになった。1980年代初めのアンケート調査では、が解消に向かい、方言を大切にしようという気運が盛り上がった。1990年代以降は、若者が言葉遊びの感覚で方言を使うことに注目が集まるようになった。1995年にはラップなどの方言替え歌が話題を呼び、報道記事にも取り上げられた。首都圏出身の都内大学生を対象とした調査では、東京の若者の間にも関西方言が浸透していることが観察されるという。2005年頃には、東京の女子高生たちの間でも「でら。方言学の世界では、かつては、標準語の確立に資するための研究が盛んであったが、今日の方言研究は、必ずしもそのような視点のみによって行われてはいない。中央語の古形が方言に残ることは多く、方言研究が中央語の史的研究に資することはいうまでもない。しかし、それにとどまらず、個々の方言の研究は、それ自体、独立した学問と捉えることができる。山浦玄嗣の研究に見られるように、研究者が自らの方言に誇りを持ち、日本語とは別個の言語として研究するという立場も生まれている。日本人自身が日本語に関心を寄せてきた歴史は長く、の記述にも語源・用字法・助字などについての関心が垣間見られる。古来、さまざまな分野の人々によって日本語研究が行われてきたが、とりわけ、江戸時代に入ってからは、秘伝にこだわらない自由な学風が起こり、客観的・実証的な研究が深められた。近代に西洋の言語学が輸入される以前に、日本語の基本的な性質はほぼ明らかになっていたといっても過言ではない。以下では、江戸時代以前・以後に分けて概説し、さらに近代について付説する。江戸時代以前の日本語研究の流れは大きく分けて3分野あった。中国語（漢語）学者による研究悉曇（しったん）学者による研究歌学者による研究である。中国語との接触、すなわち漢字の音節構造について学習することにより、日本語の相対的な特徴が意識されるようになった。『古事記』には「淤能碁呂嶋自淤以下四字以音」（オノゴロ嶋〈淤より以下の四字は音を以ゐよ〉）のような音注がしばしば付けられているが、これは漢字を借字として用い、中国語で表せない日本語の固有語を1音節ずつ漢字で表記したものである。こうした表記法を通じて、日本語の音節構造が自覚されるようになったと考えられる。また漢文の訓読により、中国語にない助詞・助動詞の要素が意識されるようになり、漢文を読み下す際に必要な「て」「に」「を」「は」などの要素は、当初は点を漢字に添えることで表現していたのが（ヲコト点）、後に借字、さらに片仮名が用いられるようになった。これらの要素は「てにをは」の名で一括され、後に一つの研究分野となった。日本語の1音1音を借字で記すようになった当初は、音韻組織全体に対する意識はまだ弱かったが、後にあらゆる仮名を1回ずつ集めて誦文にしたものが成立している。平安時代初期にとして用いられ、また仮名の手本としても人々の間に一般化している。一方、悉曇学の研究により、梵語。最古の五十音図は、平安時代末期の悉曇学者明覚のにおいて、梵語の発音を説明するために日本語の例を多く引用し、日本語の音韻組織への関心を見せている。歌学は平安時代以降、大いに興隆した。和歌の実作および批評のための学問であったが、正当な語彙・語法を使用することへの要求から、日本語の古語に関する研究や、の研究、さらに仮名遣いへの研究に繋がった。このうち古語の研究では語と語の関係を音韻論的に説明することが試みられた。たとえば顕昭の『袖中抄』では「七夕つ女（たなばたつめ）」の語源は「たなばたつま」だとして（これ自体は誤り）「『ま』と『め』とは同じ五音（＝五十音の同じ行）なる故也」と説明している。このように「五音相通（五十音の同じ行で音が相通ずること）」や「同韻相通（五十音の同じ段で音が相通ずること）」などの説明が多用されるようになった。の用法をより詳細に論じている。仮名遣いについては鎌倉時代の初め頃に藤原定家がこれを問題とし定家はその著作を著した頃日本語にアクセントの一大変化がありの音を含む語彙に関しても定家の時代とはアクセントの高低が異なってしまった。その結果の仮名遣いについては定家が示したものとは齟齬を生じている。なお「お」と「を」の発音上の区別が無くなっていたことで五十音図においても鎌倉時代以来「お」と「を」とは位置が逆転した誤った図が用いられていた（すなわち「あいうえを」「わゐうゑお」となっていた）。これが正されるのは江戸時代に本居宣長が登場してからのことである。外国人による日本語研究も中世末期から近世前期にかけて多く行われた。イエズス会では日本語とポルトガル語の辞書といった日本語学習書が編纂された。日本語の研究が高い客観性実証性を備えるようになったのは江戸時代の契沖の研究以来のことである。契沖は『万葉集』の注釈を通じて仮名遣いについて詳細に観察を行い『和字正濫抄』（1695年）を著した。この書により古代は語ごとに仮名遣いが決まっていたことが明らかにされた。契沖自身もその仮名遣いを実行した。すなわち後世歴史的仮名遣いと称される仮名遣いである。契沖の掲出した見出し語は後に楫取魚彦編の仮名遣い辞書『古言梯（こげんてい）』（1765年）で増補され村田春海『仮字拾要（かなしゅうよう）』で補完された。古語の研究では松永貞徳の『和句解を著しの部分は鳴き声であることを示すなど興味深い考え方を示している。本居宣長は仮名遣いの研究および文法の研究で非常な功績があった。まず仮名遣いの分野では『字音仮字用格で検証した。また、宣長は、文法の研究、とりわけ、係り結びの研究で成果を上げた。係り結びの一覧表である『ひも鏡』（1771年）をまとめ、『詞の玉緒』（1779年）で詳説した。文中に「ぞ・の・や・何」が来た場合には文末が連体形、「こそ」が来た場合は已然形で結ばれることを示したのみならず、「は・も」および「徒（ただ＝主格などに助詞がつかない場合）」の場合は文末が終止形になることを示した。主格などに「は・も」などが付いた場合に文末が終止形になるのは当然のようであるが、必ずしもそうでない。主格を示す「が・の」が来た場合は、「君が思ほせりける」（万葉集）「にほひの袖にとまれる」（古今集）のように文末が連体形で結ばれるのであるから、あえて「は・も・徒」の下が終止形で結ばれることを示したことは重要である。品詞研究で成果を上げたのは富士谷成章」は動詞形容詞の活用を整理した表で後の研究に資するところが大きかった。活用の研究は、その後、鈴木朖のを著し、これで日本語の活用は、全貌がほぼ明らかになった。このほか、江戸時代で注目すべき研究としては、石塚龍麿のがある。万葉集の仮名に2種の書き分けが存在することを示したものであったが、長らく正当な扱いを受けなかった。後に橋本進吉が上代特殊仮名遣いの先駆的研究として再評価した。江戸時代後期から明治時代にかけて、西洋の言語学が紹介され、日本語研究は新たな段階を迎えた。もっとも、西洋の言語に当てはまる理論を無批判に日本語に応用することで、かえってこれまでの蓄積を損なうような研究も少なくなかった。こうした中で、古来の日本語研究と西洋言語学とを吟味して文法をまとめたのが大槻文彦であった。大槻は、日本語辞書『言海』の中で文法論「語法指南」を記し（1889年）、後にこれを独立、増補して『広日本文典』（1897年）とした。その後、高等教育の普及とともに、日本語研究者の数は増大した。東京帝国大学には国語研究室が置かれ、ドイツ帰りの上田万年が初代主任教授として指導的役割を果たした。以下、第二次世界大戦後に至るまで、日本語学者を挙げる。近代以降、台湾や朝鮮半島などを併合・統治した日本は、現地民の台湾人・朝鮮民族への皇民化政策を推進するため、学校教育で日本語を国語として採用した。満州国（現在の中国東北部）にも日本人が数多く移住した結果、日本語が広く使用され、また、日本語は中国語とともに公用語とされた。日本語を解さない主に漢民族や満州族には簡易的な日本語である協和語が用いられていたこともあった。現在の台湾（中華民国）や朝鮮半島（北朝鮮・韓国）などでは、現在でも高齢者の中に日本語を解する人もいる。一方、明治・大正から昭和戦前期にかけて、日本人がアメリカ・カナダ・メキシコ・ブラジル・ペルーなどに多数移民し、日系人社会が築かれた。これらの地域コミュニティでは日本語が使用されたが、世代が若年になるにしたがって、日本語を解さない人が増えている。1990年代以降日本国外から日本への渡航者数が増加しかつまた日本企業で勤務する外国人労働者も飛躍的に増大しているため国内外に日本語教育が広がっている。国地域によっては日本語を第2外国語など選択教科の一つとしている国もあり日本国外で日本語が学習される機会は増えつつある。とりわけ1990年代以降と感じる若者が増えその結果彼らの日本語に触れる機会が増えつつあるという。2021年9月、単語検索ツールWordtipsは、世界各国で語学学習をするに当たり、どの言語が最も人気があるかをGoogleキーワードプランナーを利用し調査。アメリカ、カナダ、オーストラリア、ニュージーランドといった英語圏を中心に、日本語が最も学びたい言語に選ばれた。日本人が訪問することの多い日本国外の観光地などでは、現地の広告や商業施設店舗の従業員との会話に日本語が使用されることもある。このような場で目に触れる日本語のうち、新奇で注意を引く例は、雑誌・書籍などで紹介されることも多い。日本語が時と共に変化することはしばしば批判の対象となる。この種の批判は古典文学の中にも見られる。では文末のと評している。これにとどまらず、言語変化について注意する記述は、歴史上、仮名遣い書や、『俊頼髄脳』などの歌論書、『音曲玉淵集』などの音曲指南書をはじめ、諸種の資料に見られる。なかでも、江戸時代の俳人安原貞室が、なまった言葉の批正を目的に編んだ『片言（かたこと）』（1650年）は、800にわたる項目を取り上げており、当時の言語実態を示す資料として価値が高い。近代以降も、芥川龍之介がなど肯定形になることに疑問を呈するなど、言語変化についての指摘が散見する。研究者の立場から同時代の気になる言葉を収集した例としては、浅野信などがある。第二次世界大戦後は、1951年に雑誌が創刊されるなど、日本語への関心が高まった。そのような風潮の中で、あらゆる立場の人々により、言語変化に対する批判やその擁護論が活発に交わされるようになった。典型的な議論の例としては、金田一春彦および宇野義方の反論が挙げられる。いわゆると称され、盛んに取り上げられるようになった。と考える人が1977年に7割近くになり、2002年11月から12月の調査では8割となっている。人々のこのような認識は、いわゆる日本語ブームを支える要素の一つとなっている。若者特有の用法は批判の的になってきた。近代以降の若者言葉批判の例として小説家尾崎紅葉が1888年に女性徒の間で流行していたは批判の的となった。1980年代ごろから単なる言葉の乱れとしてではなく研究者の記述の対象としても扱われるようにもなった。体系化を試みる本格的な著作としては米川明彦などがある。いわゆる「若者言葉」は種々の意味で用いられ必ずしも定義は一定していない。井上史雄の分類に即して述べると若者言葉と称されるものは以下のように分類される。上記は、いずれも批判にさらされうるという点では同様であるが、1 - 4の順で、次第に言葉の定着率は高くなるため、それだけの例として意識されやすくなる。上記の分類のうちの文化を取り上げるようになってきてから、言葉で伝えるより、察し合って心を通わせることを重んじる者が増えた。これに対し、文化庁は、空気読めない と言われることを恐れ、場の空気に合わせようとする風潮の現れではないかと指摘している。若者の日本語は、表記の面でも独自性を持つ。年代によりさまざまな日本語の表記が行われている。1970年代から1980年代にかけて、少女の間で、丸みを帯びた書き文字がなどと呼ばれた。山根一眞の調査によれば、この文字は1974年までには誕生し、1978年に急激に普及を開始したという。1990年頃から、丸文字に代わり、少女の間で、金釘流に似た縦長の書き文字が流行し始めた。平仮名のなどと紹介されたが、必ずしも大人世代の話題にはならないまま、確実に広まった。この文字を練習するための本も出版された。携帯メールやインターネットの普及に伴いギャルと呼ばれる少女たちを中心にデジタル文字の表記に独特の文字や記号を用いるようになった。としてマスコミにも取り上げられた。このギャル文字を練習するための本も現れた。コンピュータの普及とコンピュータを使用したパソコン通信などの始まりにより日本語の約物に似た扱いとして顔文字が用いられるようになった。これはコンピュータの文字としてコミュニケーションを行うときに文章の後や単独で記号などを組み合わせたのような顔文字を入れることにより感情などを表現する手法である。1980年代後半に使用が開始された顔文字は若者へのコンピュータの普及により広く使用されるようになった。携帯電話に絵文字が実装されたことにより絵文字文化と呼ばれるさまざまな絵文字を利用したコミュニケーションが行われるようになった。漢字や仮名と同じように日本語の文字として扱われ約物のような利用方法にとどまらず単語や文章の置き換えとしても用いられるようになった。すでに普及した顔文字や絵文字に加え2006年頃にはのように特定文字を小字で表記するものでマスコミでも紹介されるようになった。人々の日本語に寄せる関心は第二次世界大戦後に特に顕著になったといえる。1947年10月からNHKラジオでが始まり1951年には雑誌が創刊された。日本語関係書籍の出版点数も増大した。敬語をテーマとした本の場合1960年代以前は解説書5点実用書2点であったものが1970年代から1994年の25年間に解説書約10点実用書約40点が出たという。戦後、最初の日本語ブームが起こったのは1957年のことで、金田一春彦が50万部出版された。その後、1999年の大野晋が140万部出版された頃から、出版界では空前の日本語ブームという状況になり、おびただしい種類と数の一般向けの日本語関係書籍が出た。2004年には北原保雄編など種々の番組があった。「複雑な表記体系」「SOV構造」「音節文字」「敬語」「男言葉と女言葉」「擬態語が豊富」「曖昧表現が多い」「母音の数が少ない」などを根拠に日本語特殊論がとなえられることがある。もっとも、日本語が印欧語との相違点を多く持つことは事実である。そのため、対照言語学の上では、印欧語とのよい比較対象となる。また、日本語成立由来という観点からの研究も存在する。日本語特殊論は、近代以降しばしば提起されている。極端な例ではあるが、戦後、志賀直哉がの必要性を説き、論議を呼んだ。動詞が最後に来ることを理由に日本語を曖昧、不合理と断ずる議論もある。例えばかつてジャーナリスト森恭三は、日本語の語順ではと記している。複雑な文字体系を理由に日本語を特殊とする議論もある。計算機科学者の村島定行は古くから日本人が文字文化に親しみ庶民階級の識字率も比較的高水準であったのは日本語は表意文字の2つの文字体系を使用していたからだと主張する。ただし表意表音文字の二重使用は他に漢字文化圏では韓文漢字や女真文字など漢字文化圏以外でもマヤ文字やヒエログリフなどの例がある。一方でカナモジカイのように数種類の文字体系を使い分けることの不便さを主張する意見も存在する。日本語における語順や音韻論もしくは表記体系などを取り上げてそれらを日本人の文化や思想的背景と関連付け日本語の特殊性を論じる例は多い。しかし大体においてそれらの説は手近な英語や中国語などの言語との差異を牧歌的に列挙するにとどまり言語学的根拠に乏しいものが多い。一方近年では日本文化の特殊性を論する文脈であっても出来るだけ多くの文化圏を俯瞰し総合的な視点に立った主張が多く見られるという。日本語を劣等もしくは難解非合理的とする考え方の背景として近代化の過程で広まった欧米中心主義があると指摘される。戦後は消極的な見方ばかりでなくと積極的に評価する見方も多くなった。その変化の時期はおよそ1980年代であるという。いずれにしても日本語は特殊であるとの前提に立っている点で両者の見方は共通する。日本語特殊論は日本国外でも論じられる。E. ライシャワーによれば、日本語の知識が乏しいまま、日本語は明晰でも論理的でもないと不満を漏らす外国人は多いという。ライシャワー自身はこれに反論し、あらゆる言語には曖昧・不明晰になる余地があり、日本語も同様だが、簡潔・明晰・論理的に述べることを阻む要素は日本語にないという。共通点の少なさゆえに印欧系言語話者には習得が難しいとされ、学習に関わる様々なジョークが存在するバスク語について、フランスのバイヨンヌにあるバスク博物館では、「かつて悪魔サタンは日本にいた。それがバスクの土地にやってきたのである」と挿絵入りの歴史が描かれているものが飾られている。これは同じく印欧系言語話者からみて習得の難しいバスク語と日本語を重ね合わせているとされる。今日の言語学において日本語が特殊であるという見方自体が否定的である。例えば日本語に5母音しかないことが特殊だと言われることがあるがクラザーズの研究によれば209の言語のうち日本語のように5母音を持つ言語は55あり類型として最も多いという。また語順に関しては日本語のように SOV構造を採る言語が約45%であって最も多いのに対して英語のようにSVO構造を採る言語は30%強である。この点から日本語はごく普通の言語であるという結論が導かれるとされる。また言語学者の角田太作は語順を含め19の特徴について130の言語を比較しと結論している。村山七郎は、を主張したという。日本人自らが日本語を特殊と考える原因としては、身近な他言語が少ないことも挙げられる。日本では古く漢籍を読むための辞書が多く編纂された。国内における辞書編纂の記録としては天武11年伝本はおろか逸文すらも存在しないため書名から漢字字書の類であろうと推測される以外はいかなる内容の辞書であったかも不明である。奈良時代には『楊氏漢語抄』や『弁色立成（べんしきりゅうじょう）』という辞書が編纂された。それぞれ逸文として残るのみであるが和訓を有する漢和辞書であったらしい。現存する最古の辞書は空海編と伝えられる『篆隷万象名義』（9世紀）であるが中国の『玉篇』を模した部首配列の漢字字書であり和訓は一切ない。10世紀初頭に編纂された『新撰字鏡』は伝本が存する最古の漢和辞書であり漢字を部首配列した上で和訓を万葉仮名で記している。平安時代中期に編纂された『和名類聚抄』は意味で分類した漢語におおむね和訳を万葉仮名で付したもので漢和辞書ではあるが百科辞書的色彩が強い。院政期には過去の漢和辞書の集大成とも言える『類聚名義抄』が編纂された。同書の和訓に付された豊富な声点により院政期のアクセント体系はほぼ解明されている。鎌倉時代には百科辞書が作成された。江戸時代には室町期のなども編纂された。明治時代に入り1889年から大槻文彦編の小型辞書『言海』が刊行された。これは古典語日常語を網羅し五十音順に見出しを並べて品詞漢字表記語釈を付した初の近代的な日本語辞書であった。『言海』は後の辞書の模範的存在となり後に増補版の『大言海』も刊行された。その後、広く使われた小型の日本語辞書としては、金沢庄三郎編に引き継がれている。中型辞書としては、第二次世界大戦前はがある。 +地理学は。地域や空間場所自然環境という物理的存在を対象の中に含むことから人文科学社会科学自然科学のいずれの性格も有する。広範な領域を網羅する。またと称される。元来は農耕や戦争統治のため各地の情報を調査しまとめるための研究領域として成立した。地理学誕生の地は古代ギリシアである。学問としては博物学の部門に属した。その源流は各地の様子を記載する地誌学的なものと気候や海洋について研究する地球科学的なものとに見ることができる。中世では停滞していたもののルネサンス期における地誌の拡大や18世紀以降産業革命後の自然科学の発達と観測機器の発達は近代地理学の成立へと導いた。現在見ることのできる科学的な地理学の源流は19世紀初頭のドイツでおこりアレクサンダーフォンフンボルトとカールリッターにより成立した。彼らはとされている。彼らは地誌的な記述ばかりではなく様々な地理的な現象に内的連関を認め地理学においてその解明の重要性を説いた。19世紀後半には、地理学者らによって各種系統地理学が整備され、日本など世界各国に地理学が移入された。1950年以降、アメリカ合衆国が中心になってコンピュータや統計データなどを用いて、計量的な地理学が世界中に急速に普及したが、1970年代後半以降、この様な研究は他の分野との競争に敗れ、北米を中心に一旦は衰退したが、地理情報システム (GIS) や地球環境に関連した応用的な研究が盛んになった。地理学は大きく系統地理学と地誌学に分類され系統地理学はさらに自然地理学と人文地理学に分けられそれぞれがまた細かく分類される。ただし自然地理学の諸分野は地球科学の影響を受けその中でも時に生態学や気象学地質学などと連携されることが多い。人文地理学は歴史学社会学経済学などの近隣分野の影響を受けそれらの知識ならびに隣接分野の理論の十分な理解が要求される学問である。また自然地理学人文地理学ともに現地調査（フィールドワーク）やエクスカーション（巡検とも呼ぶ）を実施し実地調査に基づく観察を重視する傾向があるのが特徴である。自然地理学に該当するもの。ほとんどの場合これらの学問成果をあげるには現地調査が要求される。いずれの場合も学問上で厳格な線引きは存在せず例えば気候地形学のような自然地理学の中でも分野のまたがった研究も往々にされている。人文地理学に該当するもの。これらもほとんどの場合、学問成果をあげるには、現地調査が要求される。いずれの場合も、学問上で完全に独立しているわけではなく、例えば都市地理学と経済地理学の複合分野を研究対象にするということも可能である。他分野においても、生物学の生物地理学など地理学という名をもつ学問がある。地誌学との共通点もある。地理学では地域差があるものを取り扱うため地図が必須であるとともに地図を用いて事象の分析や原因の考察を行うことができる。事物の分布を考察するにあたって分布図の作成が挙げられる。分布図では事物の位置や多寡偏りの程度が表現されるため分布について深く考察するうえで有効でありこのことによって地理的事象の地域性や一般性の解明につながる。分布の性質を分析してきた研究の代表例として高橋伸夫はにてチューネンの孤立国とクリスタラーの中心地理論を提示している。地理学を学べる日本国内の大学.日本では文学部に設置されている大学が多いが、東日本の国公立大学では理学部に設置されていることも多い。この他教育学部に設置されている大学もある。ただし、文学部設置の大学でも自然地理学の研究も行われているうえ、理学部設置の大学でも研究や教育が自然地理学に限定されているわけでもない。また、この他の学部でも地理学に関するコースが存在する大学もある。現在の日本の高等学校においては1989年告示の学習指導要領以降という名称でなくても改称したり分野別に再編したりして実質的に地理学教育を行っている学科専攻は少なくない。地理学の特徴はであり大学院生や大学教員レベルになると複数の学会に所属している者が多い。近年は を用いた解析や一部モデリングが盛んに行われているほか社会的課題が複雑化する中において地域を多角的総合的に理解する学問分野として注目されている。 +国の一覧（くにのいちらん）は、世界の独立国の一覧。国際法上国家と言えるか否かについて、モンテビデオ条約第1条には以下のように定められた。この条約は米州諸国によって締結されたものであったが、その第1条に規定されたという4つの要件が必要とされる。本項目ではこれらの要件を満たしていると評価されているものを掲載対象とする。国連憲章4条1項により国連に加盟するためにはその要件の一つとして国家であることが求められており、国家のみが加盟資格を持つとされている。そのためここでは国連加盟国を193ヵ国をすべて国として扱い以下に列挙する。国連総会オブザーバー.国連総会オブザーバーの制度は国連事務局や国連総会の実践を通じて形成されてきた制度でありオブザーバーとしての資格は非加盟国だけではなく国ではないものに対しても認められてきたものである。ここではその中で国である可能性があるものを列挙する。パリ（、巴里）は、フランスの首都。イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏の首府。県にしてコミューンでもある。フランス最大の都市であり、同国の政治、経済、文化などの中心地。ロンドンと共に欧州を代表する世界都市。ルーヴル美術館を含む1区を中心として時計回りに20の行政区が並び、エスカルゴと形容される。市域はティエールの城壁跡に造られた環状高速道路の内側の市街地、および、その外側西部のブローニュの森と外側東部のヴァンセンヌの森を併せた形となっており、面積は105.40km2。ケスタ地形を呈するパリ盆地のほぼ中央に位置し、市内をセーヌ川が貫く。この川の中州であるシテ島を中心に発達した。市内の地形は比較的平坦であるが、標高は最低でセーヌ川沿いの35メートル、最高でモンマルトルの丘の130メートルである。北緯49度とやや高緯度に位置するが、温かい北大西洋海流と偏西風によって1年を通して比較的温暖となっており、西岸海洋性気候の代表的な都市である。EUを代表する大都市として君臨しアメリカのシンクタンクが2020年に発表した総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいてロンドンニューヨークに次ぐ世界3位の都市と評価された。日本の民間シンクタンクによる2017年発表の「世界の都市総合力ランキング」ではロンドンニューヨーク東京に次ぐ世界4位の都市と評価された。世界500大企業の本社数ではニューヨークやロンドンを凌ぎ西洋の都市では最多である。2021年のイギリスのシンクタンクの調査によると世界10位の金融センターと評価されておりEU圏内では首位である。パリは世界屈指の観光都市である。歴史的な建物を観ることができルーヴル美術館ポンピドゥーセンターなどをはじめとした一流の美術館で膨大な数の一流の美術品を観賞できる。また世界最古のバレエ団や世界でもっとも古くから存在している劇団などの公演を楽しむこともできる。パリ出身者・居住者は男性がパリジャンと呼ばれる。1960年代以降、旧植民地であったアフリカ中部・北部やインドシナ半島、さらに近年は中近東や東欧、中国などからの移民も増え、パリジャン・パリジェンヌも多民族・多人種化している。市域人口は1950年代の約290万人を絶頂に減少し続けたが、ここ数年は微増傾向に転じており、2011年現在で約225万人である。2011年の近郊を含む都市的地域の人口では1,200万人を超えており、EU最大の都市部を形成している。パリ市の標語は「たゆたえども沈まず でありこれはパリの紋章の下部に書かれている。もともと水運の中心地だったパリで水上商人組合の船乗りの言葉だったがやがて戦乱革命など歴史の荒波を生き抜いてきたパリ市民の象徴となっていった。この標語は特に2015年のパリ同時多発テロ事件の直後パリの街角に多数掲げられた。語源はParisii（パリシイ、パリースィイとも。複数形。単数形はParisius「田舎者、乱暴者」）で、ローマ人が入ってくる以前からの先住民であるケルト系部族の、ローマ側からの呼称である。欧州の言語の中で古い時代の痕跡をとどめているギリシャ語では（パリーズィ）、イタリア語で Parigi（パリージ）と発音される。フィンランド語で Pariisi（パリースィ）と発音されるのはこれに由来しているという説がある。ルーテティア（・パリースィオールム）Lutetia（Parisiorum）、 「パリシイ族の、水の中の居住地」（シテ島のこと）とも呼ばれていた。パリ盆地を流れるセーヌ川の中洲シテ島は古くから同川の渡河点であり、紀元前3世紀ごろからパリシイ族の集落ルテティアがあった。紀元前1世紀、ガリア戦争の結果ルテティアはローマ支配下に入った。ローマ時代のルテティアはシテ島からセーヌ左岸にかけて広がっており、円形劇場や浴場跡が残っている。しかし、ローマが衰退すると左岸の市街地は放棄され、シテ島のみを範囲とする城塞都市になった。このころからルテティアに代わりと呼ばれるようになった。5世紀末にフランク族の王クローヴィス1世はパリを征服し、508年にはパリをメロヴィング朝フランク王国の首都とした。しかしクロヴィス1世の死後王国はいくつかに分裂したため、パリは現在のフランスよりも狭い範囲の都でしかなかった。シャルルマーニュ以降のカロリング朝フランク王国の中心はライン川流域にあり、パリは一地方都市でしかなかった。885年から886年にかけてパリはヴァイキングの襲撃を受けた。このときフランク王シャルル3世（カール3世）は金銭を支払って講和を結んだため信望を失い代わってパリ伯の権威が上昇することになった。このころからセーヌ右岸側にも市街地が拡大した。西フランク王国が断絶すると、987年にパリ伯ユーグ・カペーがフランス王に推挙されたことから、パリはフランス王国の首都となった。王権の強化にしたがって首都も発達し、王宮としてシテ宮が建築された。フィリップ2世の時代にはパリを囲む城壁（フィリップ・オーギュストの城壁）も築かれ、その西に要塞（のちにルーヴル宮殿に発展する）が設けられた。このころのパリは初期スコラ学の中心のひとつでもあり、11世紀ごろからパリ大司教座聖堂付の学校が発達し、1200年には王にも承認され、のちのパリ大学につながっていった。パリ大学は特に神学の研究で著名であった。右岸に中央市場「レ・アル（Les Halles）」が作られたもこのころである。こうして、左岸は大学の街、右岸は商人の街という現在まで続く町の原型が定まった。12世紀にはパリ水運商人組合が結成され、のちにパリ商人頭は事実上の市長として市政を司るようになる。13世紀になるとルイ9世によってサントシャペルが建築されたほかノートルダム大聖堂も一応の完成を見る。パリは成長を続けセーヌ左岸も再び人口を増やしていた。王たちは次第にヴァンセンヌ城を居城とするようになったが行政機構はシテ宮に残った。14世紀初頭のパリの人口は約20万人と推定され、ヨーロッパ随一の都市であった。1328年にカペー朝が断絶したことなどを契機とする百年戦争の最中パリ商人頭となったエティエンヌマルセルは王に匹敵する権力を持ち王と対立した。シャルル5世は1356年から1383年にかけて新たな城壁（シャルル5世の城壁）を築いて市域を拡大させ1370年にサン＝タントワーヌ要塞（のちのバスティーユ牢獄）を築いた。またルーヴル宮殿を王宮とした。15世紀初めにおいても、パリの支配権と王および王族の確保をめぐって、オルレアン派とブルゴーニュ派との対立である百年戦争が、イングランドをも巻き込んで続いていた。ジャンヌ・ダルクの活躍などもあり、1435年のアラスの和約でブルゴーニュ派と和解して勢力を伸ばしたシャルル7世率いるフランス軍は1436年にパリを奪還し、翌1437年に改めてパリが首都と定められた。その後、1453年にフランスにおけるイングランド領の大半が陥落したことにより、百年戦争は終結した。百年戦争後のパリの人口は10万人程度にまで減少していた。この後もフランス王はパリには住まずブロワ城やアンボワーズ城などのロワール渓谷の城を好んだ。特にフランソワ1世はロワールにシャンボール城を築いたほかパリ近郊にフォンテーヌブロー宮殿を発展させた。もっともフランソワ1世は公式的には1528年にパリを居城と定めた。パリでは学術が発展しコレージュドフランスにおいて大学教育課程が近代教育課程に加えられ王が望んだ人文主義や正確な科学が研究されるようになった。16世紀後半、ユグノー戦争の時代にはパリはカトリック派の拠点であり、1572年にはサン・バルテルミの虐殺が起こってプロテスタントが殺害されるなどした。シャルル9世を継いだアンリ3世は平和的な解決を模索したが、民衆は反乱し、バリケードの日と呼ばれる1588年5月12日にアンリ3世を強制追放した。このときからパリは、16区総代会という組織によって統治されるようになった。その後カトリック派からの反発を招いたアンリ3世が暗殺されヴァロワ朝は断絶した。1594年アンリ4世の即位によりパリは名実ともにフランスの首都の座を回復した。ヴァロワ朝後期の王と異なりアンリ4世はパリをおもな居住場所とし都市での多くの公共事業を行った。ルーブル宮殿の拡張ポンヌフヴォージュ広場ドフィーヌ広場サンルイ病院の建設がなされた。フォンテーヌブロー宮殿もよく用いられ次のルイ13世はこの宮殿で生まれている。ほかにもサン＝ジェルマン＝アン＝レーにも居城があった。ルイ13世の治世下にパリは大きく変化した。その母のマリー・ド・メディシスによるテュイルリー宮殿やリュクサンブール宮殿、リシュリューによるパレ・ロワイヤルが建設され、ソルボンヌ大学の改築も行われた。太陽王ルイ14世の即位後まもなくフロンドの乱が起こり反動的に貴族勢力が打倒された結果絶対王政の確立が促された。ルイ14世は1677年に居城をヴェルサイユに移した。財務総監のジャン＝バティストコルベールはパリでの豪華な建設事業を行い太陽王にふさわしいを作り上げようとした。廃兵院などはこのころの建築である。しかし王自身はパリを好まずパリ郊外の広大なヴェルサイユ宮殿にて執政を行うことを好んだ。このときまでにパリは中世の市域を大きく越えて成長し17世紀半ばには人口約50万人建物約2万5000棟に達していた。以降政治の中心地はルイ16世の治世末期までヴェルサイユに移ることとなる。ルイ15世は1715年に居城をいったんパリに戻したが、1722年にはヴェルサイユに居城を再度移してしまう。1752年にはエコール・ミリテールが創設され、1754年にはサント・ジュヌヴィエーヴの丘に教会が建設された。ルイ16世治世下の1784年から1790年にかけて、新たな城壁であるフェルミエー・ジェネローの城壁が建設される。18世紀はやはり経済的成長の世紀で人口が増大した。フランス革命直前のパリの人口は64万人を数えた。啓蒙主義啓蒙思想が発展しヴォルテールジャン＝ジャックルソー『百科全書』のドゥニディドロシャルルドモンテスキューらが活躍した。宮廷がヴェルサイユに置かれたのに対抗し王族のオルレアン公がパレロワイヤルを増築改修するとこの地はパリ随一の繁華街を形成し啓蒙思想家のみならずあらゆる階層の人々を引きつけとりわけ急進的な革命家の根拠地ともなった。1789年7月14日、パリ市内で発生したバスティーユ襲撃によってフランス革命が勃発した。ヴェルサイユ行進でルイ16世が強制的にパリのテュイルリー宮殿に戻されてからは、革命の重要な事件の多くがパリで発生した。1790年にパリ県が成立し1795年にセーヌ県へと改称される。パリ市は県庁所在地とされていた。混乱を経た1800年当時の人口は、54万7,756人であった。ナポレオン1世は、パリを新しいローマとすべく、帝都と定め、カルーゼル凱旋門やエトワール凱旋門を建て、ウルク運河を開削するなどした。第一帝政後の19世紀のパリは復古王政期および1848年革命を経て第二共和政第二帝政さらに第三共和政へと王政ないし帝政と共和政が交錯し政治的には安定しなかったものの産業革命の到来により経済的文化的には繁栄した。文化面ではヴィクトルユーゴーオノレドバルザックエミールゾラスタンダールといった文豪に加え19世紀後半にはエドゥアールマネやモネドガルノワールセザンヌピサロモリゾギヨマンシスレーといった印象派の画家が活躍し始めた。スーラゴッホポールゴーギャンなどのポスト印象派新印象派へと続くものとなった。1837年にはパリ・サン＝ジェルマン鉄道のサン・ラザール駅、1840年にヴェルサイユ・左岸鉄道のモンパルナス駅、1840年にパリ・オルレアン鉄道のオステルリッツ駅、1846年に北部鉄道 のパリ北駅、1846年にソー鉄道のアンフェール城門駅がそれぞれ建設された。他方、1841年から1844年にかけてティエールの城壁が築かれ、こららの放射状路線をつなぎ、城壁内の補給路を確保するために、プティト・サンチュールが1852年から建設され始めた。第二帝政下ではセーヌ県知事ジョルジュオスマンによってパリ改造が行われた。中世以来の狭い路地を壊して道路網を一新したほか上下水道の設置など都心部の再開発や社会基盤の整備が行われた。水道の水はジェネラルデゾーが供給するようになった。これらによりパリは近代都市として生まれ変わった。現在のパリ市中心部の姿はほぼこのときの状態をとどめている。1860年ティエールの城壁内のコミューンがパリに併合された。併合後である1861年当時の人口は169万6141人だった。普仏戦争でナポレオン3世の主力軍が敗北すると、パリは1870年9月からプロイセン軍に包囲された。翌1871年1月に第三共和政の政府は降伏したが、パリの労働者らはこれを認めず蜂起した。3月には史上初の労働者階級の政権パリ・コミューンが発足したが、ヴェルサイユ政府軍の攻撃によりわずか2か月で崩壊した。コミューンの最後はパリ市内での市街戦となり、大きな被害を出した。クレディリヨネのパリ支店支配人Mazeratがリヨン本店支配人Letourneurに書き送ったところによると普仏戦争以後に企てられた全事業でロスチャイルドとその庇護下のオートバンクが独占的役割を果たした。パリ市はロスチャイルドらより2億フランを借り受けドイツへ占領税を支払った。20億フランのパリ市公債もロスチャイルドらが引き受けた。19世紀末から20世紀初めにかけて、パリでは数回の万国博覧会が開かれた。1889年の万博ではエッフェル塔が建てられ、1900年にはメトロが開業した。この時代をベル・エポックと呼ぶ。パリはと呼ばれ、ロンドンに匹敵する経済都市に成長した。20世紀にはさらに工業が進展し、このころまだまとまった敷地が残っていたパリ郊外にルノーやシトロエンの工場ができた。パリで働くための移民が集まり、赤いバンリューの起源となった。1904年6月、1,000万フランのロスチャイルド財団が一族6人 と北部鉄道 の役員3人を発起人として設立された。この財団は建築家を直接雇用して財団所有の事務所に集め、低廉住宅の建築様式を共同作成させた。優秀作の意匠権は賞金と引き換えに財団が所有した。 1912年12月23日のボンヌヴェ法は全会一致で可決され、パリ市が低廉住宅を建設するために要請していた2億フランの借款を認めた。第一次世界大戦の緒戦ではドイツ軍がパリの目前にまで迫り、政府が一時ボルドーに避難するほどであったが、マルヌ会戦の勝利により辛くも陥落を免れた。大戦後半にはパリ砲による砲撃を受けた。戦間期にはパリは芸術の都としての地位を回復し、アメリカやヨーロッパなどから多くのボヘミアンたちを惹きつけた。しかし第二次世界大戦が勃発すると、ナチス・ドイツのフランス侵攻開始から1か月で政府はパリを放棄せざるを得なくなり、1940年6月14日にはドイツ軍がパリをほぼ無血で占領した。6月23日にはアドルフ・ヒトラーがパリに入った。占領下のパリではレジスタンス運動に身を投じる者がいる一方で、積極的にドイツ軍に協力する市民もいた。後者はのちに対独協力者として糾弾されることになる。ノルマンディー上陸作戦から2か月半後の1944年8月25日、パリは連合国軍と自由フランス軍によって解放された。このときドイツ軍のパリ駐留部隊を指揮していたディートリヒ・フォン・コルティッツ将軍は、ヒトラーからパリを破壊するよう命令されていたが、これを拒んで部隊を無抵抗で退却させ、自身は降伏した。この英断によりフォン・コルティッツは戦後、フランスから名誉パリ市民号を贈られている。20世紀のパリは文化的にも成熟し、アルベール・カミュやジャン＝ポール・サルトルらが実存主義を生み出し、マルセル・プルーストやアンドレ・ジッドなどの小説家が輩出された。1960年に創刊された前衛雑誌にはロラン・バルト、ジョルジュ・バタイユ、ミシェル・フーコー、ジャック・デリダ、ジュリア・クリステヴァらが名を連ね、構造主義とポスト構造主義は世界的な影響力を持ち、フランス現代思想が隆盛を極めた。映画界では、1950年代末から1960年代中盤にかけて、ジャン＝リュック・ゴダールやフランソワ・トリュフォーらヌーヴェルヴァーグが台頭した。人民戦線の頃以降のフランス共産党の党勢拡大などを背景として、1968年1月1日、セーヌ県が廃止され、パリは特別市となった。このような政治的や文化的状況下で、五月革命が起こった。1950年代以降のパリでは、おもに郊外で人口が急増した。環状高速道路ペリフェリックをはじめとする高速道路網や、郊外と都心を直結する鉄道RERなどが整備され、ラ・デファンス地区がオフィス街として開発された。一方で豊かな都心と貧しい郊外という構図が生まれ失業や治安の悪化が社会問題となった。2005年にはパリ郊外暴動事件が発生した。2015年11月にはパリ同時多発テロ事件が発生した。フランス革命後の地方自治制度ではパリ市はセーヌ県の内側のみであった。当初は48の地区に細分化されていたが各地区を統合する形で12の行政区が設けられるに至った。1860年に市域が拡張されてほぼ現在の範囲となり同時に新たな20の行政区が設けられた。これらの行政区は1795年10月11日以降存在していた12の旧行政区から置き換えられたものである。1968年1月1日に完全施行された「パリ地域の再編に関する1964年7月10日法」による再編以降セーヌ県が廃止されパリは県とコミューンの地位を併せ持つこととなった。県でもあるパリは県を構成する唯一のコミューン以外に下位機構を有しない唯一の県である。コミューンとしてのパリは1860年のパリ拡張の際に創設された20の行政区と18の選挙区に分けられている。1976年にイル＝ド＝フランス地域圏が発足すると、パリはその首府となった。市内20の区はパリ市街地の1区から右回りの渦巻状に番号がつけられている。1 - 48 - 1216 - 20区は右岸に5 - 713 - 15区は左岸に位置する。この街の行政的地位は何度も変更されている。1871年3月26日から5月22日までパリには蜂起勢力である代表制普通選挙による議会をともなうパリコミューンによる政府が置かれた。1870年に成立した第三共和政はこの出来事への恐怖心を持つ保守主義者たちによって運営されていた。彼らはパリの行政権をセーヌ県知事（prfet de la Seine）にパリの警察権を警視総監（prfet de police）にそれぞれ与えることを内容とする1884年4月5日法を制定した。他方市町村選挙で議員が選出されるパリの議会は毎年主として代表者としての機能を有する「議長」を選出していた。すなわちパリには市長がいなかった。また街の予算は国の同意を得る必要があった。1975年12月31日法は、109人の議員で構成される市議会かつ県議会であるパリの議会を創設し、議員によってパリ市長を選出することにした。区の委員会は、諮問と推進の役割を有していた。委員会の構成員は、選挙人・パリ市長・パリの議会によって選出された。警視総監は国家により任命され、警察権を行使する。パリ・リヨン・マルセイユおよびコミューン間の協力による公共機関に関する1982年12月31日法が、パリには1983年の市町村選挙の際に施行され、163人の議員を選出することになったほか、特に予算に関する議会の権限が拡大し、委員会を廃して区議会が創設された。2002年5月2日の2002-810号デクレ以降、行政警察権がパリ市長と警視総監に共有されることとなり、その実現のために、両者は互いの活動方法を相互に承認することとなった。承認手続に関しては、パリ議会が審議したうえ、毎年その予算および決算を承認する必要がある (この予算は国家によって決められたものである）。パリ市長はこれ以降、生活安全分野に関する限り、たとえ警視総監の手中にある権限に関するものであっても関与することになった。パリの議会の活動は、パリ県／コミューンが資本を保有する会社の仲介人やパリの混合経済会社（SEM）によっても実現される。ほかのコミューンとの連携の不存在.ほかの主要都市とは異なり、パリとその郊外のコミューンとの間、« 大パリ » 内には、固有の予算をともなうコミューン間の連携が存在しない。もっとも、パリとその郊外の県との間では、下水道組合は、イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏の公共機関であり、パリとその郊外の総合的な交通網整備を行う組織である。ほかの国際的な大都市と異なり、おおよそ環状のペリフェリックで区切られる中心市街のみを範囲とするについては、その実際的な範囲を明確にする必要がある。上述各城壁の変遷で見るように歴史的かつ政治的な配慮が障害となって、« 大パリ » を管理する行政機関が存在しないことは、パリ都市圏の現在の主要な問題のひとつである。現在のパリの領域は、上述概要の項で指摘されているように日本の山手線内よりやや広い程度である。その市域の境界線は歴史的で時代錯誤な経緯の産物、あるいは現在はパリ都市圏に取り込まれ、消えてしまった地形に適合していたにすぎないものであるにもかかわらず、市域の内外を問わず、パリ都市圏の人々には共通の行政的需要ならびに経済的・社会的関心がある。ところが、各コミューンは行政的・税制的に独立しており、コミューンや県の枠を超えて存在する集団的需要（交通や住宅など）に関する組織については、都市圏規模のまとめ役となる機構が存在しない。イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏となると、地域の約80パーセントに農村部が残っており、パリ都市圏のための枠としては大き過ぎ、« 大パリ » たるパリ都市圏内の適切な連携に適っていない現状がある。初代市長はジャン＝シルヴァン・バイイ。1795年 - 1848年の2月革命まで12の区に分割され各区にConseil municipalと併存だが市長が市と県を兼ねた議会の議長として県の長とされる。2011年の当初予算は約85億8200万ユーロでうち69億600万ユーロが行政活動に16億7600万ユーロが投資に充てられている。債務残高は約26億9600万ユーロである。2008年の県債は266億ユーロにのぼる。パリ大審裁判所がシテ島のパレドジュスティス に置かれている。この裁判所はフランスの大部分の訴訟事件を取り扱う巨大司法機関である。各区には小審裁判所が置かれている。パリ商事裁判所は、やはりシテ島にそれぞれ置かれている。パリのみを管轄する裁判所以外に、複数の県を管轄するパリ控訴院もパレ・ド・ジュスティスに置かれている。その管轄は、セーヌ＝エ＝マルヌ県、エソンヌ県、セーヌ＝サン＝ドニ県、ヴァル＝ド＝マルヌ県、ヨンヌ県である。パリ控訴院の管轄区域には、フランス全人口の12.6パーセントが暮らしている。なお、ほかのイル＝ド＝フランス地域圏内の各県およびウール＝エ＝ロワール県は、ヴェルサイユ控訴院の管轄となる。パリは4区所在のパリ地方行政裁判所の管轄に属する。控訴はパリ行政控訴院に対して行うことになる（ほかにマタウトゥムランヌーヴェルカレドニーフランス領ポリネシアの各地方行政裁判所からの控訴を受ける）。最高裁判所及び憲法裁判所.セーヌ＝サン＝ドニ県オー＝ド＝セーヌ県ヴァル＝ド＝マルヌ県と同様にパリ警視庁の管轄下にある。イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏で犯される重罪および軽罪は、フランス全土での4分の1を占める。パリ市内、その外側のの割合は、全国平均を上回る20.73パーセントである。パリでは2008年の強姦事件数1413件で発生率が0.6‰とフランス国内で2番目の高率であった。身体的暴行に関しては2万7857件であった。暴行を行うとの脅迫に関しては2008年においてパリでは5165件認知された。2008年の財産犯に関してブーシュ＝デュ＝ローヌ県に次ぐ件数が認知された。パリの中央集権主義はまたこの街がテロの犠牲者であることをも物語る。よく知られるナポレオン1世に対するサンニケーズ街テロ事件や最近ではRER B線サン＝ミッシェル＝ノートルダム駅での爆弾テロがある。パリの歴史はこれらの象徴的価値の高い事件が刻まれたものである。これらはこの街での日常生活にとって取るに足りないというものではない。特にヴィジピラート計画 の実施により観光地や首都の戦略的要衝地の近くに武装した警察憲兵および兵士が警備しているのを目にすることになる。パリのいくつかの刑務所は今日でも有名である。右岸のグランシャトレは王の刑務所を内部に置きその別館とともに14世紀から破壊される1782年まで投獄所および拘置場所とされていた。コンシェルジュリー、バスティーユ牢獄、ヴァンセンヌ城の3つの刑務所は、歴史的なシンボルとなっている。コンシェルジュリーはパリの裁判所固有の刑務所であったが、フランス革命の間にマリー・アントワネットやほかのギロチン犠牲者を迎えたあとも、1914年まで拘置所として機能し続けた。バスティーユ牢獄は1370年から構築され、リシュリューが権力を振るっていたころに国の刑務所となった。 ヴァンセンヌ牢獄は、やはり1784年まで国会の刑務所であったが、その名の通りの投獄の場というよりもむしろ軟禁場所であり、第二帝政下までしばしばそのように使われていた。1830年から1947年まで11区にロケット刑務所があったがパリで唯一残存する刑務所にある。ほかにポワシーにある困難受刑者が収容されるメゾンサントラルがある。西岸海洋性気候に属し、暖流である北大西洋海流の影響で高緯度の割には温暖である。夏である。パリの気象観測は中心部から離れた14区にあるで行われている。パリの郊外にはヴェルサイユなど有名な観光地がいくつかあり、そのほとんどはパリから日帰りで往復できる。16区 - 17区につながるセーヌ川下流の西部方面には閑静な高級住宅地が広がっている。逆に18区 - 20区からつながる北東方面は低所得層の集まる地価の安い郊外となっており近年は犯罪増加などの問題を抱えている。フランスで単にという場合こうした地域を婉曲的に指すことが多い。その他の方面の郊外は一般的な住宅衛星都市となっている。パリより電車で各30分ほど離れた郊外にはいくつかの衛星都市があり近代建築によって町の機能が整えられている。中でもラデファンス地区には「新凱旋門グランダルシュ」をはじめ高層ビル群が集中しており多数の企業の支店を抱える新都心となっている。公園はパルクと呼ばれ区別されている。パリには東西2つの大きな森があり、パリ市民の憩いの地となっている。現在はこの森もパリ市の敷地に含まれる。パリは東西南北に4つの主要な墓地があり多くの著名人が眠っている。この他パリ中心部に位置するパンテオンにもルソーやヴォルテールヴィクトルユーゴーデカルトといった偉人たちが埋葬されている。パリは世界屈指の観光都市である。などのイメージを前面に出す戦略をとっている。おもな集客装置は、歴史的な建造物の数々、数々の美術館に収められた著名な美術品、有名料理店で提供されるフランス料理、高級銘柄を扱う店舗などである。建造物は中世以前のものも残るが第三共和政期のパリ改造やベルエポックの建造物あるいはフランス革命200周年期のグランプロジェの建造物など各時代の世界の最先端のものが多い。美術館にはフランスで活躍した著名な芸術家の美術品の他戦利品や購買によって収集された世界一級の収蔵物が並ぶ。という異名が言い表すように、パリは美術・音楽・演劇・バレエ・食文化・ファッションなど、さまざまな芸術の世界的な中心地として名を馳せている。1989年には欧州文化首都に選ばれた。ルーヴル美術館やオルセー美術館ポンピドゥーセンター（国立近代美術館）などの美術館に世界一級の美術品が多数収蔵されざっくりと時代ごとに美術館が割り振られている。古代から19世紀半ばまでの美術品はルーブル美術館で観ることができモナリザサモトラケのニケミロのヴィーナスなど世界中の誰もが知っている名作をはじめとしてナポレオンがエジプト遠征時に集めた古代エジプトの考古学品なども含めて常設展示数はおよそ2万6000点で（展示しきれない総所蔵作品数は30万点以上）ざっと観ても数日かかり全部じっくり観ると1か月ほどかかるとも言われる。ルーヴルは建物自体もかつての王宮であり入場者数は年間800万人以上である。19世紀以降の絵画つまり印象派象徴主義アールヌーボーの絵画などはオルセー美術館に展示されている。パリ市が運営する公共の美術館博物館は市内に14ありパリミュゼ()という市の組織が管轄している。これらパリ市所蔵の美術コレクションは国のコレクションに次ぐ規模を誇る。2020年月パリミュゼはパリ市立美術館博物館が所蔵する約10万点の作品の無料ダウンロードを許可すると発表した。パリミュゼはこの他に下水道博物館野外彫刻美術館パビリオンデザールも管轄している。世界で一番歴史の長い劇団、1680年創設のコメディ・フランセーズがあり、同名の劇場でその舞台を観ることができる。パリには1661年に王立舞踏アカデミーとして創設された世界最古のバレエ団があり、旧オペラ座のガルニエ宮や新しいオペラ・バスティーユでその公演を観ることができる。パリは音楽都市のひとつである。シャンソンを聞かせるライブハウスがいくつもある。パリには管弦楽団が多数ありコンサートが頻繁に行われている。毎年夏至の日6月21日にはFte de la musiqueの音楽の演奏が行われる。Conservatoire de Paris コンセルヴァトワールドゥパリがあり世界から才能のある若者が一流のバレエや音楽を学びにやってきている。パリはガストロノミーたちがそれら有名店で修行に励んでいる場所でもある。料理競技会も開催されている。16世紀前半の神聖ローマ皇帝カール5世は、フランス国王フランソワ1世の生涯の宿敵でありながら、フランス文化を、それ以上にパリの文化をこよなく愛し、18世紀の啓蒙時代には、プロイセン王国中興の祖であるフリードリヒ2世はヴォルテールと交流しパリから招き、また、ロシア帝国女帝エカチェリーナ2世はヴォルテールやドニ・ディドロと交流し、ディドロをパリから呼び寄せた。フランスにおける経済の中心地であり世界屈指の経済都市でもある。2014年のパリ都市圏の総生産は6798億ドルであり東京都市圏ニューヨーク都市圏ロサンゼルス都市圏ソウル都市圏ロンドン都市圏に次ぐ世界6位の経済規模を有する。多国籍企業の本社数や資本市場の規模などビジネス分野を総合評価した都市ランキングではロンドンとともにヨーロッパでトップクラスである。BNPパリバトタルアクサなど世界有数の大企業の本社が所在しており世界500大企業の本社数ではニューヨークやロンドンを凌ぎ西洋の都市では最多である。工芸品や贅沢品や服飾品などのビジネスの集積地でもある。アンシャン・レジームの時代では、貴族は服をたった1着手に入れるにも、まずは布地を扱う商人のところへ行って気にいる布地を苦労して見つけ、次にその布を裁断する職人のところへそれを持っていって、次にそれを縫いあげる職人、と何軒もの店・職人をかけずりまわらなければならず、おまけに訪ねる店はの空間でもある。若い女性の中には商人によって。各節とも日本語での五十音順。パリ近郊に本社を置く企業も含める。パリ市の人口は2011年現在、約225万人で、近年は微増傾向にある。特に、再開発が進む南部や移民流入の著しい東部での人口増加が目立っている。この間、郊外（市域外）の人口は増加している。20世紀以降、かつて城壁に囲まれていた市域外にも市街地が大きく拡大し続け、現在、イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏（パリ地域圏）全体の人口は1,198万人にのぼる。パリ市域内もおおむね商業・業務・住宅地としての活気と威信を維持しており、アメリカの大都市などで見られる都心部の荒廃や郊外への人口流出（インナーシティ問題）はさほど見られない。むしろ、移民の多い一部の郊外での治安の悪化が顕著である（バンリュー参照）。パリはほかの大都市同様、学生、若者、老人が多い一方、子供を有するカップルの割合は低い。1999年、パリ市の世帯数の22パーセント、人口数の40.7パーセントは1人以上の子供を有するカップルであったが、単身世帯数の割合は27パーセント、カップルのみの世帯数の割合は19パーセントであった。パリ市では47パーセントと高い。離婚率ももっとも高く、婚姻100件のうち55件は離婚に至っており、パリ市民の7.7パーセントを占めている。出生率は1,000人中14.8人であり、国平均の13.2パーセントより高い。一方、子どもの数は世帯あたり1.75人で、国平均の1.86人より少ない。半分の世帯において子どもは1人である。パリ市では住居が狭く高額であることが、その主因である。高所得者層はおもに西部に、低所得者層や移民はおもに北東部に居住している。パリ市の平均世帯所得はフランス全体の平均より高く、隣接する郊外のオー＝ド＝セーヌ県、イヴリーヌ県、エソンヌ県、ヴァル＝ド＝マルヌ県の4地域の平均所得も国内で最高水準であり、イル・ド・フランス地域圏に高所得者層が集中している。しかしパリ市内の社会的格差の状況はさらに複雑である。伝統的には豊かなパリ市西部と貧しいパリ市東部という構図がみられる。実際7区の平均世帯所得は3万1521ユーロにのぼり19区の1万3759ユーロの2倍以上となっている。イルドフランス地域圏においてパリ6区7区8区16区はもっとも高所得の地域10区18区19区20区はもっとも低所得の地域に分類される。さらに市内の19区の状況はそのまま所得が低い北東部郊外のセーヌ＝サン＝ドニ県に連なる一方16区の外縁は西部の豊かな郊外に続く。18区19区20区にはパリの貧困層の4割が集中し学校の中退失業健康問題などが集中している。EU域外からの移民はフランス国内の出身者に比べて貧困な状況に置かれていることが多い。18区はマグリブや、最近はサブサハラ地域のアフリカからの移民が多い。フランスの国勢調査では法律上、民族や宗教の属性を問うことができないが、出身地の情報は得ることができる。1999年の国勢調査によると、パリ都市圏はヨーロッパでもっとも多民族化が進んでいる地域のひとつであり、人口の19.4パーセントがフランス本国外の出身である。また、パリ都市圏の人口の4.2パーセントは1990年から1999年の間にフランスにやってきた新しい移民であり、その大半は中国またはアフリカ出身である。さらにパリ都市圏の人口の15パーセントはイスラム教徒である。パリへの大量の移民の第一波は1820年代ドイツの農民が農業危機とナポレオンボナパルトの侵攻にともなって移住してきたことによる。その後今日に至るまで何度か移民の波が続いている。19世紀はイタリア人と中央ヨーロッパのユダヤ人1917年のロシア革命後はロシア人第1次世界大戦中は植民地の国々から大戦間期はポーランド人1950年代から70年代はスペイン人イタリア人ポルトガル人北アメリカ人またアフリカアジア地域の独立後はユダヤ人が移民してきた。移民の居住区域はそれぞれ出身地ごとに異なっている。2005年から2006年の学校年度における公立学校の児童生徒数は26万3812人であった。うち13万5570人が初等教育12万8242人が中等教育を受けていた。同年度の私立学校の児童生徒数は13万8527人でうち9万1818人が契約に基づく就学であった。パリには優先的教育地域がある。2007年現在、881校の公立学校があり、うち323校が幼稚園、334校が小学校および5校が職業リセであった。中等教育については5区にそれぞれ所在するリセルイ＝ル＝グランやリセアンリ＝キャトルが全国的かつ国際的にも有名である。2007年現在イル＝ド＝フランス地域圏では約58万5000人が高等教育を受けておりフランス全土の4分の1強にあたる。特に1990年代のフランス国立行政学院（ENA）のストラスブール移転や高等師範学校のリヨン校などの脱中央化の動きもみられるが大部分の名高い国立学校は常にパリ地方に設置されている。12世紀以降、パリはヨーロッパにおける知識の大集積地のひとつで、特に科学技術と哲学分野に秀でていた。フィリップ2世が大学の構成員に対して特権与えた西暦1200年はパリ大学の設立の年とされ、人々に象徴的に記憶されている。そこでは教育が行われた場所である寄宿舎が学部を構成した。ソルボンヌ寮の創設は1257年を起源とする。大学は、サント＝ジュヌヴィエーヴの丘を中心として、カルチエ・ラタンに発展した。カルチエ・ラタンは、現在でも、パリ大学を含む高等教育機関の重要な中心地である。18世紀以降いくつかの専門職のために専門化された高等教育機関が創設され現在のグランゼコールの起源となった。エコールポリテクニークおよび高等師範学校はともにフランス革命期に創設された。近代のパリ大学は19世紀法医薬文神理の6学部に組織化された。20世紀五月革命後には多くの学生が強く社会問題を考えたがソルボンヌはその震源地となった。その結果パリ大学はそれぞれ専門分野を相対的に限定された13の個別の大学へと分割再編された。パリ市内は、現在も大学の中心地であり続けている。パリ第1からパリ第7までの各大学は再編されて左岸の3つの区大学、高等師範学校、コレージュ・ド・フランスといった歴史的施設が残り、重要な地位を今も保ち続けている。またほかの高等教育機関もこの地区に存在する。パリ政治学院パリ第1大学パリ第2大学ジュシューキャンパスなどである。なおパリ第9大学エコールポリテクニークエセック経済商科大学院大学などはいずれも郊外に移転している。大学街は東部に広がりかつて5区にあったパリ第7大学はフランス国立図書館が移転した13区において複数の大学施設を一般公開している。国立高等工芸学校が1912年からイタリア広場近くに迎え入れられている。1960年代以降バンリューに大学が作られ始めたがその先鞭となったのは1964年にナンテールに作られたパリ第10大学である。同時期には複数のグランゼコールが特に広大な敷地を求めて同様にパリの中心部を去っている。パリの南にあるサクレー台地は重要な研究拠点となっている。その広大な大地にはパリ第9大学やグランゼコールのほかサクレー研究所などの公的研究所や民間の研究施設が多数存する。パリ市は、7つの高等専門学校を有している。4つは応用芸術に関するもので、エコール・ブールが有名である。2つは科学技術に関するもので、パリ市立技術学校、パリ市立工業物理化学高等専門大学である。園芸に関するものは、エコール・デュ・ブルーユである。数多くの病院がパリに設置されている。そのうちいくつかは特に古く医療の伝統は中世にまでさかのぼる。651年にパリ司教だった聖ランドリーによって設立されたシテ島のオテルデューはパリでもっとも古い医療施設である。慈愛ともてなしの象徴であり12世紀まではパリで唯一の病院であった。大部分の医療施設は1849年1月10日法によって創設された公的医療施設である"AP-HP"（Assistance publique - Hpitaux de Paris公的支援-パリ病院連合）に名を連ねパリ市の後方支援をしている。地域圏およびパリの医療センターの役割も果たし多くの医師や公務員を含む9万人以上が業務に従事している。5区にあるミラミオン館はかつて病院の施設として使用されていたが現在はAP-HPの博物館となっておりパリの医療の歴史を想起させている。AP-HPのパリ市内主要病院としてはネッケル小児病院コシャン病院サルペトリエール病院サンタントワーヌ病院サンルイ病院ビシャ＝クロードベルナール病院ジョルジュポンピドゥー欧州病院を挙げることができる。他方、アンヴァリッド・軍病院はAP-HPに属していないが、保健大臣の監督のもと国防大臣に権限が委任されており、退役軍人などの治療を行っている。同様に、国立アンヴァリッド研究所 では、現役および退役軍人などが医療看護や外科的治療を受けられる。パリの近郊においてもAP-HPに属してはいないがいくつかのコミューン連携の総合病院が存在する。たとえばアルジャントゥイユのビクトルデュプイ病院やヴェルサイユ医療センターを挙げることができる。また、医療研究機関としては、1260年にルイ9世によってパリの視覚障害者救済を目的として設立されたキャンズ・ヴァン病院、いずれも軍の衛生部に属するヴァル=ド=グラース軍研究病院、ペルシー軍研究病院、ベガン軍研究病院を挙げることができる。さらに、ヌイイ＝シュル＝セーヌには、1906年に設立された社会保障非受益者のための非営利・認可私立病院であるパリ・アメリカン・ホスピタルも特筆される。パリは、フランス全土でも医師の密度がもっとも高い街のひとつである。たとえば、2005年現在、パリの一般医は5,840人を下らないが、セーヌ＝サン＝ドニ県とヴァル＝ドワーズ県には両県を合わせても3,349人の一般医しかいない。パリでは、公衆衛生を保証・保持するため、特に貧困層向けに、16の市立入浴施設が9つの区に分散設置されている。これらの入浴施設は個室を有するが、洗面具は利用者が用意することになっている。市内にはメトロ（地下鉄）とRER（高速地下鉄）がくまなく走っている。メトロは14号線まであり、運営はRATP（パリ市営交通）が行っている。2006年にパリ市最南端でトラム（路面電車）が開通した。このほか郊外を結ぶトラムがある。パリ市内では道路混雑を避けるため自動車交通の抑制が目指されており、バス・自転車専用レーンが多く設置され、一方通行路も多くルートが複雑であるため、不慣れであると運転が難しい。また主要交差点の多くは、ラウンドアバウト方式となっている。地元民の多くは、狭い市内で駐車場所を確保するために前後間隔を密着させて道路脇に縦列駐車を行っており、路上駐車が非常に多い。パリ市域の外縁を環状高速道路ペリフェリックが取り巻いておりその内側の市域には立体交差式の自動車専用道はあるものの高速道路は存在しない。 +ヨーロッパ的な街並みに対し、と異名がつけられている。特に移民や植民地などでフランス色が強い都市に多い。上述までの既出のリンクを除く。ヨーロッパは、地球上の七つの大州の一つ。漢字表記は欧羅巴。地理的には、ユーラシア大陸北西の半島部を包括し、ウラル山脈およびコーカサス山脈の分水嶺とウラル川・カスピ海・黒海、そして黒海とエーゲ海を繋ぐボスポラス海峡-マルマラ海-ダーダネルス海峡が、アジアと区分される東の境界となる。面積から見るとヨーロッパ州は世界で2番目に小さな大州であり1018万kmは地球表面積の2%陸地に限れば6.8%を占める。アジアに跨る領土を持つロシアはヨーロッパ50か国の中で面積および人口第1位の国家である。対照的に最も小さな国家はバチカン市国である。総人口はアジアアフリカに次ぐ7億3300万。これは地球総人口の11%である。ヨーロッパ特に古代ギリシアは西洋文明発祥の地である。これは16世紀以降の植民地主義の始まりとともに世界中に拡散し支配的な役割を果たした。16世紀から20世紀の間ヨーロッパの国々はアメリカ州アフリカオセアニア中東アジアの大部分を支配下に置いた。2度の世界大戦はヨーロッパを戦火で覆い20世紀中頃の西ヨーロッパによる世界への影響力減衰に結びつきその地位をアメリカ合衆国とソビエト連邦に奪われる結果となった。用語「ヨーロッパ」は、歴史が展開する中で使われ方が様々に発展した。地理用語としてのEurpの記録に残る最古の使用法は、エーゲ海の南海岸を指したもので、デロス島のアポローンに捧げられたホメーロス風讃歌にある。初めてヨーロッパとアジアを区分した地図はミレトスのヘカタイオスが作成した。ギリシアの歴史家ヘロドトスは著書『歴史』第4章にて、世界がヨーロッパ・アジア・リビアの3箇所に分けられ、その境界はナイル川とリオニ川であることを示唆した。彼はさらに、ヨーロッパとアジアの境界はリオニ川ではなくドン川とする考えもあると述べた。1世紀の地理学者ストラボンも東側の境をドン川と考えた。の人物の著述や『ヨベル書』では、各大陸をノアから3人の息子たちへそれぞれ与えられたものと記している。そこでは、ヨーロッパはリビアとの境となるジブラルタル海峡のヘラクレスの柱から、アジアとの境となるドン川まで広がる地域としている。ヨーロッパの文化に言及すると、まず大きく東西2つに分けられ、となる。これらはイスラム圏と対比することもできる。西ヨーロッパ地域はイベリア半島北部、ブリテン諸島、フランス、キリスト教化されたドイツ西部、アルプスそして北および中央イタリアが該当する。この考えはカロリング朝ルネサンスの影響を受け継いだもので、カール大帝の文化相となったアルクィンの手紙の中に、しばしば Europa の単語が見られる。このような文化的また地理的な区分は中世後期まで用いられたが、大航海時代にはそぐわなくなった。ヨーロッパの定義問題は最終的に、スウェーデンの地理学者兼地図製作者のが提唱した、水域ではなくウラル山脈を最も重要な東の境とする1730年の案がロシア・ツァーリ国を皮切りにヨーロッパ各国の支持を集め、解決を見た。現代ではヨーロッパとはユーラシア大陸の北西に位置する半島と認識され北西南が大きな水域で区切られた陸地と認識される。東の境界は通常ウラル山脈からウラル川を経由してカスピ海に接続しそこから南東にあるコーカサス山脈を通って黒海ボスポラス海峡そして地中海まで繋がる。社会政治学的または文化的な側面を考慮するとヨーロッパの境界は様々な言及がなされる。例えばキプロスは小アジアのアナトリア半島に近接しているがここはしばしばヨーロッパの一部とみなされ現在ではEUの一員でもある。逆にマルタは長い間アフリカに属する島と受け止められていた。日本の外務省の公式サイトはアルメニアカザフスタンなどを欧州に含めている。「ヨーロッパ」という単語は欧州共同体（）のみを指す地政学的な制限を加えて用いられる事もありさらに排他的な用例や文化的な中心地と定義する場合もある。その一方で欧州評議会には47か国が参加しているのに対しEU加盟国は27か国に過ぎない。単語ヨーロッパの語源にはさまざまな説がある。古代のギリシア神話には、主神ゼウスが白い雄牛に変化して攫ったフェニキアの王女エウローペーが登場する。ゼウスは彼女をクレタ島へ連れ出し、そこでミーノースら3人の子どもを得た。このエウローペーがヨーロッパの語源という説がある。他に、という意味を持つという。初期インドヨーロッパ語族の信仰では、とは地球そのものを指す形容詞句であった。他の説ではセム語派の言語に源流を求めアッカド語の が元だとも言いフェニキア語の やアラビア語の やヘブライ語の と同根語だと言う。ただしはとセム語の単語との間には音韻論的に合致する部分がほとんど無いと主張した。ヨーロッパの大半の言語で発音こそ違えど綴りは であるが英語フランス語では末尾音が脱落し となる。英語での発音はである。漢語ではの意味で用いられている。多くの主要言語では から派生した単語が、大陸という単語が、正式名称の や よりも多用される。ヨーロッパとは歴史や伝統、文化に共通する地域を類型化してできた地域名であり、地学上はユーラシア大陸西端の半島にすぎない。そのため、領域は観念的なものである。ヨーロッパ大陸の起源は、22億5000万年前のとユーラシアに分裂した。ただしこの2大陸は長い間グリーンランドで繋がっており、動物の行き来があった。これも5000万年前頃から海面の起伏や低下活動を通じて現在に通じるヨーロッパの姿が形成され、アジアなどと接続した。現在のヨーロッパの形は500万年前頃の第三紀遅くに形成された。ヨーロッパに定住した初期のヒト科は、約180万年前にジョージアにいたホモ・ゲオルギクスである。他にも、スペインのアタプエルカからは、約100万年前のヒト科の化石が発見された。であり、ヨーロッパには4.3万年前から4.0万年前頃に進出した。ヨーロッパ概念の嚆矢.歴史家ヘロドトスはにてヨーロッパが単にのヨーロッパを対比させている。しかし厳密にはヨーロッパではなくギリシャを対比させている。ヨーロッパは比較的自由だがギリシャは自由だとしている後代のアリストテレスと共にヨーロッパと自己を区別したギリシャの自意識がここにある。このような対比は』にもありペルシア人の合唱隊がクセルクセス1世の母アトッサを神の妃であり母と讃えるのに対し決戦に向かうギリシア人がと叫ぶ姿を描写した。古代ギリシアではこのように隷属を特徴とするアジアとは異なる社会形態を持つ地として自らの社会を区分する概念を持っていた。 +ヨーロッパは、西の1/5を占める陸地であり、アジアとの地形的に明瞭な区分がない。ヨーロッパの主軸山系は西からがある。これらは急峻ではあるが、古代からかなり高地にまで集落がつくられ交易が行われていたように、アジアのヒマラヤ山脈のような人跡未踏の地にはならず、山脈の両側にある程度の分岐を施しながらも断絶させるようなものではなかった。河川はヨーロッパ大陸が小さいためアジアやアフリカアメリカのような大河が無い。アルプス山脈北側はを除きおしなべて少ない。人文地理的な区分をヨーロッパに施すと3つの領域に分けることができる。アフリカを含めた地中海沿岸はの平坦で単調な地形が広がり中央アジアの草原地帯へと続いている。そのため東方からの異民族侵入に弱く結果的に何度も占拠を許した。ヨーロッパの防衛線は事実上西ヨーロッパの東端となり東ヨーロッパは都市化が遅れた。以下に、場合によってはヨーロッパに分類されることがある地理的意味でのの国々を示す。以下に、事実上独立した地域を示す。ヨーロッパは概してとほぼ同じ緯度にあるが、1月の平均気温はカルガリーより約8℃ちかく高い。細かな差異では地中海沿岸は夏に亜熱帯気候的性格を現して雨量が極端に少なくなるのに対し冬は温暖で雨も多い。西ヨーロッパは海洋性気候の特徴を持ち夏は涼しく冬は暖かい。季節による雨量の変化も少なくほぼ一定している。これに対し東ヨーロッパは大陸性気候であり夏は暑く冬は寒い。黒海沿岸を除き雨量は少なく冬には多くの河川や湖沼が凍結する。かつて、おそらくヨーロッパの80-90%は森林で覆われていた。その姿は今から1000年ほど前までは維持されていたと考えられる。類も見られた。ただし乾燥した地中海沿岸では、古くから森林の発達は限定的であった。東ヨーロッパでは北部こそ針葉樹林が広がっていたが、東南部は乾燥したステップ地帯が広がり木々の生長はあまり見込めなかった。黒海沿岸は肥沃な黒土域であり、古代から豊かな穀物収穫があげられていた。これらに変化が見られたのは12世紀後半以降、盛んに広まったなどは、近年になって人間が植栽したものである。大陸という単位で見ればヨーロッパの経済規模は最も大きく2008年の資産データでは32.7兆ドルと北アメリカの27.1兆ドルを上回る。2009年においてもヨーロッパは経済危機前の水準を上回る総資産総額37.1兆ドルという世界全資産の1/3を確保し最も豊かな地域であり続けた。27か国で構成される欧州連合のうち16か国が共通』によると、ドイツが5位、イギリスが6位、ロシアが7位、フランスが8位、イタリアが10位にランクインした。ヨーロッパ内部では一人あたりの国民所得に大きなばらつきがある。最も高いモナコは172676USドル最も低いモルドバは1631USドルに過ぎない。[[ファイル:Rectified Languages of Europe map.png|right|thumb|300px|ヨーロッパの言語地図]]ヨーロッパの言語はほとんどがは孤立した言語である。ヨーロッパ人はが高頻度に見られる。 +歴史的にヨーロッパのを標榜する人々も西ヨーロッパを中心に増加傾向にあり実際にチェコエストニアスウェーデンドイツフランスなどで無宗教を表明している人の割合が高い。[[FileEU CIS.PNG|thumb|right|400px|[[欧州連合]]と[[独立国家共同体]]]]11世紀以降、ヨーロッパは各都市間および農村との間を繋ぐ交通網と経済交流が盛んに行われ、日用品や生活必需品までもの需要供給関係が確立していた。そして共通のラテン語を基盤とする普遍的文化に覆われていた。この統一的な状態を破壊したものが、近代的な国民国家の成立と言える。それぞれの国が個別の言語や法律などを以って政治的支配を施し、内政的には都市と農村の対立、外交的には分断された主義を原因とする争いが激化し、ヨーロッパの近代をに陥らせた。欧州統合は通貨・経済から、最終的には政治統合までを目指す活動であり、それは国民国家樹立以前の普遍的なヨーロッパを現代に復活させようという動きでもある。そして現代的視点からすれば、欧州統合は地方主義そして国民国家の緩やかな否定でもある。アメリカ合衆国と比肩する政治・経済共同体として国際的な立場を強化するという点もさる事ながら、思考的にも近代的な政治区画観念から脱却し、大陸主義に立脚したものへの転換を迫る意義を持つ。生物は生命現象を示す自然物である。動物菌類植物原生生物古細菌細菌などの総称。多くの場合ウイルスを含めないが立場によっては含めることもある。というのが一応の定義であるがこれ以外の定義も存在し統一は困難であるとされる。生物が持ち無生物が持たない能力や特徴としては一応自己増殖能力エネルギー変換能力自己と外界との明確な隔離があるとされる。これに進化する能力を加えることも多い。また生物は外界とのやりとりを絶やすことのない開放系を取りながら恒常性を維持する能力を持ち常に変化する。生物はすべて細胞を基礎としており細胞によって構成されていないウイルスなども寄生する細胞がなくては増殖できない。2021年現在の地球の大気組成は、窒素が78%、酸素が21%、アルゴン0.93%、二酸化炭素が0.041%という構成になっているが、生物が現れる前は、二酸化炭素が多くを占める構成であったと推測されている。その温室効果によって地表の温度も高かった。ここに生物が出現し、特に光合成による有機物の生成。また、酸素の多い大気になったことによって、オゾン層が形成され、生物にとって有害な宇宙線や紫外線の遮断がなされ、生物の陸上進出が可能になった。また、海水中の酸素が増えることによって、海水に溶け込んだ鉄が酸化鉄となって沈降し鉄鉱床を堆積させた。地球における酸素の出現は、24億年前の以降と推定されており、これはシアノバクテリアによる酸素発生型の光合成の進化がきっかけと見られている。一方、現在においては、人類が地球の環境に様々な大きな変化をもたらせていると言える。地球上の全ての生物の共通の祖先がありでは、このような地球は自己調節能力を持ったひとつの巨大な生命体とみなす。現在生きている生物は少なくとも300万種、おそらくは1000万種に達するが、これらをその特徴に応じて大小の分類階級に所属させ、それによって生物を整理し秩序を与えることを分類という。分類階級のうち、次に掲げるものは必ず設置される（基本分類階級）。すなわち大きいほうから順に界、門、綱、目、科、属である。歴史的に最も古くは生物は植物と動物からなるとした二界説に分類する三ドメイン説が一般的になってきている。三ドメイン説においては、動物、植物、菌類、原生生物はすべて真核生物という単一のドメインに属する。一方、モネラ界は細菌および古細菌という2つの大きなドメインに分割される。見た目の大きさという点では、細菌および古細菌はすべて微生物であるため、真核生物と違って日常で目にすることはまずないが、生態の多様さという点では細菌および古細菌ドメインは真核生物よりはるかに大きい。また近年では真核生物が細菌および古細菌が融合して誕生したとする説が有力となりつつあり（参照 真核生物#起源）この場合地球上には本来つのドメイン（細菌と古細菌）しか存在しなかったことになる。ちなみに古細菌はかつて細菌よりも起源が古い可能性が示唆されたため付けられた名前であるが実際のところは細菌と古細菌は両者とも同等に古い起源をもっている。生物を成り立たせる生体物質.水タンパク質脂質多糖核酸は生物の主要な構成成分である。生きているという状態は無数の化学反応の総和であるという見方もできる。これら化学反応がおこる場を提供しているのが水である。生物は水の特殊な物性に多くの事を依存しており極めて重要でかつ主要な構成成分である。どの生物でも体の約70％は水でありその他の物質が30％ほどを占める。タンパク質は量の上で多数を占める生体高分子である。20種類のアミノ酸が通常100 - 1000個重合してタンパク質となる。あるものは細胞を支える骨格となり、あるものは生体内化学反応の触媒となる。必要なタンパク質を必要な場所で産生するための情報を記録する生体高分子が核酸である。この情報は遺伝によって次の世代に引き継がれる。ロバート・フックがコルクを顕微鏡観察して見出した小さな区画に小部屋と名付けたように、細胞とはある区画化された空間を指す。この区画をしているのが細胞膜であり、脂質がその主要な成分である。脂質はエネルギーとして効率が良く、また貯蔵するのによい物質でもある。生物は区画された空間ではあるが完全に外界から遮断されているわけではない。外部からエネルギーを取り入れ内部で消費し化学反応で物質を作り出す。生物間でのエネルギーの流通に炭水化物（糖）は重要であり主に植物が光合成によって生産している。地球以外の天体に生物が発見された事例は記録されていない。だからと言って地球のそれと同様の生物あるいは全く異なった性質の生物が地球以外の場所に存在する可能性は否定できない。太陽系内においても火星には生命が存在する可能性が指摘されている。2018年7月にはイタリア国立宇宙物理学研究所などからなる国際天文学チームがマーズエクスプレスの観測データに基づきと述べている。系外惑星としては2007年に発見されたグリーゼ581cに生物が生存可能な環境の存在が期待されたことがある。2008年現在太陽系外における地球型惑星の観測成果も少しずつあがってきている。有機物以外を構成要素とする生物も想定される。このような仮想理論は「代わりの生化学」と呼ばれている。とくにケイ素は、炭素と同じ族に含まれ化学的性質も似ていることから、「代わりの生化学」のベースとして比較的頻繁に言及される（ケイ素生物）。サイエンスフィクションの世界ではガス電磁波から成る生物などが登場する。他に純粋知性精神あるいは物質によらない意識が登場するが現在のところ物質的な実体に依拠しない意識は確認されていない。 +コケ植物（コケしょくぶつ）とは陸上植物かつ非維管束植物であるような植物の総称もしくはそこに含まれる植物のこと。コケ類（コケるい）や蘚苔類（せんたいるい）蘚苔植物（せんたいしょくぶつ）などともいう。世界中でおよそ2万種ほどが記録されている。多くは緑色であるが赤色や褐色の種もある。大きな群として蘚類苔類ツノゴケ類の3つを含む。それをまとめて一つの分類群との扱いを受けてきたが現在では認められていない。なお日常用語にてはそのほかに地衣類なども含む。その他文化的側面については苔を参照されたい。重要な点は三つの群で大きく異なるが共通することも多い。主な共通点は栄養体が小型で単相であることである。植物体は小型で、多くは高さ数cmまで。体制から茎と葉が明瞭な茎葉体（けいようたい）と明瞭でない葉状体（ようじょうたい）とに分けられる。茎葉体の場合、双子葉植物のように軸と葉の区別がつくが、構造ははるかに簡単である。いずれにせよ、維管束はないが、その役割を代用する細胞は分化している場合がある。胞子体の頂端の胞子嚢に作られる胞子によって繁殖する（ただし、コケ植物では胞子嚢を蒴（朔、さく）と呼ぶ）。蒴の形態や構造は重要な分類上の特徴である。繁殖は、胞子によるもののほか、無性生殖として植物体の匍匐枝や脱落した葉より不定芽を出しての増殖を行なう。一部の種では、特に分化した無性芽という構造体を作るものも知られている。生活環は、シダ植物などと同様に世代交代を行う。ただしコケ植物の場合、主要な植物体は配偶体であり、核相は単相 (n) である。配偶体がある程度成長すると、その上に造卵器と造精器が形成され、それぞれ卵細胞と精子をつくる。雨などによって水に触れた時に、精子が泳ぎだし、造卵器の中で卵細胞と受精し受精卵（接合子）がつくられる。受精卵はその場で発生を始め、配偶体に栄養を依存する寄生生活の状態で発達し、胞子体を形成する。この胞子体は複相 で長く成長することがなく先端に単一の胞子嚢を形成するとそれで成長を終了する。先端の蒴が形成される。胞子は放出されて発芽しはじめは枝分かれした糸状の原糸体というものを形成する。原糸体は葉緑体をもち基質表面に伸びた後その上に植物体が発達を始め配偶体となる。なお一部に生涯にわたって原糸体を持つものがある。配偶体は雌雄同株のものが多いが、雌雄異株のものもある。雌雄異株の場合、外見上は差のない場合が多いが、はっきり見分けのつくものもあり、中には雄株が極端に小さくて雌株上に寄生的に生活する例も知られている。基本的には陸上生活をするが少ないながら淡水中に生育するものもいる。ただし海水中に生育するものは確認されていない。湿った環境を好む種が多く、温暖で湿潤な地域に多くの種を産する。乾燥した環境にも、数は少ないが、適応した種はある。森林に生活する種が多いが、岩場や渓流、滝の周辺などにも多くの種が見られる。特に霧がよくかかる雲霧林には、樹木に大量のコケが着生する例があり、蘚苔林とも呼ばれる。畑地や水田にもそれぞれに独特のものが見られるし、市街地でもいくつかの種が生育している。生育する基質としては、土や腐植土、岩上、他の植物体、昆虫等の動物などあらゆる場所に、さまざまな形で生育する。古くは陸上植物の中で、小柄で維管束を有さないことから、陸上生活への適応が不十分な原始的な群とされ、シダより下等な一群として扱われてきた。その中で蘚類と苔類が区別され、さらに苔類からツノゴケ類が区別された。しかし、。新しい分類では、それぞれの単系統群を門として扱うようになってきている。下記の綱や亜綱の分類は2009年刊の による。したがって、上掲の分類表は過去のものである。伝統的な分類では、コケ植物は植物界コケ植物門 (Bryophyta) として一群にまとめられる。内部分類は3つの綱に分類され、それぞれ、スギゴケやハイゴケなどの蘚類（蘚綱）、ゼニゴケやツボミゴケなどの苔類（苔綱）およびツノゴケ類（ツノゴケ綱）である（ツノゴケは漢字で角苔と書くが、カタカナで表記するのが一般である）。4つの亜綱に分けられるが大部分の種はマゴケ亜綱に所属する。コケ植物の3群の系統関係については2つの分岐パターンが示されている。1つは最初に苔類が次にツノゴケ類が最後に蘚類がPolysporangiatesから分岐したパターンである。もう1つは最初にツノゴケ類が次にPolysporangiatesが最後に蘚類と苔類が分岐したパターンである。形態や精子の微細構造化学組成等を用いた解析だとこのうち前者を示す説が多いがRNAを用いた解析では後者を示唆する結果が示されておりまた解析に使用した植物や遺伝子により異なった結果も示されている。コケ植物を含む陸上植物と緑藻類の共通する形質はいくつか知られている。例えば光合成色素としてクロロフィルaおよびbを持ち同化産物の貯蔵物質はデンプンである。また精子の鞭毛を2本持つことも他の緑藻類を除く藻類との差異である。ただし基本的に陸上生活をするコケ植物と水中生活をする緑藻類は多くの点で異なっており特に繁殖に関わる形質生態は明瞭である。生殖器官は緑藻類は単細胞でコケ植物は多細胞であり造卵器や胞子嚢は他の細胞に覆われている。これは配偶子や胞子などを乾燥から守る目的がある。また受精後コケ植物が植物体にとどまり胚を形成することも緑藻類との相違点である。なお緑藻類の中でも車軸藻類の属と核分裂の様式や共通の光合成酵素を持つこと分子系統の結果などより近縁であることが示唆されている。コケ植物は古生代に陸上進出したシダ植物とは、両者ともに多細胞で壷型の造卵器を形成するが、このような構造は藻類には見られない。また、両者ともに世代交代を行い、配偶体の上で胞子体が発芽する。したがって、シダ植物において、前葉体から幼いシダが伸びる姿と、コケ植物の植物体からさくが伸びる姿とは同等のものである。ただし、シダ植物や種子植物では胞子体が発達するのに対して、コケ植物では配偶体が発達するのが大きな相違点である。また葉緑体DNAの比較結果より苔類とヒカゲノカズラ類が近縁であることが示されている。コケ植物およびシダ植物・種子植物が側系統群であることが示唆されているものの、両者の系統関係については説が分かれている。コケ植物に近い先祖からシダ植物が分化したのか、両者に共通の祖先から両者が分化したのか、近縁な祖先から平行的に進化したのかなど、さまざまな議論がある。ただし、シダ植物からコケ植物に退行進化をしたことを示す結果は示されていない。コケ植物は、その姿が小型であり、しかも多様な生活環境に生育する種がある。これがカビともなれば野外採集はできず、持ち帰って分離操作をするのだろうが、コケはそのような方法が適用できない。どうしても野外で採集しなければならない。小さなものでは、砂岩の砂粒の間に葉が隠れてしまうようなものもあるから、ルーペは必須である。したがって、コケ植物の採集家は歩みが遅い。一歩進むごとに樹の肌を見、葉の上を見、枝を見、樹の根元を見、足元を見る。沢であれば岩面の向きの違う場所をずっと見て回り、岩の隙間を探し、草の根元を見、水しぶきのかかるところも見て、その周辺の樹木も見なければならない。素人目には一塊のコケの集団であっても、複数種が交じっていることも普通である。日本の蘚苔類学会のある年に行なわれた観察会では、山間部の渓谷にコースを設定してあったのに、その入り口の駐車場周辺だけで1日を過ごしてしまったとの伝説がある。その代わりに標本作製と保存は簡単で一般には陰干しして紙に包んでおくだけである。この状態で虫がつくこともほとんど無いと言う。シダや高等植物の押し葉標本が放置すればあっと言う間にボロボロになるのとは大きな違いである。観察したいときは水に戻すとほぼ元の形に回復する。"日本文化の文脈における「コケ」については苔を参照。"コケ植物が実用的に用いられる例としては、圧倒的にミズゴケ類が重要である。日本ではその分布が多くないが、ヨーロッパではごく普通にあり、生きたものは園芸用の培養土としてほとんど他に換えがない。他に乾燥させて荷作りの詰め物とし、またかつては脱脂綿代わりにも使われた。またそれが枯死して炭化したものは泥炭と呼ばれ、燃料などとしても利用された。それ以外となるとかなり重要度が落ちる。日本では庭園や鉢植えに利用されるが、主としてバックグラウンドとしての価値を認められていると見た方が良いだろう。日本には約1800種のコケ植物が分布しておりそのうち200種以上が絶滅の危機に瀕しているといわれている。日本では古来より蘚苔類は身近なものであり多くの和歌の中で詠われている。現在ミズゴケ類やシラガゴケ類スギゴケ類ツルゴケハイゴケなど多数のコケ植物が園芸用観賞用として栽培販売されている。コケ植物の研究を行っている組織・機関.日本ではいくつかの大学や博物館研究所でコケ植物に関する研究が行われている。また、日本蘚苔類学会がコケ植物を専門に取り扱う学会としてあげられる。 +社会学」を作り出そうとする学問である。社会学の成立と実証主義の展開.社会学なる用語は、フランス革命後の混乱と動乱に満ちた初期近代フランスを生きたオーギュスト・コントによって作られた。コントは、当時の産業主義と合理主義を背景として、社会学とはであって、歴史学、心理学、経済学を統合する実証主義的な科学的研究でなければならないとした。このコントの思想はその師であるサンシモンに遡る。サンシモンは自然科学の方法を用いて社会的世界を全体的かつ統一的に説明するとして提示した。ここからコントはさらに近代社会の構成原理として実証主義を提示し産業ではなく科学をその中心に据えることになった。そしてその中心に社会学を位置づけたのである。コントらの発想はジョンスチュアートミルハーバートスペンサーなどに受け継がれ実証主義の体系化がはかられていった。たとえばスペンサーはイギリス功利主義の考えと彼独自の進化論に基づいて有機体システムとのアナロジーによって社会を超有機的と捉え後の社会システム理論の先駆となる研究を行なった。実証主義の潮流のなかで始まった社会学であるが19世紀末から20世紀にかけてカールマルクスマックスウェーバーエミールデュルケームゲオルクジンメルヴィルフレドパレートらがさまざまな立場から相次いで研究著作を発表した。その方法論キー概念などは形を変えながらその後の社会学に引き継がれておりこの時期は社会学の古典的理論の形成期にあたる。デュルケームはコントらの社会発展論（近代化論）を「社会分業論」として受け継ぎ分業による連帯を「社会的事実の機能的なメカニズム」によるものとして説明する機能主義的な社会システム論を創始した。さらにデュルケームは実証主義の伝統を継承し自然科学の方法を社会科学へと拡大することを「社会学的方法の規準」の根底に据えた。しかし実証主義は自然科学に対抗するような人文社会科学の方法論を打ち立てるものではなく社会学の中心思想になることなくウェーバージンメルさらに後にはタルコットパーソンズらによって数々の批判を受けることになる。ウェーバーは前世代の近代化論をの理論として受け継いだ。両者は、ドイツ哲学の伝統に則り新カント派的科学方法論に依拠し、方法論的個人主義を創始した。すなわち、ウェーバーの場合には理解社会学による行為理論を打ち立て、ジンメルの場合は、後のシンボリック相互作用論につながる形式社会学と生の哲学の視点から関係論的定式化を行ない、マクロ客観主義の限界を乗り越える方向へ進んだのである。こうした実証主義の伝統を引き継いだデュルケムの方法論的集合主義（社会実在論＝社会的事実）と主にウェーバーによる方法論的個人主義（社会唯名論）との対立は後に「社会システムの社会学」（マクロ社会学）と「社会的行為の社会学」（ミクロ社会学）として引き継がれることになった。また社会学の認識については価値自由のルールにのっとったものであるべきかそれとも「精神科学」の伝統に準拠した人文学的性格のものであるべきかという実証主義と反実証主義の対立が生まれたがこれも後にたとえば批判理論と構造主義的マルクス主義のアプローチとして繰り返されることになった。20世紀初頭まではヨーロッパにおいて社会学の主潮が形成されていたが第一次世界大戦後にはアメリカ合衆国において顕著な展開を見せるようになりやがてプラグマティックな社会学研究の中心として発展を遂げていくことになった。アメリカ社会学が社会学研究の中心的地位を築き上げていく背景には19世紀末から20世紀初頭にかけての急激な経済社会の変化があった。南北戦争から第一次世界大戦へ至る半世紀の間にアメリカ産業は急ピッチな発展を遂げそれに伴って都市化が進行し民衆の生活様式も大きく変わっていった。このような大きく変貌を遂げるアメリカ社会の実態を捉えることが社会学の課題として要請されるようになっていったのである。当初、アメリカの社会学は、1893年に創設されたシカゴ大学を中心に、人種・移民をめぐる問題、犯罪、非行、労働問題、地域的コミュニティの変貌などの現象的な側面を実証的に解明する社会心理学や都市社会学が興隆していった。アルビオン・スモール、ウィリアム・トマス、ジョージ・ハーバート・ミード、ロバート・E・パーク、アーネスト・バージェス、ルイス・ワースら、有能な研究者たちの活躍によって、1920～30年代にシカゴ大学は、アメリカの学会において強い影響力を及ぼすようになり、シカゴ学派と呼ばれる有力な研究者グループを形成するまでになった。ヨーロッパの社会学は観念的・方法論的側面を重視する傾向が強かったが、アメリカ社会学は現実の問題を解決する方向性を示すという実践的側面が強くみられる。この点は、実際的な有用性を重視するプラグマティズムの精神的な伝統によるところが大きく、また、前述のような社会的要請もあって、地域社会や家族などの具体的な対象を研究する個別科学としての傾向を持つようになった。機能主義社会学の台頭.さらに、第二次世界大戦後のアメリカでは、タルコット・パーソンズやロバート・キング・マートンらによる機能主義が提唱され、社会学全体に大きな影響を及ぼした。とくにパーソンズの構造機能主義社会学は、社会学における統一理論を築き上げる意図を持って提起され、多くの社会学者に影響を与え、20世紀半ばにおけると目されるに至った。これは分野の統一、体系化が実現するかに見えた社会学の稀有な時期であるとされる。しかしパーソンズの理論はその科学論的政治思想的な構想があまりに遠大かつ複雑であったことから正しく評価されていなかったともされておりまた合理的選択論のケネスアローらが指摘するところによればパーソンズ自身が掲げた要求にしたがった理論形成もなされていなかった。また1960年代以降には「観念的傾向が強い」「現状の体制を維持しようという保守的傾向がある」「個人の非合理的な行為についての視点が欠けている」などといった数多くの批判ないし断罪を受けることになった。いずれにせよパーソンズの社会システム論は結局統一理論構築にまではいたらず以下に見るような主にミクロレベルの視点に立った理論がさまざまな立場から提唱されるようになった。後期近代化と社会学の多様化.他方で第一次世界大戦第二次世界大戦の惨禍を眼前にしたヨーロッパ社会学では理性信仰の崩壊とともに西洋近代社会の構成原理そのものへの反省が生まれていた。そこで機能主義の流れとは別にドイツではテオドールアドルノやユルゲンハーバーマスに代表されるフランクフルト学派の批判理論フランスではルイアルチュセールらの構造主義的マルクス主義ミシェルフーコーの権力論が展開された。これらの動きとともに、後期近代化への動きを背景として脱産業化論、紛争理論などが唱えられ、1960年代末には機能主義からの離反が決定的なものとなる。こうして、いわゆるミニ・パラダイムの乱立と称される時代を迎える。以上の理論の他に、日常世界への着目から、シンボリック相互作用論、現象学的社会学、エスノメソドロジー、ピエール・ブルデューの社会学などが影響力を持つようになるとともに、ジェームズ・コールマンら方法論的個人主義の立場からは合理的選択理論なども唱えられるようになり、社会学が多様化し、研究対象となる領域も、たとえばジェンダーの社会学といった具合にさまざまに分化し拡大した。ただし、この多様化によって、同時に社会学というディシプリン内部での対話の共通基盤が失われることにもなった。上述のような歴史的文脈が忘却されると、機能主義に対するカウンターとしての意義をもった諸ミニパラダイムは逆に混迷を深めた。一方で、（クーンが本来意図した意味での）パラダイム、すなわち経験的統計データに基づく調査研究は疑問視されることなく確立していったが、他方でかかる研究のよって立つべき思想・視点、つまりは社会学の独自性とは何なのかという問題が問われることにもなった。政策科学への流れと新たな理論形成.そのなかで、1960年代にパーソンズのもとに留学し、ドイツに帰国後、社会学者として活動を開始したニクラス・ルーマンや、1990年代末以降の英国ブレア労働党政権のブレーンとして名を馳せたアンソニー・ギデンズらは、それぞれ異なった系譜からではあるが、政策科学としての社会学という立場を打ち出した。たとえばルーマンの場合であれば科学的にSollenを言わなければならない行政学の伝統を継承する形で社会システム論を展開しまた構造化論を展開したギデンズの場合は社会問題への関与を続けてきたイギリス社会学の伝統とリベラリズムの政治思想への関わりからそうした方向性をとりそれぞれに反響を呼び起こした。また政策科学への流れとともに20世紀末になるとグローバル化情報化リスク社会化などを背景としつつ社会構築主義の影響力が高まるなかで構造化論機能構造主義社会学も含め従来の社会学におけるに代わるキー概念とした新たな理論構築も見られるようになっている。人間は歴史社会を創造するとともに歴史社会のなかを生きる存在である。社会学もまたそうした人間の歴史的営為の二重性のなかにある。したがってその理論と方法は客観的に進展されるものではないが前節に見られるような現実世界の変容のなかで以下のような理論と方法論が主に展開されてきている。経験社会学は現実の社会からデータを取らなくてはならないためさまざまな方法が考えられている。主として社会調査が用いられるが調査の他に実験観察内容分析の利用などの手法がある。どれも一長一短があるがそれぞれが重要な研究手法である。なども存在する。SSM調査の成果は米国で数冊の本が出版された他韓国や中国でも翻訳が出版されており国際的にも高く評価されている。例えば原純輔盛山和夫によるは韓国中国米国で出版されている。米国の社会学においては公開されている既存の社会調査データが多いこともあり大規模なデータファイルの計量分析をもとにした計量社会学が近年では非常に盛んである。アメリカ社会学会の機関誌 "American Sociological Review" も論文の7割前後が計量分析を用いた論文である。実験や観察質的調査による研究理論研究などもあるが最近はやや沈滞気味で数は多くはない。米国では理論だけの研究はほとんどなく理論と実証の往復が重視される。質的調査は米国において1990年代以前に小規模な流行があったが社会学の主たる研究テーマの一つは、秩序問題、すなわち社会秩序や、何らかの社会への協力行動と関連した問題群である。具体的には、治安や犯罪、逸脱行動、地位/役割、権力/支配関係、利他的行動、社会的ジレンマなどが問題にされる。また、社会心理学や小集団実験と関連する研究も多い。とりわけ近年では、社会的な包摂/排除や治安・犯罪に関わるテーマが世界的に注目されている。数理社会学や合理的選択理論の手法を用いた研究も盛んになっている。こうしたミクロレベルでの秩序問題の解明とともにマクロな社会構造とその時代的変化すなわち社会変動の分析も社会学の主要なテーマである。たとえば産業社会や労働市場社会階層学校システム家族や地域社会国家社会などの構造や問題構制の変容過程などである。これらの分野では社会システム論による総合的な理論蓄積のほか大規模な調査データを元にした個別的な研究成果も多く挙がっている。社会変動研究は、もともと近代主義的、発展段階論的な視点によるものが多かったが、構築主義的な研究が広く行われている。高度経済成長期以降の日本の社会学でもやはり産業社会化都市社会化大衆社会化といった近代化に伴う社会変動が主として扱われてきたが最近では脱産業化少子高齢化情報テクノロジー化ネットワーク化グローバル化などによる社会的物質的変容に焦点を据えた研究が取り組まれるようになっている。社会学が対象とする領域は幅広いため、特定の分野を扱う連字符社会学が大量に発達することになった。その分野の歴史や他の学問への影響、方法論などはさまざまである。以下は連字符社会学の実例。日本の社会学者の質問題・アカデミズム軽視のメディア出演重視問題.京都大学大学院文学研究科教授である太郎丸博は以前から著書などで学会報告や学会誌などアカデミズムを軽視している日本の社会学の研究者教授学界そのものを批判している。「日本社会学学者らは学会誌への論文投稿学会で自身の研究を発表せず(社会)学者づらして本を出版したりさまざまなメディアで発言することができる」のが実状だと指摘している。「先生」扱いされる日本の社会学者らは他者からの意見の異なる人から批判的な批評されるのを恐れて同じ政治思想をもつ身内以外の第三者から査読を受けない上に批判や指摘がされる学会誌には必ず投稿しないと告発している。更に太郎丸は売上しか気にしない出版社やメディアも自分たちが好む主張をしている「社会学者」を採用しているだけで研究の水準や主張の真偽も確認しない問題も指摘している。太郎丸は彼らを見て育った大学院生たちも彼らのように学会報告や学会誌というアカデミズムを軽視し本に好き勝手なことを書くことメディア出演ばかりのマスメディア御用達学者であることを「社会学者」「社会学者としての理想成功例」だと誤解するため研究成果をほとんど出さない人が日本の社会学者の多数になっていてマスメディア出演の多い学者の大多数は研究成果が実質ないまたはメディア出演以降は客観的に価値がある研究がないに等しい人ばかりと警告している。意見の異なる社会学者同士の議論が日本の社会学界には皆無と言えるほどと指摘している。 +古代エジプトは古代のエジプトに対する呼称。具体的にどの時期を指すかについては様々な説が存在するがこの項においては紀元前3000年頃に始まった第1王朝から紀元前30年にプトレマイオス朝が共和政ローマによって滅ぼされるまでの時代を扱う。エジプトは不毛の砂漠地帯であるが、毎年夏のナイル川の増水で水に覆われる地域には河土が運ばれて堆積し、農耕や灌漑が可能になる。この氾濫原だけが居住に適しており、主な活動はナイル河畔で行われた。ナイル川の恩恵を受ける地域はケメトと対比される概念だった。このケメトの範囲の幅は非常に狭く、ナイル川の本流・支流から数kmの範囲にとどまっていた。しかしながら川の周囲にのみ人が集住しているということは交通においては非常に便利であり、川船を使って国内のどの地域にも素早い移動が可能であった。この利便性は、ナイル河畔に住む人々の交流を盛んにし、統一国家を建国し維持する基盤となった。ナイル川本流からナイル川の上流は谷合でありナイル川1本だけが流れ下流はデルタ地帯の称号の中にと呼んでいた。毎年のナイル川の氾濫を正確に予測する必要から天文観測が行われ太陽暦が作られた。太陽とシリウス星が同時に昇る頃ナイル川は氾濫したという。また氾濫が収まった後に農地を元通り配分するため測量術幾何学天文学が発達した。ヒエログリフから派生したワディエルホル文字と原シナイ文字（原カナン文字）は世界の殆どのアルファベットの起源となったとされる。エジプト文明と並ぶ最初期における農耕文明の一つであるメソポタミア文明が、民族移動の交差点にあたり終始異民族の侵入を被り支配民族が代わったのと比べ、地理的に孤立した位置にあったエジプトは比較的安定しており、部族社会が城壁を廻らせて成立する都市国家の痕跡は今の所発見されていない。古代エジプト人は元号のように「『王の名前』の統治何年目」のように歴史を記録していた。そのため絶対的な年代表記法に置き換えた時に幾分かの誤差があるだろうと言われる。初期王朝の始まりも5年から20年ほどの誤差がある可能性が指摘されている。古代エジプトは、次の時代に区分されている。エジプト文明が誕生し、人々が定住し農耕を開始したのは、およそ紀元前5000年ごろと考えられており、紀元前4500年ごろにはモエリス湖畔にファイユーム文化が成立し、紀元前4400年ごろからは上エジプトの峡谷地帯を中心にナカダ文化が興った。この時期のエジプトはいくつもの部族国家に分裂しており、やがてこの国家群が徐々に統合されていくつかの国家にまとまりはじめた。ただし統合された部族国家は地域的なまとまりをもち続け、上エジプトに22、下エジプトに20、合計約42あるノモスと呼ばれる行政地区としてエジプト各王朝の行政単位となっていった。紀元前3500年頃にはまず上エジプト、そして下エジプト、二つの統一国家が成立したと考えられている。紀元前3300年頃にはヒエログリフの文字体系が確立し、太陽暦が普及した。紀元前3150年頃、上エジプトのナルメル王が下エジプトを軍事的に征服し、上下エジプトを統一してエジプト第1王朝を開いたとされる。従来はエジプト第1王朝の建国者とされてきたメネス王がナルメル王にあたるのか、それとも別の王に比定されるのかについては諸説ある。また、ナルメルは上下エジプトの王として確認される最古の王であるが、ナルメル王よりも古い上下エジプトの王がいた可能性もある。ヘロドトスによれば第1王朝期に、上下エジプトの境界地域に首都としてメン・ネフェルが築かれたとされ、以後第一中間期の第8王朝にいたるまでエジプトの各王朝はここに都した。エジプト第1王朝は紀元前2890年頃に王統の交代によってエジプト第2王朝となった。この初期王朝時代の2王朝については資料が少なく、不明な点も多い。紀元前2686年頃成立したエジプト第3王朝からは、エジプト古王国期と呼ばれ、エジプト最初の繁栄期に入る。首都は一貫してメンフィスに置かれた。古王国時代には中央政権が安定し、強力な王権が成立していた。このことを示すのが、紀元前2650年頃に第3王朝第2代の王であるジョセル王が建設した階段ピラミッドである。このピラミッドは当初それまでの一般的な墓の形式であったマスタバで建設されたが、宰相イムホテプによる数度の設計変更を経て、最終的にマスタバを6段積み重ねたような階段状の王墓となった。これがエジプト史上最古のピラミッドとされるジェゼル王のピラミッドである。このピラミッドは以後の王墓建設に巨大な影響を与え、以後マスタバに代わりピラミッドが王墓の中心的な形式となった。紀元前2613年にはスネフェルが即位し、エジプト第4王朝が始まる。この第4王朝期には経済が成長し、またピラミッドの建設が最盛期を迎えた。スネフェル王は紀元前2600年頃にヌビア、リビュア、シナイに遠征隊を派遣して勢力範囲を広げる一方、まず屈折ピラミッドを、さらに世界初の真正ピラミッドである赤いピラミッドを建設した。スネフェルの次の王であるクフの時代に、ピラミッド建設は頂点を迎え、世界最大のピラミッドであるギザの大ピラミッドが建設された。その後、クフの2代あとにあたるカフラー王がカフラー王のピラミッドとその門前にあるギザの大スフィンクスを建造し、さらにその次のメンカウラー王がメンカウラー王のピラミッドを建設し、ピラミッドの建設は頂点に達した。この3つのピラミッドは三大ピラミッドと呼ばれ、エジプト古王国時代を代表する建造物となっている。この後エジプト第5王朝に入ると経済は引き続き繁栄していたもののピラミッドの意味が変質してクフ王時代のような巨大な石造りのものを建てられることはなくなり材料も日干しレンガを使用したことで耐久性の低いものとなった。続くエジプト第6王朝も長い安定の時期を保ったが紀元前2383年に即位し94年間在位したペピ2世の治世中期より各地の州に拠る州侯たちの勢力が増大し中央政府の統制力は失われていった。紀元前2184年にペピ2世が崩御したころには中央政権の統治は有名無実なものとなっており紀元前2181年に第6王朝が崩壊したことにより古王国時代は終焉した。第1中間期（第7 - 10王朝）.第6王朝崩壊後、首都メンフィスにはエジプト第7王朝、エジプト第8王朝という短命で無力な後継王朝が続いたが、実際には各地の州侯たちによる内乱状態が続いていた。この混乱の時代を総称し、第1中間期と呼ぶ。やがて上エジプト北部のヘラクレオポリスに興ったエジプト第9王朝がエジプト北部を制圧したものの全土を統一することはできず、上エジプト南部のテーベに勃興したエジプト第11王朝との南北対立の情勢となった。中王国時代（第11 - 12王朝）.紀元前2060年頃に第11王朝にメンチュヘテプ2世が即位すると紀元前2040年頃に第9王朝の後継であるエジプト第10王朝を打倒してエジプトを再び統一しエジプト中王国時代が始まった。首都は引き続きテーベにおかれた。また中王国期に入るとピラミッドの造営も復活したが第4王朝期のような壮大なピラミッドはもはや建造されず日干しレンガを多用したものが主となった。紀元前1991年頃にはアメンエムハト1世によってエジプト第12王朝が開かれ、首都もメンフィス近郊のイチ・タウィへと遷した。第12王朝期は長い平和が続き、国内の開発も急速に進んだ。特に歴代の王が力を注いだのは、ナイル川の支流が注ぎこむ広大な沼沢地であったファイユーム盆地の開発であり、センウセルト2世の時代に着工した干拓工事は王朝後期のアメンエムハト3世時代に完成し、ファイユームは広大な穀倉地帯となった。センウセレト2世は紀元前1900年頃にアル・ラフーンにピラミッドを造営している。中王国はヌビアに対するものを除き対外遠征をあまり行わず、とくにシリア方面には軍事進出を行わなかったが、唯一の例外として紀元前1850年頃にセンウセレト3世がヌビアおよびシリアに遠征した。センウセレト3世は名君として知られており、国内においては州侯の勢力を削ぎ、行政改革を行って国王の権力を拡大している。つづくアメンエムハト3世期にも政権は安定しており紀元前1800年頃にはファイユーム盆地の開発が完成しまたハワーラのピラミッドが造営されている。しかし彼の死後は短命な政権が続き紀元前1782年頃には第12王朝が崩壊して中王国期も終焉を迎えた。第12王朝からエジプト第13王朝への継承はスムーズに行われ、制度その他もそのまま引き継がれたものの、王朝の統治力は急速に弱体化していった。この時期以降、エジプト第2中間期と呼ばれる混乱期にエジプトは突入していく。まず第13王朝期にはヌビアがエジプトから独立し、ついでエジプト第14王朝などいくつかの小諸侯が各地に分立したが、やがて紀元前1663年頃にはパレスチナ方面からやってきたとされるヒクソスという異民族によってエジプト第15王朝が立てられ、各地の小諸侯を従属させて覇権を確立した。下エジプトのアヴァリスに拠点を置いていた第15王朝に対し、一時は従属していたテーベを中心とする勢力がエジプト第17王朝として独立し、南北分立の体制となった。また、第15王朝は下エジプトのみならず、隣接するパレスチナも自らの勢力圏としていた。紀元前1540年頃、上エジプトを支配していた第17王朝のイアフメス1世がヒクソスを放逐して南北エジプトを再統一し、エジプト新王国時代がはじまった。イアフメス1世は第17王朝の王であるが、エジプト統一という一大画期があるため、連続した王朝にもかかわらずこれ以後の王朝は慣例としてエジプト第18王朝と呼ばれる。イアフメス1世はさらにヒクソスを追ってパレスチナへと侵攻し、第15王朝を完全に滅ぼした。これが嚆矢となり、以後のエジプト歴代王朝はそれまでの古王国期や中王国期とことなり、パレスティナ・シリア方面へと積極的に進出するようになり、ナイル川流域を越えた大帝国を建設するようになっていった。このため、新王国時代はとも呼ばれる。首都は統一前と同じく引き続きテーベにおかれた。イアフメス1世はさらに南のヌビアにも再進出しこの地方を再びエジプトの支配下に組み入れた。次のアメンホテプ1世はカルナック神殿の拡張などの内政に力を入れた。紀元前1524年頃に即位したトトメス1世はこの国力の伸長を背景に積極的な外征を行いティグリスユーフラテス川上流部を地盤とする大国ミタンニへと侵攻しユーフラテス河畔の重要都市カルケミシュまで侵攻してその地に境界石を建立した。また彼は陵墓の地として王家の谷を開発し以後新王国時代の王のほとんどはこの地へと埋葬された。次のトトメス2世は早世し紀元前1479年頃に子のトトメス3世が即位したものの若年であったため実際には共治王として即位したトトメス2世の王妃であるハトシェプストが実権を握り統治を行っていた。ハトシェプストは遠征よりも内政や交易を重視しこの時代にプントとの交易が再開されまたクレタなどとの交易も拡大したが一方で遠征を行わなかったためミタンニとの勢力圏の境界にあるシリアパレスチナ地方の諸国が次々と離反していった。紀元前1458年頃にハトシェプストが退位すると、実権を握ったトトメス3世は打って変わってアジアへの積極的な遠征を行い、メギドの戦いなど数々の戦いで勝利を収めて国威を回復させた。続くアメンホテプ2世、トトメス4世、アメンホテプ3世の時代にも繁栄はそのまま維持され、エジプトの国力は絶頂期を迎えた。しかしこのころにはもともとテーベ市の守護神であった主神アメンを奉じる神官勢力の伸長が著しくなっており、王家と徐々に衝突するようになっていた。こうしたことから次のアメンホテプ4世は紀元前1346年ごろにアクエンアテンと名乗って伝統的なアメン神を中心にした多神崇拝を廃止アメン信仰の中心地である首都テーベからアマルナへと遷都し太陽神アテンの一神崇拝に改めるいわゆるアマルナ宗教改革を行った。このアテン信仰は世界最初の一神教といわれアマルナ美術と呼ばれる美術が花開いたが国内の統治に集中して戦闘を避けたため当時勢力を伸ばしつつあったヒッタイトにシリアパレスチナ地方の属国群を奪われ国力が一時低下する。紀元前1333年頃に即位したツタンカーメン王はアメン信仰を復活させ、アマルナを放棄してテーベへと首都を戻したが若くして死去し、アイを経てホルエムヘブが即位する。ホルエムヘブは官僚制を整備し神官勢力を統制してアマルナ時代から混乱していた国内情勢を落ち着かせたが継嗣がおらず、親友であるラムセス1世を後継に指名して死去した。これにより第18王朝の血筋は絶え、以後は第19王朝と呼ばれる。王朝が交代したと言ってもラムセス1世への皇位継承は既定路線であり、権力はスムーズに移譲された。ラムセス1世も老齢であったために即位後ほどなくして死去し、前1291年に即位した次のセティ1世はアマルナ時代に失われていた北シリア方面へと遠征して再び膨張主義を取るようになった。紀元前1279年ごろに即位した次のラムセス2世は古代エジプト最大の王と呼ばれ、彼の長い統治の時代に新王国は最盛期を迎えた。紀元前1274年にはシリア北部のオロンテス川でムワタリ2世率いるヒッタイトと衝突し、カデシュの戦いが起きた。この戦いは痛み分けに終わり、この時結ばれた平和条約はのちにヒッタイトの首都ハットゥシャから粘土板の形で出土している。またラムセス2世は国内においてもさまざまな大規模建築物を建設し、下エジプトのデルタ地方東部に新首都ペル・ラムセスを建設して遷都した。その次のメルエンプタハ王の時代には紀元前1208年ごろに海の民の侵入を撃退したが、彼の死後は短期間の在位の王が続き、内政は混乱していった。紀元前1185年頃には第19王朝は絶え、第20王朝が新たに開かれた。第20王朝第2代のラムセス3世は最後の偉大なファラオと呼ばれ、この時代に新王国は最後の繁栄期を迎えたが、彼の死後は国勢は下り坂に向かい、やがて紀元前1070年頃に第20王朝が滅ぶとともに新王国時代も終わりを告げた。これ以後古代エジプトが終焉するまでの約1000年は、基本的には他国に対する軍事的劣勢が続いた。第20王朝末期にはテーベを中心とするアメン神官団が勢力を増していき紀元前1080年頃にはアメン神官団の長ヘリホルがテーベに神権国家を立てたことでエジプトは再び南北に分裂することとなった。紀元前1069年に成立した第21王朝は首都をペルラムセスからタニスへと移しアメン大司祭国家に名目的な宗主権を及ぼした。紀元前945年にはリビュア人傭兵の子孫であるシェションク1世が下エジプトに第22王朝を開きアメン大司祭国家を併合して再統一を果たすがその後は再びアメン大司祭が独立したほか下エジプトに5人の王が分立するなど混乱を極めた。こうした中エジプトの強い文化的影響を受けていた南のヌビアが勢力を拡大し紀元前747年にはピアンキがヌビアから進撃してエジプト全土を制圧し第25王朝を開いた。しかしその後メソポタミアに強力な帝国を築いたアッシリアの圧迫にさらされ紀元前671年にはアッシリア王エセルハドンの侵入をうけて下エジプトが陥落。一時奪回に成功したもののアッシュールバニパル王率いるアッシリア軍に紀元前663年にはテーベを落とされて第25王朝のヌビア人はヌビアへと撤退した。アッシュールバニパルはサイスを支配していたネコ1世にエジプト統治を委任し間接統治を行った。この王朝を第26王朝と呼ぶ。第26王朝は当初はアッシリアの従属王朝であったがアッシリアの急速な衰退にともなって自立の度を深め紀元前655年にはネコ1世の子であるプサメティコス1世がアッシリアからの独立を果たす。これ以後は末期王朝時代と呼ばれまた第26王朝は首都の名からサイス朝とも呼ばれる。アッシリアはその後滅亡しその遺領はエジプト新バビロニアリディアメディアの4つの王朝によって分割された。プサメティコス1世の次のネコ2世はパレスチナシリア地方へと進出したものの紀元前605年カルケミシュの戦いで新バビロニアのネブカドネザル2世に敗れてこの進出は頓挫した。サイス朝時代のエジプトはシリアをめぐって新バビロニアとその後も小競り合いを繰り返しながらも上記のオリエント4大国のひとつとして大きな勢力を持ったが紀元前550年にメディアを滅ぼしたアケメネス朝のキュロス2世が急速に勢力を伸ばしリディアおよび新バビロニアが滅ぼされるとそれに圧倒され紀元前525年にはプサメティコス3世がアケメネス朝のカンビュセス2世に敗れエジプトはペルシアによって征服された。ペルシアのエジプト支配は121年間に及びこれを第27王朝と呼ぶが歴代のペルシア王の多くはエジプトの文化に干渉しなかった。しかしダレイオス2世の死後王位継承争いによってペルシアの統治が緩むとサイスに勢力を持っていたアミルタイオスが反乱を起こし紀元前404年にはペルシアからふたたび独立を達成した。これが第28王朝である。第28王朝はアミルタイオス一代で滅び次いで紀元前397年から紀元前378年にかけては第29王朝が紀元前378年からは第30王朝が立てられ約60年間にわたってエジプトは独立を維持したが東方を統一する大帝国であるアケメネス朝はつねにエジプトの再征服を狙っておりそれにおびえながらの不安定な政情が続いた。そして紀元前341年アケメネス朝のアルタクセルクセス3世の軍勢に最後のエジプト人ファラオであるネクタネボ2世が敗れエジプトはペルシアに再征服された。アルタクセルクセス3世はエジプトの信仰を弾圧し圧政を敷いた。ペルシアのこの圧政は10年間しか継続せず紀元前332年マケドニア王のアレクサンドロス3世がエジプトへと侵攻し占領された。アレクサンドロスがペルシアを滅ぼすとエジプトもそのままアレクサンドロス帝国の一地方となったが紀元前323年にアレクサンドロス3世が死去すると後継者たちによってディアドコイ戦争が勃発し王国は分裂した。この混乱の中でディアドコイの一人であるプトレマイオスがこの地に拠って勢力を拡大し、紀元前305年にはプトレマイオス1世として即位することで、古代エジプト最後の王朝であるプトレマイオス朝が建国された。この王朝はセレウコス朝シリア王国、アンティゴノス朝マケドニア王国と並ぶヘレニズム3王国のひとつであり、国王および王朝の中枢はギリシャ人によって占められていた。プトレマイオス1世は首都をアレクサンドロスによって建設された海港都市であるアレクサンドリアに置き、国制を整え、またムセイオンおよびアレクサンドリア図書館を建設して学術を振興するなどの善政を敷いた。続くプトレマイオス2世およびプトレマイオス3世の時代にも繁栄が続いたが、その後は暗愚な王と政局の混乱が続き、またシリアをめぐるセレウコス朝との6回にわたるシリア戦争などの打ち続く戦争によって国力は疲弊していった。紀元前80年にはプトレマイオス11世が殺されたことで王家の直系が断絶し、以後は勢力を増していく共和政ローマの影響力が増大していくこととなった。紀元前51年に即位したクレオパトラ7世はガイウス・ユリウス・カエサルやマルクス・アントニウスといったローマの有力者たちと誼を通じることでエジプトの存続を図ったが、紀元前31年にオクタウィアヌス率いるローマ軍にアクティウムの海戦で敗北し、紀元前30年にアレクサンドリアが陥落。クレオパトラ7世は自殺し、プトレマイオス朝は滅亡した。これによりエジプトの独立王朝時代は終焉し、以後はローマの皇帝属州アエギュプトゥスとなった。1日を24時間としたのは古代エジプトであるという説がある。後述するように階級社会だったが完全に固定されてはいなかったとされる。ファラオは神権により支配した皇帝である。わずかな例外を除き男性。継承権は第一皇女にありしたがって第一皇女の夫がファラオになる。名前の一部には神の名前が含まれた。人口の1%程度の少ない貴族階級が土地を所有し支配していた。残る99%であるほとんどの平民は小作だった。ファラオによって土地を与えられることにより貴族となるが、ファラオが交替したり、王朝が変わると、土地を取り上げられ貴族ではなくなる事も多く、貴族は必ずしも安定した地位にあるわけではなかった。古代エジプトの教育制度についてはどのパピルス文書にも明確なことは記されていないが数学医学建築など体系的な教育システムが必要な分野が発展しているため相応の体制が整備されていたと考えられている。また知恵文学やその他のテキストからは古代エジプト人が持っていた教育の目的や教育の内容に関する実際的な知識を僅かながら知ることができる。裕福な農民の子供たちを含む、裕福な家庭の子供は14歳になるまでの間、公的な教育が施された。裕福な農民の子は神殿付属の学校へ、中流以上の子供は政府の建てた学校へ通った。それ以外の貧しい家庭の子と下層民の子弟の子達は、教育を受けなかったようである。授業内容は学校の目的によって異なり、神殿付属の学校では、宗教儀礼に関する書物を写したり、宗教文学、葬祭の経典、経典の注解、神話物語などを勉強し、政府の学校では、算数、幾何学、測量術、簿記、官庁の書類作成などを学んだ。他には水泳やボートレスリングボール競技弓などといったスポーツも含まれていた。また体罰は怠けたり言うことを聞かない生徒を正す良い方法であると思われていた。後世、ギリシャ人もこうした制度を非常に高く評価している。大貴族の息子の中には王家の子供たちの教育にあたる教師のクラスに通う者もあったようである。他の者は将来の役人を養成する学校に通っていた。14歳になると医師や法律家そして書記を志望する子供たちはさらに勉学を進めるために神殿へ送られた。神殿には立派な図書館があり、そこにはさまざまな学問分野のパピルス文書が保管されており、また神官たちは、さまざまな教育設備を用意していた。学生の訓練には、理論的なものと、実際的なものとの双方が用意されており、授業は、神殿内部のと呼ばれる場所で行なわれていたようである。この場所では、テキストの写本が作られ、保管されていた。医学的な訓練としては、神殿の周辺地区で実際の患者の治療などが行なわれていたようである。医学教育については不明な点が多い。男子とは違い、女子に対する教育は、必要最低限のもので、王女を除いては、特に教育を受けることもなく、読み書きができる者もほとんどいなかった。彼女たちは、家庭にあり母親の手伝いを通じて、必要とする技術を習得した。古王国時代現存する最古の記録が書かれる以前にこうした法体系は原始的なものから洗練されたものへと発展していたようで最古の記録から既に法が公的な手順を踏んでいたことが明らかとなっている。多くの法的な問題としては葬送や財産に関する問題やカー神官の土地の分配などの問題を取り扱っていた。理論的には王は絶対君主でありまた唯一の立法者でもありそして臣下の人々の生と死労働および財産に対して絶対的な力を持っていたが現実には民間の法律が存在し財産の問題などは民間の法律によって処理された。一般に刑罰は厳しかったが法自体は他の古代社会に比して人間的なものであり特に婦女子は法的に保護されていた。しかしながら、第19王朝には、裁判の方法に関して問題が起こった。当時、二種類の法廷があり、そのひとつは地方の裁判所で、これは役人を裁判長とし、地域の有力者によって構成されたもので、ほとんどの事件を処理することができた。もうひとつの法廷は、いわば最高裁判所に相当するものでテーベにあり、宰相の下で、死刑に当たるほどの重罪を扱う機関であった。全ての証拠が提出され、裁判官たちによって検討され、判決は訴訟に負けた側が、その負けを認めた後で下された。しかし、第19王朝以降、判決が神託によって出される場合が生じるようになった。神の像が裁判官となり、また神の意志が像の前で行なわれる儀式によって伝えられた。原告は、像の前に立って容疑者の名のリストを読み上げ、犯人の名が呼ばれた時に、神像が何らかの兆候を見せると信じられていた。こうした方法は、明らかに裁判所の堕落と裁判の悪用を招くものであった。新王国時代の法律および、それに関する資料は、第20王朝以降のテキストに見ることができる。ラメセス世の時代に始まり、その後多年にわたり続いた裁判の詳細は、一連の非常に良く保存されたパピルスからわかる。社会状況は暗く、貧困が蔓延していたために、この時代になると、もともと普通のことであった墓泥棒があまりにも目に余るものとなってきて、王は墓泥棒たちに対して法的処置を講じ、裁判を行なうようになった。古代ギリシアの歴史家・ヘロドトスがという言葉をに記しており、古代エジプトの主要産業である農業はナイル川の氾濫に多くを負っていた。ナイル川は6月ごろ、モンスーンがエチオピア高原に降らす雨の影響で氾濫を起こす。この氾濫は水位の上下はあれど、氾濫が起きないことはほとんどなかったうえ、鉄砲水のような急激な水位上昇もほぼなく、毎年決まった時期に穏やかに増水が起こった。この氾濫はエチオピア高原から流れてきた肥沃な土壌を氾濫原に蓄積させ、10月ごろに引いていく。これによりエジプトは肥料の必要もなく、毎年更新される農耕に適した肥沃な土壌が得られた。浅い水路を掘って洪水時の水をためていたこの方式はベイスン灌漑方式と呼ばれ、19世紀にいたるまでエジプトの耕作方法であり続けた。作物は大麦と小麦が中心であり、野菜ではタマネギ、ニンニク、ニラ、ラディッシュ、レタスなどが主に栽培された。豆類ではソラマメ、ヒヨコ豆。果実ではブドウ、ナツメヤシ、イチジク、ザクロなどがあった。外国から伝わった作物としては、新王国時代にリンゴ、プラム、オリーブ、スイカ、メロン。プトレマイオス朝時代にはモモ、ナシなどが栽培された。古王国時代から中央集権の管理下におかれており水利監督官は洪水の水位によって収穫量を予測した。耕地面積や収穫量は記録され収穫量をもとに徴税が行われて国庫に貯蔵され食料不足の際には再配分された。農民の大部分は農奴であったが新王国時代になると報酬によって雇われる農民や自立農民が増加した。造船ビールの醸造工芸など高度な技能が必要な職があったことからこれに従事する職人が存在していたと推測されている。エジプトの本国はナイル川の領域に限られており、それ以外の地域は基本的にすべて外国とみなされていた。ナイル川流域でも、エレファンティネをはじめとするエジプト文化の影響が各所にみられる。ヌビア以外の諸外国については中王国時代までは積極的な侵攻をかけることはほとんどなく、交易関係にとどまっていたものの、新王国期にはいるとヒクソスの地盤であったパレスチナ地方への侵攻を皮切りに、パレスチナやシリア地方の小国群の支配権をめぐってミタンニやヒッタイト、バビロニアなどの諸国と抗争を繰り広げるようになった。また、古王国期から新王国期末までの期間は、アフリカ東部にあったと推定されているプント国と盛んに交易を行い、乳香や没薬、象牙などを輸入していた。エジプトの主要交易品と言えば金であった。金は上エジプトのコプトスより東に延びるワディ・ハンママート周辺や、ヌビアのワワトやクシュから産出された。この豊富な金を背景にエジプトは盛んに交易を行い、国内において乏しい木材・鉱物資源を手に入れるため、銅、鉄、木材(レバノン杉)、瑠璃などをシリア、パレスチナ、エチオピア、イラク、イラン、アナトリア、アフガニスタン、トルコなどから輸入していた。とくに造船に必須である木材は国内で全く産出せず、良材であるレバノン杉を産するフェニキアのビブロスなどからに輸入に頼っていた。ビブロスは中王国期にはエジプト向けの交易の主要拠点となり、当時エジプト人は海外交易船を総称してビブロス船と呼んだ。ビブロスからはまた、キプロスから産出される豊富な銅もエジプトに向け出荷されていた。このほかクレタ島のミノア文明も、エジプトと盛んに交易を行っていた。下エジプト東端からパレスチナ方面にはホルスの道と呼ばれる交易路が地中海沿いに伸びており、陸路の交易路の中心となっていた。紅海沿いには中王国期以降エジプトの支配する港が存在し、上エジプトのナイル屈曲部から東へ砂漠の中を延びるルートによって結ばれていた。この紅海の港を通じてプントやインド洋沿海諸国との交易がおこなわれた。貨幣には貴金属が使われた。初期は秤量貨幣だったが、後期には鋳造貨幣が用いられた。興味深い例としては、穀物を倉庫に預けたによる流通の促進が止まり、貨幣による富の蓄積が行われるようになりエジプトの経済が没落したという説もある。個々の技術のみならず、実験や工程の詳細な記録を残す、非専門家向けの早見表を作成するなど、現代にも通じる科学的な思考があった。数学は社会へ応用可能なレベルに達しており課税の調査や生産物の貯蔵と配分現物支給の報酬の計算などに単位分数の計算が非常に多く用いられた。また幾何学は耕地の測量やピラミッドをはじめとする建設天文学など理工学の発展にも寄与した。十進法を用いたが古代シュメールの影響により時間のみ十二進法を利用したことから24時間制であった。古代エジプト人にとってナイル川の増水・氾濫による洪水が最大の関心事であるため、数学を利用して暦法が研究された。非侵襲性の外科手術、接骨、薬局方など、当時としては高度な実現しており、他国に医師を派遣した記録も残っている。医学的な知識はミイラの制作にも応用された。建築材料としては日干しレンガが主流であり、石材も多用された。特に石灰岩や花崗岩、砂岩などが盛んに採掘され、豊富な石材と優れた加工技術と数学を元にピラミッドやギザの大スフィンクス、カルナック神殿、ルクソール神殿、アブ・シンベル神殿といった巨大で精密な建造物が続々と建設された。支配者層は庭園を所有していた。主食はコムギから作るパンであり、エジプト人はと呼ばれるほど大量のパンを食べた。サンドイッチのように具を挟むのが一般的だったとされる。また、サワードウによる発酵パンが誕生したのもエジプトである。パンを焼くための窯は時代によって異なっている。紀元前3800年頃にオオムギから作るビールの生産が始まり、紀元前3500年頃にワインの生産が始まった。ワイン用のブドウは麦と違い外来作物であり、ワインは高貴な酒で一般市民はビールを飲んだが、後に生産量が増えて市民にも広まった。ビールはパンと並んで主要な食物とされており、大量に生産・消費された。当時のビールは嗜好品だけでなく、栄養ドリンクのような存在だったと推測されている。当時のビールはアルコール度数が3%程度、製法も自然発酵を利用した原始的な手法というのが通説であったが、2014年に麒麟麦酒が壁画に残された絵を分析し製法を再現したところ、パン生地を使った酵母の培養など高度な技法で醸造され、度数が10%で白ワインにも似た味のビールが完成した。この他にもヨーグルトのような食感のビールも存在していたとされる。黄金を使った彫金が発達しツタンカーメンの黄金のマスクなど王族の装飾品に利用されていた。建築物の内外はフレスコ画や彫刻で装飾されていた。エジプトには森林が存在しないため木材を産出せず建築材料には利用されなかったがツタンカーメン時代には国力を背景に交易で各地の木材を入手し寄せ木や曲げ木などの高度な技法を用いたチャリオットを製作している。色彩には宗教的な意味合いがあるため、ファイアンス焼きなどで望んだ発色を生み出す技法が発達した。古代エジプトの音楽についての研究は考古学者と音楽研究者の間に交流がなく、あまり進んでいない。銀製トランペットに似た楽器やヨシのフルートとされる楽器が出土している。宗教儀式の他宴会や農作業時にも演奏されていたとされ現代の西洋音楽の基礎となったという見解もある。エジプトの文字は統一王朝成立以前に表語文字であるヒエログリフが誕生し紀元前600年頃にはデモティックがもっとも一般的な文字となった。この文字を元に様々な文学が成立しエジプト文学はシュメール文学と共に世界最古の文学と考えられている。古王国時代には、讃歌や詩、自伝的追悼文などの文学的作品が存在していた。中王国時代からは物語文学も現れ、悲嘆文学、知恵文学、教訓文学などのジャンルが存在したなどの作品は、現在まで伝わっている。書写材料としてはカミガヤツリから作られるパピルスが主に用いられた。上流階級は各地から輸入した宝飾品や化粧品を利用していた。セネトやなどのボードゲームが存在していた。特にセネトは交易によりレバントキプロスクレタなどにも伝播している。上流階級が観覧するためにショーとしてのスポーツが行われていた。また軍人向けの身体訓練法も考案されていた。宗教観は時代によって変化していったとされるが死後も来世で永遠の生を得るため魂の器となる肉体をミイラとして保存していた。古代エジプトの象徴ともいえるものがピラミッドであるが、初期の王墓の形式であったマスタバに代わりピラミッドが成立したのが古王国時代の第3王朝期であり、クフ王のピラミッドを含む三大ピラミッドが建設されてピラミッドが最盛期を迎えたのが第4王朝期と、著名なピラミッドの建設された時期は古王国時代の一時期に限られ、エジプトの長い歴史においては比較的短期間のことである。以後、古王国時代を通じてピラミッドは建設され、中王国時代にも一時建設が復活するものの、技術的にも材料的にも最盛期ほどのレベルに到達することはなく、徐々に衰退していった。ただしそれに代わり、付属の墓地群などが拡大し、葬祭における重点が移動していった。新王国期に入るとピラミッドは建設されなくなり、王の墓は王家の谷に埋葬されるようになった。 +エジプトアラブ共和国は中東および北アフリカに位置する共和制国家。首都はカイロ。アフリカ大陸では北東端に位置し西にリビア南にスーダン北東のシナイ半島ではイスラエルパレスチナ国ガザ地区と国境を接する。北部は地中海東部は紅海に面している。エジプトは中東と北東アフリカの接点に存在し古代文明が存在していた地域のひとつに数え上げられる。その歴史は紀元前の時代にまで遡るほど古い。民族・宗教的にはアラブ世界、イスラム世界の一国である。人口はアラブ諸国で最も多く2020年2月に1億人を超えている。同国地域には数千年前の古代都市の痕跡や幾多もの史跡がナイル川に沿う形で点在している。また水源が乏しい国の一つとしても知られており南北に流れるナイル川の河谷とデルタ地帯のほかは国土の大部分の95%以上が砂漠である。ナイル河口の東には地中海と紅海を結ぶスエズ運河がある。同国は現在、MENA地域において2番目に人口密度の高い国と見做されており、中でもカイロは世界で最も人口密度の高い都市のひとつに当たる。正式名称はアラビア語で 。アラビア語の名称ミスルは、古代からセム語でこの地を指した名称である。なお、セム語の一派であるヘブライ語では、双数形のミスライム（, ミツライム）となる。公式の英語表記は Arab Republic of Egypt。通称 Egypt 。発音はに近い。形容詞はEgyptian 。エジプトの呼称は、古代エジプト語のフート・カア・プタハから転じてこの地を指すようになったギリシャ語の単語である、ギリシャ神話のアイギュプトスにちなむ。日本語の表記はエジプト・アラブ共和国。通称エジプト。漢字では埃及と表記し、埃と略す。この漢字表記は、漢文がそのまま日本語や中国語などに輸入されたものである。という古代ギリシアの歴史家ヘロドトスの言葉で有名なようにエジプトは豊かなナイル川のデルタに支えられ古代エジプト文明を発展させてきた。エジプト人は紀元前3000年頃には早くも中央集権国家を形成しピラミッドや王家の谷ヒエログリフなどを通じて世界的によく知られている高度な文明を発達させた。アケメネス朝ペルシア.3000年にわたる諸王朝の盛衰の末紀元前525年にアケメネス朝ペルシアに支配された。紀元前332年にはアレクサンドロス大王に征服された。その後、ギリシア系のプトレマイオス朝が成立し、ヘレニズム文化の中心の一つとして栄えた。プトレマイオス朝は紀元前30年に滅ぼされエジプトはローマ帝国の属州となりアエギュプトゥスと呼ばれた。ローマ帝国の統治下ではキリスト教が広まりコプト教会が生まれた。ローマ帝国の分割後は東ローマ帝国に属し豊かな穀物生産でその繁栄を支えた。7世紀にイスラム化した。639年にイスラム帝国の将軍アムルイブンアル＝アースによって征服されウマイヤ朝およびアッバース朝の一部となった。アッバース朝の支配が衰えるとそのエジプト総督から自立したトゥールーン朝イフシード朝の短い支配を経て969年に現在のチュニジアで興ったファーティマ朝によって征服された。これ以来アイユーブ朝マムルーク朝とエジプトを本拠地としてシリア地方まで版図に組み入れたイスラム王朝が500年以上にわたって続く。特に250年間続いたマムルーク朝の下で中央アジアやカフカスなどアラブ世界の外からやってきたマムルークによる支配体制が確立した。1517年に、マムルーク朝を滅ぼしてエジプトを属州としたオスマン帝国の下でもマムルーク支配は温存された。ムハンマド・アリー朝.1798年、フランスのナポレオン・ボナパルトによるエジプト遠征をきっかけに、エジプトは近代国家形成の時代を迎える。フランス軍撤退後、混乱を収拾して権力を掌握したのはオスマン帝国が派遣したアルバニア人部隊の隊長としてエジプトにやってきた軍人のムハンマド・アリーであった。彼は実力によってエジプト総督に就任すると、マムルークを打倒して総督による中央集権化を打ち立て、経済・軍事の近代化を進め、エジプトをオスマン帝国から半ば独立させることに成功した。アルバニア系ムハンマド・アリー家による世襲政権を打ち立てた（ムハンマド・アリー朝）。しかし、当時の世界に勢力を広げたヨーロッパ列強はエジプトの独立を認めず、また、ムハンマド・アリー朝の急速な近代化政策による社会矛盾は結局、エジプトを列強に経済的に従属させることになった。ムハンマド・アリーは綿花を主体とする農産物専売制をとっていたが、1838年に宗主国オスマン帝国がイギリスと自由貿易協定を結んだ。ムハンマド・アリーが1845年に三角州の堰堤を着工。死後に専売制が崩壊し、また堰堤の工期も延びて3回も支配者の交代を経た1861年、ようやく一応の完工をみた。1858年末には国庫債券を発行しなければならないほどエジプト財政は窮迫していた。スエズ運河会社に払い込む出資金の不足分は、シャルル・ラフィットに8回も外債が起債され、額面も次第に巨額となっていた。エジプトはやむなくスエズ運河会社持分を398万ポンドでイギリスに売却したが、1876年4月にデフォルトした。英仏が負債の償還をめぐって争い、エジプトの蔵相は追放された。イタリアやオーストリア帝国も交えた負債委員会が組織された。2回目のリスケジュールでイスマーイール一族の直轄地が全て移管されたが、土地税収が滞った。1882年アフマドオラービーが中心となって起きた反英運動がイギリスによって武力鎮圧された。エジプトはイギリスの保護国となる。結果として政府の教育支出が大幅カットされるなどした。1914年には第一次世界大戦によってイギリスがエジプトの名目上の宗主国であるオスマン帝国と開戦したためエジプトはオスマン帝国の宗主権から切り離された。さらにサアドザグルールの逮捕国外追放によって反英独立運動たる1919年エジプト革命が勃発し英国より主政の国として独立した。第一次世界大戦後の1922年2月28日にエジプト王国が成立し翌年イギリスはその独立を認めたがその後もイギリスの間接的な支配体制は続いた。エジプト王国は立憲君主制を布いて議会を設置し、緩やかな近代化を目指した。第二次世界大戦では、枢軸国軍がイタリア領リビアから侵攻したが、英軍が撃退した（北アフリカ戦線）。第二次世界大戦前後から、現在はイスラエルになっている地域へのユダヤ人移民に伴うパレスチナ問題の深刻化、1948年から1949年のパレスチナ戦争（第一次中東戦争）でのイスラエルへの敗北、経済状況の悪化、ムスリム同胞団など政治のイスラム化（イスラム主義）を唱える社会勢力の台頭によって次第に動揺していった。この状況を受けて1952年軍内部の秘密組織自由将校団がクーデターを起こし国王ファールーク1世を亡命に追い込みムハンマドアリー朝を打倒した。生後わずか半年のフアード2世を即位させ自由将校団団長のムハンマドナギーブが首相に就任して権力を掌握した。さらに翌年の1953年国王を廃位して共和政へと移行。ナギーブが首相を兼務したまま初代大統領となりエジプト共和国が成立した。1956年第2代大統領に就任したガマールアブドゥル＝ナーセルの下でエジプトは冷戦下での中立外交と汎アラブ主義で政治的に勝利を収めた。1958年にはシリアと連合してアラブ連合共和国を成立させた。しかし1961年にはシリアが連合から脱退し国家連合としてのアラブ連合共和国はわずか3年で事実上崩壊した。さらに1967年の第三次中東戦争は惨敗に終わりこれによってナーセルの権威は求心力を失った。1970年に急死したナーセルの後任となったアンワル・アッ＝サーダートは、自ら主導した第四次中東戦争後にソビエト連邦と対立してアメリカ合衆国など西側諸国に接近。社会主義的経済政策の転換、イスラエルとの融和など、ナーセル路線からの転換を進めた。1971年には、国家連合崩壊後もエジプトの国号として使用されてきたの国号を捨ててエジプト・アラブ共和国に改称した。また、サーダートは、経済の開放などに舵を切るうえで、左派に対抗させるべくイスラーム主義勢力を一部容認した。さらに1977年には物価上昇に抗議する暴動を共産主義者によるものと断定既に結党が禁止されていたエジプト共産党などの左翼組織の弾圧を強化した。しかしサーダートは、イスラエルとの和平を実現させたことの反発を買い、1981年にイスラム過激派のジハード団によって暗殺された。イラクのクウェート侵攻はエジプトの国際収支を悪化させた。サーダートに代わって副大統領から大統領に昇格したホスニームバーラクは対米協調外交を進める一方開発独裁的な政権を20年以上にわたって維持した。ムバラク政権は1990年12月にと称する経済改革案を発表した。クウェート解放を目指す湾岸戦争では多国籍軍へ2万人を派兵しこれにより約130億ドルも対外債務を減らすという外交成果を得た。累積債務は500億ドル規模であった。軍事貢献により帳消しとなった債務はクウェートサウジアラビアに対するものとさらに対米軍事債務67億ドルであった。1991年5月には国際通貨基金が供与されパリクラブにおいて200億ドルの債務削減が合意された。エジプト経済の構造調整で画期的だったのはドルペッグによる為替レート一本化であった。海外の機関投資家に有利な条件が整えられていった。イスラム主義運動は厳しく弾圧され喜捨の精神は失われていった。1997年にはイスラム集団によるルクソール事件が発生している。1999年にイスラム集団は武装闘争放棄を宣言し近年観光客を狙った事件は起こっていない。しかしムバーラクが大統領就任と同時に発令した非常事態法は彼が追放されるまで30年以上にわたって継続された。2002年6月、エジプト政府は15億ドルのユーロ債を起債したが、2002年から2003年に為替差損を被り、対外債務を増加させた。チュニジアのジャスミン革命に端を発した近隣諸国でのがエジプトにも波及し、2011年1月、30年以上にわたって独裁体制を敷いてきたムバーラク大統領の辞任を求める大規模なデモが発生した。同2月には大統領支持派によるデモも発生して騒乱となり、国内主要都市において大混乱を招いた。大統領辞任を求める声は日に日に高まり、2月11日、ムバーラクは大統領を辞任し、全権がエジプト軍最高評議会に委譲された。同年12月7日にはを暫定首相とする政権が発足した。その後、2011年12月から翌年1月にかけて人民議会選挙が、また2012年5月から6月にかけて大統領選挙が実施されムハンマド・ムルシーが当選し、同年6月30日の大統領に就任したが、人民議会は大統領選挙決選投票直前に、選挙法が違憲との理由で裁判所から解散命令を出されており、立法権は軍最高評議会が有することとなった。2012年11月以降、新憲法の制定などをめぐって反政府デモや暴動が頻発したがBNPパリバのエジプト支店を完全買収し、オイルマネーがエジプト経済を我が物にする社会現象が起こっていた。さらにが1月19日に報じたのは、エチオピアがナイルの川上に48億ドルの予算をかけてダムを造るという計画であった。混乱中のエジプトが水紛争で負ければ大きな水ストレスが生じるだろうと予測された。2013年4月エジプト中央銀行はリビアから20億ドルの預金を得た。リビア側が利害を説明したところによるとリビアはエジプト株を100億ドル近く保有しているという。リビアは世界金融危機の時から欧米のメガバンクと癒着を疑われている。も参照。ムルシー政権は発足後約1年後の2013年7月3日、軍部によるクーデターによって終焉を迎えた。8月下旬にムバラクが釈放され、国内銀行が平常運転に復帰した。8月30日のCNNでは、中国石油化工が米国ヒューストンのアパッチがエジプトに50億ドルの支援を申し出た。エジプトエリートの売国とソブリン危機は翌年4月まで深化していった。なおイブラヒームはクーデター後に成立したベブラーウィー暫定内閣でも続投している。2014年5月26日 - 28日に行われた大統領選挙では2013年のクーデターの主導者アブドルファッターフアッ＝シーシーが当選して6月8日大統領に就任し8月5日からは新スエズ運河の建設など大規模なプロジェクトを推し進めた。2015年3月13日にはカイロの東側に向こう5 - 7年で450億ドルを投じて新しい行政首都の建設も計画していることを明らかにした。行政と経済の中心となる新首都はカイロと紅海の間に建設され広さは約700平方キロメートルで米ニューヨークのマンハッタンのおよそ12倍の面積の予定であり大統領府などエジプトの行政を担う地区は当初覚書を交わしたUAEのエマールプロパティーズや中国の中国建築股份有限公司との破談はあったものの2016年4月に地元企業によって工事を開始し代わりにエジプト政府がピラミッドに匹敵する一大事業のランドマークと位置づけているアフリカで最も高いビルも建設予定である経済を担う中央業務地区を中国企業が請け負って2018年3月に着工した。UAEや中国と破談した背景には通貨不安が存在する。2016年11月3日エジプト中央銀行が変動相場制を採用すると発表した。エジプトポンドが売られるのを革命の影響だけで片付けるにはこの不安は長引きすぎている。同行は6日後国際金融機関から20億ドルのレポ借入を始めた。4月に国際通貨基金からも120億ドルを借りている。エジプトは経済主権を失っている。英紙が10月4日に報じたところでは国際金融機関のバークレイズがエジプト事業をワファバンクに売却した。2017年末、政府が世界銀行に対し、エチオピアのダム事業を差し止めるように要請した。世銀は5月にエジプトへ10億ドルを追加融資しており、エジプトは厳しい立場にある。翌2018年1月中旬にエチオピアとの水紛争が妥協に至った。5月末にエジプトの対外債務累積額は829億ドルであった。9月、ムバラクの息子ら2人がエジプトの株価を操作した疑いで逮捕された。同国は共和制を執っている。国家元首である大統領は、立法・行政・司法の三権において大きな権限を有する。また国軍委員長は、最高憲法裁判所長官が兼任していたが、現在は副長官がその任を負う。第2代大統領ガマールアブドゥル＝ナーセル以来事実上の終身制が慣例で第4代大統領ホスニームバーラクは1981年の就任以来約30年にわたって独裁体制を築いた。ムバーラクの親米親イスラエル路線が欧米諸国によって評価されたために独裁が見逃されてきた面がある。当時は任期6年再任可。議会が候補者を指名し国民は信任投票を行っていた。ただし2005年は複数候補者による大統領選挙が実施された。2011年9月に大統領選が予定されていたが、2011年1月に騒乱状態となり、2月11日、ムバーラクは国民の突き上げを受ける形で辞任した。翌日より国防大臣で軍最高評議会議長のムハンマド・フセイン・タンターウィーが元首代行を務め、それは2012年エジプト大統領選挙の当選者ムハンマド・ムルシーが6月30日に大統領に就任するまで続いた。2011年3月19日、憲法改正に関する国民投票が行われ、承認された。しかしムルシー政権発足からわずか1年後の2013年軍事クーデターが勃発。ムルシーは解任されエジプトは再び軍事政権へと逆戻りした。2014年1月に再び憲法が修正され同年5月の大統領選挙を経て再び民政へと復帰した。議会は、両院制で上院は参議院、下院は代議院である。かつて、2014年に施行された憲法により、一院制となったが、2019年の憲法改正により、両院制に戻る。参議院は全議席の内、3分の2を公選、3分の1は大統領による指名。代議院は、選挙制度を小選挙区制か比例代表制、またはその混合型とする。全議席の内5％以下を大統領が指名。そして、全議席の少なくとも25％を女性枠とする。2011年11月21日、イサーム・シャラフ暫定内閣は、デモと中央治安部隊の衝突で多数の死者が出たことの責任を取り軍最高評議会へ辞表を提出した。軍最高評議会議長タンターウィーは11月22日にテレビで演説し、と表明した。人民議会選挙は2011年11月28日から2012年1月までに、行政区ごとに3回に分けて、また、投票日を1日で終わりにせず2日間をとり、大勢の投票での混乱を緩和し実施、諮問評議会選挙も3月11日までに実施された。また5月23日と24日に大統領選挙の投票が実施された。しかし6月14日に最高憲法裁判所が出した「現行の議会選挙法は違憲で無効（3分の1の議員について当選を無効と認定）」との判決を受け16日までにタンターウィー議長は人民議会解散を命じた。大統領選挙の決選投票は6月16日と17日に実施されイスラム主義系のムハンマドムルシーが当選した。2011年3月28日に改正政党法が公表されエジプトでは宗教を基盤とした政党が禁止された。そのためムスリム同胞団など全部で50以上の政党が参加していた。その後自由と公正党が2014年に最高裁判所により解党されている。2021年現在では2020年の選挙により国民未来党が上院は半数近く下院は過半数を占めている。しかしながら反対派の活動が徹底的に排除される中での選挙であった。ナポレオン法典とイスラム法に基づく、混合した法システム。フランスと同じく、司法訴訟と行政訴訟は別の系統の裁判所が担当する。国力文化的影響力などの面からアラブ世界のリーダーとなっている。ガマールアブドゥル＝ナーセル時代には非同盟諸国の雄としてアラブに限らない影響力を持ったがナーセル死後はその影響力は衰えた。ナーセル時代は親ソ連だった外交はサーダート時代に入って親米路線となりさらにそれに伴いイスラエルとの外交関係が進展。1978年のキャンプデービッド合意とその翌年のイスラエル国交樹立によって親米路線は確立したがこれはイスラエルを仇敵とするアラブ諸国の憤激を買いほとんどのアラブ諸国から断交されることとなった。その後1981年にサーダートが暗殺された後に政権を握ったムバーラクは親米路線を堅持する一方アラブ諸国との関係回復を進め1988年にはシリアレバノンリビアを除く全てのアラブ諸国との関係が回復した。以降はアラブの大国として域内諸国と協調する一方アフリカの一国として2004年9月には国際連合安全保障理事会の常任理事国入りを目指すことを表明した。2011年パレスチナのガザの検問所を開放した。またイランとの関係を修復しようとしている。シーシー政権はムスリム同胞団政権時代のこうした外交政策とは一線を画している。欧米や日本親米アラブ諸国イスラエルのほか中国やロシアなどと広範な協力関係を築いている。2017年カタール外交危機ではサウジアラビアとともにムスリム同胞団を支援してきたカタールと国交を断絶した国の一つとなった。またサウジアラビアとはアカバ湾口に架橋して陸上往来を可能とするプロジェクトが話し合われた。中東有数の軍事大国でありイスラエルと軍事的に対抗できる数少ないアラブ国家であると目されている。2010年11月見積もりの総兵力は46万8500人。予備役47万9000人。兵員数は陸軍34万人の準軍事組織が存在する。イスラエルとは4度にわたる中東戦争に対する掃討作戦で、イスラエル空軍による爆撃を容認していることを公式に認めた。軍事的にはアメリカと協力関係にあるため北大西洋条約機構（NATO）のメンバーではないものの同機構とは親密な関係を保っている。またロシアや中国からも武器の供給を受けており中露が主導する上海協力機構にも対話パートナーとして参加している。アフリカ大陸北東隅に位置し国土面積は100万2450㎢で世界で30番目の大きさである。国土の95%は砂漠でナイル川の西側にはサハラ砂漠の一部である西部砂漠がある。シナイ半島とナイル河谷との間はスエズ湾が大きく湾入して細くくびれた地峡となっておりここがアフリカ大陸とユーラシア大陸の境目とされている。この細い部分は低地であるためスエズ運河が建設され紅海と地中海ひいてはヨーロッパとアジアを結ぶ大動脈となっている。ナイル川は南隣のスーダンで白ナイル川と青ナイル川が合流しエジプト国内を南北1545Kmにもわたって北上し河口で広大なデルタを形成して地中海に注ぐ。アスワン以北は人口稠密な河谷が続くが幅は5Kmほどとさほど広くない。上エジプト中部のキーナでの湾曲以降はやや幅が広がりアシュート近辺で分岐の支流がファイユーム近郊のカールーン湖へと流れ込む。この支流によってカールーン湖近辺は肥沃なを形成している。一方本流はカイロ近辺で典型的な扇状三角州となるナイルデルタは地中海に向かって約250Kmも広がっている。かつてはナイル川によって運ばれる土でデルタ地域は国内でもっとも肥沃な土地だったがアスワンハイダムによってナイル川の水量が減少したため地中海から逆に塩水が入りこむようになった。ナイル河谷は古くから下エジプトと上エジプトというカイロを境にした2つの地域に分けられている。前者はデルタ地域を指し後者はカイロから上流の谷を指している。ナイル河谷は世界でももっとも人口密度の高い地域の一つである。ナイル河谷以外にはほとんど人は住まずわずかな人がオアシスに集住しているのみである。乾燥が激しく地形がなだらかなため特にリビア砂漠側にはワジが全くない。シーワファラーフラハルガバハレイヤダフラといったオアシスが点在している。ナイル以東のシャルキーヤ砂漠は地形がやや急峻でありワジがいくつか存在する。紅海沿岸も降雨はほとんどないがナイルとアラビア半島を結ぶ重要な交通路に位置しているためいくつかの小さな港が存在する。1885年に列強がドイツのベルリンで開いた会議で、それまでに植民地化していたアフリカの分割を確定した。リビア国境の大部分で東経25度に、スーダンでは北緯22度に定めたため、国境が直線的である。スーダンとの間では、エジプトが実効支配するハラーイブ・トライアングルに対してスーダンも領有権を主張している。一方、その西にあるビル・タウィールは両国とも領有権を主張していない無主地である。国土の全域が砂漠気候で人口はナイル河谷およびデルタ地帯、スエズ運河付近に集中し、国土の大半はサハラ砂漠に属する。夏には日中の気温は40℃を超え、50℃になることもある。降雨はわずかに地中海岸にあるにすぎない。冬の平均気温は下エジプトで13 - 14℃、上エジプトで16℃程度である。2013年12月にはカイロ市内でも降雪・積雪があったが、観測史上初ということで注目された。エジプトの最上級の地方行政単位は、29あるムハーファザである。知事は中央政府から派遣される官選知事で、内務省の管轄下において中央集権体制をとる。面積には極端な偏りがあり、ナイル川流域やナイル下流は非常に細分化されているにもかかわらず、南部は非常に大まかに分けられている。これは、エジプトの国土がナイル流域以外は全域が砂漠であり、居住者がほとんどいないことによるものである。2018年のエジプトの国内総生産一人当たりでは2573ドルである。アフリカでは屈指の経済規模でありBRICsの次に経済発展が期待できるとされているNEXT11の一国にも数えられている。しかし一人当たりのGDPでみると中東や北アフリカ諸国の中では最低水準でありトルコの約4分の1イランの半分に過ぎず更に同じ北アフリカ諸国であるチュニジアやモロッコに比べても水準は低い。スエズ運河収入と観光産業収入更には在外労働者からの送金の3大外貨収入の依存が大きくエジプト政府はそれらの手段に安易に頼っている。更に政情に左右されやすい。工業は石油などの資源はないが様々な工業が発展しており今後も成長が見込まれる。近年は情報技術産業が急速に成長している。しかしながらGDPの約半分が軍関連企業が占めていて主に農業 建築業などの工業を担っている。金融はイスラーム銀行も近代式銀行の両方とも発達しており投資家層も厚く、アメリカのドナルド・トランプ政権にはエジプトの敏腕女性投資家が起用されている。これまでは買い物や公共料金の支払いは現金送金は窓口での手続きが主流であった。これはチップや喜捨として現金を渡すバクシーシの習慣が根付いていることも一因としてあったが電子決済も急速に普及している。新型コロナウイルス感染症がエジプトでも流行し他人との接触を減らす必要が生じたことも背景となっている。かつては綿花の世界的生産地であり、ナイル川のもたらす肥沃な土壌とあいまって農業が重要な役割を果たしていた。しかし、通年灌漑の導入によってナイルの洪水に頼ることが減り、アスワン・ハイ・ダムの建設によって、上流からの土壌がせき止められるようになった。そのため、ダムによる水位コントロールによって農地が大幅に拡大した。農業生産高が格段に上がったにもかかわらず、肥料の集中投入などが必要になったため、コストが増大し、近年代表的な農業製品である綿製品は価格競争において後塵を拝している。1970年代に農業の機械化および各種生産業における機械への転換により、地方での労働力の過剰供給が見受けられ、労働力は都市部に流出し、治安・衛生の悪化及び社会政策費の増大を招いた。1980年代には、石油産業従事者の増大に伴い、農業において労働力不足が顕著となる。このため綿花および綿製品の価格上昇を招き、国際競争力を失った。1990年代から、IMFの支援を受け経済成長率5%を達成するが、社会福祉政策の低所得者向け補助の増大および失業率10%前後と支出の増大に加え、資源に乏しく食料も輸入に頼るため、2004年には物価上昇率10%に達するなどの構造的問題を抱えている。現状、中小企業育成による国際競争力の強化、雇用創生に取り組んでいるが、結果が出ていない。2004年のナズィーフ内閣が成立後は、国営企業の民営化および税制改革に取り組んでいる。2008年、世界的な食料高騰によるデモが発生した。また、により、2012年 ～ 2014年の間は2 ～ 3%台と一時低迷していたが、その後政情の安定化により、2015年には、4%台に回復している。またIMFの勧告を受け、2016年に為替相場の大幅切り下げや補助金削減などの改革をしたことで、経済健全化への期待感より、外国からの資本流入が拡大していき、経済の復調を遂げている。農業は農薬などを大量に使っているためコストが高くなっているがそれなりの食料自給率を保っている。果物は日本にもジャムなどに加工され輸出されている。主食のアエーシには日本に輸入され配給に用いられたこともある。エジプトの交通の柱は歴史上常にナイル川であった。アスワン・ハイ・ダムの建設後、ナイル川の流れは穏やかになり、交通路として安定性が増した。しかし貨物輸送はトラック輸送が主となり、内陸水運の貨物国内シェアは2%にすぎない。ファルーカという伝統的な帆船や、観光客用のリバークルーズなどの運航もある。鉄道は国有のエジプト鉄道が運営している。営業キロは5063キロにのぼりカイロを起点としてナイル川デルタやナイル河谷の主要都市を結んでいる。航空はフラッグキャリアであるエジプト航空を筆頭にいくつもの航空会社が運行している。カイロ国際空港はこの地域のハブ空港の一つである。エジプトの人口は近年急速に増大し続けておりエジプト中央動員統計局で若年層が非常に多くピラミッド型の人口構成をしている。しかし若年層はさらに増加傾向にあるにもかかわらず経済はそれほど拡大していないため若者の失業が深刻な問題となっており2011年エジプト騒乱の原因の一つともなった。年齢の中央値は24歳である。人口増加率は2.033%。住民はイスラム教徒とキリスト教徒していた古代エジプト人を、現代のエジプト人にもそのまま当てはめていることが多い。しかし、上述のとおり現代エジプト人の9割はイスラム教徒であり、アラビア語を母語とするアラブ人である。それもアラブ世界の中で比較的主導的な立場に立つ、代表的なアラブ人の一つである。古代エジプトの公用語であったエジプト語（4世紀以降の近代エジプト語はコプト語の名で知られる）は現在では少数のキリスト教徒が典礼言語として使用するほかはエジプトの歴史に興味を持つ知識層が学んでいるだけでありこれを話せる国民は極めて少ない。日常言語としてコプト語を使用する母語話者は数十名程度である。他には地域的にヌビア諸語教育ビジネスに英語文化においてはフランス語なども使われている。宗教はイスラム教が90%。その他の宗派では、エジプト土着のキリスト教会であるコプト教会の信徒が9%、その他のキリスト教徒が1%となる。多くの場合婚姻時に女性は改姓しないが改姓する女性もいる。一夫多妻制により4人まで婚姻できるが現在は1人と結婚する者が多い。エジプトの教育制度は1999年から小学校の課程が1年延び日本と同じく小学校6年中学校3年高校3年大学4年の6334制となっている。義務教育は小学校と中学校の9年である。1923年のエジプト独立の際初等教育は既に無料とされ以後段階的に教育の無料化が進展した。1950年には著名な作家でもあった文部大臣ターハーフセインによって中等教育が無料化され1952年のエジプト革命によって高等教育も含めた全ての公的機関による教育が無料化された。しかし公立学校の教員が給料の少なさなどから個人の家庭教師を兼任することが広く行われており社会問題化している。小学校は進級試験があるため、家庭教師をつけることもある。授業料は無償化しているが、教育費は日本以上にかかる。なお、高額な授業料の代わりに教育カリキュラムの充実した私立学校も多数存在する。また、エジプト国内に20万以上の小中学校、1,000万人以上の学生、13の主要大学、67の師範学校がある。2018年よりを開始したことに始まるもので日本の学校教育で行われている学級会や生徒による清掃などをエジプトの教育に取り入れようとする教育方針である。試験的に導入した際には文化的な違いから反発も見受けられたが校内での暴力が減った子供が家でも掃除をするようになったなど徐々に成果が見えるようになり本格的に導入されることになった。2005年の推計によれば、15歳以上の国民の識字率は71.4%である。2006年にはGDPの4.2%が教育に支出された。主な高等教育機関としてはアル＝アズハル大学吉村作治や小池百合子らが出身のカイロ大学などが存在する。国立図書館として新アレクサンドリア図書館が存在する。同国は失業率が高い低中所得国である。2011年1月と2013年6月の政変に伴い社会治安状況が不安定化したものの2014年6月からアッ＝シーシー大統領の就任以後政治プロセスの進展と共に治安対策が強化され国内情勢は安定を取り戻しつつある。だが政府による同国経済を促進する為の努力が現在も続けられている状態にも拘らず国民の32.5％は極度の貧困の中で生活している。一方、カイロを含む各地で発生していたデモ及びそれに伴う衝突事案が減少している事が明らかにされているが、テロ事件の発生頻度は高めとなっている侭である。テロは主に現地警察や教会・モスクを狙ったものが多いが、観光地でも死傷者の出る事件が起きており、十分な注意が必要とされている。人権団体の報告によれば2020年1月の時点で同国に約60000人の政治犯が収容されているとの調査結果がある。ハーリド・サイード事件.アレクサンドリア在住のハーリドサイードは2010年6月6日午後11時過ぎ自宅近くのインターネットカフェにいたところを突然2人の私服警官に取り押さえられ殴る蹴るの暴行を受けた。集まった群衆の中にいた医師がハーリドの死亡を確認。警官の暴行によってあごを割られ後頭部から出血したことが死因であると遺族は主張。12日エジプト内務省はとして大々的に報道したことに加え地元NGOや国際人権団体アムネスティインターナショナルも徹底調査を要請。これを受けて検察当局は遺体解剖の手続をとるなど再捜査を開始した。エジプトのメディアは同国内およびアラブ世界で非常に強い影響力を保持している。これは同国のテレビ関連業界や映画業界ならび大勢の視聴者がアラブ世界へ供給している為でありそれらが歴史的に長い事も起因している。また、同国は報道法や出版法およびエジプト刑法に基づき、報道機関を規制ならび統制している現状がある。古代エジプトにおいてはパピルスにヒエログリフで創作がなされ、古代エジプト文学にはなどの作品が現代にも残っている。7世紀にアラブ化した後もエジプトはアラビア語文学の一つの中心地となった。近代の文学者としてターハー・フセインの名が挙げられ、現代の作家であるナギーブ・マフフーズは1988年にノーベル文学賞を受賞している。エジプトの音楽は隣国に対する何千年にも渡る支配によりその周辺地域へ非常に大きな影響を及ぼしている。たとえば聖書でと主張されている楽器はすべて古代エジプトが起源となっている点が挙げられこれはエジプト考古学によって確立されたものともなっている。また古代ギリシャの音楽の発展に多大な影響を与えている面があることが確認されている。宗教音楽においてはムリッドと呼ばれるスーフィーなどの伝統を重んじるイスラム教徒とコプト派のキリスト教徒による祭典における重要な部分であり続けている面が窺える。同国における建築は古代のものが中心に周知されており現代建築に対してはあまり焦点が当てられていない現状がある。一方世界各地において古代エジプトのモチーフとイメージを多用しつつも現代風の仕様を留める建築様式が採用されている。エジプト国内には、ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が6件、自然遺産が1件登録されている。基本となる祝祭日は以下になる。この他にはイスラム暦に基づいた移動祝祭日が存在している。 +著作権の保護期間とは、著作権の発生から消滅までの期間をいう。この期間において著作権は保護され著作権者は権利の対象である著作物を原則として独占排他的に利用することができる。著作権の発生要件と消滅時期は各国の国内法令に委ねられているが世界160ヶ国以上まで存続するものと規定する国が多数を占める。なお、実演やレコード、放送などの著作隣接権に係る保護期間は、著作権に係るそれと比較して各国の国内法や条約における取扱に差異があり法的根拠を異にする。国際条約としては、実演家、レコード製作者及び放送機関の保護に関する国際条約がある。著作権の意義と保護期間.著作者の権利の保護の目的は大きく分けて二つの立場から説明されることが多い。一つは著作物に対する著作者の自然権として捉える立場でありヨーロッパを中心とした大陸法圏の国において発展してきた考え方である。もう一つは著作者に著作物の独占的利用権を与えることによって著作者に正当な利益が分配されることを促しその結果として創作活動へのインセンティブを高めることをその存在する理由とする考え方でありイギリスやアメリカ合衆国を中心とした英米法圏に由来する考え方である。期間の設定に際しては著作物の独占利用による著作者の創作意欲の向上という社会的利益と著作物の利用促進による社会的利益の均衡を図るために著作権の保護期間は適切な期間に調整されるべきである。そしてこの「適切な期間」をめぐってさまざまな立場が存在することになる。著作権の消滅時期を定める法制には、死亡時起算主義と公表時起算主義がある。死亡時起算主義は著作者の死亡時を起算時として著作権の消滅時期を決定する主義であり、公表時起算主義は、著作物の公表日を起算日として著作権の消滅時期を決定する主義である。ベルヌ条約は死亡時起算主義を原則としている。ベルヌ条約7条によれば、加盟国は、著作権の消滅までの期間を最低でも著作者の死亡から50年としなければならない。著作者の死後50年まで著作権を保護する趣旨は、著作者本人およびその子孫2代までを保護するためであるとされている。ただしより長い保護期間を与えることも認められているため（ベルヌ条約7条(6)）保護期間が50年を超える加盟国も実際に多数存在する。欧州連合諸国およびアメリカ合衆国は死後70年を適用し（いずれも1990年代に保護期間を延長する法改正を実施）メキシコ（死後100年）やコートジボワール（死後99年）のようにさらに長期間にわたって著作権を保護する国もある。日本は1971年1月1日より原則死後50年を採用していた。その後2003年の法改正により映画の著作物だけが原則公表後70年となった。さらに2018年12月30日施行のTPP11法改正により原則死後70年となった。文学的及び美術的著作物の保護に関するベルヌ条約.文学的及び美術的著作物の保護に関するベルヌ条約7条は加盟国が定めるべき著作権の保護期間の要件を以下のとおり規定している。ただし加盟国はより長期間の保護期間を認めることができる。著作権に関する世界知的所有権機関条約.著作権に関する世界知的所有権機関条約。したがって、WIPO著作権条約の締約国は、写真の著作物に対して、他の一般著作物と同期間の保護期間を与えなければならない。日本国もWIPO著作権条約9条の規定に倣う形で写真の著作物の保護期間を公表後50年までとしていた著作権法55条を1996年12月の著作権法改正によって削除した。知的所有権の貿易関連の側面に関する協定.知的所有権の貿易関連の側面に関する協定は著作権を含む知的財産権の保護に関して世界貿易機関 加盟国が遵守すべき条件を定めている。まず、TRIPS協定9条(1)は、WTO加盟国がベルヌ条約1条〜21条の規定を遵守しなければならないことを規定し、その中には7条も含まれる。したがって、WTO加盟国は、ベルヌ条約が定める著作権の保護期間の要件をまず遵守しなければならない。さらに、TRIPS協定12条は、著作物の保護期間が自然人の生存期間に基づいて計算されない場合の扱いを規定している。同条によれば、WTO加盟国は、著作物の公表の年の終わりから少なくとも50年間、著作物を保護しなければならない。世界各国における著作権の保護期間、および保護期間延長に関連する法改正の動向について概説する。なお、2007年1月現在の世界最長はメキシコのであり、以下コートジボワールと続く。1993年の欧州連合域内における著作権保護期間の調和に関する指令により義務付けられていることから、著作者の死後70年としている国が多数を占める。その背景には、20世紀半ばにドイツでクラシック作曲家の子孫たち（その多くは、作曲家ではない）が延長運動を行った結果、1965年よりドイツにおいて死後70年が採用され、EU指令においてもドイツの保護期間が基準とされたことが大きいといわれる。その一方、EUでは著作隣接権を公表後50年から延長することについては2004年に断念している。1996年1月1日までは、著作者の生存期間および死後50年までを保護期間の原則としていたが、1995年のを起点に算出する。映画の著作物は1956年著作権法においては初演存続する。コンピュータを使って制作された著作物や録音の著作物は制作後50年存続する。ただし録音の著作物が前述保護期間に発売された場合は発売年が起点となる。放送もこれら著作物と同じ保護期間を採用している。イギリス法では活版の配列・工業品の意匠をも保護対象としており、その期間は商品の販売から25年である。以上に挙げた著作物の著作者人格権は著作権と同じ期間だけ存続する。著作者の生存期間および死後70年までを保護期間の原則とする。1879年に保護期間を死後80年までと規定したが、1987年に死後60年に短縮し、1993年のEU指令に基づき1995年に死後70年に再延長した。1987年における保護期間短縮は、ベルヌ条約加盟国では唯一の事例であるとされる。なお、保護期間短縮にともなう経過措置では改正法施行時に生存している著作者が既に公表している著作物には短縮された保護期間が適用される一方、既に故人である著作者については経過措置として旧法における死後80年間の規定が維持されている。そのため、パブロ・ピカソの保護期間は死後70年の2059年までである。著作者の生存期間および死後70年までを保護期間の原則とする。1948年のベルヌ条約ブラッセル改正に伴う調査では保護期間を「無期限」と定めていたことが知られているがこの規定は1971年のパリ改正までに撤回されている。1978年1月1日以降に創作された著作物については著作者の生存期間および死後70年までを保護期間の原則とする。1976年著作権法 の規定では著作権の保護期間は著作者の死後50年までとした改正法が1998年に成立したの名称はカリフォルニア州選出の共和党下院議員でこの法案の成立に中心的役割を果たした にちなむ。1999年1月11日元プログラマーであるはCTEAがアメリカ合衆国憲法1条8節8項。しかし2003年1月15日合衆国最高裁判所はCTEAが合憲であるとの最終判断を示した。日本の著作権法では、1970年の著作権法全面改正以降、著作者死後38年から50年に保護期間が延長され、それを原則としていた。無名または周知ではない変名の著作物、および団体名義の著作物の著作権の保護期間は、公表後ないし創作後50年までとなっていた。また、2004年1月1日以降、映画の著作物の著作権は、公表後ないし創作後50年から70年に保護期間が延長された。2018年12月30日にTPP11協定発効に伴い改正著作権法が施行され、著作者の死後70年までを保護期間の原則とし、映画の著作物、無名または周知ではない変名の著作物、および団体名義の著作物の著作権の保護期間は、公表後ないし創作後70年までとなった。著作隣接権の保護期間も併せて実演後またはレコード発行後70年となった。従って、例として1967年没の著作者の著作権保護期間は2017年末をもって既に満了するいっぽう、1968年没のそれは2038年末までになる。日本国における著作権の保護期間.日本国はベルヌ条約、万国著作権条約、WIPO著作権条約の締約国である。また、TRIPS協定を遵守すべきWTO加盟国でもある。したがって、これらの条約、協定で定められた保護期間の要件をすべて満たすように、国内法で著作権の保護期間を規定している。なお、本節において日本の著作権法を参照する際には、特記がない限りその条数のみを記載する。なお保護期間については前述のとおりである。著作権は著作物を創作した時に発生するを適用したものである。著作権は、著作者が死亡してから70年を経過するまでの間、存続する。ベルヌ条約7条に対応する規定であるが。2018年12月30日施行改正著作権法により条約よりも保護期間は長くなっている。共同著作物の場合は最後に死亡した著作者の死亡時から起算する（同項かっこ書）。これは最後に死亡した著作者が日本のに基づく権利の享有が認められない者（条約非加盟国の国民など）であっても同様であると解する。また、自然人と団体の共同著作物の場合、本項を適用して自然人である著作者の死亡時から起算するのか、後述する1項を適用して公表時から起算するのかが問題となる。この場合、自然人である著作者の死亡時から起算するのが妥当であると解する。保護期間の長い方による方が著作権保護の趣旨に合致するし、公表時起算は死亡時起算が適用できない場合の例外的規定だからである。一般的な著作物では著作者の死後30年までと規定されていた。その後は以下のような変遷をたどっている。改正された法律の施行前に著作権が消滅していた著作物の場合延長の対象とならず著作権の保護期間は1971年改正の場合なら著作者の死後50年2018年改正の場合なら70年とならないので注意が必要である。たとえば芥川龍之介梶井基次郎島崎藤村太宰治藤田嗣治の作品の著作権の保護期間は以下のとおりとなる。旧著作権法を考慮した著作権の保護期間を表にまとめると次のとおりである。無名または変名の著作物.無名または変名の著作物の著作権はその著作物の公表後70年を経過するまでの間存続する。無名または変名の著作物では著作者の死亡時点を客観的に把握することが困難であるからベルヌ条約7条が容認する公表時起算を適用した。ただし、公表後70年までの間に、著作者が死亡してから70年が経過していると認められる著作物は、著作者の死後70年が経過していると認められる時点において著作権は消滅したものとされる。ここでの例としては俳号芸名四股名ニックネームハンドルネームなどが挙げられる。1899年7月15日に施行された旧著作権法では公表後30年までと規定されていた。その後は以下のような変遷をたどっている。法人その他団体が著作の名義を持っている著作物の著作権は、その著作物の公表後70年。団体名義の著作物においては、著作者の死亡を認定できないため、公表時起算を例外的に適用している。団体名義の著作物とは団体が著作者となるいわゆる職務著作ただし、上記の著作物の著作者である個人が、上記の期間内に、当該個人の実名、あるいは周知な変名を著作者名として著作物を公表したときは、原則どおり著作者の死後70年の経過をもって著作権が消滅する。映画の著作物の著作権はその映画の公表後70年を経過するまでの間存続する（1項）。ただし映画の創作後70年を経過しても公表されなかった場合には創作後70年を経過するまでの間存続する（同項但書）。映画の著作物の著作者は「制作監督演出撮影美術等を担当してその映画の著作物の全体的形成に創作的に寄与した者」（16条本文抜粋）と規定されているが映画が様々なスタッフの寄与によって創作される総合芸術であり著作者が誰であるかを実際に確定するのは困難であるためベルヌ条約7条(2)に従い公表時起算主義を採用した。著作権法では、独創性のある個人名義の映画の著作物については著作者の死亡時から起算して38年間存続することになっていたため、保護期間が実質的に短くなる場合も生じた。このため、2003年の法改正により、保護期間が50年から70年に延長された。また1971年より前に製作された映画作品は旧著作権法の規定と比べ長い方の期間になるので注意が必要である。ただし例えば旧法下における会社名義や戦時中の国策団体などの名義によるの類については必ずしも長くなるとは言えない場合も出てくる可能性もある。写真の著作物の保護期間は、旧著作権法と規定されていた。その後は、以下のような変遷をたどっている。上記によれば1956年12月31日までに製作された写真についても未発行であれば1956年12月31日までに著作権は消滅するしその日までに発行されたとしても遅くとも1966年12月31日までには著作権は消滅するので1967年7月27日の暫定延長措置の適用は受けられない。したがって著作権は消滅している。いずれの場合も著作者が生存していても同様である。このように、写真の著作物は他の著作物と比べて短い保護期間しか与えられてこなかったため、保護の均衡を失するとして、日本写真著作権協会などは消滅した著作権の復活措置を政府に対して要望していた。しかし、既に消滅した著作権を復活させることは法的安定性を害し、著作物の利用者との関係で混乱を招くなどの理由から、平成11年度の著作権審議会は、復活措置を見送る答申を行っている。さらに、1996年12月の著作権法改正によって、写真の著作物の保護期間を公表後50年までとしていた著作権法55条が削除され、写真の著作物に対しても、他の一般著作物と同等の保護期間が適用されることになった。これは、1996年12月の世界知的所有権機関 外交会議によってWIPO著作権条約が採択されたことを受けたものであり、同条約9条は、写真の著作物に対して他の一般著作物と同期間の保護期間を与えることを義務づけているからである。改正以前までは公表後50年であったため、著作者が生存中に著作権が切れてしまうことが数多く発生した。この改正によって他の著作物と同等の扱いを受けるようになった。継続的刊行物、逐次刊行物等の公表時.著作物を冊号または回を追って公表する場合著作物を一部分ずつを逐次公表する場合それぞれ公表時をいつとすべきかについては以下の通り規定している。冊号または回を追って公表される著作物について公表時を起算時として著作権が消滅する場合そのとは毎冊毎号または毎回の公表時期とされる。の例としては新聞雑誌年報メールマガジンのような継続的に刊行公表される編集著作物各回でストーリーが完結するテレビの連続ドラマなどが挙げられる。たとえばテレビアニメの第1話が自由に利用可能になるのは今後保護期間を変更する著作権法改正がないものと仮定すれば公表から70年経過後の2046年1月1日午前0時からである。一部分ずつを逐次公表して完成する著作物について、公表時を起算点として著作権が消滅する場合、そのは最終部分の公表時とされる。の例としては、文学全集、新聞連載小説、ストーリーが連続して最終回に完結するテレビドラマなどが挙げられる。たとえば、NHKの連続テレビ小説の第1話が自由に利用可能になるのは、今後保護期間を変更する著作権法改正がないものと仮定すると、2055年1月1日午前0時からである。なお、直近の公表時から3年を経過しても次回の公表がない場合は、直近の公表時を最終部分の公表時とみなす。公表間隔を長くすることにより、著作権の保護期間が不当に延長されることを防ぐためである。上述したの期間の計算方法にはいわゆる暦年主義が採用されている。暦年主義を採用したのは保護期間の計算が簡便にできること著作者の死亡時や著作物の公表創作時がはっきりとしない例が多いことによる。たとえば、作家池波正太郎の作品の著作権は、TPP11整備法による保護期間延長の適用を受けるので、2060年5月3日をもって消滅するのではなく、1991年1月1日から起算して70年後である、2060年12月31日をもって消滅する。したがって、著作権による制限なく自由な利用が可能となるのは今後保護期間を変更する著作権法改正がないものと仮定すれば2061年1月1日午前0時からである。相互主義に基づく保護期間の特例.は、ベルヌ条約7条、TRIPS協定3条但書の規定が容認する相互主義を採用している。したがって、著作権法は、ベルヌ条約同盟国または世界貿易機関 の加盟国。たとえば日本国ではないベルヌ条約同盟国であるA国の国内法が映画の著作物の保護期間を公表後50年と定めているとする。は日本国著作権法が定める映画の著作物の保護期間映画の著作物の保護期間は日本国著作権法においても公表後50年までしか保護されない。ただし日本国民の著作物に対しては58条は適用しない。したがって日本国民の著作物は第一発行国によらず〜が定める保護期間が満期で与えられる。第二次世界大戦における連合国やその国民が有する著作権であって、日本国と当該連合国との間で平和条約が発効した日の前日以前に取得された著作権に対しては、上述の通り認められる通常の著作権の保護期間に加えて、日本国との平和条約第15条の規定及び連合国及び連合国民の著作権の特例に関する法律により、いわゆる戦時加算による保護期間の加算が認められる。第二次世界大戦中は、連合国や連合国民の著作権保護に、日本国は十分に取り組んでいなかったと考えられたためである。加算される期間は以下のとおりとなる。著作権が消滅すると著作権による制限なしに原則として誰でも自由に利用することができる。ただし、保護期間が著作者の死後70年となる場合を除いては、著作権の消滅後も著作者が生存し、著作者人格権が存続している場合もある。その場合、著作者人格権を侵害する態様で著作物を利用することはできない。二次的著作物の著作権との関係.著作物を翻訳編曲変形翻案して創作された二次的著作物の著作権の保護期間は原著作物の著作権の保護期間とは独立して認められる。すなわち創作（翻訳編曲変形翻案）のときに著作権が発生し著作者（翻訳編曲変形翻案した者）の死亡時期その二次的著作物の公表時期あるいは創作時期を起算時として著作権の消滅時期が決定される。したがって、原著作物の著作権が保護期間満了等の事由により消滅していても、二次的著作物の著作権が消滅しているとは限らない。たとえば、アメリカ民謡『My Grandfather's Clock』（邦題『大きな古時計』）の作詞者であるヘンリー・クレイ・ワークは1884年に死去したから、歌詞の著作権は存在しない。一方、保富康午（1984年9月19日没）による著名な日本語訳詞の著作権は今後保護期間を変更する著作権法改正がないものと仮定すれば、2054年12月31日まで存続する。したがって、2006年現在、英語による原歌詞は自由に利用可能であるが、保富康午の日本語歌詞を利用するには、著作権法で定められた例外を除いて著作権者（2006年6月現在、日本音楽著作権協会）の許諾が必要である。逆に保護期間の相違などから原著作物の著作権が存続したままの状態で二次的著作物の著作権が先に消滅する場合もある。この場合当該二次的著作物を利用するには当該原著作物の著作権者の許諾が必要であり原著作物の著作権が消滅するまでは二次的著作物を自由に利用することはできない（）。ただし映画の著作物の利用については次節のような特別な規定が存在する。映画の著作物の著作権が保護期間満了によって消滅してもその映画において翻案されている著作物。したがってその映画の著作物を利用する限りにおいては脚本や原作となった小説や漫画等に係る著作権者の許諾を得る必要はない。この規定は著作権が消滅した映画の円滑な利用を促進することをねらいとする。ただし著作権が消滅したものと扱われる著作物は映画において翻案されたものに限られ録音録画されているに過ぎない著作物の著作権は消滅したものとされない。したがって映画の著作物を利用するためには字幕映画音楽美術品等に係る著作権者の許諾を得る必要がある。著作権の保護期間に関する裁判例.1953年に公表された団体名義の独創性を有する映画の著作物の保護期間.2004年1月1日に施行された改正著作権法は、映画の著作物の保護期間を公表後50年から公表後70年へ延長する規定を含んでいた。ただし、施行前に著作権が消滅した映画の著作物に対しては、遡って新法を適用して著作権を復活させることはない。この新法の解釈に関する文化庁の見解は、という理由から、1953年に公表された映画の著作物は、新法の適用を受けて2023年12月31日まで保護されるというものである。これに対し、新旧両法の文理解釈からすれば、1953年公表の映画の保護期間は2003年12月31日までであり、2004年1月1日には消滅するという反対の見解もあった。これらの見解の対立は1953年問題ともよばれている。2006年5月、についても、別の2社を相手取り、DVDの製造販売の差止めを求めて東京地方裁判所に提訴した。同年7月東京地方裁判所はに対しても同様の理由によってパラマウント社の請求を棄却する判決を言い渡した。についてのみ、知的財産高等裁判所に控訴したが、同裁判所は2007年3月29日、著作権は2003年12月31日をもって消滅したとする一審判決を支持し、パラマウント社の控訴を棄却する判決を言い渡した。パラマウント社は最高裁判所へ上告したものの2007年12月18日最高裁は一審二審の判決を支持。という結論でこの問題は決着した。自然人を著作者とする映画の著作物の保護期間.2006年7月、チャーリー・チャップリンの映画の著作権を管理するリヒテンシュタインの法人が、など複数タイトルのチャップリン映画の格安DVDを販売する東京の2社に対し、格安DVDの販売差止めと約9400万円の損害賠償を求めて、東京地方裁判所に提訴した。原告の主張によれば、被告2社はなど原告が著作権を保持管理する9作品について、原告の許諾を得ずに格安DVDを販売したことにより、原告の著作権を侵害したとする。原告は著作権存続の法的根拠について旧著作権法22条ノ33条1項52条1項および新著作権法の昭和45年附則7条により著作権保護期間は著作者の死後38年であることなどを挙げる。すなわち原告の主張によれば9作品のうち7作品はチャップリン個人の作品であるためチャップリンが死亡した1977年から著作権保護期間が起算されそれから38年経過後の2015年まで著作権が保護されることになる。なお、文化庁はの中で、著作権が保護されるを挙げ、原告の主張に沿う見解を示している。2007年8月29日、東京地裁は原告側の主張を全面的に認め『モダン・タイムス』など7タイトルは旧法の規定に伴いチャップリンの個人著作物と認められ、著作権保護期間は経過措置により2015年まで有効であると判断。さらに『殺人狂時代』（1947年製作）及び『ライムライト』（1952年製作）については2003年改正法の附則第2条（旧法と現行法のどちらかで保護期間が異なる場合は、より長い方を適用する）に基づき、公表後70年が適用されると判断。『殺人狂時代』は2017年、『ライムライト』は2022年まで保護期間が存続するとし、被告側に対し9タイトルの販売禁止と在庫の全量及びDVD製作に使用したマスターの廃棄・約1053万円の損害賠償を命じた。発売業者は知財高裁に控訴したが、2008年2月28日に控訴棄却の判決を下した。さらに、発売業者は最高裁に上告したが、2009年10月8日、最高裁は上告を棄却し、1、2審判決が確定した。この上告審判決において最高裁は、旧著作権法における映画の著作者をとの初判断を示した。 +台東区は東京都の区部北東部に位置する特別区。面積は23区の中で最も狭い。1947年に下谷区と浅草区が合併して誕生した。江戸時代を通じて東京で最も古い市街地のひとつで江戸時代は元禄文化（町民文化）が息づいた。浅草にある浅草寺（正式名金龍山浅草寺）は建立1400年の歴史を持つ。かつては「浅草六区」を中心に劇場や映画館などの興行施設が集積する日本屈指の繁華街であったが高度成長期以降そういった興行施設は娯楽の多様化に伴い衰退していきまた新宿渋谷六本木池袋といった山手の新興繁華街の発展により相対的に浅草の繁華街の地位は失われていった。現在は国内外から多くの人が訪れる観光地としての性格が強くなっている。下谷地区においては上野公園には東京国立博物館など日本を代表する美術館や博物館が建築され東京芸術大学などが付近に位置する上野は「芸術文化の発信地」ともなっている。関東大震災（1923年）や第二次世界大戦により壊滅的な被害を受けたが焼け残った浅草橋界隈の問屋街などにはいまだ大正昭和初期の街並みや下町の風情が色濃く残っている。区の中心駅である上野駅は古くから北関東東北信越地方からの玄関口として知られ新幹線も停車する。1927年に開業した東京地下鉄道浅草駅 - 上野駅間は東洋初の本格的な地下鉄路線として知られる。区は全般的に商業地であるため純粋な住宅地は一部で供給量も少ない。戸建も一部地域を除くと少なくビルやマンションなど土地の高度利用が進んでいる。古都保存財団が選定するにおいて次世代に残す美しい日本の歴史的風土が良好に保存されている全国の事例の一つとして寛永寺上野公園周辺谷中の街並みが選ばれた。ルコルビュジエの国立西洋美術館が世界遺産に登録されている。東京国立博物館表慶館や東京国立博物館など国の重要文化財が多い区である。合併前の下谷区浅草区ともに下町文化の根付く由緒ある土地のため合併後の名称は紛糾した。様々な案が考え出され最終的に下谷区側の案はを組合わせたもので康煕字典にめでたい意味で載る瑞祥地名でもある。その他の候補には、「下町区」「太平区」「隅田区」「浅谷区」などかあった。読み方は都、区で発行する出版物のふりがな等で見られるように公式にはと読んでいる。また「だいとう」の読みは「上野台」の「東」に由来する説がある。区内の町名に台東があるが1964年の住居表示により区名を取って名付けられたものであり由来とは関係ない。東京23区の中央からやや北東寄りに位置する。東側は隅田川に接し対岸の墨田区との区境となっている。また区南端で隅田川との合流点付近の神田川に接する。台東区では全域で住居表示に関する法律に基づく住居表示が実施されている。住居表示実施前の町名等欄で下線がある町名はその全部それ以外はその一部であり町名の末尾に数字がある場合には丁目を表す。2005年に夜間人口（居住者）は163528人であるが区外からの通勤者と通学生および居住者のうちの区内に昼間残留する人口の合計である昼間人口は303522人で昼は夜の1.856倍の人口になる（東京都編集『東京都の昼間人口2005』より。国勢調査では年齢不詳のものが東京都だけで16万人いる。上のグラフには年齢不詳のものを含め昼夜間人口に関しては年齢不詳の人物は数字に入っていないので数字の間に誤差は生じる）。2019年10月12日 令和元年東日本台風（台風19号）により、日本国内で甚大な被害を被ったが、台東区の区民向け避難所で区職員が路上生活者(ホームレス)の受け入れを拒否した為、国会でも15日参院予算委員会にて取り上げられる問題となった。台東区は同台風の接近に伴って11日午後5時半以降区内4カ所に避難所を開設した。その後12日に避難所の一つ区立忍岡小の避難所を訪れた路上生活者の2人に対し区職員が受付のため紙に住所と氏名などを書くよう求め路上生活者の2人は台東区内に住所がないことを申告すると区職員は区民のための避難所であることを理由に路上生活者2名を追い返した。このことが明るみに出ると、13日以降様々なメディアで取り上げられたが、台東区はメディアの取材に対しと答弁した。台東区は15日夕方区長の声明を発表 し「この度の台風19号の際に避難所での路上生活者の方に対する対応が不十分であり避難できなかった方がおられた事につきましては大変申し訳ありませんでした。またこの件につきまして区民の皆様へ大変ご心配をおかけいたしました。台東区では今回の事例を真摯に受け止め庁内において検討組織を立ち上げました。関係機関等とも連携し災害時に全ての方を援助する方策について検討し対応を図ってまいります」と謝罪した。2017年の区割変更に伴い東上野6丁目下谷2丁目入谷2丁目1-33番松が谷1-4丁目西浅草23丁目浅草2丁目13-27番浅草3-7丁目千束1丁目千束2丁目1-32番千束34丁目今戸12丁目東浅草12丁目橋場12丁目清川12丁目日本堤1丁目日本堤2丁目1-35番は2区から14区に移行した。台東区循環バスめぐりんその他にいわき市北茨城市東海村ひたちなか市常陸太田市大子町常陸大宮市那珂市などから東京駅行きバスタ新宿行きの高速バスで浅草駅上野駅で降車できる。台東区は、足立ナンバーを割り当てられており、の地域と一致する。足立ナンバー割り当て地域は台東区江戸川区足立区墨田区荒川区。台東区には、地域の特色に合わせた複数のキャラクターからなる公式キャラクター台東くんが存在する。 +明治初期から1960年代まで浅草は東京を代表する歓楽街であり田谷力三や藤原義江などの浅草オペラのスター榎本健一や古川ロッパなどの喜劇人フランス座などのストリップ劇場の幕間コント出身の渥美清東八郎萩本欽一坂上二郎ビートたけしなど特に大衆芸能の分野には浅草にゆかりが深い人物が多い。浅草公園六区を参照。という表現は古くからあり有名なところでは漢書のがある。地理学とは地球の表面と住民の状態その相互関係を研究する学問である。「地理」は、日本の学校で設置されている、「人間の生活に影響を与える地域的、社会的な構造」を学ぶための科目である。自然環境や産業環境などを含む環境を学習対象としている。小学校および中学校においては、歴史や公民と並び、社会科の一分野である。高等学校においては、最近は「地理歴史科」という教科の中の一科目となっており、「地理A」「地理B」に細分されている。生物学とは、生命現象を研究する、自然科学の一分野である。広義には医学や農学など応用科学・総合科学も含み、狭義には基礎科学の部分を指す。一般的には後者の意味で用いられることが多い。類義語として生命科学や生物科学がある（後述の#「生物学」と「生命科学」参照）。生物学とは生命現象を研究する分野である。日本のによると生物学は生物やその存在様式を研究対象としているということになっておりAquarena Wetlands Project glossary of termsの定義では生物学の研究対象には構造機能成長発生進化分布分類を含むということになっている。扱う対象の大きさは一分子生物学におけるまで幅広い。現代の生物学が成立したのは比較的最近だが、関連し含まれていた科学は古代から存在した。自然哲学はメソポタミア、古代エジプト、古代インド、古代中国で研究されていた。しかし、現在に繋がる生物学や自然研究の萌芽は古代ギリシアに見られる。一般に、諸研究に先駆しているという意味で、古代ギリシャのアリストテレスをもって生物学史の始めとする。などとされ、生物の分類法を提示するなどし、後世に至るまで多大なる影響を及ぼしたのである。アリストテレスの動物学上の著作として残っているものとしてはを扱っており、随所で優れた観察眼を発揮している。植物に関する研究も行い著作もあったとされるが、失われ現在では残っていないとされる。アリストテレスの生物に関する研究の中でも動物に関する研究は秀でており、特に動物学の始原とされる。分類、生殖、発生、その他の分野において先駆的な研究を行い、その生命論や発生論は17世紀や18世紀の学者にまで影響を与えた。ただしアリストテレスの生物学は今日の視点から見れば生気論目的論的でありその意味では哲学的といえる。は有生物と無生物を区別する原理としてという用語を用いて説明していたが、アリストテレスはこのプシュケーを、可能態において生命を持つ自然的物体の形相、と定義し、プシュケーは生命の本質をなしており、自己目的機能であり 起動因だ、と記述した。中世には、イスラム世界でジャーヒズらが植物学の著作を残した。現代生物学は、アントニ・ファン・レーウェンフックが発明した顕微鏡の普及とともに発展した。科学者らによる精子・バクテリア・滴虫類、そして生命が持つ驚くべき奇妙さと多様性が次々と明らかにされた。ヤン・スワンメルダムの調査は昆虫学に対する関心を新たにし、顕微鏡を用いた解剖や標本用染色の技術を向上させた。17世紀にロバートフックが顕微鏡を用いた観察で細胞を発見し18世紀のカールフォンリンネによる生物の系統的分類の発表を経てチャールズダーウィンの進化論やグレゴールヨハンメンデルの遺伝子法則などが認められるに及びそれまでの博物学の一領域に過ぎなかった生物についての知識がひとつの学問分野を成り立たせるに充分にまで蓄積された事で成立した。19世紀前半には細胞の中心組織が重要な役割を持つという認識が広がった。1838年と1839年マティアスヤーコプシュライデンとテオドールシュワンは有機体の基本単位は細胞であり個別の細胞がそれぞれ生きて多くの否定的意見があったが全ての細胞は分裂によって生じるという考えを促進する役割を果たした。1860年代にはロベルトレーマクとルドルフルートヴィヒカールヴィルヒョウの仕事によって細胞説として知られる上記3説は多くの支持を受けるようになった。20世紀になると生物学的知識は膨大かつ複雑になったためこれらを統一的に理解しようとする試みが重視されるようになった。さらに生物を高度に組織化された分子の集合体と捉え環境の中からどのように自己の秩序と維持を満たすかという視点から分子工学的な理解を強める傾向にある。そのため従来の記述を主体とした学問から原理的そして実体論的な学問へと変貌しつつある。1990年には一般的なヒトゲノムを図像化する計画が実行に移され2003年に完成した。英語の biology はギリシア語の 。現代の生物学者は基本的に唯物論或いは機械論の立場を取り生物は有機化合物などの物質から構成された複雑な機械であると見なす。一つ一つの要素を解明していく還元主義が有効である場面は依然存在するが還元主義だけで複雑な生命現象を理解する試みには限界があることが理解され始めたため生物を複雑系として扱う考えかたも発展してきている。生物学では一般的にヒトを特別な生物種としては扱わない。しかし我々自身がヒトでありその研究は医療や産業などと関連しているため生物学の中でヒト研究は重要であり関心も高い。生物学研究の成果は医療や農業における基礎を提供し応用面で人類に大きな利益をもたらしている。生物学に関連する産業はバイオ産業と呼ばれIT産業と並び発展性のある大きな市場を形成し経済的にも重要な位置にあるとされる。生物学の知見や技術は生命の根幹に大きく関わるようになり倫理的社会的な影響も注目されている。生物学では他の自然科学分野と同様に記載実験理論といった科学的方法によって研究が行われる。これらは独立したものではなくそれぞれが関連し合って一連の研究を形作る。記載とは詳細な観察に基づいて基礎となる事象を明らかにすることであり研究において最も始めに行われる。生物種を同定するための形態学的観察をはじめとして実験操作を加えない状態での発生現象や細胞構造の観察生理条件下での生理活性物質の測定ひいてはゲノムの解読も記載と言える。また、個々の事例の記載を基礎とし、それらを比較することからより一般的な知見を得ることは、特に生物学では重視されてきた。これは一つにはその構造や現象が複雑で，研究史の初期において実験系を作りにくかったこと、他方で生物が多様であり、その背後に進化があることからそれを比較によってあぶり出すことに大きな意味があったからである。たとえば比較解剖学や比較発生学はそれぞれの分野の発展の中では大きな意味を持ち、それらは直接に進化論の発展に結びついた。実験は人為的に操作を加えることにより通常と異なる条件を作り出しその後の変化を観察観測することで生物に備わっている機構を解明しようとする実証主義的な試みである。突然変異の誘発や遺伝子導入移植実験などさまざまな手法を使う。現代生物学は実験生物学の性質が強くなっている。実験操作は科学的方法に基づき対照実験や再現性の確認などにより実験者の主観が除かれる必要がある。一方進化や生物圏レベルの生態学研究のように実験による証明が困難である場合は様々な観測データや古生物の化石などを用い比較や構造化など理論による説明を試みる。またバイオインフォマティクスのように膨大なデータを統合して理解しようとする場合も理論によるアプローチに重点が置かれる。実験を行う前に仮説を立て結果を予想したり実験結果を解釈して抽象化や普遍化させて法則や規則性を見いだしたりすることも理論の一部である。このような理論面に重点を置いた分野を理論生物学数理モデルを用いる分野を数理生物学とよぶ。これらの分野は高度に抽象化するため対象の生物学的階層には捕われない性質がある。新たな方法論として、蓄積したデータに基づいてコンピュータ上に仮想システムを構築することで構造を理解したり、そのパラメータを変化させるシミュレーションにより実験の代わりとするシステム生物学も登場している。20世紀半ばの分子生物学の台頭以降その周辺分野では一つの遺伝子タンパク質の機能に注目する還元主義的なアプローチが主体だった。この手法は強力でさまざまな生命現象を解き明かしてきた。しかし分子レベルで明らかにしたことを組み合わせるだけでは脳の活動や行動など複雑な現象は理解しがたく還元主義のみでは限界があることもわかってきた。このことへの反省もあり物理学的還元主義への傾倒から抜け出し21世紀に入ってからは生物を複雑な系としてそのままあつかうオーミクスやシステム生物学等のアプローチも盛んになっている。一方生物多様性をあつかう伝統的な生物学や生態学では生物の作りだす系が複雑であることは自明だったため複雑系のような全体論は目新しいものではない。生物学の両輪である生物の多様性と普遍性に関する知見はゲノム解析によって結びつけられつつある。大きなパラダイムシフト.生物学のパラダイムを大きく変えたものには細胞の発見、進化の提唱、遺伝子の示唆、DNA の構造決定、セントラルドグマの否定、ゲノムプロジェクトの実現などがある。細胞の発見やゲノムプロジェクトは主に技術の進歩によってもたらされ、進化や遺伝子の発見は個人の深い洞察によるところが大きい。17世紀に発明された顕微鏡による細胞の発見は、微生物の発見をはじめとして、動物と植物がいずれも同じ構造単位から成っていることを認識させ、動物学と植物学の上位分野として生物学を誕生させることになった。また自然発生説の否定によって、いかなる細胞も既存の細胞から生じることが示され、生命の起源という現在も未解明の大きな問題の提示につながっている。進化はチャールズ・ダーウィンをはじめとする数人の博物学者によって19世紀に提唱された概念である。それまでは経験的にも宗教的にも、生物種は固定したものとされていたが、現在では、同じ種の中でも形質に多様性があり、生物の形質は変化するものとされ、種の区別が困難なものもあるという指摘がされている。単純な生物から多様化することで現在のような多様な生物が存在すると考えることが可能になり、生命の起源を研究可能なテーマとすることができるようになった。進化論は社会や思想にも大きな影響を与え、近代で最も大きなパラダイムシフトの1つであった。遺伝自体は古くから経験的に知られていた現象である。しかし19世紀後半メンデルは交雑実験から遺伝の法則を発見し世代を経た後にも分離可能な因子すなわち遺伝子が存在することを証明した。さらに染色体が発見され20世紀前半の遺伝学細胞学による研究から染色体が遺伝子の担体であることが確証づけられた。この過程において古典的な遺伝学が発展しその後の分子生物学の誕生にもつながった。1953年ジェームズワトソンフランシスクリックらがX線回折の結果から立体模型を用いた推論により遺伝物質 DNA の二重らせん構造を明らかにした。DNA構造の解明は分子生物学の構造学派にとって最大の成功である。相補的な2本の分子鎖が逆向きにらせん状構造をとっているというモデルは染色体分配による遺伝のメカニズムを見事に説明しておりその後の分子生物学を爆発的に発展させた。DNAからRNAへの転写、RNAからタンパク質への翻訳、遺伝暗号などの解明により、セントラルドグマと呼ばれるといった一方向の情報伝達がまるで教義のように思われた時期もあったが、これを裏切るかのように逆転写酵素やリボザイムといった発見も20世紀後半に相次いだ。ゲノムという概念はある生物種における遺伝情報の総和として提唱された。ゲノム の合成語である。技術発展によりゲノムプロジェクトが可能になりゲノム研究は生物学における還元論と全体論普遍性と多様性を結びつける役割をもつようになった。生物種間でのゲノムの比較により普遍性と多様性理解への糸口を与え還元的な研究に因子の有限性を与えることで個々の研究を全体論の中で語ることを可能にした。他にも様々な総体に対する研究が始まっている。Vernon L.が1995年に主張したところところによると、特に重要な題材は、以下に挙げる5つの原則で、それらはと言う:。生物学が自然史学の一部だった時代には、記載生物学が主体だった。現代生物学は、実験が主体になっている。さらに将来は、ゲノムやプロテオーム研究などで蓄積された膨大なデータをコンピュータで処理し、そこから生命の原理に迫る生物情報学が主体になるかもしれない。急激なコンピュータの高速化と並行して、実験や観察技術、新たな分析手法の発見など技術発展も進むだろう。純粋生物学に残された大きなテーマには生命の起源、ヒトの精神あるいは心理過程、地球外生命体などがある。すでに起きてしまった生命の起源や進化は、実験で再現できない。ただし、生物物理学的・生化学的に生命（細胞）の誕生を再現する試みはある。心理学はヒトやほかの動物の行動や心理過程を研究しているが生物学と心理学とは従来よりおもに神経メカニズムという観点から関係をもってきた。しかしとくにヒトの高次心理過程はいまだ現在の生物学の知見を超える部分が大きい。今後そういった高次心理過程も心理学における行動認知レベルの研究に加えて生物学における分子レベルの細胞レベルの皮質のグローバルなレベルでの研究を進めることにより両分野のあいだで統合的に説明できるようになるかもしれない。地球以外に生命は存在するかという問題はまだ生物学のテーマではないと現在の多くの生物学者は考えている。しかし火星やその他の惑星衛星の探索が進み生命やその痕跡が発見されれば重要なテーマの一つとなり現在の生物学に大きな改変が迫られる可能性がある。また、医学や農学、薬学や化学工学などへの重要性は増し、応用は今後もますます増加していく。生物学の諸分野は各論方法論理論の視点から分類できる。各論は研究対象によって方法論は手法によって理論は普遍化された学説によって分野名がつけられる。ただしいずれの分野も程度の差はあれ3つすべての性質をあわせもっているため分類は便宜的なものになる。例えば細胞生物学微生物学生物物理学生化学。生物学を大きくふたつに分ける場合、個体の内部の生命現象を解析する方向がある。また、生物学の各論には、生物の系統分類と生物学的階層性という大きな2つの軸があるとされる。前者によって分類する場合、代表的な分野は、動物学、植物学、微生物学の3つである。それぞれは系統分類にしたがってさらに細分化できる。動物学の下位には原生動物学、昆虫学や魚類学、脊椎動物学などがある。同様に、植物学の下には顕花植物学や樹木学など、微生物学の下にはウイルス学や細菌学などがある。これらの分野では、生物の特異性・多様性を重視する流れがある。一方、対象の大きさ、つまり生物学的階層性（すなわち現象）を軸にすると、代表的な分野は、分子生物学・生化学、細胞生物学、発生生物学、動物行動学、生態学などがある（図）。生態学は生物群の大きさによって個体群生態学、群集生態学などに分けられる他、対象とする場所を重視する場合は森林生態学や海洋生態学、極地生態学などの名称も用いられる。生物学的階層性は生物の分類に対して横断的であり、生物の普遍性が注目される。この軸では個体レベルを境として大きく2つに分けることができる。この視点から諸分野を見ると、個体レベル以下を扱う分野は分子生物学の影響が強く還元主義的な傾向があり、個体レベル以上を扱う分野は全体論的な傾向がある。動物発生学や植物細胞学などの分野は、この2つの軸を考えるとその領域が把握しやすい。方法論は各論分野に必要に応じて導入され、実際の研究を発展させるために必須なものである。理論は抽象化により総合的・普遍的な視点を各論に提供する。最も古くからある方法論の一つは生物の分類を扱う分類学である。分類は生物学の基礎であり進化研究の手がかりにもなる。伝統的には形態に注目して分類されていたが近年では分子生物学の手法を取り入れた分子系統分類がさかんである。生化学は化学的手法分子生物学は DNA 操作を使う方法論でもある。分子遺伝学や逆遺伝学から発展したゲノムプロジェクトやバイオインフォマティクスは新たな方法論として脚光を浴びている。生物学の理論としては遺伝学や進化学が代表的である。遺伝学は遺伝子の機能を間接的に観察するという方法論でもある。遺伝や進化の理論は具体的なレベルでは未だ議論があるが総論としては生物学に必要不可欠な基盤となっている。生物学の分類として記載生物学比較生物学実験生物学といった類型化もある。記載比較実験は上記のように生物学の基本的な手法なのでこのような区分は成立しないことが多いがむしろ歴史的な展開の中での各部分に対してこの名が使われることがある。それも個々の分野名にこの名を被せる例が多い。記載生物学は生物の形や構造を把握し図や文で記載することを行うのを主目的とする。比較生物学はそれによって知られるようになったものを他の生物のそれと比較することから何かをえようとする。実験生物学は記載や比較では得られない知識を生物を操作することで得ようとする。従って生物学はこの順番で発展する。ただし記載はあまりにも最低限基本的な操作なのでこれを冠する例はない。記載をしなければそれは科学以前である。たとえば近世から近代の生物学発展の初期、比較解剖学は極めて重要な分野として独立していた。これは発生学に結びついて比較発生学の流れをつくり、両者融合して比較形態学と呼ばれた。しかしこの分野は内部造反的に実験的手法に頼る実験発生学を生み出す。あいまいになる諸分野の境界.20世紀に入るまで、各分野はそれぞれ独自の手法や観点で異なる対象を研究し、内容の重複はわずかだった。しかし、20世紀後半の分子生物学の爆発的な発展や顕微鏡などの技術発展により、研究分野はさらに細分化されつつも、それらの境界はあいまいになり、分野の名称は便宜的・主観的なものになってきている。例えば、イモリの足の再生を研究しに変えることも多い。生物学と関連する分野.生物学は、さまざまな形で他の学問分野と関係している。概念、理論、研究手法などの面で生物学に影響を与えた自然科学の分野としては、先に発展していた物理学と化学が挙げられる。特に分子生物学以降は物理学の影響が強い。生化学や生物物理学などはこれらの境界領域の分野と言える。応用科学では医学における生化学や生理学、解剖学は、動物学や発生学と関連し、農学における育種学は遺伝学の誕生に寄与し、その過程で近代的な推測統計学を醸成した。また、数学は自然科学の基礎として生物学に影響を与えているほか、特に数理生物学や集団遺伝学などでは高度に数学的な概念、分析手法が用いられる。近年では、ゲノムやプロテオームの解析から得られる膨大なデータを処理する必要があるため、バイオインフォマティクスと呼ばれる分野では情報学の方法論が取り入れられ、ゲノミクスやプロテオミクスで用いられている。また、生命現象をシステムとして理解することを目的とするシステム生物学が発展しつつある。生物学と相互に影響しあっている分野も数多い。生態学は理論面で経済学と強い関連があり地球科学と観測技術を共有している。これらの影響は一方通行ではなく相互的である。人文科学系の分野の中では自然哲学の一分野である生物哲学方法論としては科学哲学倫理面を研究する生命倫理学などが生物学と対象を共有している。科学史の一分野である生物学史は生物学の歴史が研究対象である。生物学から多くの影響を受けた分野に、理論社会学や社会思想がある。ダーウィンと同時代に生き、適者生存などの語の発案者でもあるハーバート・スペンサーや、エミール・デュルケームは、社会の変化、特に分業の発達と構成要素の多様化を生物進化になぞらえて考察する理論を打ちたてた。彼らの学問は社会学の中でも多く知られているが、スペンサーを除けば、生物学から影響を受ける量が多く、生物学への影響は限られている。また、生物をメタファーとして社会を説明する理論にはほかに、マーシャル・マクルーハンによるメディア論や梅棹忠夫による情報産業論など、広く知られたものが多くある。システム理論やサイバネティックスは生物学による生命体の理解を手がかりに秩序や変化についての一般理論を構築している。これは社会学にも社会システム論として影響を与えている。生物学の応用と社会的責任.生物学の知見と技術を応用に用いる分野はバイオテクノロジーまたは生物工学と呼ばれる。遺伝子操作に重点が置かれる場合は遺伝子工学発生過程に重点が置かれる場合は発生工学ともいう。生物学の成果を実業に活用する産業はバイオ産業と呼ばれITとならんで勢いのある市場でありベンチャー企業が次々と誕生している。アメリカでは大学の研究者が起業することも多い。遺伝子治療幹細胞を用いた再生医学一塩基多型 （SNPs） を用いたオーダメイド医療やゲノム創薬などが注目されている。農業や畜産関連でもバイオテクノロジーが生かされておりこれらを支える基礎研究は重要である。政府や企業は多大な資金を提供しその発展を促している。応用分野に輝かしい貢献をすると同時に、現代生物学はさまざまな倫理的問題を抱えている。それらはゲノム情報、遺伝子操作、クローン技術など、生命の根幹に関わる技術や情報によりもたらされた。これらは、臨床医療においては恩恵をもたらす一方で、差別や生命の軽視など深刻な社会問題を引き起こしつつある。このような課題は生命倫理学によって扱われる。また、遺伝子操作によって作られた遺伝子組み換え作物（GM作物）の環境への影響（遺伝子汚染）という問題提起がなされており、議論が行われている。近代から現代にかけて、人間の活動によって環境破壊が起こり、生物多様性が急速に失われている。生物学は観測を行い、科学的裏付けのあるデータに基づいた提唱をしたり、生態系や生物多様性について正しい情報を発信するなどの取り組みも必要である。現代生物学およびそれに携わる人々は、純粋な科学的研究成果のみならず、このような倫理的側面に対しても熟考し議論を深め、社会的責任を果たすことが求められている。「生物学」と「生命科学」.Biology という語は、を意味する から造られた。K. F. ブルダッハらによって独立に用いられた。生物学が様々な生物を分類記載する博物学から発展したことからもわかるように、生物学には生物の多様性を理解しようとする伝統がある。一方生命科学 や生物科学 という語は分子生物学が誕生してから新しく作られたものである。全ての生物に共通すると同じ意味に使われる。 +社会（しゃかい）はある共通項によってくくられ他から区別される人々の集まり。また仲間意識をもってみずからを他と区別する人々の集まり。社会の範囲は非常に幅広く単一の組織や結社などの部分社会から国民を包括する全体社会まで様々である。社会の複雑で多様な行為や構造を研究する社会科学では人口政治経済軍事文化技術思想などの観点から社会を観察する。社会は広範かつ複雑な現象であるが継続的な意思疎通と相互行為が行われかつそれらがある程度の度合いで秩序化組織化されたある一定の人間の集合があればそれは社会であると考えることができる。社会を構成する人口の規模に注目した場合には国際社会や国民国家を想定する全体社会や都市や組織などの部分社会に区分できる。さらに意思疎通や相互作用秩序性や限定性という社会の条件に欠落があれば全てを満たす社会と区別して準社会と呼ぶことができる。人間は誕生してから死去するまで社会の構成員の一人とされ、都市または農村において育ち、家庭や学校などでさまざまな教育を受けながら成長する。この過程で社会に存在している規範や法、宗教や芸術などの文化に触れ、そして家族外の人間関係を拡大していく。これは人間の社会化の過程でもある。社会は人口集団、都市形態、経済発展、政治体制、宗教などによって多様性を観察することが可能であり、時代や地域によってさまざまな社会の形態を見ることができる。19世紀半ばまでの日本語には「社会」という単語はなく「世間」や「浮き世」などの概念しかなかった。青地林宗が1826年（文政9年）に訳した『輿地誌略』に「社會」ということばが教団会派の意味で使用されている。古賀増の1855年（安政2年） - 1866年（慶応2年）の『度日閑言』にも「社會」ということばが使用された。明治時代になると森有礼が1874年（明治7年） - 1875年（明治8年）に編んだ『日本教育策』福地源一郎が1875年（明治8年）1月14日付『東京日日新聞』の社説に「社會」という用語が使われ「ソサイデー」のルビが振られている。「社會」とは中国の古語で農耕地の守護神中心の会合を意味して北宋時代の近思録に「郷民為社会（郷民社会を為す）」とありそれを英語のSocietyの日本語訳に当てた。社会の起源は人間の本性に求めることができる。動物にはアリやハチイヌサルのように群を作り集団行動を好む社会性を持つ動物とネコのように単独行動を好む動物がある。人間は古来より他の多くの動物と同様に群という小さな社会を形成し食料を得るため外敵から身を守るためその他生存するための必要を満たすための社会であったと推定される。現在でも基礎集団である部族や家族は存在しており村落や都市の構成要素となっている。また言語宗教文化などを共有する人口規模が小さな社会では意思疎通が密接であり自然発生的なコミュニティが成立する。ロバートモリソンマッキーバーはこれを共同関心の複合体とし一定の地域で共同生活するものと定義している。しかし原始的で素朴な社会は近代において都市化を始めることとなる。都市化とは人口の増大と流動化経済の工業化などにより異質な人口が特定の箇所に集中することによって生じるものである。この都市化は言い換えれば社会の近代化でもあった。都市に居住する住民はスラムや公害などの都市問題に直面することとなり政府は社会状況を改善するための政策に乗り出し始める。また都市では非常に大規模な人口集団が居住しているために従来の社会の性質とは異なる都市社会が成立した。偏差値競争の高まった高度経済成長期から今日まで出身や学歴の高さに応じ賃金や処遇、昇進等の優劣が決まる状況を学歴社会などと表されたり、いわゆる肩書きが極度に社会生活における成否を左右する状況を肩書き社会といわれたりする。近年では、65歳以上の人口が若年層よりも上回る高齢化社会、またそれが加速した状況を高齢社会、超高齢社会というのをはじめ、多様な危機を抱えている社会をマルチハザード社会、ITなど情報通信技術を基本に社会が動く状況を情報化社会と称することがある。社会化とは個人が他人との相互的な関与によって、所属する社会の価値や規範を内面化するようにパーソナリティを形成する過程である。社会化はどのような社会集団にその個人が所属しているかによってその内容は異なる。社会化は教育と密接な関係がある。児童が基礎教育において行うものだけでなく、大人であっても所属集団において一般的に行われている。社会の根本的な要素である人間の本性については心理学、精神分析学、社会哲学などにおいてさまざまな議論が行われている。人間の社会的な自我については深層心理学のフロイトが意識、前意識、無意識に構造化し、その中において無意識にあるイド、イドから発生する自我、自我を監視する超自我があるとした。そして自我はパーソナリティを構築し、人間に一貫性を持った価値観や態度を一定の行動パターンとして外部に示す。自我の発生についてはジョージ・ハーバート・ミードは自我が社会の相互作用において発生すると論じており、自我を手に入れるためには他者の態度を採用し、それに反作用できる役割を取得することが必要であると述べる。例えば児童はごっこ遊びでは他者の役割を模倣することによって他者の態度を知り、ゲームの中で集団で共有する目標に対して自己の役割を取得することで社会的な自我を成長させている。社会は構成員相互の協力によって営まれている。円滑に社会を営むために人間にはそれぞれ役割が与えられなければならない。各々がそれぞれの役割を果たすことによって社会がその機能を果たすことが可能となる。たとえ自給自足の生活を実践している人であっても生活の場の安全は社会の理解によって保護されていると考えることができる。そして、役割を果たし生活するために人間は社会に対し様々な形態で参加する。則ち、生活に密接した労働・生産・再生・消費・利用・処分・廃棄の行為であり、労働者・生産者・消費者・利用者等と行為に基づいて呼ばれる。社会の営みは、人間の様々な行為によって産業を興し、文化を育み、子供を教育し、交通手段を発達させ、医療を充実させて長い歴史を積み重ねてきた。時に利害の衝突等から戦争となり、戦争に備えて軍事を発達させ、戦争の深い悲しみは平和を希求させた。また、経済の発達は社会を不安定化させていた貧困や失業を解消する可能性を生み出したが、にこれに含まれない。行為の根本的な理由は欲求であるが、人間の欲求は単一の原理ではない。心理学者のアブラハム・マズローの自己実現理論によれば段階的に発展するものであり、生理的欲求、安全の欲求、親和欲求、自尊欲求、自己実現欲求と発展していくものとした。しかし欲求が直接的に社会行為を行わせるのではなく、社会化によって内面化している規範、行為のために利用できる資源などがその行為を行うべきかどうかの判断に影響する。このように社会行為は欲求、規範、資源から総合的に目的が判断されるが、この意思決定も行為の目的に付随する効果から導かれる場合と行為そのものに付随している目的から導かれる場合がある。前者は自己充足的行為、後者は手段的行為として区別され、例えば本を読むとしてもそれが自分の純粋な知的好奇心を満たすためである限りは自己充足的行為であるが、試験対策などのためであれば手段的行為である。行為の分類についてマックスヴェーバーはその性格から四つに類型化する。まず非合理的行為としてまとめられるものにそれまでの習慣に基づいて行われる伝統的行為そして感情の起伏に基づいた感情的行為が挙げられる。次に合理的行為としてまとめられる価値観に基づいた価値合理的行為と価値観に基づきながらも設定した目的を達成するために計画的に実行する目的合理的行為がある。また社会心理学では社会行動を社会の構成員が相互に他者と合力助力や分業を行う協力相互に他者と競争や攻撃を行う対立社会生活そのものから離脱する逃避と区分する。現代社会では構成員の利害を調整することにより秩序を維持して生活を円滑に行えるように様々な制度が定められている。人間の権利行為には一般に政治が生み出す法に基づいて様々な制限が加えられている。近年社会で認知された人間が生まれながらに持つとされる自由な人権に対し社会的にどこまで制限を加えることが可能か常に議論の対象となっており制度に基づく義務は大きな負担となってきている。人間の自発的な行為には常に責任が伴うとされているが、法律に罰則がなければ社会的に罰することは困難である。その一方で、我々が共存している地球の許容にも限界があり、現代社会が抱える全ての社会問題には私達自身に解決する責務があると考えられている。社会は広範かつ多様な領域を持っているために複雑な体系となっている。例えば政治や経済は社会の領域に所属するものであるが政治や経済には社会を超えた原理が存在しており社会システムの中で複雑な機能を果たしている。政治は公共的な意思決定や利害の調整などを行い社会に秩序や動員をもたらす機能の一つである。理論的な仮定として考えると、原始的社会においては秩序はなくが存在した。これを終結させるためには個々の人々が勝手に判断して行動することを規制して利害を調整することが必要であり、これを達成するための機能が政治である。政治権力の元に社会秩序が徐々に形成され、しかもその政治構造に正当性がもたらされると社会は無政府状態から安定化した状態へと移行する。近代の政治哲学の議論では、秩序の形成においては初めは王や権力が支配する形で、原始国家が作られた。その後、共和制や民主制の国家や社会が作られた。実際には、いかなる原始的な社会にも、様々な社会秩序や協力行動、規則、公式あるいは非公式な法律や制度などが存在している。経済は社会の中で希少性や効用性を持つ価値を配分する機能の一つである。人間には生産力があり労働を通じて自然に作用することができる。生産によって得られる資源を消費することで人間は生活している。かつてはこの一連の活動も社会交換によって社会の中で行われていたが物々交換貨幣を介した取引が行われるようになって市場が形成された。この市場は社会行為の相互作用でありながらも異なる経済の原理で作動するようになる。従って市場には社会全体に対して自動的に価値を配分する機能をあるていど持っていると考えられている。 +こどもの文化は子供の遊びや行事を通じて形成される子供独自の文化である。未就学あるいは義務教育段階である子供が子供ら独自であるいは保護者や教師をはじめとする大人からの示唆や指導を受けながら形成しその多くは以下に挙げるような子供の形成過程で使われるさまざまな道具により創造性想像力など脳の発達と共に文化的意味合いを持つものだと指摘できる。フランスの思想家、ロジェ・カイヨワはヨハン・ホイジンガの著書を執筆した。その中でカイヨワは遊びを次の4つ要素に分類している。テレビゲームによって様々な遊びが仮想空間で行われるようになった。RPGも見方を変えれば上りを目指す双六の様なものであり種々のシューティングゲームも射的といえる。特撮を指す略称、またはSFXが多用された映画やテレビ番組などの映像作品を指す総称。元々は特殊撮影、あるいはトリック撮影と呼ばれていたなど一部の作品群を指す通称としても使われている。撮影技術・特殊効果としての「特撮」は、映画創生期から存在し、ジョルジュ・メリエスやイギリスの制作者達によって、撮影時のカメラ操作を駆使した逆回し、高速・微速度撮影、コマ撮り、人や物が消えたように見える中抜きなどが作り出され、『大列車強盗』（1903年）では、映像の合成が試みられるなど、「実際には存在しない架空の映像」作りが行われた。また、実物を縮小したミニチュアの撮影なども長年に渡って使われ、映画の発展と共に特撮技術も発展していき、恐竜などが登場する『ロスト・ワールド』（1925年）は、当時の特撮映画の集大成ともいえ、後の『キング・コング』（1933年）ともども特撮映画を世に広めていった。1949年頃から1981年にかけて手作りのモンスターやミニチュア造形物などによる多くの特撮映画を手掛けてハリウッド映画の特撮人気を高め20世紀の特撮映画界のパイオニアとして牽引した特撮監督レイハリーハウゼンはと呼ばれなど後の特撮作品にも多大な影響を与えた。ハリーハウゼンが生み出した特殊映像特殊効果は今日の様々な特撮映像の源流ともなっている。庵野秀明は映画監督の円谷英二が事実上の元祖と評しているが円谷作品以前にも忍術などの表現でトリック撮影を用いた作品などは既に存在しており円谷の師匠である枝正義郎は合成やミニチュアを使用したトリック撮影を取り入れた作品を戦前の時期に制作している。円谷は前述の海外の特撮映画などに影響を受けて特撮を研究し怪獣映画などを通して1950年代以降に特撮映画を日本独自の映像技術として発展させ尺貫法による寸法がミニチュアで使われ映像文化や社会に多くの影響を与えた。「特撮」という言葉自体はSFXを分かりやすく説明する為に1958年頃から日本のマスコミで使われ始めており第一次怪獣ブーム時に完全に定着している。テレビドラマではが放送されている。を使った作品という意味であった。フィルム撮影時代は本格的な特殊撮影を使った映画やテレビドラマは珍しく高度な技術と多大な予算が必要なものだった。この他ドキュメンタリー番組でも特撮が使用された。特撮が多用されていても、他の既存ジャンルに近い物はその分類で呼ばれ、特撮物とは分類されない場合もある。例えばは多くの特撮が使われているが、一般的には刑事ドラマと呼ばれる。1990年代以降になるとコンピュータグラフィックスとして否定的な意味で使われる場面も増えてきている。デジタル映像技術の発達に比例して、これまで培われてきたを同等の扱いで国の文書に明記できたことを重要な点としている。 +日常生活は毎日繰り返される普段の生活のこと。日常生活とは、人が生きるために日々繰り返しやっていることである。人によって若干内容は異なるが、たとえば次のようなこと。朝目覚めていつものように顔を洗う、歯をみがく、髪をとかす、いつもの場所で朝食食べる、着替える、学生なら自宅や学校で勉強をするとか宿題をするとか、自営業の仕事をしている人ならいつもの自分の仕事場でいつもの仕事をするとか、勤め人ならいつもの仕事場に行き仕事をして帰ってくるなどということや、農業をしている人ならいつもどおりに畑で仕事をしたり収穫物の出荷をしたり農機具の整備をしたり、漁業にたずさわっている人ならいつも通りに漁に出たり網の手入れをしたり、学業も仕事もしていない人はいつもどおり自宅やいつもの場所でいつも通りのことをして過ごすということである。そしていつもの場所で昼食をとり、いつもと同じ場所で夕食をとったり、あるいはいつものようにトイレに入ったりシャワーをあびたり風呂に入ったり、くつろいだ部屋着を着たり、自宅のいつもの場所でテレビを見たり、近年ならいつものようにYoutubeを見たりSNSをチェックしたり、いつものように甘いもの食べたり人によっては少し酒を飲んだり、そうしていつもの場所で眠りにつくことなどである。一般にはこういった行為、日々ルーチンのように繰り返されている一連の行為・行動が日常生活と呼ばれている。禅ではしばしば日常生活に焦点をあて日常生活の中で禅を行うという手法もとる。日常生活に <禅的思考> を少しだけ取り入れることを生活禅（せいかつぜん）などと言う。たとえば疲れたなと思ったらちょっと背筋を伸ばしてみるとか思い立ったらすぐに始めるなどということである。なお医療とくにリハビリに携わる職種の人々は <日常生活動作>という用語を使って普段人々が共通して行っている日常生活の具体的な動作特に仕事以外の動作に特別な注意を払っている。起床就寝着替え食事歯磨き洗顔排泄入浴などといった行為行動で行われる動作を具体的に指している。大きな負傷などをして骨筋肉などを傷めたりすると人々が当たり前と思っている日常生活を送ることが困難になる。寝たり起きたり着替えたりといったことすらできなくなってしまうのである。なおニュースというのは事件や普段とは異なった出来事を扱うものであるから、人々が日常生活でしていることはニュース媒体ではほとんど扱われない。報道機関の記者は通常、普通の人々のありきたりな日常生活をわざわざ取材しようとはしない。たとえ個人的には興味を持っている記者がいたとしても、ニュース記事にはできないので仕事としては取材を行っていられない。だが民俗学者、文化人類学者などは、普通の人が普段どのようなことをしているのか、人類は日々どのように生きているのかということに興味を示しそれなりに研究対象とすることがあり、欧米の学者によって人々の日常生活を扱った学術書も、数は多くはないが、書かれてはいる。なお医療用語ではなく一般的な表現で <日常生活> と対比されているのは <非日常> であり、毎日のようには行わないこと、普段とは違う行為・行動である。日常生活というのは毎日のように繰り返されるので、人は慣れてしまい次第に感情が湧かなくなるものだが、非日常は普段とは違う行為なので印象に残り特別な感情を生むことが多い。非日常のほうは喜ばしいこともあれば喜ばしくないこともある。たとえば入学試験を受けたり入学式や卒業式に出席することとかあるいは退学させられてしまうとかまた入社試験を受けたり入社式に出席したり退社のお別れ会に参加することとかあるいは突然退社勧告を受けるつまり突然クビになるとか結婚届けを役所に出して結婚生活を始めたり離婚届けを出して新しく別々の人生を始めたりする日の特別な行為行動である。またまれに起きる事故や事件というのも日常生活には含められず非日常である。たとえば自身が突然事故にあって救急車で病院に運ばれるとか親が突然しかも初めて倒れて緊急入院したので病院にかけつけ看病したとか親の葬儀の喪主の役を果たしたなどということは日常生活には含まれず非日常である。また普段の学業や仕事をわざわざ休んで気分転換のために旅に出るなどということも日常生活ではなく <非日常> である。 +なお英語の はソフトウェア工学における一手法であり、日本語のとは対応しない。また似た言葉に情報学がある。ここではいくつかの大学の学科紹介などからに相当する。いずれにしても以上の説明は大学の学科紹介などからの抜粋である。計算機科学や情報科学・情報工学を扱う学会としては、米国では発足が早かったこともあり、ACMは直訳するとを使っている。日本技術士会にとしている。形式言語（けいしきげんご、）は、その文法（構文、統語論）が、場合によっては意味（意味論）も、形式的に与えられている（形式体系を参照）言語である。形式的でないために、しばしば曖昧さが残されたり、話者集団によって用法のうつろいゆくような自然言語に対して、プログラミング言語を含む一部の人工言語や、いわゆる機械可読な（機械可読目録を参照）ドキュメント類などの形式言語は、用法の変化に関しては厳格である。この記事では形式的な統語論すなわち構文の形式的な定義と形式文法について述べる。形式的な意味論については形式意味論の記事を参照。形式言語の理論、特にオートマトン理論と関連したそれにおいては、言語はアルファベットの列（語 word） の集合である。ただし、長さゼロの空単語も含む。チューリングマシンの言語は単なる文字列なので、数学的構造を扱うには符号化し、その数値を解釈するプログラムを埋め込む必要がある。チューリング完全機械は十分強力なのでこの手法であらゆる列挙可能な構造を扱うことができる。チューリングマシンの数値表現については表記という。あるチューリングマシンが存在して、言語に属するすべての語 に対して動作させると受理状態で停止し、属さない語には受理しないようなとき、その言語はチューリング認識可能という。また言語に属さないときは必ず拒否状態で停止する場合その言語はチューリング判別可能であるという。(この2つの違いは一部の入力に対してチューリングマシンが停止しない場合があるかどうかである)また、チューリングマシンTMの言語 "L" とは、テープに "w" をセットしたあと、TMを動作させると受理状態に入って停止するような "w" の集合からなる言語のことである。この言語には以下のような演算が定義される。ここで、formula_5 と formula_6 は共通のアルファベットから構成される言語であるとする。モデル理論においては、言語は定数記号、関数記号、述語記号の集合である。形式言語は形式文法と密接な関係がある。例として次のような文脈自由文法の構文規則があるとき以下のように規則を再帰的に適用してその言語の要素(名詞句)を列挙することができる。すなわち、このような操作の任意回の繰り返しによって、その言語が得られる。また、形式文法が階層をなすというチョムスキー階層は、生成する言語では言語の認識に必要な最小のオートマトンが階層をなすという形で現れる。形式言語は、の学としての広義の数理論理学の研究対象であり、従って形式言語は、哲学・言語学・計算機科学・数学基礎論・数理心理学等々において重要な役割を演ずる。それらの学問分野では如何なる形式言語を研究すべきかの文法論や形式言語の意味論や演繹論が研究される。形式手法という場合には、形式言語に加えて、模擬試験、検証・証明などの仕組みを込みで言う場合が有る。自然言語を比較的単純な形式言語のモデルにあてはめて分析する言語学はチョムスキーによって提唱された。音素や語幹などを素記号として考える。実際の自然言語の構文規則は文字通り自然発生的のものであり形式言語における構文規則のように明確に規定するのは難しい。ただ、素朴な文法論の主張は、形式言語の理論とみなすことができる。素朴な文法論は、例えば次のようなものである。こういう文法論はすなわち素記号とは何かを定めそれらから文を作る構文規則を定めるのだからまさに形式言語の理論である。こういう形式言語論的な文法論は実際の言語と比較することで自然言語の特徴を浮き彫りにし自然言語のより深い理解へと導くことを可能とすることもなくはない。言語そのものではなく言語行動の深層をなす人間精神を探るためにはむしろこういう文法論を数学化し更に意味論文法論を伴った論理学にまで推し進めることが有意義ともいえよう。 +文脈自由言語とは、次のような再帰的な生成規則をもつ文脈自由文法によって、与えられた言語の長さ n に対して O の時間で認識される形式言語。プッシュダウン・オートマトンで受理可能な言語と等価である。ある言語が文脈自由言語でないことを証明するために文脈自由言語の反復補題が使われることがある。基本的な文脈自由言語 formula_1 は偶数個の文字から成る文字列で構成され各文字列の前半は "a" で後半は "b" で構成される。"L" を生成する文法は formula_2 でありプッシュダウンオートマトン formula_3 に受容される。ここで formula_4 は以下のように定義される。formula_5<br>formula_6<br>formula_7<br>formula_8<br>formula_9<br>ここで z は初期スタック記号、x はポップ動作を意味する。例えば数式などの括弧の対応は formula_10 というような規則になる。数式などはだいたい文脈自由言語である。 を正規言語としたとき、以下も全て文脈自由言語である。しかし、積集合や差集合に関しては閉じていない。これらの操作の具体的な内容については形式言語の情報工学的定義を参照されたい。積集合操作で閉じていないことの証明.文脈自由言語は積集合において閉じていない。この証明は参考文献にある Sipser 97 の練習問題となっている。まず2つの文脈自由言語 formula_15 と formula_16 を用意する。これらの積集合 formula_17 に対して文脈自由言語の反復補題を用いることでそれが文脈自由言語でないことを示すことができる。文脈自由言語についての以下の問題は決定不能である。文脈自由言語についての以下の問題は決定可能である。正規言語を満たす形式言語である。文字セット 上の正規言語の集合は以下のように再帰的に定義される。有限の文字列から構成される言語は全て正規言語である。その他の典型的な例としては、文字セット { が続く文字列で構成される言語も正規言語である。正規言語に対して和集合積集合差集合といった演算を施した結果も正規言語である。正規言語の補集合をしたものも正規言語である。をふたつの正規言語に施した結果も正規言語である。正規言語と任意の言語の商集合も正規言語である。個々の操作の具体的意味については形式言語#定義を参照されたい。ある言語が正規言語であるかどうかの判断基準.チョムスキー階層での正規言語の位置によれば正規言語は文脈自由言語の真部分集合である。すなわち正規言語は文脈自由言語に含まれる一方その逆は真ではない。例えば、同じ個数の "a" と "b" を含む文字列から成る言語は文脈自由言語ではあるが、正規言語ではない。このような言語が正規言語ではないことを証明するには、マイヒル-ネローデの定理か反復補題 を使う。正規言語を代数学的に定義するには二つの方法がある。 を有限のアルファベットとし* を 上の自由モノイドとすると−1 は正規言語となる。任意の正規言語はこのようにして構成することができる。もう一つの方法として、"L" が 上の言語であるとき、* 上の同値関係 ~ を次のように定義する。すると を受理する最小の決定性有限オートマトンの状態の個数に一致する。 +自然言語処理（しぜんげんごしょり略称NLP）は人間が日常的に使っている自然言語をコンピュータに処理させる一連の技術であり人工知能と言語学の一分野である。「計算言語学」（）との類似もあるが自然言語処理は工学的な視点からの言語処理をさすのに対して計算言語学は言語学的視点を重視する手法をさす事が多い。データベース内の情報を自然言語に変換したり自然言語の文章をより形式的な（コンピュータが理解しやすい）表現に変換するといった処理が含まれる。応用例としては予測変換IMEなどの文字変換が挙げられる。自然言語の理解をコンピュータにさせることは、自然言語理解とされている。自然言語理解と、自然言語処理の差は、意味を扱うか、扱わないかという説もあったが、最近は数理的な言語解析手法などが一段と精度や速度が上がり、その意味合いは違ってきている。もともと自然言語の意味論的側面を全く無視して達成できることは非常に限られている。このため、自然言語処理には形態素解析と構文解析、文脈解析、意味解析などをなど表層的な観点から解析をする学問であるが、自然言語理解は、意味をどのように理解するかという個々人の理解と推論部分が主な研究の課題になってきており、両者の境界は意思や意図が含まれるかどうかになってきている。自然言語処理の基礎技術にはさまざまなものがある。自然言語処理はその性格上、扱う言語によって大きく処理の異なる部分がある。現在のところ、日本語を処理する基礎技術としては以下のものが主に研究されている。現状発達している言語AI技術は多次元のベクトルから単語や文書の意味の近さをその相互関係から推定しているものでは根本的に別物である。の定義は、自然言語処理の大きな課題のひとつでもある。人間とコンピュータの間のインタラクションのインタフェースには自然言語処理にある種の過剰な期待もあった。SHRDLUなどの初期のシステムが世界を限定することで非常にうまくいったことによりすぐに行き過ぎた楽観主義に陥ったが現実を相手にする曖昧さや複雑さがわかると楽観的な見方や過剰な期待は基本的には無くなったが何が簡単で何が難しいのかといったようなことはなかなか共有されなかった。やがて、21世紀に入ってしばらく後にがいくつか実用化・実運用され多くの人が利用したことで、何が簡単で、どういう事に使うのは難しいのかが理解されるようになりつつある模様である。2019年GPT-2BERTなどディープラーニングを応用した手法で大きなブレークスルーがあった。自然言語処理における課題をいくつかの例を用いて示す。英語では特に語形変化による語彙の区別をする機能が弱いためこのような問題が大きくなる。また英語も含めて形容詞と名詞の修飾関係の曖昧さもある。例えばという文字列があるとする。他にも次のような課題がある。統計的自然言語処理は確率論的あるいは統計学的手法を使って上述の困難さに何らかの解決策を与えようとするものである。長い文になればなるほど従来型の自然言語処理では解釈の可能性の組合せが指数関数的に増大していき処理が困難となる。そのような場合に統計的自然言語処理が効果を発揮する。コーパス言語学やマルコフ連鎖といった手法が使われる。統計的自然言語処理の起源は人工知能の中でもデータからの学習を研究する分野である機械学習やデータマイニングといった分野である。自然言語処理の主な応用.自然言語処理の応用技術として、以下のような技術が研究・実用化されている。また、言語学への応用も考えられている。 +自然言語とは言語学や論理学計算機科学の専門用語でのこと。人間が意思疎通のために日常的に用いる言語であり文化的背景を持っておのずから発展してきた言語。対義語はすなわちプログラミング言語や論理式など。人間がお互いにコミュニケーションを行うための自然発生的な言語である。形式言語との対比ではその構文や意味が明確に揺るぎなく定められ利用者に厳格な規則の遵守を強いる形式言語に対し話者集団の社会的文脈に沿った曖昧な規則が存在していると考えられるものが自然言語である。自然言語には規則が曖昧であるがゆえに話者による規則の解釈の自由度が残されており話者が直面した状況に応じて規則の解釈を変化させることで状況を共有する他の話者とのコミュニケーションを継続する事が可能となっている。人間のコミュニケーションを目的として設計された形式言語といったようなものも存在するがあまり多くない。人工言語という分類は多義的であり形式言語のことを指している場合もあればエスペラントなどといったほうが良い場合もある。また文法単語の用法に曖昧さを含み使用する単語単語の順序を入れ替える等が可能であり感情で文章を制御しやすいため多様な情景表現が可能となっている。しかし文法単語の用法が曖昧であるためのように明確に固定することは難しい。各自然言語自体も他言語との統合が起きる事により変化し続けており自然言語の文法その他あらゆる面が言語学によって研究が続けられている。また統計的手法を利用するや情報処理の対象として自然言語を扱う自然言語処理はコンピュータの能力の向上にあわせまたコンピュータのより便利な利用のためにさかんに研究され実地にも応用されるようになった。プログラミング言語とはコンピュータ言語の内コンピュータプログラムを記述するための形式言語である。日本産業規格の JIS X 3000 シリーズの規格名称では、全て「プログラム言語」になっている（例： JIS X 3001 プログラム言語 Fortran、JIS X 3014 プログラム言語 C++）ため、それに合わせてプログラム言語とされることもあるが、英語では programming language であるため、それに合わせればプログラミング言語となる。個々のプログラミング言語の名称は、Javaなど単にその名前だけで呼ばれることもあるが、「C」のように1文字などの場合、たいていの文脈ではわかりにくいといった理由から、「言語」の部分だけを接尾辞として用いた「C言語」などとすることも多い。自然言語と同様、構文規則実装とは独立した文書で示される言語もあれば、実装のみの言語もある。プログラミング言語は情報を組織し処理するタスクについての理解を容易にしアルゴリズムを正確に表現することができる。特にチューリング完全である事が特徴である。またプログラミングへの応用も想定して設計されたロジバンのように人間の言語とプログラミング言語の中間に位置するものがある。プログラミング言語は人間同士の会話と比較して正確性と完全性の要求性が非常に高いという特徴がある。自然言語で人間同士が対話する場合スペルミスや文法的なエラーがあっても相手は状況から適当に補正し正確な内容を把握する。しかしコンピュータは指示が曖昧では動作せずプログラマがコードに込めた意図を理解させることはできない。言語仕様とプログラムとその入力データの組合せでそのプログラムを実行したときの結果が完全に指定できなければならない。多くの言語は、新たなニーズを満たすべく設計され、他の言語と組み合わされ、最終的に使われなくなる。あらゆる用途に使える万能言語を設計しようという試みはいくつかあったが、そういう意味で成功した言語は存在しない。多様な言語が生まれる背景には言語が使われる状況の多様性がある。プログラミング言語開発における共通の傾向として、より高いレベルの抽象化によって、より高い問題解決能力を得ようとしている。初期のプログラミング言語は、コンピュータのハードウェアのレベルと極めて近かった。新たなプログラミング言語が開発される度に機能が追加され、プログラマはハードウェアの命令からより遠い形でアイデアを表現できるようになっていった。プログラミングをハードウェアから分離することで、プログラマの生産性は向上する。プログラミングにおけるプログラミング言語の必要性を排除する方法として自然言語処理が提案されてきたという面もある。しかしその方向性は実用化には達しておらず議論が続いている。エドガーダイクストラは形式言語の使用によって意味のない命令を防ぐという立場で自然言語によるプログラミングを批判していた。アランパリスも同様の立場であった。このあたりの歴史的に錯綜した議論は結局のところということである。プログラミング言語はもともと人間がコンピュータに命令を伝えその実行方法を指示するために作られたものでありコンピュータが曖昧さなく解析できるように設計されている。多くの場合構文上の間違いは許されず人間はプログラミング言語の文法に厳密にしたがった文を入力しなければならない。これに対して、一般に自然言語の文法規則はプログラミング言語にくらべてはるかに複雑であり、例外も多い。ただしこれは規則が一般にいいかげんであったり、曖昧であるということではない。一般に自然言語の規則は奥が深く、驚くほどの非合理性に裏打ちされていることもあれば、驚くほどの合理性に裏打ちされていることもある。驚くほどの非合理性でも合理性でもないものに裏打ちされていることもあれば、驚くほどの裏打ちの無さがあることもある。また自然言語の意味はその文脈によって定まる部分も多い。これに対してプログラミング言語はコンピュータによって扱いやすいように文脈によって意味が変わることができるだけないように設計されているがその文脈によって定まる部分がある場合も無くはない。たいていの言語にいくつかはある。自然言語は誤用や流行などにより長い時間をかけたくさんの人間の利用により意図せざる形で変化していく。しかしプログラミング言語の規則は言語設計者の意図と作業によってのみ変更される。実際には言語設計者がに後から仕様が定められるといったことも必ずしも珍しくはない。人間がふだん使っている日本語などの自然言語を使ってコンピュータに指示することができるのが理想ではある、と空想する者もいる。しかし、自然言語はあまりにも複雑で曖昧で変則的なので、それを機械語にコンパイルできるようなプログラムを作成することはとても難しい。そのような研究も進められているが、未だに汎用で実用になるプログラムは作成されたことがない。そこで、自然言語よりも制限が強く、単純で厳密で規則的な人工言語を作って代用する。これがプログラミング言語である。プログラミング言語は自然言語よりもいくらか人間には扱いづらいが、機械語よりは遥かに親しみやすく、人間の指示の手間を軽減している。ちなみにコンピュータ向けの形式性と人間向けの柔軟性を兼ね備えるロジバンなど、本来の開発目的が違えど潜在的に一つのプログラミング言語として機能しうるものもある。大部分のプログラミング言語は、基本的には概ね文脈自由文法に沿っているが、プログラミング言語における文法的な制限は必ずしも全て文脈自由文法で表現できるとは限らず、文脈自由文法より制限されていることもあれば文脈自由文法より拡張されていることもあり、多くの場合は文脈自由文法には完全には沿っていない。プログラミング言語の分類法は多数ある。ひとつの分類法としては低水準言語の例としては機械語のを用いてプログラミングを行うアセンブリ言語他の分類法としては、実行方法によってプログラミング言語を分類する方法もあり、インタープリタ方式言語と分類する方法である。インタープリタ方式言語の例としてはPHPやRubyを挙げることができる。コンパイラ方式言語の例としてはC言語、C++、Erlang、Haskell、Rust、Go、FORTRAN、COBOLなどを挙げることができる。なお言語によってはインタープリタ方式で実行でき、かつコンパイル方式で実行することができるものもある。そしてとしばしば指摘され、曖昧な位置づけである。かつては人間側の用途で分類する方法もしばしば用いられたことがある。たとえば、汎用プログラミング言語 / 事務計算用プログラミング言語/ 科学技術計算用プログラミング言語 ...などと分類する方法である。1970年代-1980年代などはに分類されるのはJava、C#、Python、Visual Basic、Rubyなどである。手続き型言語かそうでないかで、手続き型言語と分類する方法もある。手続き型言語の例としてはFORTRAN、ALGOL、C言語、COBOL、BASIC、Pascalなどを挙げることができる。オブジェクト指向プログラミングに適したしくみを備えているか否かでオブジェクト指向言語（"object-oriented language(s)"）/ 非オブジェクト指向言語（"non-object-oriented language(s)"）と分類されることもある。構造化プログラミングに適した仕様になっているか否かで判断して、適したものだけを構造化プログラミング言語（) と分類する方法もある。スレッドを複数個生成管理できるか否かで並行言語 / 非並行言語 と分類する方法もある。なお1950年代計算理論をチョムスキー階層という構想や理論が発表された時代には計算表現能力に基づいてコンピュータの言語を抽象的になどに分類しようとしていたこともあった。ただし近年ではそのような分類法は滅多に持ち出されない。世の中のプログラミング言語のユーザーたちや言語開発者たちの関心はすでに別のレベルに移っているからである。プログラミング言語も分類法があまりに多数あるので、混乱しがちな分類法を整理整頓しようとという分類ができる、などと言う人も出てくる。以上のようにプログラミング言語の分類法は多数あるので各プログラミング言語は複数のカテゴリに分類可能である。たとえばアセンブリ言語はである。それ以外に、コンピュータがプリンターなどを制御するために使うプログラミング言語を分類するためのという分類法もある。ページ記述言語の代表的な例としてはPostScriptを挙げることができる。たとえばプリンターで美麗な印字をする場合画面上のボタンやメニューで「印刷」という命令を選ぶわけだがその時点でPC内のプリンター制御用プログラムがPostScript言語でプログラムを自動生成しそのプログラムをケーブルやWifi経由でプリンターに向けて送り出しそれを受け取ったプリンターの側でそれを実行するということで美麗な印字繊細な曲線に満ちたフォントの印字を実現している。その他にあまり真面目な分類ではないがわざわざ理解が難しくなるように作られたプログラミング言語を特にと分類することもある。毎年のように新たなプログラミング言語が作り出されている。2008年2月時点で、「コンピュータ言語辞典」には8152種のプログラミング言語が記載されていた。ウィキペディアに記事が掲載されているプログラミング言語を知りたい場合はプログラミング言語一覧を参照のこと。などと呼ばれることがある。20世紀初頭にはタビュレーティングマシンによってパンチカードを使ったデータの機械処理が始まっている。そういった実際面ばかりではなく計算理論としても1930年代から1940年代にかけてアルゴリズムを表現する数学的抽象表現を提供するラムダ計算が考案された。ラムダ計算はその後の言語設計にも影響を与えている。1940年代世界初の電子式デジタルコンピュータ群が製作された。1950年代初期のコンピュータであるUNIVAC IやIBM 701では機械語を使っていた。機械語によるプログラミングは間もなくアセンブリ言語によるプログラミングに取って代わられた。1950年代後半になるとアセンブリ言語でマクロ命令が使われるようになりその後 FORTRANLISPCOBOLという3つの高水準言語が開発された。これらは改良を加えられ現在でも使われておりその後の言語開発に重大な影響を与えた。1950年代末ALGOLが登場しその後の言語に様々な影響を与えている。初期のプログラミング言語の仕様と使い方は当時のプログラミング環境の制約にも大きく影響されている。1960年代から1970年代末ごろまでに、現在使われている主な言語パラダイムが開発されたが、その多くはごく初期の第三世代プログラミング言語のアイデアの改良である。これらの言語のアイデアは様々な言語に引き継がれており、現在の言語の多くは、これらのいずれかの系統に属する。1960年代と1970年代は構造化プログラミングに関する論争が盛んに行われた時期でもある。この論争で特に有名なものは1968年にCommunications of the ACMに掲載されたエドガーダイクストラのレターがある。1960年代と1970年代はプログラムのメモリ使用量を削減しプログラマやユーザーの生産性を向上させる技法も進展した時期である。初期の4GLは同じプログラムを第三世代プログラミング言語で書いたときよりもソースコードの量を劇的に削減した。1980年代は相対的な統合の時代であった。C++はオブジェクト指向とシステムプログラミングの統合である。アメリカでは軍需に使うことを目的としてAdaというシステムプログラミング言語が標準化された。日本などでは論理プログラミングを応用した第五世代言語の研究に資源を費やした。関数型言語コミュニティではMLとLISPの標準化の動きがあった。これらはいずれも新たなパラダイムを生み出そうというものではなくそれまでに生み出されたアイデアに改良を加える動きであった。1980年代の重要な言語設計傾向の1つとして大規模システムのためのプログラミングを目的としてモジュールの概念を採り入れた点が挙げられる。1980年代にモジュールシステムを採り入れた言語としてModula-2AdaMLがあるがそれ以前には既にPL/Iがモジュラープログラミングをサポートしていた。モジュールシステムはジェネリックプログラミングの構成要素とされることが多い。1990年代中頃には、インターネットの急激な成長によって新たな言語が生み出される機会が生じた。Perlは1987年にリリースされたUNIX上のスクリプト言語だったが、ウェブサイトの動的コンテンツ作成に使われるようになった。Javaはサーバ側のプログラミングに使われるようになった。プログラミング言語の見た目は、その構文で決定される。図形などを使うグラフィカルなプログラミング言語もあるが、たいていのプログラミング言語のソースコードは文字列である。ファイル形式ではプレーンテキストすなわちテキストファイルが用いられる。また、たいていのプログラミング言語では、まず、」があり、構文は字句の並びである、という扱いのことが多い。字句を切り出して分類する処理を字句解析、その並びを調べる処理を構文解析という。構文規則を示すのにはバッカスナウア記法が使われることが多い。下記はLISPの構文のごく小さなサブセットである。expression = atom | listatom = number | symbolsymbol ::= .*list ::= ''これは次のような規則である。これに従った例として、などがある。構文上正しいプログラムが全て意味的に整合しているとは限らないという設計の言語も多い。また意味的に整合していてもそれを書いた人が自分の意図を正しく反映できていない場合もある。以下のC言語のコード断片は構文上は正しいが、意味的には問題がある。pはヌルポインタなので、p->realとp->imを評価しようとすることはであり、この場合はおそらくセグメンテーション違反をひきおこす。complex *p = NULLcomplex abs_p = sqrt自然言語の言語学に構文論も研究されているがC言語の標準規格など自然言語で意味を与えている言語や形式的でない擬似言語のようなもので与えている言語もある。型システムはプログラミング言語において式の値となるデータ型について型理論にもとづいて分類しどう扱うかを示すものである。また、内部的には、ディジタルコンピュータでは全てのデータはバイナリで保持される。型のある言語とない言語.型のある言語は型システムによってそれぞれの値のデータ型に応じて定義されていない操作が実行されないようチェックされる機構を持つ。例えばcodice_5 は文字列型の値である。ふつう数を文字列で割る操作には意味がない。そのためそのようなプログラムは拒絶する。言語によってはコンパイル時に検出し（型のある言語の特殊例として、単一型言語がある。REXXといったスクリプト言語やSGMLといったマークアップ言語は、単一のデータ型しか扱わない。多くの場合、そのときのデータ型は文字列型である。アセンブリ言語などの型のない言語は任意のデータに任意の操作を実行可能でありデータは単にある長さのビット列として扱われる。ある程度高い機能を持ちつつも型が無い。型システムの言語は少なく、多くの言語はそれなりの型システムを採用している。多くの実用的な言語には、型システムを迂回または打倒するような手段が用意されている。静的型付けと動的型付け.静的型付けを格納するよう定義された変数には代入できない。静的型付けでは型を明記する場合と型推論を行う場合がある。前者ではプログラマは適切な位置に型を明記しなければならない。後者ではコンパイラが式の型を文脈から推論する。C++やJavaなどの主な静的型付き言語では型を明記する。完全な型推論は主流でない言語に使われている。ただし型を明記する言語でも部分的な型推論をサポートしていることが多い。たとえばJavaやC#では限定された状況で型推論を行う。動的型付けでは、型の安全性は実行時に検査される。言い換えれば、型はソース上の式ではなく、実行時の値に対して付与される。型推論言語と同様、動的型付き言語でも式や変数の型を明記する必要はない。また、ある1つの変数がプログラム実行中に異なる型の値を格納することも可能である。しかし、コードを実際に実行してみるまで型の間違いを自動的に検出することができず、デバッグがやや難しい。動的型付き言語としては、Ruby、LISP、JavaScript、Pythonなどがある。データを入力されれば、コンピュータはそのデータに対して何らかの処理を実行する。とは、プログラミング言語の構成要素がどの時点でどのようにして、そのプログラムの振る舞いを生成するのかを定義するものである。例えば式の評価戦略は実行意味論の一部である。また制御構造における条件付実行の作法も実行意味論の一部である。は、プログラムを書いたり使用する上での、補助的なルーチン群である。多くのプログラミング言語には、言語仕様の一部、あるいは言語本体の仕様とは独立していることもあるが、標準ライブラリの仕様もほぼ必ず存在し、その言語の実装には標準ライブラリの実装もほぼ必ず付属する。標準ライブラリには、典型的なアルゴリズム、データ構造、入出力機構などが含まれることが多い。ユーザーから見れば標準ライブラリも言語の一部だが設計者から見れば別の実体である。言語仕様には必ず実装しなければならない部分が定義されており標準化された言語の場合それには標準ライブラリも含まれる。言語とその標準ライブラリの境界は言語によって様々である。実際言語によっては一部の言語機能が標準ライブラリなしでは使えないこともある。マクロもライブラリに含まれることも多い。たとえばC言語の標準には、いくつかの名前が関数ではなくマクロで提供されるかもしれない、といったような規定などがある。またLisp系の言語では、いわゆる特殊形式の多くが言語組込ではなくマクロでも実装可能であり、ifとcondのようにどちらか片方は必要だが、片方があればもう片方はマクロにできる、といったようなものもある。Schemeの標準規格は、どれを言語組込とし、どれをマクロとするか、ほとんどを処理系実装者の自由に任せている。コンピュータ・プログラミング言語の設計は「言語仕様」として示され、実装は「言語処理系」と呼ばれる。以下はそれらについての概観である。前述のようにプログラミング言語は構文と意味から成るから仕様についても構文仕様と意味仕様がある。構文仕様は一般にバッカスナウア記法などによって形式的に示される。意味論の仕様は自然言語などで記述されることが多いが形式的に与えられている言語もある。形式意味論で意味論を記述した例として Standard ML や Scheme がある。他に以下のようなスタイルで仕様が与えられている言語もある。プログラミング言語の実装は、プログラミング言語処理系と呼ばれる。コンパイラは、ソースコードなどの入力を中間表現などの、より解釈実行しやすい表現に変換する処理系である。また、インタプリタは、入力されたプログラムを解釈実行する処理系である（ハードウェアのプロセッサは、機械語を解釈実行するインタプリタである、と見ることができる）。コンパイラとインタプリタの関係は理論的には二村射影により定式化されている。なおなどといったように理解しているとJavaなど近年の多くの言語処理系のスタイルが全くわからないということになる。 +などという変な説明をする者もいるが前述したようにそもそも間違った2分法で考えているからそのような変な考え方になるのである。一般に、機械語に変換したものを直接ハードウェアで実行する方が、インタプリタで実行するよりもずっと高速である。インタプリタでの実行を改善する技法として、実行時コンパイラなどの動的コンパイル手法がある。どのプログラミング言語が最もよく使われているかを判断することは難しい。また、利用という意味も文脈によって異なる。プログラマの工数、コードの行数、などが尺度として考えられる。ある言語は特定分野のアプリケーションだけでよく使われているということもある。例えばCOBOLは企業のデータセンターでは今でも使われているし、FORTRANは科学技術計算でよく使われ、C言語は組み込みシステムやオペレーティングシステムで使われている。以下のように言語利用状況の尺度は様々であり、どれを選択しても一種のバイアスがかかっていると考えた方がよい。人工知能（じんこうちのう）またはアーティフィシャル・インテリジェンス（、AI〔エーアイ〕）とは、「『計算（）』という概念と『コンピュータ（）』という道具を用いて『知能』を研究する計算機科学（）の一分野」を指す語。「言語の理解や推論、問題解決などの知的行動を人間に代わってコンピューターに行わせる技術」、または、「計算機（コンピュータ）による知的な情報処理システムの設計や実現に関する研究分野」ともされる。大学でAI教育研究は、情報工学科や情報理工学科コンピュータ科学専攻などの組織で行われている（工学〔エンジニアリング〕とは、数学・化学・物理学などの基礎科学を工業生産に応用する学問）。『日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)』の解説で、情報工学者・通信工学者の佐藤理史は次のように述べている。人間の知的能力をコンピュータ上で実現する、様々な技術・ソフトウェア・コンピュータシステム。応用例としては、自然言語処理、専門家の推論・判断を模倣するエキスパートシステム、画像データを解析し特定のパターンを検出・抽出する画像認識等がある。1956年にダートマス会議でジョン・マッカーシーにより命名された。現在では、記号処理を用いた知能の記述を主体とする情報処理や研究でのアプローチという意味あいでも使われている。家庭用電気機械器具の制御システムやゲームソフトの思考ルーチンもこう呼ばれることもある。プログラミング言語 による「」というカウンセラーを模倣したプログラム（人工無脳）がしばしば引き合いに出されるが、計算機に人間の専門家の役割をさせようという「エキスパートシステム」と呼ばれる研究・情報処理システムの実現は、人間が暗黙に持つ常識の記述が問題となり、人工的な知能の実現へのアプローチとしては、「ファジィ理論」や「ニューラルネットワーク」などのようなアプローチも知られているが、従来の人工知能である (Good Old Fashioned AI) との差は記述の記号的明示性にある。その後「サポートベクターマシン」が注目を集めた。また、自らの経験を元に学習を行う強化学習という手法もある。「この宇宙において、知性とは最も強力な形質である（レイ・カーツワイル）」という言葉通り、知性を機械的に表現し実装するということは極めて重要な作業である。画像処理におけるディープラーニングの有用性が競技会で世界的に認知された2012年頃から急速に研究が活発となり第三次人工知能ブームが到来。2016年から2017年にかけてディープラーニングを導入したAIが完全情報ゲームである囲碁などのトップ棋士さらに不完全情報ゲームであるポーカーの世界トップクラスのプレイヤーも破り麻雀ではがAIとして初めて十段に到達するなど最先端技術として注目されている。深層学習を利用するには線形代数学、確率論、統計学といった大学レベル以上の数学や、データ科学の知識が必要となる。脳シミュレーションを行うには神経科学社会分析には社会学など応用する分野の知識も必要となる。さらに実装するにはプログラミングの知識も必要となる。プログラミング言語は、C++のほかPythonが広く使われている。第2次人工知能ブームでの人工知能は機械学習と呼ばれ、以下のようなものがある。一方計算知能。学習は経験に基づく手法であり非記号的AI美しくないAIソフトコンピューティングと関係している。その手法としては以下のものがある。これらを統合した知的システムを作る試みもなされている。ACT-Rでは、エキスパートの推論ルールを、統計的学習を元にニューラルネットワークや生成規則を通して生成する。1990年代、日本国内でニューロ・ファジィ家電が流行したが、これら家電は第2次人工知能ブームで研究されたニューラルネットワークやファジィ制御を応用した製品である。第2次人工知能ブームでは既存製品の微妙な改良に留まり人々が思い描くような高度な自動化を可能とする製品に繋がらなかったため人工知能に対する失望が広がっていった。第3次人工知能ブームでは、ディープラーニングが画像認識、テキスト解析、音声認識など様々な領域で第2次人工知能ブームの人工知能を遥かに上回る精度を出しており、ディープラーニングの研究が盛んに行われている。最近では、DQN、CNN、RNN、GANと様々なディープラーニングの派生がでて各分野で活躍している。特に、GAN（敵対的生成ネットワーク）は、ディープラーニングが認識や予測などの分野で成果をだしていることに加えて、画像の生成技術において大きな進化を見せている。森正弥はこれらの成果を背景に、従来の人工知能の応用分野が広がっており、Creative AIというコンテンツ生成を行っていく応用も始まっていると指摘している。かつてのニューロ・ファジィ家電と同じように、AI対応と謳う家電製品が多数発売されており、これらにもディープ・ラーニングが応用されている。AI研究開発の世界的事例.アメリカでは2013年に時の大統領バラク・オバマが脳研究プロジェクトを発表。Googleはアレン脳科学研究所と連携し脳スキャンによって生まれた大量のデータを処理するためのソフトウェアを開発している。2016年の時点で、Googleが管理しているBrainmapのデータ量はすでに1ゼタバイトに達しているという。Googleは、ドイツのマックスプランク研究所とも共同研究を始めており、脳の電子顕微鏡写真から神経回路を再構成するという研究を行っている。中国では2016年の第13次5カ年計画からAIを国家プロジェクトに位置づけ脳研究プロジェクトとしても立ち上げ官民一体でAIの研究開発を推進してる。中国の教育機関では18歳以下の天才児を集めて公然とAI兵器の開発に投じられてもいる。マサチューセッツ工科大学の教授やなどによれば中国ではプライバシー意識の強い欧米と比較してAIの研究や新技術の実験をしやすい環境にあるとされている。日本でスーパーコンピュータの研究開発を推進している齊藤元章もAIの開発において中国がリードする可能性を主張している。世界のディープラーニング用計算機の4分の3は中国が占めてるともされる。米国政府によれば2013年からディープラーニングに関する論文数では中国が米国を超えて世界一となっている。やなどAIの世界的な大会でも中国勢が上位を独占している。大手AI企業GoogleマイクロソフトAppleなどの幹部でもあった台湾系アメリカ人科学者の李開復は中国がAIで覇権を握りつつあるとするを著してアメリカの政界やメディアなどが取り上げた。フランス大統領エマニュエル・マクロンはAI分野の開発支援に向け5年で15億ドルを支出すると宣言し、AI研究所をパリに開き、フェイスブック、グーグル、サムスン、DeepMind、富士通などを招致した。イギリスともAI研究における長期的な連携も決定されている。EU全体としても、計画を通じて、215億ユーロが投じられる方向。韓国は、20億ドルを2022年までに投資をする。6つのAI機関を設立し褒賞制度も作られた。目標は2022年までにAIの世界トップ4に入ることだという。日経新聞調べによると、国別のAI研究論文数は1位米国、2位中国、3位インド、日本は7位だった。文化的芸術的な応用事例.音楽分野においては、既存の曲を学習することで、特定の作曲家の作風を真似て作曲する自動作曲ソフトが登場している。またに使われるタッチ位置を示した譜面を楽曲から自動生成するなど分野に特化したシステムも開発されている。絵画分野においてはコンセプトアート用背景やアニメーションの中割の自動生成モノクロ漫画の自動彩色など人間の作業を補助するAIが実現している。将棋AIは人間同士AI同士の対局から学習して新しい戦法を生み出しているがプロ棋士の感覚では不可解ながら実際に指すと有用であるという。人工知能学会の松尾豊は、著書内に於いて、人間に対して反乱を起こす可能性を否定している。人工知能学会会長の野田五十樹は、と批判した。同氏はこう述べている。社会学者ロバート・M・ゲラチは、AIとロボット工学の一種と見なしている。つまりそれは宗教・エンターテインメント・フィクション等と同じような、分かりやすくて興味を刺激する説明を使い、大勢の興味を引いて研究費を獲得している。ゲラチはと述べている。一方、人工知能を危険視する思想や主張もある。マサチューセッツ工科大学の教授は、莫大な資金力と人権の弾圧を併せ持つ中華人民共和国が人工知能の開発競争で成功すれば、民主的な国家が技術革新に優位という既成概念が変わると述べ、と呼んだ。中華人民共和国では、ヘルメットや帽子に埋め込んだセンサーから、国民の脳波と感情を人工知能で監視する、中国政府支援のプロジェクトが推し進められ、ネット検閲と官僚や刑務所の囚人から横断歩道の歩行者まで監視を人工知能に行わせ、監視カメラと警察のサングラス型スマートグラスやロボットに顔認識システムを搭載するなど人工知能による監視社会・管理社会化が行われている。新疆ウイグル自治区では、監視カメラや携帯電話などから収集した個人情報を、人工知能で解析するや人種プロファイリングで選別した少数民族のウイグル族を法的手続きを経ずに、2017年6月時点で約1万5千人もテロリズムや犯罪を犯す可能性があるとして、新疆ウイグル再教育キャンプに予防拘禁しているとする、中国政府の内部文書であるが報じられており、AIを使った政府による特定の民族の選別や、コンピュータが人間を強制収容所に送る人権蹂躙は「前例がない」として、国際問題になっている。香港では、中国本土と同様の人工知能による監視社会化を恐れ、2019年-2020年香港民主化デモが起きた際は、監視カメラを搭載したスマート街灯が、市民に次々と破壊された。中華人民共和国はAI監視技術を中東アジアアフリカなど世界各国に輸出しており国際連合の専門機関である国際電気通信連合を通じて中国がAI監視技術の国際標準化も主導してることから中国のような人権侵害が世界に拡散することが人権団体から懸念されている。中国の社会信用システムに代表されるような人工知能でビッグデータを活用して人々の適性を決める制度は社会階層間の格差を固定化することに繋がるとする懸念があり欧州連合では2018年5月から人工知能のビッグデータ分析のみによる雇用や融資での差別を認めないEU一般データ保護規則が施行された。マサチューセッツ工科大学が顔認識システムの精度でMicrosoftと中国のMegviiは9割超でIBMは8割に達したのに対してAmazon.comは6割で人種差別的なバイアスがあるとする研究を発表した際はAmazon.comと論争になった。半自動の四脚ロボットとレッテルが貼られた。主要国の軍隊は、ミサイル防衛の分野での自動化を試みている。アメリカ海軍は完全自動の防空システムを所有し、ガザ地区との境界線には標的を自動検知するガーディアムやサムソン RCWSを稼働させて複数の人間を射殺している。今後AIは新しい軍事能力を生み、軍の指揮、訓練、部隊の展開を変え、戦争を一変させその変化は大国間の軍事バランスを決めることになるとの主張もある。P-1 のように戦闘指揮システムに支援用に搭載されることもある。2016年6月米シンシナティ大学の研究チームが開発したは元米軍パイロットとの模擬空戦で一方的に勝利したと発表された。AIプログラムは遺伝的アルゴリズムとファジィ制御を使用しておりアルゴリズムの動作に高い処理能力は必要とせずRaspberry Pi上で動作可能。アメリカ合衆国国防総省は人道上の観点から人間の判断を介さない自律殺傷兵器の開発禁止令を2012年に出し2017年にはこれを恒久的なものにした。一部の科学者やハイテク企業の首脳らは、AIの軍事利用により世界の不安定化は加速すると主張している。2015年にブエノスアイレスで開催された人工知能国際合同会議で、スティーブン・ホーキング、アメリカ宇宙ベンチャー企業のスペースX創業者のイーロン・マスク、Appleの共同創業者のスティーブ・ウォズニアックら、科学者と企業家らにより公開書簡が出されたが、そこには自動操縦による無人爆撃機や銃火器を操る人型ロボットなどAI搭載型兵器は、火薬、核兵器に続く第3の革命ととらえられ、うち一部は数年以内に実用可能となると予測。国家の不安定化、暗殺、抑圧、特定の民族への選別攻撃などに利用され、兵器の開発競争が人類にとって有益なものとはならないと明記された。2015年4月にはハーバード大学ロースクールと国際人権団体であるヒューマンライツウォッチが自動操縦型武器の禁止を求めている。2017年11月には国際連合でAIの軍事利用に関する初の公式専門家会議が行われ2019年8月に同会議はAI兵器の運用をめぐる事実上初の国際ルールを採択するも法的拘束力は盛り込まれなかった。新冷戦や米中冷戦の状態にあるとも評されている、アメリカ合衆国・中華人民共和国・ロシア連邦は、核開発に匹敵する開発競争を人工知能の軍事利用をめぐって行っている。中国は、2017年6月に119機のドローン群の自律飛行実験で、前年2016年に103機の飛行実験に成功したアメリカ軍の記録を更新して、翌2018年5月には北アメリカの都市を爆撃するCG映像も発表し、同年6月には56隻の自律無人艇を使った世界最大規模の試験を行うなど、AIの軍事利用の技術（特にスウォームと呼ばれる大量の徘徊型兵器などの自律兵器の統合運用）で中国が急速に進展しており、アメリカに追い付く可能性があることについて懸念し、アメリカ合衆国では将来に備える必要があるとの主張もされている。中国の軍用AI開発はアメリカ軍や政界に危機感を与え2019年3月にジョセフダンフォード統合参謀本部議長やパトリックシャナハン国防長官代行ドナルドトランプ大統領は中国でのAI研究拠点の設立などで中国人民解放軍に協力しているとGoogleを非難しGoogleのCEOサンダーピチャイはダンフォードやトランプ大統領と面談して中華人民共和国のAI研究拠点の成果は中国に限らず全ての人々に開放されていると釈明する事態になった。アメリカ合衆国ではGoogleがアメリカ軍のAIの軍事利用に協力する極秘計画とともに人工知能を用いた兵器開発や人権侵害は拒否するとGoogleが誓った2018年6月の人工知能開発6原則との整合性で追及を受けた。中国人民解放軍の戦闘機J-20の標的選択支援アルゴリズムにGoogleのAI研究者が関わったと報道された際はと否定した。またMicrosoftが中国軍の教育機関とAIの共同研究を発表した際も同様に波紋を呼んだ。2019年11月にマーク・エスパー国防長官は、中華人民共和国がAIによって新しい監視国家を構築しているだけでなく、中東で翼竜や彩虹など無人攻撃機を大量に拡散させて、AIで自律的に攻撃するドローン兵器も販売していることに警鐘を鳴らした。ロシアと中国は既に実用化してるとされるハッキングの自動化の他特定の個人を攻撃したりディープフェイクでなりすましたりボット投稿により世論を操る等の懸念が挙げられている。オックスフォード大学のマイケルオズボーン博士が2013年に発表した論文によれば人工知能やロボット等による代替可能性が高い労働人口が日本で約49%いること2030年代までにファストフード店で料理をする従業員がロボットやAIに取って代わられる可能性が81%と高いことを指摘されている。しかし、この論文に対して、実験室レベルで自動化が出来る仕事も含まれているため、過大に推計されているとの批判もある。実際に2016年10月、マイケル・オズボーンが来日した際、経済産業研究所の岩本晃一がとの回答が返ってきている。これは人間を超える将棋AIが出現しているので将棋棋士が、人工知能に代替され可能性があると示したに過ぎず、人間同士の対局を観戦したいなどの欲求にも答えていない。現代のプロ棋士はAIを対局相手や局面の検討に利用しているほか、elmo囲いのようなAIが最初に使用した戦法を利用するなど共存関係にある。そして職業を構成するタスク（業務）単位でみた場合に70%超えのタスクが自動化される職業は9％程度（日本の場合は7%程度）にとどまるとの研究結果もある。またAIや機械化によって雇用が奪われるという主張もあるがそれらの技術によってタスク量が減少するがAIや機械化を導入したり維持したりする仕事やそれらの技術により新たな仕事が生まれることにより雇用が生み出される可能性もある。しかし同時に中程度の技能を有するルーティン業務が減少し専門技能が求められない低スキルの仕事と高度な技能が求められる仕事へと2極化していき経済格差が拡大していくとの予測もある。AIの構築が長い間試みられてきているが、シンボルグラウンディング問題とフレーム問題の解決が大きな壁となってきた。17世紀初めルネデカルトは動物の身体がただの複雑な機械であると提唱した。ブレーズパスカルは1642年最初の機械式計算機を製作した。チャールズバベッジとエイダラブレスはプログラム可能な機械式計算機の開発を行った。バートランド・ラッセルとアルフレッド・ノース・ホワイトヘッドはを出版し、形式論理に革命をもたらした。ウォーレン・マカロックとウォルター・ピッツはと題する論文を1943年に発表し、ニューラルネットワークの基礎を築いた。1950年代になるとAIに関して活発な成果が出始めた。ジョン・マッカーシーはAIに関する最初の会議でを導入した。ジョセフ・ワイゼンバウムはを構築した。これは来談者中心療法を行うおしゃべりロボットである。1956年に行われた、ダートマス会議開催の提案書において、人類史上、用語として初めて使用され、新たな分野として創立された。1960年代と1970年代の間にジョエルモーゼスは プログラム中で積分問題での記号的推論のパワーを示した。マービンミンスキーとシーモアパパートはを出版して単純なニューラルネットの限界を示しアランカルメラウアーはプログラミング言語 を開発した。テッドショートリッフェは医学的診断と療法におけるルールベースシステムを構築し知識表現と推論のパワーを示した。これは最初のエキスパートシステムと呼ばれることもある。ハンスモラベックは障害物があるコースを自律的に走行する最初のコンピューター制御の乗り物を開発した。1980年代にニューラルネットワークはバックプロパゲーションアルゴリズムによって広く使われるようになった。またこの時代にロドニーブルックスが知能には身体が必須との学説（身体性）を提唱した。1990年代はAIの多くの分野で様々なアプリケーションが成果を上げた。特に、ボードゲームでは目覚ましく、1992年にIBMは世界チャンピオンに匹敵するバックギャモン専用コンピュータ・TDギャモンを開発し、IBMのチェス専用コンピュータ・ディープ・ブルーは、1997年5月にガルリ・カスパロフを打ち負かし、同年8月にはオセロで日本電気のオセロ専用コンピュータ・ロジステロに世界チャンピオンの村上健が敗れた。国防高等研究計画局は、最初の湾岸戦争においてユニットをスケジューリングするのにAIを使い、これによって省かれたコストが1950年代以来のAI研究への政府の投資全額を上回ったことを明らかにした。日本では甘利俊一（日本学士院会員）らが精力的に啓蒙し、優秀な成果も発生したが、論理のブラックボックス性が指摘された。1998年には非構造化データ形式の国際規格であるXMLが提唱されたが、ここからWeb上の非構造化データに対して、アプリケーション別に適した意味付けを適用し、処理を行わせる試みが開始された。同年に、W3Cのティム・バーナーズ＝リーにより、Webに知的処理を行わせるセマンティック・ウェブが提唱された。この技術はWeb上のデータに意味を付加して、コンピュータに知的処理を行わせる方法を国際的に規格化するものである。この規格には知識工学におけるオントロジーを表現するデータ形式のOWLも含まれていることから、かつて流行したエキスパートシステムの亜種であることが分かる。2000年代前半に規格化が完了しているが、Web開発者にとっては開発工数に見合うだけのメリットが見出せなかったことから、現在も普及はしていない。日本における第二次AIブーム.日本においてはエキスパートシステムの流行の後にニューロファジィが流行した。しかし研究が進むにつれて計算リソースやデータ量の不足シンボルグラウンディング問題フレーム問題に直面し産業の在り方を激変させるようなAIに至ることは無くブームは終焉した。エキスパートシステム（知識工学の応用）.1980年代に入って大企業の研究所を中心に知識工学に基づくエキスパートシステムが多数提案されるようになりエキスパートシステムを専門とするAIベンチャーも次々と立ち上がった。その流行から生まれた究極のプロジェクトとして第五世代コンピュータが挙げられる。第五世代コンピュータ.1982年から1992年まで日本は国家プロジェクトとして570億円を費やして第五世代コンピュータの研究を進めるも採用した知識工学的手法では膨大なルールの手入力が必要で専門家間で専門知識の解釈が異なる場合には統一したルール化が行えない等の問題もあり実用的なエキスパートシステムの実現には至らなかった。実現した成果物はPrologの命令を直接CPUのハードウェアの機構で解釈して高速に実行する並列型のProlog専用機であるが商業的な意味で応用先が全く見つからなかった。1980年代後半から1990年代中頃にかけて、従来から電子制御の手法として用いられてきたON/OFF制御，PID制御，現代制御の問題を克服するため、知的制御が盛んに研究され、知識工学的なルールを用いるファジィ制御，データの特徴を学習して分類するニューラルネットワーク，その2つを融合したニューロファジィという手法が日本を中心にブームを迎えた。1987年には仙台市において開業した地下鉄のATOに採用され、バブル期の高級路線に合わせて、白物家電製品でもセンサの個数と種類を大幅に増やし、多様なデータを元に運転を最適化するモデルが多数発売され始めた。ファジィについては2018年までに日本が世界の1/5の特許を取得している事から日本で特に大きなブームとなっていたことが分かっている。現在の白物家電ではこの当時より更に発展した制御技術が用いられているが既に当たり前のものになり利用者には意識されなくなっている。ニューロファジィがブームになった1990年代には未だビッグデータという概念は無くデータマイニングとしての産業応用は行われなかった。しかしニューラルネットワークが一般人も巻き込んで流行した事例としては初めての事例であり2010年代のディープラーニングブームの前史とも言える社会現象と言える。松下電器が1985年頃から人間が持つような曖昧さを制御に活かすファジィ制御についての研究を開始し1990年2月1日にファジィ洗濯機第1号であるなどの名称が付与されていた。ニューロ，ファジィ，ニューロファジィという手法は、従来の単純なオン・オフ制御や、対象を数式で客観的にモデル化する（この作業は対象が複雑な機構を持つ場合は極めて難しくなる）必要があるPID制御や現代制御等と比較して、人間の主観的な経験則や計測したデータの特徴が利用可能となるファジィ、ニューロ、ニューロファジィは開発工数を抑えながら、環境適応時の柔軟性を高くできるという利点があった。しかし、開発者らの努力にも関わらず、計算能力や収集可能なデータ量の少なさから、既存の工作機械や家電製品の制御を多少改善する程度で限界を迎えた。理論的にもファジィ集合と深層学習が不可能なニューラルネットワークの組み合わせであり、計算リソースやデータが潤沢に与えられたとしても、認識精度の向上には限界があった。以降、計算機の能力限界から理論の改善は遅々として進まず、目立った進展は無くなり、1990年代末には知的制御を搭載する白物家電が大多数になったことで、売り文句としてのブームは去った。ブーム後は一般には意識されなくなったが、現在では裏方の技術として、家電製品のみならず、雨水の排水，駐車場，ビルの管理システムなどの社会インフラにも使われ、十分に性能と安定性が実証されている。2003年頃には、人間が設計したオントロジー（ファジィルールとして表現する）を利活用するネットワーク・インテリジェンスという分野に発展した。2005年レイカーツワイルは著作でとする説を発表した。2006年に、ジェフリー・ヒントンらの研究チームによりオートエンコーダによるニューラルネットワークの深層化手法が提案された。2010年代に入り膨大なデータを扱う研究開発のための環境が整備されたことでAI関連の研究が再び大きく前進し始めた。2010年に英国エコノミスト誌での練習戦で人間に勝利し大きなニュースとなった。2012年に画像処理コンテストでジェフリーヒントン氏のチームが従来手法からの大幅な精度改善を果たした上で優勝したことで第三次AIブームが始まった。2013年には国立情報学研究所や富士通研究所の研究チームが開発しただった。2014年には、日本の人工知能学者である齊藤元章により、特異点に先立ち、オートメーション化とコンピューター技術の進歩により衣食住の生産コストがゼロに限りなく近づくというプレ・シンギュラリティという概念も提唱された。ジェフホーキンスが実現に向けて研究を続けているが著書の中で自己連想記憶理論という独自の理論を展開している。世界各国において、軍事・民間共に実用化に向け研究開発が進んでいるが、とくに無人戦闘機や無人自動車ロボットカーの開発が進行しているものの、2010年代にはまだ完全な自動化は試験的なものに留まった。ロボット向けとしてはCSAILのロドニーブルックスが提唱した包摂アーキテクチャという理論が登場している。これは従来型のを持たないにも関わらずまるで生きているかのように行動する。2015年10月にDeepMind社が作成したが人間のプロ囲碁棋士に勝利して以降はディープラーニングと呼ばれる手法が注目され、人工知能自体の研究の他にも、人工知能が雇用などに与える影響についても研究が進められている。2016年10月、DeepMindが、入力された情報の関連性を導き出し仮説に近いものを導き出す人工知能技術を可能にする深層学習システムを、翌2017年6月、関係推論のような人間並みの認識能力を持つシステムを開発。2017年8月には、記号接地問題を解決した。従来AIには不向きとされてきた不完全情報ゲームであるポーカーでもAIが人間に勝利するようになった。Googleの関係者はさらに野心的な取り組みとして、単一のソフトウェアで100万種類以上のタスクを実行可能なAIを開発していると明らかにした。人工知能の第三次ブームAGIと技術的特異点.2006年のディープラーニングの発明と、2010年以降のビッグデータ収集環境の整備、計算資源となるGPUの高性能化により、2012年にディープラーニングが画像処理コンテストで他の手法に圧倒的大差を付けて優勝したことで、技術的特異点という概念は急速に世界中の識者の注目を集め、現実味を持って受け止められるようになった。ディープラーニングの発明と急速な普及を受けて、研究開発の現場においては、デミス・ハサビス率いるDeepMindを筆頭に、Vicarious、IBM Cortical Learning Center、全脳アーキテクチャ、PEZY Computing、OpenCog、GoodAI、nnaisense、IBM SyNAPSE等、汎用人工知能を開発するプロジェクトが数多く立ち上げられている。これらの研究開発の現場では、脳をリバースエンジニアリングして構築された神経科学と機械学習を組み合わせるアプローチが有望とされている。結果として、Hierarchical Temporal Memory 理論、Complementary Learning Systems 理論の更新版等、単一のタスクのみを扱うディープラーニングから更に一歩進んだ、複数のタスクを同時に扱う理論が提唱され始めている。3Dゲームのような仮想空間でモデルを動かし現実世界のことを高速に学ばせるといったことも大きな成果を上げている。また、数は少ないがAGIだけでは知能の再現は不可能と考えて、身体知を再現するために、全人体シミュレーションが必要だとする研究者やより生物に近い振る舞いを見せるALに挑戦する研究者もいる。リーズナブルなコストで大量の計算リソースが手に入るようになったことでビッグデータが出現し企業が膨大なデータの活用に極めて強い関心を寄せており全世界的に民間企業主導で莫大な投資を行って人工知能に関する研究開発競争が展開されている。また2011年のD-Wave Systemsによる量子アニーリング方式の製品化を嚆矢として量子コンピュータという超々並列処理が可能な次世代のITインフラが急速に実用化され始めた事で人工知能の高速化にも深く関わる組み合わせ最適化問題をリアルタイムに解決できる環境が整備され始めている。この動向を受ける形で2016年頃から一般向けのニュース番組でも人工知能の研究開発や新しいサービス展開や量子コンピュータに関する報道が目立つようになった。2017年にはイーロン・マスクが、急速に進化し続ける人工知能に対して人間が遅れを取らないようにするために、ブレイン・マシン・インターフェースを研究開発するを立ち上げていたことを公表した。2017年10月にはジェフリーヒントンにより要素間の相対的な位置関係まで含めて学習できるカプセルネットワークが提唱された。2018年3月16日の国際大学GLOCOMの提言によると、課題解決型のAIを活用する事で社会変革に寄与できると分析されている。2018年8月OpenAIが好奇心を実装しノーゲームスコアノーゴール無報酬で目的なき探索を行うAIを公表。これまでのAIで最も人間らしいという。2018年9月MITリンカーン研究所は従来ブラックボックスであったニューラルネットワークの推論をどのような段階を経て識別したのかが明確に分かるアーキテクチャを開発した。2019年、BERTなどの言語モデルにより、深層学習では困難とされてきた言語処理において大きな進展があり、Wikipediaなどを使用した読解テストで人間を上回るに至った。2020年にはOpenAIにより1750億パラメータを持つ自然言語処理プログラムが開発されアメリカの掲示板サイトRedditで1週間誰にも気付かれず人間と投稿対話を続けた。プログラムと気付かれた理由は文章の不自然さではなくその投稿数が異常というものだった。DeepMindが開発したタンパク質の構造予測を行うAlphaFold2がCASPのグローバル距離テスト で90点以上を獲得し、計算生物学における重要な成果であり、数十年前からの生物学の壮大な挑戦に向けた大きな進歩と称された。OpenAIはTransformer の性能がパラメータ数N・データセットサイズD・計算予算Cの単純なべき乗になっているとの論文を発表した。最先端のAI研究では2年で1000倍サイズのモデルが出現し1000倍の演算能力を持つコンピュータが必要になって来ている。2021年4月、NVIDIAの幹部、パレシュ・カーリャはと予想した。2021年5月、マイクロソフトが32兆パラメーターのAIを試験。2021年6月中国政府の支援を受けている北京智源人工知能研究院がパラメーター数1兆7500億のAIを発表。2021年6月グーグルの研究者達が機械学習を用いてAI用チップを作成したところ消費電力性能など全ての主要な指数で人間が設計したもの以上のチップのフロアプランを生成した。そして設計にかかる時間は人間の1/1000であった。2021年8月グーグルの量子人工知能研究部門を率いるハルトムートネベンは量子コンピュータの発達の影響がもっとも大きい分野として機械学習分野などAIを挙げた。2021年現在、汎用人工知能は実現していないが、質問応答、意思決定支援、需要予測、音声認識、機械翻訳、科学技術計算、文章要約など、各分野に特化したシステムやこれらを組み合わせたフレームワークが実用化されている。Googleは2019年3月人工知能プロジェクトを倫理面で指導するために哲学者政策立案者経済学者テクノロジスト等で構成されるAI倫理委員会を設置すると発表した。しかし倫理委員会には反科学反マイノリティ地球温暖化懐疑論等を支持する人物も含まれておりGoogle社員らは解任を要請した。4月4日Googleは倫理委員会がという理由で委員会の解散を発表した。東洋哲学をAIに吸収させるという三宅陽一郎のテーマに応じて井口尊仁はを論じた三宅のにも通じている。元Googleエンジニアのアンソニー゠レバンドウスキーは2017年AIを神とする宗教団体と発言するなど野心的な振る舞いを示している。相愛大学人文学部教授の釈徹宗はという。発明家レイカーツワイルが言うには哲学者ジョンサールが提起した強いAIと弱いAIの論争はAIの哲学議論でホットな話題である。哲学者ジョンサールおよびダニエルデネットによるとサールのといった機能主義に批判的な思考実験は真の意識が形式論理システムによって実現できないと主張している。において科学者の須藤靖は科学についての哲学的考察から始まったとアリストテレスが伝えており上記のような否定的発言も的外れではないと科学哲学者の野家啓一は言う。哲学者は科学とは違う日常的言語での概念さえ理解していない。非科学的な日常的言語をいくら使っても正確な意思疎通を行うことはできないというのがディラックの考えだとされている。生命情報科学者神経科学者の合原一幸編著という言明自体がうまく定義できていない」と記している。確かに脳をと考えられている。数学者論理学者の田中一之はについての定理ではない。によると学問の扱う問題が整理され分化したことで科学と哲学もそれぞれ異なる問題を研究するようになった。これはと返している。須藤は次のようにも述べた。須藤は哲学的に論じられていると述べている。対談で須藤はと答えている。 +オーストリア共和国、通称オーストリアは、ヨーロッパに位置する連邦共和制国家。首都はウィーン。ドイツの南方中部ヨーロッパの内陸に位置し西側はリヒテンシュタインスイスと南はイタリアとスロベニア東はハンガリーとスロバキア北はドイツとチェコと隣接する。基本的には中欧とされるが歴史的には西欧や東欧に分類されたことがある。中欧に650年間ハプスブルク家の帝国として君臨し第一次世界大戦まではイギリスドイツフランスロシアと並ぶ欧州五大国となった。この時点で多民族国家だった旧帝国のうちかつての支配民族のドイツ人が多数を占める地域におおむね版図が絞られた。1938年には同じ民族の国家であるナチスドイツに併合されたがドイツ敗戦後の1945年から1955年には連合国軍による分割占領の時代を経て1955年の独立回復と永世中立国化により現在に続く体制となった。音楽を中心に文化大国としての歴史も有する。EU加盟以降は同言語同民族の国家同士でありながら複雑な国際関係が続いてきたドイツとの距離が再び縮まりつつあり国内でも右派政党の伸張などドイツ民族主義の位置づけが問われている。通称 。 は正確には日本語ののように聴こえることもある。公式の英語表記は 。通称形容詞はライヒであり専門書や各種サイトなどで使用されている。国名のはドイツ語でという意味である。フランク王国のころにオストマルク。ドイツ語を含む各言語の呼称はそれが転訛したものである。狭義のオーストリアはかつてのオーストリア大公領であり現在のオーストリアの領土のうちザルツブルク大司教領やケルンテン地方シュタイアーマルク地方チロル地方は含まれない。オーストリア大公を名乗り同大公領を世襲してきたハプスブルク家ハプスブルク＝ロートリンゲン家をが建設されるがこれは一地方の名前を国名に使用したことになる。現在のオーストリアの行政区画ではかつてのオーストリア大公領は上オーストリア州下オーストリア州に分割継承されている。ドイツ語のエスターライヒのreich界という意味が含まれている。なお隣国のチェコ語ではRakousko / Rakskoと呼ぶが、これは国境の一角の地名に由来している。オーストリア家との関係.オーストリアを統治してきたハプスブルク家およびハプスブルク＝ロートリンゲン家は「オーストリア家を使用している。オーストラリアとの混同.オーストリア はしばしばオーストラリア と間違われるがオーストラリアはラテン語でに由来しオーストリアとは語源的にも無関係である。しかし綴りや発音が似ているため多くの国でオーストリアとオーストラリアが混同されることがある。日本ではオーストリア大使館とオーストラリア大使館を間違える人もおり東京都港区元麻布のオーストリア大使館には同じく港区三田のへの地図が掲げられている。2005年日本国際博覧会のオーストリア・パビリオンで配布された冊子では、日本人にオーストラリアとしばしば混同されることを取り上げ、オーストリアをと覚えるように呼びかけている。両国名の混同は日本だけではなく英語圏の国にも広く見られ、聞き取りにくい場合は"European"」と書き加えたデザインのTシャツなどが売られている。なおフランス語圏においてはオーストラリアをAustralieと表すためこのような問題はない。2006年10月に駐日オーストリア大使館商務部はオーストラリアとの混同を防ぐため国名の日本語表記を「オーストリア」から「オーストリー」に変更すると発表した。オーストリーという表記は19世紀から1945年まで使われていた「オウストリ」という表記に基づいているとされた。発表は大使館の一部局である商務部によるものだったが、署名はペーター・モーザー大使で、大使館および商務部で現在変更中だとされ、全面的な変更を思わせるものだった。しかし2006年11月大使は国名表記を決定する裁量は日本国にあり日本国外務省への国名変更要請はしていないため公式な日本語表記はオーストリアのままであると発表した。ただしオーストリーという表記が広まることによりオーストラリアと混同されることが少なくなることを願っているとされた。その後大使館商務部以外では大使館日本の官公庁マスメディアなどに「オーストリー」を使う動きは見られない。たとえば2007年5月4日の「朝日新聞」の記事では同国を「オーストリア」と表記している。大使館商務部の公式サイトはしばらくは一貫してについてはわが国の日本語名はオーストリア共和国であると断ったうえでなどと述べるにとどまっている。日本では雑誌がオーストリーの表記を一部で用いている。ローマ帝国以前の時代現在オーストリアのある中央ヨーロッパの地域にはさまざまなケルト人が住んでいた。やがてケルト人のノリクム王国はローマ帝国に併合され属州となった。ローマ帝国の衰退後この地域はバヴァリア人スラブ人アヴァールの侵略を受けた。スラブ系カランタニア族はアルプス山脈へ移住しオーストリアの東部と中部を占めるカランタニア公国と記されバーベンベルク辺境伯領を表した。1156年、"Privilegium Minus"で知られる調停案により、オーストリアは公領に昇格した。1192年、バーベンベルク家はシュタイアーマルク公領を獲得する。1230年にフリードリヒ2世（在位：1230年 - 1246年）が即位。フリードリヒは近隣諸国にしばしば外征を行い、財政の悪化を重税でまかなった。神聖ローマ帝国フリードリヒ2世とも対立。1241年にモンゴル帝国がハンガリー王国に侵入（モヒの戦い）すると、その領土を奪い取った。1246年にライタ川の戦いでフリードリヒ2世が敗死したことによりバーベンベルク家は断絶。その結果、ボヘミア王オタカル2世がオーストリア、シュタイアーマルク、ケルンテン各公領の支配権を獲得した。彼の支配は1278年のマルヒフェルトの戦いで神聖ローマ皇帝ルドルフ1世に敗れて終わった。ハプスブルク家支配の成立.ザルツブルクは（1278年 - 1803年）となり、ザルツブルク大司教が領主となった。1290年、アルブレヒト1世がエンス渓谷の所有権と諸権利をめぐってザルツブルク大司教と争い、ルドルフ1世の調停によって自身に有利な条約が結ばれた。翌年7月にルドルフが死んで、アルブレヒト包囲網が編成された。教皇ニコラウス4世の了解を得て、ハンガリー王、ボヘミア王、ニーダーバイエルン公、サヴォイア公、ザルツブルク、アクイレイア、コンスタンツの聖界諸侯、旧ロンバルディア同盟の諸都市、およびスイス誓約同盟も加わった諸国が大同盟を結成した。選帝侯を味方につけられないアルブレヒトは大同盟から大打撃を受け、フランスを範にとり財政改革を行うことになった。裕福なウィーン市民をフープマイスターなる管財人へ任命し、人手に渡っていた所領をたちまちに回収した。しかしアルブレヒトが1308年に暗殺されてオーストリアは弱くなった。レオポルト1世はモルガルテンの戦いに敗れてフランスに接近した。フリードリヒ3世の死後一世紀あまりの間、ハプスブルク家はローマ王位から遠ざかった。しかし、この間にも政争は絶えなかった。1335年、ゲルツ伯家のハインリヒ6世が没し、唯一の女子マルガレーテ・マウルタッシュが伯位を継承したが（チロル女伯）、領土の相続をめぐってルクセンブルク家、ヴィッテルスバッハ家、ハプスブルク家が介入した。銀山のあるチロルは位置もイタリア政策の拠点となりうる垂涎の的であった。1358年にハプスブルクはオーストリア大公を称した。1363年ハプスブルク家のオーストリア公ルドルフ4世はマルガレーテを退位させて強引にチロル伯領を継承以後チロル地方はハプスブルク家の統治下に置かれた。14世紀から15世紀にかけてこのようにハプスブルクはオーストリア公領周辺領域を獲得していく。領土の一円化はコンスタンツ公会議でイタリア政策が頓挫してから急務であった。1438年にアルブレヒト2世が義父ジギスムントの後継に選ばれた。アルブレヒト2世自身の治世は1年に過ぎなかったがこれ以降一例を除いて神聖ローマ皇帝はハプスブルク家が独占することになる。ハプスブルク家は世襲領をはるかに離れた地域にも領地を獲得し始める。1477年フリードリヒ3世の唯一の子であるマクシミリアン大公は跡取りのいないブルゴーニュ公国のマリーと結婚してネーデルラントの大半を獲得した。彼の子のフィリップ美公はカスティーリャとアラゴンの王女フアナと結婚した。フアナがのちに王位継承者となったためスペインを得てさらにその領土のイタリアアフリカ新世界をハプスブルク家のものとした。1526年モハーチの戦いでハンガリー王ラヨシュ2世が戦死したあとボヘミア地域とオスマン帝国が占領していないハンガリーの残りの地域がオーストリアの支配下となった。1529年第一次ウィーン包囲。オスマン帝国のハンガリーへの拡大により両帝国はしばしば戦火を交えるようになった。1556年カール5世が退位してスペイン＝ハプスブルク家が枝分かれした。1648年にヴェストファーレン条約が結ばれ神聖ローマ帝国は形骸化しフランスが勢力を伸張した。マリアテレジアと二元主義.レオポルト1世 同意を諸国から得る見返りに、領土と権威を明け渡してしまった。カール6世の死後諸国はマリアテレジアの相続に異議を唱えオーストリア継承戦争に加わった。神聖ローマ帝国の解体と二重帝国.フランス革命が起こるとオーストリアはフランスと戦争になったが幾多の会戦でナポレオンに敗退し形骸化していた神聖ローマ帝国は1806年に消滅した。この2年前の1804年オーストリア帝国が宣言されている。1814年オーストリアは他の諸国とともにフランスへ侵攻してナポレオン戦争を終わらせた。1815年にウィーン会議が開催されオーストリアはヨーロッパ大陸における4つの列強国のひとつと認められた。同年オーストリアを盟主とするドイツ連邦が作られる。未解決の社会的、政治的、そして国家的紛争のためにドイツは統一国家を目指した1848年革命に揺れ動かされた。結局のところ、ドイツ統一は大ドイツか、大オーストリアか、オーストリアを除いたドイツ連邦のいずれかに絞られる。オーストリアにはドイツ語圏の領土を手放す意思はなく、そのため1849年にフランクフルト国民議会がプロイセン王フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム4世へドイツ皇帝の称号を贈ったものの拒否されてしまった。1864年、オーストリアとプロイセンは連合してデンマークと戦い、シュレースヴィヒ公国とホルシュタイン公国をデンマークから分離させた。しかしオーストリアとドイツは両公国の管理問題で対立し、1866年に普墺戦争を開戦する。ケーニヒグレーツの戦いで敗れたオーストリアはドイツ連邦から脱退し、以後、ドイツ本土の政治に関与することはなくなった。1867年のオーストリアとハンガリーの妥協（アウスグライヒ）によりフランツヨーゼフ1世を君主に戴くオーストリア帝国とハンガリー王国の二重帝国が成立した。オーストリア＝ハンガリーはスラヴ人ポーランド人ウクライナ人チェコ人スロバキア人セルビア人クロアチア人さらにはイタリア人ルーマニア人の大きなコミュニティまでもを支配する多民族帝国であった。この結果、民族主義運動の出現した時代においてオーストリア＝ハンガリーの統治は次第に困難になりつつあった。それにもかかわらず、オーストリア政府はいくつかの部分で融通を利かすべく最善を尽くそうとした。たとえばチスライタニアにおける法律と布告 は8言語で発行され、すべての民族は各自の言語の学校で学ぶことができ、役所でも各々の母語を使用していた。ハンガリー政府は反対にほかの民族のマジャール化を進めている。このため二重帝国の両方の部分に居住している諸民族の願望はほとんど解決させることができなかった。第一次世界大戦と共和制への移行.1914年にフランツフェルディナント大公がセルビア民族主義者に暗殺される事件が起こる。オーストリア＝ハンガリー帝国はセルビアに宣戦布告し紛争は第一次世界大戦に発展した。4年以上の戦争を戦ったドイツオーストリア＝ハンガリートルコブルガリアの中央同盟諸国の戦況は1918年後半には決定的に不利になり異民族の離反が起きて政情も不安となったオーストリア＝ハンガリーは11月3日に連合国と休戦条約を結び事実上の降伏をした。第一次世界大戦の降伏直後にオーストリア革命が起こり、皇帝カール1世はを宣言して共和制に移行し、600年以上にわたったハプスブルク家の統治は終焉を迎えた。1919年に連合国とのサンジェルマン条約が結ばれ、ハンガリー、チェコスロバキアが独立し、そのほかの領土の多くも周辺国へ割譲させられてオーストリアの領土は帝国時代の4分の1程度になってしまった。300万人のドイツ系住民がチェコスロバキアのズデーテン地方やユーゴスラビア、イタリアなどに分かれて住むことになった。また、ドイツとの合邦も禁じられ、国名もドイツ＝オーストリア共和国からオーストリア共和国へ改めさせられた。戦後オーストリアは激しいインフレーションに苦しめられた。1922年に経済立て直しのために国際連盟の管理の下での借款が行われ1925年から1929年には経済はやや上向いてきたがそこへ世界恐慌が起き1931年にクレディタンシュタルトが倒産した。ファシズムからアンシュルスへ.1933年、キリスト教社会党のエンゲルベルト・ドルフースによるイタリア・ファシズムに似た独裁体制が確立した（オーストロファシズム）。この時期のオーストリアにはキリスト教社会党とオーストリア社会民主党の二大政党があり各々民兵組織を有していた。対立が高まり内戦（2月内乱）となる。内戦に勝利したドルフースは社会民主党を非合法化し、翌1934年5月には憲法を改正して権力を固めたが、7月にのクーデターが起こり暗殺された。後継者のクルト・シュシュニックはナチスドイツから独立を守ろうとするが、1938年3月12日、ドイツ軍が侵入して全土を占領し、オーストリア・ナチスが政権を掌握した。3月13日にアンシュルスが宣言され、オーストリア出身のアドルフ・ヒトラーが母国をドイツと統一させた。オーストリアは第三帝国に編入されて独立は失われた。ナチスはオストマルク法を制定してオーストリアをオストマルクとし1942年にアルペン＝ドナウ帝国大管区群と改称している。第三帝国崩壊直前の1945年4月13日ソ連軍によるウィーン攻勢によってウィーンは陥落した。カールレンナーがソ連軍の承認を受けて速やかにウィーンに臨時政府を樹立し4月27日に独立宣言を行い第三帝国からの分離を宣言した。1939年から1945年の死者は26万人 ホロコーストによるユダヤ人の犠牲者は6万5000人に上っている。ドイツと同様にオーストリアもイギリス、フランス、ソ連、アメリカによって分割占領され、オーストリア連合国委員会によって管理された。1943年のモスクワ宣言のときから予測されていたが、連合国の間ではオーストリアの扱いについて見解の相違があり、ドイツ同様に分断されるおそれがあった。結局、ソ連占領区のウィーンに置かれた社会民主主義者と共産主義者による政権は、レンナーがスターリンの傀儡ではないかとの疑いがあったものの、西側連合国から承認された。これによって西部に別の政権が立てられ国家が分断されることは避けられ、オーストリアはドイツに侵略され連合国によって解放された国として扱われた。冷戦の影響を受けて数年かかった交渉の末、1955年5月15日、占領4か国とのオーストリア国家条約が締結されて完全な独立を取り戻した。1955年10月26日、オーストリアは永世中立を宣言した。1995年に欧州連合へ加盟し、間接的な憲法改正は加えられている。第二共和国の政治システムは1945年に再導入された1920年および1929年の憲法に基づいている。オーストリアの政治体制はプロポルツ（比例配分主義"Proporz"）に特徴づけられる。これは政治的に重要なポストは社会党と国民党の党員に平等に分配されるというものである。義務的な党員資格を持つ利益団体の「会議」（労働者事業者農民）の重要性が増し立法過程に関与するという特徴がある。1945年以降単独政権は1966年 - 1970年（国民党）と1970年 - 1983年（社会党）のみでほかの期間は大連立（国民党と社会党）もしくは小連立（二大政党のいずれかと小党）のいずれかになっている。1970年 - 1983年の社会党政権における経済政策はおおむね自由化を進める方向で動いた。このような社会党政権のときに国連事務総長をつとめてきたクルト・ヴァルトハイムが、1986年に大統領となった。同国の政体は連邦共和制となっている。国家元首の連邦大統領（）は国民の直接選挙で選ばれる。任期は6年。大統領就任宣誓式は連邦会議（）で行われる。連邦政府の首班は連邦首相（）。連邦政府（）は国民議会における内閣不信任案の可決か大統領による罷免でしか交代することはない。議会は4年毎に国民から選挙で選ばれる183議席の国民議会から成る二院制の議会制民主主義国家。国民に選挙で選ばれる国民議会の議決は連邦議会のそれに優先する。連邦議会は州に関連する法案にしか絶対拒否権を行使できない。連邦会議は非常設の連邦機関で、国民議会ならびに連邦議会の議員を構成員とし、大統領宣誓式のほかには、任期満了前の大統領の罷免の国民投票の実施、大統領への刑事訴追の承認、宣戦布告の決定、大統領を憲法裁判所へ告発する承認の権限がある。政党には中道右派のオーストリア国民党（VP）中道左派のオーストリア社会民主党（SP旧オーストリア社会党1945 - 1991）極右のオーストリア自由党（FP）同党から分かれて成立したオーストリア未来同盟（BZ自由党の主要議員はこちらに移動した）環境保護を掲げる緑の党左派のオーストリア共産党がある。2006年の国民議会選挙で社会民主党が第1党となったため2007年まで7年間続いた中道右派オーストリア国民党と極右派の3党に由来しており1世紀近くにわたって3派共立の政党スタイルが確立していた。司法権は最高裁判所に属している。オーストリア共和国は第二次世界大戦後の連合国による占領を経て、1955年に永世中立を条件に独立を認められ、以来東西冷戦中もその立場を堅持してきた。このため東側諸国からもオーストリアへの出国は比較的自由であり、長い間、亡命者の窓口の役割を果たしてきた。1978年上半期の亡命者数として1372人の記録が残されているほか、1989年の冷戦末期には汎ヨーロッパ・ピクニックを通じて一度に1000人以上の大量亡命者もやってきた。欧州経済共同体に対抗するために結成された欧州自由貿易連合には1960年の結成時からメンバー国だったが1995年の欧州連合加盟に伴い脱退した。加盟した欧州連合においては軍事面についても統合が進められており、永世中立国は形骸化したとの指摘がある。国民の間には永世中立国堅持支持も多いが、非永世中立国化への方針が2001年1月の閣議決定による国家安全保障ドクトリンにおいて公式に記述されたことにより、国内で議論が起こっている。歴史的、地理的に中欧・東欧や西バルカンの国と関係が深く、クロアチアなどの欧州連合加盟に向けた働きかけを積極的に行っている。トルコの欧州連合加盟には消極的な立場をとっている。日本とは1869年に日墺修好通商航海条約を締結して以来友好な関係で、特に音楽方面での交流が盛んである。第一次世界大戦では敵対したが、1955年の永世中立宣言に対しては日本が最初の承認を行った。2011年に隣国のリヒテンシュタインがシェンゲン協定に加盟したことにより、周囲の国家がすべて同協定の加盟国となり、国境管理を行っていない。国軍として陸軍および空軍が編制されている。徴兵制を有し、18歳に達した男子は6か月の兵役に服する。名目上の最高指揮官は連邦大統領であるが、実質上は国防大臣が指揮をとる。北大西洋条約機構には加盟していないが、欧州連合に加盟しており、それを通じた安全保障政策が行われている。国土面積は日本の北海道とほぼ同じ大きさである。オーストリアの地形は大きくアルプス山脈同山麓カルパチア盆地である。アルプスの水を集めドイツから首都ウィーンを通過して最終的に黒海に達する国際河川がドナウ川である。1992年にライン川やマイン川を結ぶ運河が完成し北海との交通が可能となった。気候は大きく3つに大別される。東部は大陸的なパンノニア低地気候、アルプス地方は降水量が多く、夏が短く冬が長いアルプス型気候、その他の地域は中部ヨーロッパの過渡的な気候である。9つの州が存在する。このように8つの州とウィーンからなるために9角形の硬貨が発行されたことがある。なお9角形とはいっても辺は直線ではなく曲線すなわち曲線多角形の硬貨である。日本貿易振興機構の推計値では2019年の一人当たりの名目GDPは50023ドルである。これは同年のEU平均値である35774ドルの1.4倍に迫る。また1990年以降の統計で一人当たりの名目GDPは世界で概ね10～15位で推移しているが20位以下に脱落したことはなく（最高順位は1995年の7位で当時30351ドル）経済的に豊かで安定した国である。主要産業としてはシュタイアーマルク州の自動車産業オーバーエスターライヒ州の鉄鋼業などがある。大企業はないもののドイツ企業の下請け的な役割の中小企業がオーストリア経済の中心を担っている。ウィーンやザルツブルクチロルを中心に観光産業も盛んである。失業率はほかの欧州諸国と比較して低い。欧州の地理的中心にあることから近年日本企業の欧州拠点工場なども増加しつつある。オーストリアにとって日本はアジア有数の貿易相手国である。ヨーロッパを代表する音響機器メーカーとして歴史を持つAKGはクラシック愛好者を中心に日本でも有名である。金融ではオーストリア銀行エルステ銀行ライフアイゼンバンクBAWAGフォルクスバンクが主要銀行である。その他の企業についてはオーストリアの企業一覧も参照のこと。観光はオーストリア経済において最も重要な産業であり、同国の国内総生産のほぼ9％を占めている。が主要幹線を網羅しており、山岳部ではをはじめとする登山列車なども運行している。ウィーンでは地下鉄やSバーン、路面電車なども運行され、インスブルックやリンツなどの主要都市にも路面電車がある。ウィーン、インスブルック、ザルツブルク、グラーツ、クラーゲンフルトの各都市に国際空港がある。ウィーン国際空港では、ドイツ語の案内放送のあと、英語で案内放送がある。「領地はたくさんある。人口もたくさんある。しかしオーストリア民族はいない。国家はない」とはオーストリアのジャーナリスト、ヘルムート・アンディクス（）がオーストリア帝国を評したものであるが、実際に今のオーストリアの領土はかつての「ドイツ人の神聖ローマ帝国」を構成する「上オーストリア」「下オーストリア」「ケルンテン」「ザルツブルク司教領」「チロル」などから構成されており、その統治者であったハプスブルク家は「ドイツ人の神聖ローマ皇帝」を世襲してきた。そのためオーストリア民族という概念はなく、オーストリア人という概念はきわめて新しい。ドイツ語を母語とするオーストリア人は全人口の91.1%を占める。この割合はドイツリヒテンシュタインとほぼ同じである。血統的にはゲルマン系にスラヴ系ラテン系ハンガリー系トルコ系などが入り混じっているもののゲルマン系言語であるドイツ語を母語とするためオーストリア人は通常ゲルマン民族とみなされる。オーストリア人はドイツ人に含まれるのか、という問題は戦後意識的に避けられてきたが、近年急速にクローズアップされている。もともとオーストリアはプロイセン、バイエルンなどと同じくドイツを構成する分邦のひとつであり、2つの国民、1つの民族と呼ばれる時代が始まる。オーストリア側ではドイツ人と別個の国民であるという意識が育ち、さらにはエスニシティにおいてもドイツ民族とは異なるオーストリア民族であると自己規定する人も現れた。しかしながら、ドイツ統一・欧州連合加盟以降、ドイツ民族主義が再び急伸した。2000年から2007年にかけて、ドイツ民族主義者系の極右政党が連立与党に加わり、国際的に波紋を呼んだのもそうした風潮と関連している。だった。近年の民族主義的傾向にはこうした言語民族文化の再確認という側面が見られる反面拡大EUにおける一等市民＝ドイツ人として差別主義的に結束しようとする傾向も否めない。今日ウィーン市内ではドイツ国歌を高唱する右派の学生集会なども見られる。ただし元をただせば現在のドイツ国歌はハイドンが神聖ローマ帝国最後の皇帝フランツ2世を讃えるために作曲したの歌詞を替えたものであり19世紀後半にはオーストリア帝国の国歌となっていた。ナポレオン戦争における神聖ローマ帝国の勝利と帝国の権威維持を祈願して当曲が作られた当時はオーストリア国家は存在せずアウステルリッツの戦いに敗戦してローマ帝位を辞するまでフランツ2世は形式的には直轄地オーストリア地域をふくめる全ドイツ人の皇帝だったため両国共通のルーツを持つ歌ともいえる。しかし外国人観光客が右翼学生たちを奇異な目で見るのは国歌のメロディではなく政治的には外国であるドイツをと連呼する歌詞をそのまま歌っている点である。ブルゲンラント州は1921年まではハンガリー王国側だったため今日でもハンガリー系クロアチア系が多い。ケルンテン州にはスロベニア系も居住している。両州の少数民族は1970年代の調査によれば1 - 2%であるが自己申告制であるため実際にはドイツ人と申告した中にもかなりの外国系住民が含まれると思われる。そのため標識や学校授業に第2言語を取り入れている地域もある。外国人や移民は人口の9.8%を占め、ヨーロッパ有数の移民受入国である。その多くがトルコ人と旧ユーゴスラビア諸国出身者である。ドイツ語が公用語であり、ほとんどの住民が日常使っている言語でもある。ただし、日常の口語で使われているのは標準ドイツ語ではなく、ドイツ南部などと同じ上部ドイツ語を除き、バイエルンと同じ区画に属するバイエルン・オーストリア語である。オーストリアでは、テレビ、ラジオの放送などでは標準ドイツ語が使われているが、独特の発音や言い回しが残っているため、ドイツで使われている標準ドイツ語とは異なる。標準ドイツ語では有声で発音されるsの音はオーストリアにおいては無声で発音されることが多い。またオーストリア内でも多くの違いがあり、ウィーンやグラーツなどで話されている東オーストリアの方言と西オーストリアのチロル州の方言は随分異なる。東オーストリアの方言では南部のケルンテン州にはスロベニア人も居住しWindisch」として知られかつてのオーストリア＝ハンガリー帝国の領土だったハンガリーチェコイタリアなどの諸国の言語の影響が残っていると言われている。また、単語レベルでみた場合、ドイツと異なる語彙も数多く存在するほか、ドイツとオーストリアで意味が異なる単語もあるため注意が必要である。婚姻の際、2013年までは、原則としてと変更された。これまで通りの選択も可能であるが、その場合婚前に手続きが必要となる。また、別姓での結婚において夫婦が子の姓について合意できない場合は母の姓となる規定がある。これには母子家庭以外でも子が母の姓を名乗るケースを認めることで、親子関係と姓で婚外子だと分からないようにするという、婚外子差別をなくす意味合いがある。2019年1月1日より同性結婚が可能になった。宗教は、553万人。さらに、ユダヤ教もいる。義務教育は9年となっている。2018年06月21日時点で外務省はとしている。18世紀後半にウィーン古典派が興って以降、ウィーンはクラシック音楽における重要な都市となり、やがてと呼ばれるようになった。オーストリア出身の重要な作曲家には、ハイドン、モーツァルト、シューベルト、ブルックナー、ヨハン・シュトラウス2世、マーラー、ベルクなどがいるが、いずれもウィーンを活動の拠点とした。このほか、ドイツ出身のベートーヴェン、ブラームスもウィーンで活動した。音楽家についてはを参照。これらの伝統を引き継ぎ演奏活動の面では現在もウィーンはクラシック音楽の重要な拠点となっている。ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が7件存在する。さらにハンガリーにまたがって1件の文化遺産が登録されている。冬季オリンピックで数多くのメダルを獲得することから分かるようにオーストリアでもその寒冷な気候と山がちな地形を利用したウィンタースポーツが盛んに行われている。中でもアルペンスキーは絶大な人気を誇り冬季オリンピックで計4個のメダルを獲得しているヘルマンマイヤーは国民的スターでもある。2006 - 2007年シーズンでは男女計12種目のうち実に7種目をオーストリア人選手が制覇している。ライフル射撃競技とクロスカントリースキーを組み合わせたバイアスロンの強豪国でもあり国際スキー連盟とは独立している国際バイアスロン連合はその本部をオーストリアのザルツブルクに置いている。またノルディックスキーも人気が高く、ノルウェー、フィンランド、ドイツなどとともに強豪国として名高い。アンドレアス・ゴルトベルガー（ジャンプ1993年、1995年、1996年FIS・W杯総合優勝）、フェリックス・ゴットヴァルト（ノルディック複合2001年FIS・W杯総合優勝）、トーマス・モルゲンシュテルン（ジャンプ2008年FIS・W杯総合優勝）といった有名選手を輩出している。近年では2006年トリノオリンピックのジャンプ競技で金メダルを獲得している。モータースポーツはオーストリアで3番目に人気のあるスポーツである（スキーとサッカーに次ぐ）。数人のオーストリアのドライバーがF1で成功を収めている。3度のF1世界チャンピオンであるニキラウダはウィーン出身でありニュルブルクリンクの大事故で瀕死の重症を負いながらも3度の世界チャンピオン（1975年1977年1984年）を得25歳でF1世界チャンピオンシップを奪取した7番目のドライバーである。またヨッヘンリントはモンツァサーキットのレースで事故死後故人として1970年の世界チャンピオンになった。彼はまた1965年のルマン24時間レースでも優勝した。ゲルハルトベルガーは1988年と1994年にチャンピオンシップ3位にランクされ10回の勝利と48回の表彰台を獲得した。オーストリアグランプリは1963年1964年1970年から1987年1997年から2003年そして2014年から開催されており近年は2010年から2013年にかけてF1の製造者部門（コンストラクター）で4連覇を果たしたレッドブルレーシングのホームグランプリとして盛況を博している。モータースポーツの上位2つの会場はエステルライヒリンクとザルツブルクリンクである。前者はオーストリアグランプリオーストリアモーターサイクルグランプリそして1000kmのツェルトベク耐久スポーツカーレースを主催した。後者はまたオーストリアのオートバイグランプリスーパーバイク世界選手権ヨーロッパのフォーミュラ2選手権そしてドイツツーリングカー選手権やスーパーツーリングカー選手権などのドイツのトップシリーズを開催した。またKTMはダカールラリーの二輪部門で18連覇という金字塔を打ち立てている。ホンダはじめ日本メーカーが圧倒的な力で支配する二輪モータースポーツの世界でこの記録は驚異的といえる。KTMはサーキットレースでも存在感を示し始めており2021年時点でMoto3で4度王者を輩出している。またヤマハ発動機の耐久レースのファクトリーチームであるYARTはオーストリアのチームである。ライダーとしてはマティアスウォークナーが2018年にKTMでダカール王者となっている。伝統的にサッカーの人気が高くイギリスを除くヨーロッパ大陸ではもっとも古い歴史を誇るプロリーグであるオーストリアブンデスリーガ（1部）を筆頭にサッカーリーグは9部まである。1部のレッドブルザルツブルクには日本の奥川雅也が在籍している（2020年現在）。オーストリアの最高峰リーグであるオーストリア・ブンデスリーガをステップアップとしてサッカーのブランドネーションに移籍する選手が多く、毎年のようにドイツ・ブンデスリーガやイタリア・セリエAに移籍する選手が数多く輩出されている。2008年にはUEFA欧州選手権2008をスイスと共同で開催した。オーストリア代表チームはドイツやクロアチアを相手に善戦したもののグループリーグで敗退を喫した。自転車ロードレースでは、がツール・ド・フランスやジロ・デ・イタリアといった世界最高峰のレースで活躍した。現在はベルンハルト・アイゼルなどが知られている。オーストリア最大のステージレースはUCIプロシリーズという上から二番目のカテゴリーに分類されており、ツール・ド・フランスと同時期の7月に開催されるが、その年のツール・ド・フランスに出場しない大物選手が数多く出場している。積雪の多い気候ゆえ卓球やハンドボールアイスホッケー柔道などの室内スポーツの競技人口も多い。ウィーンでは、オーストリア・ハンガリー各地の出身者が活躍した。 +GNU Free Documentation License は、GNUプロジェクトの一環としてフリーソフトウェア財団から配布されているコピーレフトなライセンスの一つである。略称として GNU FDLなどと書かれることもある。GNUはグニューあるいはグヌーと発音する。日本語訳では、と言えるか否かは、異論も存在する。なお、GNUの公式サイトで使われる日本語訳はGNU自由文書ライセンスである。このライセンスは文書たる著作物につき営利非営利を問わず著作権者が著作権者以外の者に対して改変複製頒布することを一定の制約条件の下に許諾するものである。大まかに言えば、GPLと同様に著作権者が次のような許可を与えるライセンスである。甲が他人に対して自己の創作による著作物Aの自由な利用を許す方法としては甲が著作物Aに係る著作権をすべて放棄して著作物Aをパブリックドメインに帰属させる方法がまず考えられる。しかしこの方法によれば他人が著作物Aを改変翻訳することによって創作した二次的著作物A'の著作権の処分は当該他人の自由意思に委ねられるため著作物A'の自由利用は保証されずいわゆるコピーレフトの実現が不十分となる。そこで甲が著作物Aの著作権を放棄することなく他人に対して著作物Aの改変翻訳を許諾する条件として当該他人が著作物Aの改変翻訳により創作した二次的著作物A'もまた乙以外の他人に自由に利用させる義務を課すことにより問題を解決しようとするのがGFDLの骨子である。なおGPL が主にコンピュータプログラムの配布を目的としたライセンスであるのに対しGFDL は文書の配布を目的としており文書に特化した条項が定められている。自由利用の維持の骨格.文書が自由に利用できる状態が失われないようにするために以下のような条項がある。A という人物が GFDL で文書を公開したとする。B という人物がその文書を自分で書いたかのように見せて配布したとすると、A の「著作者。GFDLは以上のような文書たる著作物のコピーレフトを目的としたライセンスとして代表的なものの一つであるが以下のような未解決の法律問題も抱えている。著作者・著作権の表示.GFDLは著作権者以外の者による文書の改変を認めるとともに、改変版には、題扉に元の文書の著作者として最低5人の主要著作者を列記するとともに、文書にある全ての著作権表示を残すことを要求している。著作権法28条によれば、原著作物の著作者が有する氏名表示権は二次的著作物にもおよび、原著作物の著作権者は、二次的著作物の利用に関して二次的著作物の著作者と同じ内容の権利を有する。しかし、原著作物の創作的表現が存在しないと認められる程度に改変がされた場合は、当該改変版は原著作物の二次的著作物ではないため、原著作物の著作権者は改変版に対して著作権を行使することができない。さらに、著作者は氏名表示を要求することができなくなる。GFDLはすべての者に対して自由な改変を認めるライセンスであるがゆえに複数の者による改変を経ることにより原著作物の創作的表現が消滅してしまう機会が多いと考えられるがそのような場合でも第4条に基づき主要著作者としての表示が必要になったり著作権表示を残すべきかは問題がある。通常、著作物の利用許諾をする場合、利用許諾書が規定するライセンスの成立及び効力につき、準拠法を指定する条項が存在する。しかし、GFDLには準拠法に関する条項が存在しない。法律行為の成立及び効力につき、当事者が準拠法の定めをしなかった場合、準拠法を とするかについては、国際私法の内容が国により異なることもあり、世界的に統一された扱いができないが、いずれにしても当事者の意思とは無関係に準拠法が定まることになる。日本が法廷地になる場合、法の適用に関する通則法8条が適用され、利用許諾につき最も密接な関係がある地の法による。このため、原著作権者A がその著作物につき GFDL を適用して公開した後、別の者B がその改変版を公開する場合、AによるライセンスとBによるライセンスとでは、同じGFDLを適用していながら、それぞれ準拠法が異なるケースが生じることになる。そのため、同じ文言のライセンスの下に利用許諾をしているにもかかわらず、改変版をめぐって法的な争いが生じた場合、元の文書の著作権者ごとにライセンスの成立及び効力について異なった法を適用しなければならず、法律関係が複雑になる懸念が生じかねないという問題がある。その他の問題についてはライセンス#著作物全般の利用許諾のライセンスを参照。ライセンスの原文及び他言語訳.フリーソフトウェア財団によりGFDLとしての効力があると承認されているものは、英語の原文によるライセンスのみであり、公式の他言語訳は存在せず、FSFとしても他言語の訳文を承認しない方針を採っている。これは誤訳の可能性があるものを承認することによって生じるリスクを回避するためである。そのため、使用するときは英語のライセンス文書を使うことになっており、日本語訳はあくまで参考として示すにとどまっている。非公式ではあるものの、八田真行による"version 1.2"の日本語訳が存在する。 +社会学者の一覧では、社会学を研究する学者を一覧する。ゴーダチーズは、エダムチーズと並ぶオランダの代表的なチーズ。オランダでのチーズ生産量の60%を占める。ロッテルダム近郊の町、ゴーダで作られたことからこの名前がついた。正確な起源は不明だが12世紀頃にまで溯るとされることが多い。外見は黄色がかった茶色い円盤型で、正式なサイズが直径35cm×高さ11cm・重さ約12kgと決められており、それより小さなものを総称してと呼んでいる。中は白から黄色。熟成と共に色が変化する。熟成されたゴーダの中には表面が黒いものもある。クミンシードやニンニクなどを用いて香りをつけたものもある。主な材料は牛乳とレンネット。チーズの種類としてはセミハードに分類される。味はマイルドで日本では比較的広く親しまれている。オランダでは土産物として空港などで売られている他食料品店チーズ販売店などでもほぼ置いている。チーズ店などでは特に包装をしていないものを常温で積み上げている場合もある。これは表面をロウでコーティングしてありナイフを入れない限り熟成が急激に進む心配がないため。他にフィルムにくるんだものや真空パックのように包装したものもある。日本ではチェダーチーズと並んでプロセスチーズの主要な原料として用いられているとされる。またゴーダチーズを原料としたスライスチーズが明治から販売されている。バールーフ・デ・スピノザ（Baruch De Spinoza 、1632年11月24日 - 1677年2月21日）は、オランダの哲学者である。ラテン語名ベネディクトゥス・デ・スピノザ（Benedictus De Spinoza）でも知られる。デカルト、ライプニッツと並ぶ17世紀の近世合理主義哲学者として知られ、その哲学体系は代表的な汎神論と考えられてきた。また、カント、フィヒテ、シェリング、ヘーゲルらドイツ観念論やマルクス、そしてその後の大陸哲学系現代思想へ強大な影響を与えた。スピノザの汎神論は新プラトン主義的な一元論でもあり、後世の無神論や唯物論に強い影響を与え、または思想的準備の役割を果たした。生前のスピノザ自身も、無神論者のレッテルを貼られ異端視され、批判を浴びている。スピノザの肖像は1970年代に流通していたオランダの最高額面の1000ギルダー紙幣に描かれていた。アムステルダムの富裕なユダヤ人の貿易商の家庭に生まれる。母はハンナデボラ父はミカエルデスピノーザ。両親はポルトガルでのユダヤ人迫害から逃れオランダへ移住してきたセファルディム。幼少の頃より学問の才能を示し、ラビとなる訓練を受けたが、家業を手伝うために高等教育は受けなかった。商人として働いていたが、商人としての利益より、人生の目的に尽くす方が利益は大きいとして商人を止める。伝統から自由な宗教観を持ち、神を自然の働き・ありかた全体と同一視する立場から、当時のユダヤ教の信仰のありかたや聖典の扱いに対して批判的な態度をとった。恐らくそのため1656年7月27日にアムステルダムのユダヤ人共同体からヘーレムにされる。狂信的なユダヤ人から暗殺されそうになった。1661年の夏にライデン近郊のレインスブルフに転居。ヘンリー・オルデンバーグ来訪。レインスブルフにいる間にの執筆を開始、1670年に匿名で版元も偽って出版した。この本は、聖書の解読と解釈を目的としていた。しかし、1672年にウィットが虐殺され、この折りには、スピノザは生涯最大の動揺を示したという」とスピノザは形容した)。1673年にプファルツ選帝侯カール1世ルートヴィヒからハイデルベルク大学教授に招聘されるが、思索の自由が却って脅かされることを恐れたスピノザは、これを辞退した。こうした高い評価の一方で、1674年にはの出版を断念した。同書は執筆に15年の歳月をかけたスピノザの思想の総括である。また、その翌1676年にはライプニッツの訪問を受けたが、この二人の大哲学者は互いの思想を理解しあうには至らなかった。肺の病で44歳の短い生涯を終えた。遺骨はその後廃棄され墓は失われてしまった。ハーグ移住後、スピノザはレンズ磨きによって生計を立てたという伝承は有名である。しかしスピノザは貴族の友人らから提供された年金が十分にあった。旅行記を参照するに他の方面にも支援者はおり、当時のライデン大学の教授ゲーリンクスと同額の500ギルダーの収入を得ていた。また当時のオランダでは自然科学、とりわけ光学に大きな関心が持たれていた。スワンメルダムやホイヘンスら科学者は自らレンズを磨いて改良し、後にアムステルダム市長となるヨハン・フッデもやはりレンズを磨いていることが分かっている。当時科学に興味のある知識人は当たり前のようにレンズを磨いていたのが実態で、ましてや虹についての論文や自然科学を論じる書簡が残っているスピノザの場合、生計のためというより探究のためと考える方が道理だろう。生前に出版された著作は、1663年のスピノザの哲学史上の先駆者は懐疑の果てに「我思う故に我あり(cogito ergo sum)」と語ったデカルトである。これは推論の形をとってはいるがその示すところは思惟する私が存在するという自己意識の直覚である。懐疑において求められた確実性はこの直覚において見出される。これをスピノザは「我は思惟しつつ存在する(Ego sum cogitans.)」と解釈している（「デカルトの哲学原理」）。その思想は初期の論考から晩年の大作『エチカ』までほぼ一貫し、神即自然 (deus sive natura) の概念(この自然とは、動植物のことではなく、人や物も含めたすべてのこと)に代表される非人格的な神概念と、伝統的な自由意志の概念を退ける徹底した決定論である。この考えはキリスト教神学者からも非難され、スピノザは無神論者として攻撃された。一元的汎神論や能産的自然という思想は後の哲学者に強い影響を与えた。近代ではヘーゲルが批判的ながらもスピノザに思い入れておりスピノザの思想は無神論ではなくむしろ神のみが存在すると主張する無世界論であると評している。フランス現代思想のドゥルーズもその存在論的な観点の現代性を見抜きなどの研究書を刊行している。代表作を髣髴とさせる定義公理定理証明の一大体系である。それはまさにQ.E.Dの壮大な羅列であり哲学書としてこれ以上ないほど徹底した演繹を試みたものであった。この著作においてスピノザは、限られた公理および定義から出発し、まず一元的汎神論、次いで精神と身体の問題を取り上げ、後半は現実主義的ともいえる倫理学を議論している。ここでは、形而上学的な第1部と第2部の概要を主に記述する。デカルトは神を無限な実体として世界の根底に設定し、そのもとに精神と身体は全て、能産的自然としての神なくしては在りかつ考えられることのできないものであり、神の変状ないし神のある属性における様態であるということになる。スピノザは「人間精神を構成する観念の対象はは同じ実体の二つの側面を示すから一致するとしている。スピノザは、デカルトとは異なり、自由な意志によって感情を制御する思想を認めない。むしろ、スピノザの心身合一論の直接の帰結として、独立的な精神に宿る自由な意志が主体的に受動的な身体を支配する、という構図は棄却される。スピノザは、個々の意志は必然的であって自由でないとした上、意志というものを個々の意志発動の原因として考えるのは、人間というものを個々の人間の原因として考えると同様に不可能であるとしている。また観念は観念であるかぎりにおいて肯定ないし否定を包含するものとしており、自由意志と解される表象像・言語はじつは単なる身体の運動であるとしている。スピノザにおいては表象的な認識に依存した受動感情ことを知る」ことから人間は神への知的愛に達し神が自己自身を認識して満足する無限な愛に参与することで最高の満足を得ることができるとスピノザは想定する。上の議論は個の自己保存衝動を否定しているわけではない。各々が存在に固執する力は神の性質の永遠なる必然性に由来する。欲求の元は神の在りかつ働きをなす力に由来する個の自己保存のコナトゥスの必然性を理性によって認識することに自己の本質を認めまたこの認識を他者と分かち合うことが要請される。上述のエチカの議論によれば理性はたしかに感情を統御できる。とはいえとする立場からはスピノザは国家の権能によって人民が保護されることが必要であるとする。そしてそのためには臣民を報償の希望ないしは刑罰への恐怖によって従属させることが必要であるとしている。たしかに精神の自由は個人の徳ではあるが国家の徳は安全の中にのみあるからである。統治権の属する会議体が全民衆からなるとき民主政治若干の選民からなるとき貴族政治一人の人間の手中にあるとき君主政治と呼ばれる。この統治権あるいは共同の不幸を排除することを目的として立てられた国家の法律にみずから従うような理性に導かれる者ばかりではない現実においては理性を欠いた人々に対しては外から自由を与えることが法の目的であるとしている。また言論の自由についてはこれを認めないことは順法精神を失わしめ政体を不安定にするとしている。またスピノザの政治思想の特徴はその現実主義にある。政治への理想を保持しつつ現実の直視を忘れないその姿勢は幾人ものオランダ共和国の政治家との交流から得られたものと考えられる。スピノザの汎神論は、神の人格を徹底的に棄却し、理性の検証に耐えうる合理的な自然論として与えられている。スピノザは無神論者では決してなく、むしろ理神論者として神をより理性的に論じ、人格神については、これを民衆の理解力に適合した人間的話法の所産であるとしているキリスト教についてはスピノザとしてはキリストの復活は信者達に対してのみその把握力に応じて示された出現に他ならないとしまたキリストが自分自身を神の宮として語ったことはという語句とともに神がもっとも多くキリストの中に顕現したことを表現したものと解している。また徳の報酬は徳そのものであるとする立場からは道徳律は律法としての形式を神自身から受けているか否かにかかわらず神聖かつ有益であるとしており神の命令に対する不本意な隷属とは対置されるところの人間を自由にするものとしての神に対する愛を推奨している。また神をその正義の行使と隣人愛によって尊敬するという意味でのキリストの精神を持つかぎり何人であっても救われると主張している。カール・ポパーはスピノザの哲学を本質主義として批判している。ポパーは、スピノザの著作としている。ポパーはスピノザと異なり、カントは本当の問題と取り組んでいると評価している。 +文脈自由文法において全生成規則が以下のようである形式文法である。ここで V は非終端記号であり"w" は終端記号と非終端記号の（0個を含む）任意個の並びである。「文脈自由」という用語は前後関係に依存せずに非終端記号 V を "w" に置換できるという所から来ている（「文脈無用」という訳の提案もある）。文脈自由文法によって生成される形式言語を文脈自由言語という。文脈自由文法はノームチョムスキーによる句構造文法の研究の中から形式言語の類別のひとつとして見出されたものである。文脈自由文法の形式性は言語学が伝統的に自然言語の文法を形式的に記述してきた既存の方法。文脈自由文法は（チョムスキーらによって言語学で）提唱されてすぐに（形式言語と密接な関係にあるオートマトン理論のような理論計算機科学の分野にとどまらず）プログラミング言語 ALGOLの仕様策定において構文の仕様を示すバッカスナウア記法という形でとり入れられその後コンピュータ科学一般にあるいはもっと広く実務にも応用されている。といった言説がしばしば見られるが誤りである。本当に実際の所はyaccで定義されていても純粋に構文では定義しきれない部分をあれこれと意味規則で補っているのが普通である。文脈自由文法は効率的な構文解析アルゴリズムを適用できる程度に単純である。つまり、ある文字列が特定の文法による言語に属しているかどうかを判断することができる。初期の構文解析手法であるLR法やLL法は文脈自由文法のサブセットを扱うものであった。全ての形式言語が文脈自由であるわけではない。文脈自由でない例として formula_1 がある。この言語は Parsing Expression Grammar (PEG) では生成できる。PEG は文脈自由文法と扱える範囲の文法が異なり文脈自由文法を全て扱えるわけではないがプログラミング言語に適した新たな定式化のひとつである。文脈自由文法 "G" は次の 4-タプル で表される。formula_7 のメンバーを文法の規則と呼ぶ。任意の formula_12 について formula_13 となるような生成写像 formula_14 が存在する。順序対 formula_15 を formula_16 のプロダクションと呼び一般に formula_17 のように表記する。任意の formula_18 についてformula_19 が formula_20 を生成することを formula_21 で表す。ただしformula_22 かつ formula_23 で formula_24 が成り立たねばならない。任意の formula_18 について、formula_26であるとは、formula_28 となるような formula_29 が成り立つ場合である。文法 formula_2 の言語は次の集合で表される。言語 formula_31 は、formula_32 となるような文脈自由文法 formula_16 が存在するとき、文脈自由言語であるという。ここで | はを意味し は空の文字列を意味する。この文法によって生成される言語は以下のようになる。これは正規言語ではない例でもある。また、は文脈自由文法の表現に必ずしも必須ではない。次の2つの規則でも、上の例と同様の言語を定義している。次は三種類の変数 x, y, z を使った文法的に正しい四則演算の数式を生成する文脈自由文法である。ここで演算子は中置としている。この文法に従うと、例えば " * x - z * y / " といった式が生成可能である。この文法は、構造が異なる構文木から同じ文字列が生成されうるという意味で曖昧である。文字セット {ab} について異なる個数の a と b から構成される全ての文字列を生成する文脈自由文法は以下のようになる。ここで、T に関する生成規則は a と b が同数の文字列を生成するが、U は a の方が必ず多くなる文字列を生成し、V は b の方が必ず多くなる文字列を生成する。次の例は formula_35 である。これは正規言語ではなく文脈自由言語である。以下の生成規則で生成される。文脈自由文法は数学的な「形式的」言語だけで利用されるわけではない。例えば、タミル語の詩である Venpa は文脈自由文法で定式化できることが指摘されている。ある文法において、開始記号からある文字列が導出される過程を記述する方法は二種類存在する。単純な方法は導出過程の途中の文字列を全て書き出していく方法である。つまり開始記号から始めて、生成規則を一回適用する度に文字列を書き出して、最後に目的の文字列になるまで列挙するのである。例えばと呼ぶ。例えば、以下の文法があるとする。文字列「1 + 1 + a」を導出する過程は [ (1) (1) (2) (2) (3) ] というリストになる。同様に「右端導出」も定義できる。この例の場合右端導出での導出過程は [ (1) (3) (1) (2) (2)] というリストになる。左端導出と右端導出のリストが異なるのは重要なポイントである。構文解析では文法規則毎にそれを入力文字列に適用する小さなプログラムが存在する。したがって構文解析が左端導出を行うのか右端導出を行うのかによってそれらのプログラムを適用する順番が変わってくるのである。導出過程は導出される文字列上にある種の階層構造を描くことでも表される。例として左端導出によるに対する階層構造を見てみよう。導出過程は以下のようになる。ここで { ... }S は S から導出された部分文字列を意味している。これに対応する階層構造は以下のような木構造になる。この木構造をその文字列のと呼ぶ。この場合、上述の左端導出も右端導出も同じ構文木になるが、左端導出には以下のような別の導出過程が存在する。これによって定義される構文木は以下のようになる。 +この文法のように、ある文字列を導出する構文木が複数考えられる文法をと呼ぶ。このような文法の構文解析は、生成規則の適用順序を毎回決定しなければならないため難しい。空の文字列を生成しない文脈自由文法は等価なチョムスキー標準形かグライバッハ標準形に変換できる。ここでいうとは同じ言語を生成するという意味である。チョムスキー標準形文法は生成規則が単純なので、この標準形は理論的にも実用上も密接な関係がある。例えば、ある文脈自由文法についてチョムスキー標準形を使うことで多項式時間のアルゴリズムで入力された文字列がその文法で生成されるものか否かを判定できる。文脈自由文法は能力が制限されているため、その操作の一部は決定可能であるが、同時に決定不能な問題もある。最も単純で分かり易い決定不能問題の1つとして、CFG が言語の全文字列を受容するかどうかという問題がある。還元によって、この問題がチューリングマシンの停止問題と同じであることが示される。その還元には、チューリングマシンのあらゆる計算過程を示すと呼ばれる概念を用いる。あるチューリングマシンがある入力を与えられたとき、それを受容しない計算履歴の文字列を生成するCFGを構築でき、そうすると、そのCFGはマシンが入力を受容しないときだけ文字列を受容する。これを応用すると2つのCFGが同じ言語を記述しているかどうかも判定不能である。なぜなら言語の全文字列を受理する自明なCFGとの等価性を判定できないためである。また文脈依存文法が文脈自由言語を表しているかどうかも決定不能な問題である。文脈自由文法の形式性の拡張として非終端記号に引数を持たせ規則内で値を渡すということが考えられる。これにより自然言語の一致や参照といった機能を表現可能となりプログラミング言語での識別子の定義や正しい用法を自然な形で表現可能となる。例えば英語の文で主語と動詞が数において合致しなければならないということを容易に表現できる。計算機科学ではこのようなアプローチの例として接辞文法属性文法Van Wijngaarden の two-level grammar などがある。同様の拡張は言語学にもある。別の拡張として規則の左辺に追加の記号を書けるようにする手法がある。これは文脈依存文法に他ならない。ノームチョムスキー自身は生成文法を追加することで文脈自由文法の制限を克服したいと考えていた。そのような規則も言語学によく見られる。例えば、英語における受動態化である。しかし、それらは強力すぎるため（チューリング完全）、変換の適用は制限される必要がある。生成文法の大部分は、句構造文法と変換規則の記述機構を改善し、自然言語が表現できることを正確に表せるようにすることを目的としている。彼は自然言語が文脈自由でないと考えていたが、彼がCFGでは不十分であることを示す証拠として挙げた事例は、後に間違いであることが証明された。Gerald Gazdar と Geoffrey Pullum は、一部に文脈自由的でない構造があるものの、自然言語の大部分は文脈自由であると指摘している。文脈自由でない部分とは、例えば、スイスドイツ語の cross-serial dependencies や、バンバラ語の畳語である。 +フランス語（フランスご、 ）は、インド・ヨーロッパ語族のイタリック語派に属する言語。ロマンス諸語の一つで、ラテン語の口語（俗ラテン語）から変化したフランス北部のオイル語（またはウィ語、）が母体と言われている。日本語では、仏蘭西語、略して仏語とも書く。フランス語という呼び方は、多くの言語（オック語、アルピタン語など）が存在するフランスにおいて誤解を招く可能性もあるので、単にオイル語と呼んでフランスの他の言語と区別することもある。世界で英語（約80の国・地域）に次ぐ2番目に多くの国・地域で使用されている言語で、フランス、スイス、ベルギー、カナダのほか、かつてフランスやベルギーの領域だった諸国を中心に29ヶ国で公用語になっている（フランス語圏を参照）。全世界で1億2300万人が主要言語として使用し、総話者数は2億人以上である。国際連合、欧州連合などの公用語の一つにも選ばれている。このフランス語の話者を、フランコフォン（、）と言う。記号が二つ並んでいるものは右が有声音左が無声音。記号が二つ並んでいるものは、右が円唇、左が非円唇。鼻母音四つを含んだ句の例として « » （おいしい白ワイン）が有名である。フランス語において基本的にc,r,f,lを除く語尾の子音と母音のeは発音されない。フランス語の表記は初学者には複雑に感じられるが、規則性は比較的高い。英語や日本語のローマ字表記とはかなり異なるため、フランス語を知らなければ正しく読むことはできないが、規則を覚えれば容易に発音できる。たとえば は常に と発音する。しかし は ではなく であるなど、イタリア語やスペイン語などほかのロマンス諸語に比べると例外が多い。やなど文脈によって発音が変わる単語もある。また、 がすべて になるなど、しばしば異なる綴りが同じ発音を示すため、同音異字語が多い。たとえば （ワイン）と （20）はともに であり、また形容詞 （青、男性形単数） とその変化形の （男性形複数）、（女性形単数）、（女性形複数）はすべて である。このため、発音を聞いて書き分けるのは比較的難しい。ネイティブでさえも正しく書けない人がいるほどで、フランスでは問題視されている。そういった難しさもあり、日本で行われている実用フランス語技能検定試験（DAPF）の準2級以降の級では書き取り試験が行われ、CDで流れる文章を、文脈をしっかりと把握した上で、動詞の活用はもとより性と数の一致に気をつけながら、正しく書く能力が試される。書き取り試験ではあるが文法知識も試され、実際のところこの書き取り問題で点を落とす受験者が非常に多いことから、いかにフランス語を正しく書くのが難しいかがうかがえる。アルファベットのことを、フランス語ではアルファベと言う。セディーユトレマアクサンテギュおよび e につくアクサングラーヴとアクサンシルコンフレクスは発音を変える記号である。一方e 以外の母音につくアクサングラーヴとアクサンシルコンフレクスは発音を変化させない。※アクサンのつくところを強く読むわけではない。は o と e の合字である。この組み合わせが単母音で発音される語では、o と e は必ずこのようにつなげて書く。通常は u で を表す。は a と e の合字であり、少数のラテン語からの借用語で使う。フランス語では引用符の前にはスペースを入れ引用符の後と前にもやはりスペースを入れる。20進法と10進法の組み合わせである。かなり複雑だが、これはフランスでの例であり、ベルギーやスイスでは70を、90を、さらにスイスでは80をで表し、比較的10進法に近い。フランス南部で用いられるオック語をフランス語方言とすることもあるが、言語学的には通常別系統の言語として扱う。紀元前58年から紀元前51年にかけて共和政ローマのガイウスユリウスカエサルがガリア戦争を行い現在のフランスの領域のほぼ全域をローマ領としたことがこの地域にフランス語の祖語であるラテン語が本格的に導入されるきっかけとなった。ガリア戦争以前にはこの地域ではおもにケルト語系のゴール語が用いられていたがローマの支配が定着するにつれてラテン語が優勢となっていきガロロマンス語と呼ばれるラテン語の方言群が成立した。この言語は基本的にラテン語の影響が強くその一方言と呼べる存在であったがケルト語からいくつかの音韻的な影響を受けたものだった。その後ローマ帝国の崩壊とともにフランク王国がこの地域を支配すると彼らの言語であったゲルマン系の古フランク語が持ち込まれその影響を受けてこの地域のラテン語は大きく変容し9世紀ごろにはラテン語から完全に分離した古フランス語が成立した。その後14世紀ごろには中世フランス語へと変化し17世紀にはアカデミーフランセーズによってフランス語の純化整備が行われて現代フランス語が成立した。フランス語の統制機関としてはアカデミーフランセーズが挙げられる。これは1635年に宰相リシュリューによって創設された国家機関でフランス語の語法を整備して誰にでも理解できる言語とすることを目指しそのためにフランス語の辞書を編纂することを目的としていた。このは1694年に初版が発行されたのち現代に至るまで編纂発行が続けられている。もっとも新しい辞典は1992年に編纂されたものである。こうした言語の統制機関が国家によって創設されることは当時稀でありこれはそのままフランス語に対するフランス国家の強い影響力をもたらす根源となった。また、フランス語の現状に関する勧告を出すことも任務のひとつであり、強制力こそないものの、この勧告はフランス語に強い影響力を持つ。アカデミー・フランセーズは、フランス学士院を構成する5つのアカデミーの中で、もっとも古く地位の高いアカデミーである。アカデミー・フランセーズは終身任期を持つ40人の定員で構成され、欠員が生じた場合のみ補充が行われる。このメンバーは、フランス語話者の構成およびアカデミー自体が、フランス政府の国家機関として成立・存続してきたフランスの歴史を反映して、フランス国民が圧倒的に多いが、その他の国民であっても、ふさわしいと認められれば会員となることができる。たとえば1983年に会員となったレオポールセダールサンゴールは20年にわたってセネガル共和国の大統領を務めた人物であるがフランス語詩人としても非常に高名な存在でありまたフランス語圏の融和をはかる国際機関であるフランコフォニー国際機関の設立を主導したことなどから会員となることを認められた。フランス語を母語話者とする人々が多数派を占めるのはフランス一国のみである。ただしいくつかの国においてはフランス語の母語話者が大きな勢力を持っている。またフランス国内において本来フランス語を母語とする地域は北フランスに限られており南フランスの広い地域で話されるオック語を筆頭にブルターニュ半島で話されるケルト語系のブルトン語やアルザスで話されるドイツ語系のアルザス語コルシカ島で話されるイタリア語系のコルシカ語など系統の異なるいくつかの地方言語が存在する。ただしフランス政府はもっとも早く言語を政府の手で構築してきた国家でありフランス革命後は一貫してフランス語をフランスにおける唯一の言語であると規定してきた。こうしたことから教育をはじめとして国家による強力なフランス語普及政策がとられ上記の各言語地域においても現代ではほとんどフランス語が話されるようになってきている。ただし19世紀後半までオック語復権運動などが行われてきており現在はこの状況には地方言語の保護の観点から批判が根強い。フランス以外でもっともフランス語の母語話者の割合が大きい国家はベルギーであり、フランス語話者でありベルギー南部に居住するワロン人が人口の31%を占めている。ベルギーにおいては、北部に住みオランダ語の方言を話すフランドル人が人口の60%を占めており、ワロン人との間には言語戦争と呼ばれる深刻な言語の対立状況が存在する。この対立を背景にしてベルギーは南北の連邦国家となっており、南部のワロン地域の大部分はフランス語共同体を形成している。また、首都のブリュッセルは言語境界線の北側にあるもののフランス語話者の人口が8割を占めており、ブリュッセル首都圏地域として2言語併用の独自地域となっている。ついでフランス語話者の割合が高い国家はスイスである。スイス人のうちフランス語の母語話者は20.38%を占め、64%を占めるドイツ語話者に次ぐ勢力を持っている。スイスのフランス語話者は国土の西部に集中しており、ジュネーヴ州、ヴォー州、ヌーシャテル州、ジュラ州の4つのカントンがフランス語話者が多数を占める州としてフランス語を公用語としている。また、言語境界線の両側にまたがるフリブール州およびヴァレー州は、フランス語とドイツ語の両言語を公用語としている。スイスは多言語主義をとる国家であり、連邦の公用語はドイツ語、フランス語、イタリア語の3言語、それに国語としてロマンシュ語を加えた4つの言語を採用している。ヨーロッパ大陸においてフランス語の母語話者が大きな勢力を持つのはこの3か国である。このほかフランス語の母語話者が大勢力を持つ国としてはカナダがある。フランス語の母語話者はカナダ総人口の22%を占め無視できない勢力を持っている。特にフランス語話者が集中しているのは東部のケベック州であり連邦においては英語とフランス語がともに公用語とされているもののケベック州の公用語はフランス語のみとなっており積極的な保護政策がとられている。この言語対立を背景にしばしば独立運動が繰り広げられる。フランス語の母語話者が大きな勢力を持つのは上記地域に限られるが、そのほかの地域においてもかつてフランスが広大なフランス植民地帝国を持っていた関係で、旧植民地においてフランス語を公用語とする国々は数多く、29か国において公用語の地位を占めている。もっともフランス語が公用語化されている地域はアフリカであり、旧フランス領地域においては、セネガル、ギニア、マリ、コートジボワール、ブルキナファソ、トーゴ、ベナン、ニジェール、チャド、中央アフリカ、カメルーン、ガボン、コンゴ共和国、コモロ、マダガスカル、ジブチにおいてフランス語は公用語となっている。旧フランス領のほか、同じくフランス語を公用語とするベルギーの植民地であったコンゴ民主共和国およびブルンジもフランス語を公用語とする。一方、旧フランス領においても北アフリカに属するモーリタニア、モロッコ、アルジェリア、チュニジアにおいてはフランス語は公用語となっていない。これは、これらの国々の人口の大部分を占めるアラブ人の母語であるアラビア語も大言語であり公用語化に耐えうる言語であったため、独立後急速にアラビア語への公用語の切り替えが行われたためである。ただしこれらの国々においても、特にエリート層はフランス語を自由に使いこなせる者が多く、準公用語や文化言語として広く国内で通用する。特にアルジェリアでは、1,200万人前後がフランス語を常用する。また、旧ベルギー領であるルワンダは長らくフランス語を公用語としていたものの、ルワンダ虐殺の発生後フランスとの関係が急速に悪化し、2009年に英語を公用語に追加して以降、教育言語を英語に変更するなど急速に英語の公用語化を進めている。また、セーシェルやモーリシャスはナポレオン戦争以後イギリス領となっていたものの、それ以前はフランス領であり、その時代に入植した人々がその後も残留したため、社会の指導層はフランス語話者が占めており、両国とも共通語はフランス語となっている。また、国内でもっとも通用する言語も それぞれフランス語系のクレオール言語であるセーシェル・クレオール語とモーリシャス・クレオール語である。このほか、フランスの海外県であるマヨットおよびレユニオンもフランス語を公用語としており、レユニオンは日常語もフランス語系のクレオール言語であるレユニオン・クレオール語となっている。新大陸においては上記のカナダ以外にはハイチが唯一フランス語を公用語とする国家である。またハイチにおいては一般市民の日常語もフランス語系のクレオール言語であるハイチ語となっている。また公用語ではないが旧フランス領であるルイジアナ州の南西部を中心にケイジャンフランス語と呼ばれるフランス語の一派を話す人々が存在する。小アンティル諸島に点在するグアドループやマルティニークサンマルタンサンバルテルミー島および南アメリカ大陸のフランス領ギアナもフランス語を公用語とする。オセアニアにおいては、かつてイギリスとフランスの共同統治領であったバヌアツがフランス語を公用語のひとつとしている。また、フランスの海外領であるニューカレドニアおよびフランス領ポリネシア、ウォリス・フツナもフランス語を公用語としている。アジアにおいては旧フランス領であるベトナム、ラオス、カンボジアの3国において公用語が現地語化されてフランス語がほぼ通用しなくなっているが、わずかにレバノンにおいてはやや通用し、準公用語的な扱いを受けている。こうしたフランス語話者の言語共同体はフランコフォニーと呼ばれ1970年にフランコフォニー国際機関が設立され1986年には加盟国首脳の参加するフランコフォニーサミットが2年に一度開催されるようになるなどフランス語圏諸国の協調が図られている。ただしフランコフォニー国際機関にはエジプトやギリシャルーマニアなどのように国内にほとんどフランス語話者の存在しない国家も加盟しており逆にフランス語話者の多いアルジェリアが参加していないなどフランコフォニー国際機関加盟国がフランス語圏とは必ずしも言えない。国際機関などにおけるフランス語.フランス語は17世紀から19世紀までヨーロッパでもっとも有力な国際共通語であり、外交官用語として使われてきたため、国際機関において公用語となっていることが多い。具体例としては、以下の国際機関は、フランス語を公用語とする。国際連合、欧州評議会 。これらの機関において多くの場合フランス語は唯一の公用語ではなく英語などほかの言語と併用されている。しかしながら19世紀から20世紀初頭においては国際共通語としての地位を持っていたことからこの時期に創設された国際機関である万国郵便連合や国際電気通信連合国際オリンピック委員会や国際サッカー連盟においてフランス語は第一言語となっており英語よりも地位が高くなっている。国際連合においては、英語とフランス語はと定義されており、その他の国連公用語より位置づけが高い。また戦前には大日本帝国の日本国旅券においても、英語とともにフランス語が併記されていた。公式名称がフランス語である世界的に著名な国際競技団体も多い。FIFAワールドカップを開催している国際サッカー連盟、ツール・ド・フランスなどのUCIワールドツアーを開催している国際自転車競技連合などである。 +イタリア語はインドヨーロッパ語族イタリック語派に属する言語の1つでおおよそ6千万人ほどが日常的に使用しておりそのほとんどがイタリアに住んでいる。後置修飾で基本語順はSVO。イタリアは漢字でを略記し伊語と称される。イタリア語はイタリア、サンマリノ共和国で公用語として定められている。スイスではティチーノ州全域とグラウビュンデン州の一部がイタリア語圏であり、スイス全体としても公用語になっている。またスロベニアのイストリアとクロアチアには少数のイタリア語話者住民がいる。フランスのコルシカ島ではイタリア語の方言であるコルシカ語が使用されている。バチカン市国では公用語であるラテン語の他にイタリア語が一般の業務用語として使用される。またその昔はクラシック音楽の楽譜に書き込む楽語はイタリア語が公用語として長く守られてきており後の時代に作曲家がそれぞれの母語をも混合して楽譜に盛り込むようになってからも基本的な伝統的楽語はイタリア語によって書き記されている。イタリア語の方言は大きく北部方言中南部方言に大別できラスペツィア＝リミニ線が等語線となっている。そこから更に北西部北中部方言北東部方言中部方言南部方言周辺島嶼の方言に分けられる。イタリアは西ローマ帝国滅亡以降政治的分裂が長らく続いたため各地域毎の方言差が大きくなったとされる。これは同じく長年にわたって領邦国家時代が続いたドイツが多数の方言と地方言語を抱えている状況と似ている。イタリア本国の国語教育および他国のイタリア語教育の場において盛んに用いられている標準イタリア語はそうした各地の方言の中で最も周辺国の言語（フランス語やスペイン語などイタリア地方と歴史的に縁深い国の言葉）の影響を受けていない中央イタリアのトスカーナ方言にナポリ方言シチリア方言の語彙を取り入れたもので統一後の標準語政策によって盛んに広められた（詳しくは"方言#イタリアの方言政策"を参照）。そのため現在イタリア国民のほとんどは標準イタリア語の話者となっている。しかし一方でローカリズム運動の高まりもあって方言の中でも独自性の強いものについては独立した地位を与え保護すべきかどうかの議論が進められている。具体的にはシチリア語ナポリ語ヴェネト語ガロイタリア語などが例に挙げられ高齢層を中心にイタリア国民の4割が標準イタリア語と共にそうした地域独自の言語を理解できるという。都市部などでは現地化した標準イタリア語に取って代わられている。各方言を言語とすべきとする論者の中でも十数個の細かい言語へ分類するのかあるいはある程度まとまりのある規模一定の共通点を持つことについての異論はなくという表現をする地域主義者も存在する。各方言の特徴は中世以降の歴史的経緯もさることながら、ラテン人によるイタリア統一前に居住していた他の古代イタリア人やギリシャ人植民者の用いた言葉の影響も存在しており、これらは俗ラテン語時代を通じて現在に残っている。アルファベート(alfabeto)と呼ばれるラテン文字アルファベットの26文字を使用する。この内母音字のAEIOUにはアクセント符号を付ける場合があるが辞書上ではアクセント符号を付けない文字と同じ文字として扱う。K J X Yは人名や地名方言外来語で使用する。Wは古来の文字ではないので英語やドイツ語からなどの外来語で使用する。このため通常使用文字は21文字ともいえる。読み方は1文字だけ強調する場合はAを「アー」の様に伸ばすことも多い。イタリア語で良く使う文字の読み方は規則的だがX以外のあまり使われない文字の読み方は長く1つに確定していない。電話などでの綴り伝達法ではイタリアの都市の名を使いのように使用するが、Hは1文字目がHの都市名が無いため外来語のhotelを使用している。K, J, Yは外来語の一般名詞、W, Xは固有名詞を使う。辞書での単語の順は26文字を表の順に並べる。母音字のアクセント符号の有無は順に影響しない。大文字は、文章において文の先頭や固有名詞の先頭の1文字に使用する。代名詞などの敬称の先頭文字も大文字とする。碑文見出し本の題名漫画のふきだし手紙落書きなどにおいては文全体が大文字で書かれることもある。最近の文字の使用方法では携帯電話のメッセージや電子メールなどで文字数を少なくする用途でとなる。15世紀のイタリア詩人のジャンジョルジョトリッシーノはイタリア語の音素をより完璧に識別するための独自の正字法を提案したことがあるがこれは普及しなかった。イタリア語の音節は、1個以上の子音と母音の組み合わせからなる。発音に対する綴りは、子音と母音が一対一の場合は日本語のローマ字綴りに近い。また以下に示すように発音が規則的であり、同じ綴りで発音が違うといったケースが非常に少ない。子音 (consonante).以下は子音+母音の代表的なものと、日本語の発音との対応表である。日本語での発音は近いものを選んでいる。e と o についてはそれぞれ広狭の違いは割愛した。イタリア語のアクセントは強弱アクセントである。イタリア語にはラテン語と同様の二重子音があるが他のロマンス語であるフランス語やスペイン語のそれとは異なっている。この違いから他のロマンス語と比べて特有のアクセントがある。ラテン語で「子音 + codice_1 + 母音」であった音は、イタリア語では codice_1 が codice_3 に変化しているものが多い。接頭辞 re- が ri- になっているものが見られる。破裂音 + s, または異なる破裂音が連続する場合は後ろの音に同化し、長子音となる（actum→atto など）。また開音節で強勢を持つ短い o の多くがuoに変化している (bonus→buono)。文法、統語法についてはイタリア語の文法を参照。<動詞は括弧内に現在一人称単数をあげる>古代のイタリア半島においては複数の古代イタリア人とも言うべき部族が存在し、それぞれが異なる言語を用いていた。その後、古代イタリア人の一派であるラテン人の国家ローマによるイタリア統一によって、彼らの言葉であるラテン語がイタリア人の公用語として普及した。ラテン語はローマの力が西欧や地中海沿岸部に広がるにつれて更に拡大したが、公式の場で用いられるラテン語と民衆の話し言葉としてのラテン語、いわゆる民衆ラテン語には若干の差異が存在したと言われている。ローマ帝国の分裂は各地の民衆ラテン語の方言化を招きイタリアにおいてもと呼べる言葉が成立した。イタリアにおける民衆ラテン語の方言は時間と共に変化の度合いを深めいつしか他地域の民衆ラテン語とは明らかに異なる言語と言えるほどの変化を得た。民衆ラテン語から古イタリア語への変化がいつごろ生じたかを正確に判断することは難しくまたどのようなものであったかについての検証も当時の欧州諸国が公用語としてラテン語を用いていたことにより文書による記録が少ないため容易ではない。しかし少なくとも10世紀頃には既に成立していたと考えられている。イタリア語は近世のイタリア・ルネサンスにおいて、イタリア人共通の言語を形成しようとする文化人の運動の中で形成された。とりわけその主導権を握ったのはトスカーナ出身の詩人ダンテ・アリギエーリで、彼は当時古典ラテン語で書くのが一般的であった文学作品を、中央イタリア語のトスカーナ方言に南部のナポリ語・シチリア語の語彙を取り入れた言葉で執筆した。この言葉が現在のイタリア語と呼ばれる言語であるが、ダンテの作品が大きな文学的賞賛を得ながら、トスカーナ方言を中核にしたこの言葉が直ちに全土の公用語となることはなく、ダンテの死後からしばらくは死語になりかけすらした。だがバルダッサーレ・カスティリオーネらを中心とする文学者グループが再び共通語・標準語作りを呼び掛ける際、ダンテの事績を大いにたたえたことで標準語を求める動きは再加熱し、同時にダンテのも脚光を浴びた。しかしここでイタリアの文学者達に大論争が巻き起こる。カスティリオーネのグループはダンテの名声を政治的に利用しつつイタリアの様々な言語のグループが独立イタリア中を巻き込む一大論争に発展した。最終的にこの論争は後者の勝利となりカスティリオーネは退けられダンテの作ったとしてのイタリア語が地位を得た。この言語は文学者や詩人たちの手でそれまで欧州全体の公用語であったラテン語に変わる形で用いられその公的地位を向上させた。こうしたルネサンス期のイタリア語文化は後のリソルジメントにおいて民衆の統一を望む動きの原動力として影響力を発揮することとなる。統一当初正式な標準イタリア語（「文学的なトスカーナ方言」という表現もある）は貴族や学者など上流階級のみで話されており民衆は中部イタリア語系の俗語方言か系統の違うナポリ語などを話していた。イタリア政府は国民意識の更なる向上のためフランスの政策を参考に方言の廃止と標準語の浸透を国家政策として進めた。現在イタリア国民のほとんどがこの標準イタリア語を理解できる。しかし言語の統一は民族主義的な思想へと繋がり第一次世界大戦においては「イタリア語の響きが聞こえる全ての土地」をイタリア民族の下に統一しようとする民族思想（イリデンティズム）が盛んになる。ラテン語から最も近いトスカーナ方言をベースにしたイタリア語（ラテン語との同一性は75%に達する）の響きを持つということは全てのラテン語圏を指すのと同義でありこれが二度の世界大戦への参加を促す結果を生み出してしまった。各地を旅して興行が行われたオペラやコンメディアデッラルテもイタリア語の普及に貢献した。イタリア語と日本語の関係は、ほとんど名詞を借用する程度の範囲にとどまっている。ただ、近年の日本語において形容詞の最上級のようなイタリア語の派生語作成法が取り入れられる現象も存在する。イタリア語から日本語.イタリア語から日本語に取り入れられた語は、階名のドレミや演奏記号などの音楽用語が多い。イタリア料理の流行に伴い、スパゲッティやティラ・ミ・スなどの語も一般的である。また自動車の名前には古くから近年には建物名やファッション等にイタリア語の単語が使用されている。イタリアでサッカーが盛んであることから、日本のサッカークラブではイタリア語の単語もしくはそれをもじった造語をクラブ名の一部として使用することが多い。イタリア語から日本語の外来語に転じた語。ただし音楽食べ物の単語は除く。日本語からイタリア語.イタリア語における外来語は徐々にイタリア語風の綴りになる傾向があり日本語からの外来語も例外ではない。括弧内は語源イタリア語の日本語表記時の表記の揺れ.イタリア語の日本語表記を参照。日本における検定試験としては、イタリア語検定協会が実施している、年に二回行われている実用イタリア語検定がある。なお、イタリアの大学、高等教育機関入学資格取得を目指す外国人は、イタリア外務省より国際的な公式資格として認定されているCLIQ のペルージャ外国人大学、シエーナ外国人大学、ローマ第三大学、ダンテ・アリギエーリ協会、これらの一つの組織による検定試験が必要となる。CLIQ とは外国語として学習するイタリア語を検定するための統一基準である。CLIQ委員会はイタリア外務省と協定を結び下記の組織から構成されている。この基準は、EUが定める言語統一基準に適するものである。ペルージャ外国人大学のCELIとシエナ外国人大学のCILSはイタリア文化会館 を通じて受験でき年に2回主催されている。またダンテアリギエーリ協会（Societ Dante Alighieri） 主催のダンテアリギエーリ協会イタリア語検定も年に2回（5月と11月）行われている。過去の問題集はダンテアリギエーリ協会本部のホームページから閲覧できる。 +スペイン語はインドヨーロッパ語族イタリック語派に属する言語。俗ラテン語から発展して形成されたロマンス諸語の一つ。略して西語とも書く。スペイン語は、アメリカ州のうちイスパノアメリカ、スペイン、その他の旧スペイン植民地などの地域における主要言語で、スペイン語を第一言語とするものが約4億8023万人さらに第二言語として日常使用しているものを含め約5億7700万人の話者がいると推定されている。スペイン語を公用語としている国と地域の数は21以上あり、世界で英語日本では一般的にスペイン語と呼ばれることが多いがイスパニア語カスティージャ語カスティーリャ語などと呼ばれることもある。日本におけるスペイン語の漢字表記はという意味で用いられる。スペイン語はポルトガル語と似ておりかなりの水準で相互意思疎通が可能である。スペイン語は、ローマ帝国の公用語であったラテン語の口語である俗ラテン語を元に、アラビア語などの影響を受けながら発達した言語である。8世紀に北アフリカからイスラム教徒がイベリア半島に侵入し、その後、キリスト教徒によるレコンキスタが起こるが、この時期に俗ラテン語がロマンス諸語に変化した。このロマンス諸語が後に、ポルトガル語、スペイン語、イタリア語、フランス語、ルーマニア語などに分かれていく。イベリア半島では、アラビア語の影響なども受けながらイベリア系ロマンス語が発達し、カスティーリャ、レオン、ポルトガル、そしてイスラム系タイファ王国などで使用されていた（タイファ王国ではアラビア語のアンダルス方言も広く使用され、その影響を強く受けたロマンス語をモサラベ語と呼ぶ）。やがてレコンキスタの過程でカスティーリャ王国はその中心的勢力となり、スペイン王国の誕生後は事実上統一スペイン国家の国家語となった。このため、現在でもスペイン語のことをカステリャーノ () と呼ぶ人は多く存在する。この歴史的経緯により、文法などはラテン語の規則を多く受け継いでいるが、単語はアラビア語から借用したものも多く使われている。スペイン語の中のアラビア語起源の単語は主に、を通じた借用がある。またイベリアのムスリムの間ではスペイン語もアラビア文字で表記されることが少なくなかった。イベリア半島のムスリムはベルベル人が多かったため、ベルベル語の影響も存在している。なお、同じイベリア半島で話されている言語であるバスク語はローマ帝国やケルト人の進出以前から半島で使われていた言語と思われ、スペイン語とは大きく異なる。しかし、スペイン語はバスク語の影響も受けている。スペイン語は国連の6つの公用語の一つであり、スペインを始め、ブラジルを除く中南米18か国、北米1か国、アフリカ2か国、計21か国における公用語である。スペイン語が公用語である国・地域は以下の通り。なおスペインではカタルーニャ州バレンシア州バレアレス諸島州ではカタルーニャ語（バレンシア州ではヴァレンシア語）がバスク州とナバーラ州の一部ではバスク語がガリシア州ではガリシア語がスペイン語同様に地方公用語として認められている。南北アメリカ大陸では、メキシコ以南の21の国・地域のうち16か国がスペイン語を公用語としており、先住民族を含め、人口の大半がスペイン語を話す。加えて、英語を唯一の公用語とするベリーズにおいても最も話されている言語はスペイン語である。カリブ海地域でスペイン語を公用語としているのはキューバ、ドミニカ共和国、プエルトリコだが、人口では過半数を占める。これら、メキシコ以南のスペイン語圏と、ポルトガル語を公用語とするブラジル、場合によってはハイチなどのフランス語圏の国・地域を総称してラテンアメリカと呼ぶ。また、米国ではかつて南西部一帯がメキシコ領であった関係でスペイン語の地名が各地に残っており、ニューメキシコ州ではスペイン語が事実上の公用語となっている。中南米のスペイン語圏諸国をルーツに持つ米国人はと呼ばれ、メキシコ領時代から存在していたものの、近年急速にヒスパニック移民が増加した。その結果、米国では事実上の公用語の英語に加え、ヒスパニックの割合の高いカリフォルニア州やフロリダ州、テキサス州などではスペイン語が第二言語となりつつある。この状況を受けて、英語が母語の米国人の中でもスペイン語を学ぶ人が急増している。フィリピンは1898年までスペイン領であった関係もあり特に上流階級の間でスペイン語が使われていたが1986年に公用語から外された。とはいえ現在でも主にカトリック文化などの関係でスペイン語の単語が多数フィリピン人の日常生活で使われているだけでなくタガログ語などでスペイン語からの借用語が多くみられるほかチャバカノ語のようにスペイン語を基にしたクレオール言語も見られる。マリアナ諸島のチャモロ語は、スペインによる征服時に言語的にもスペイン語に圧倒された。スペイン語から非常に多くの借用語を取り入れたのみならず、固有の数詞も放棄し、スペイン語由来の数詞を用いている。旧スペイン植民地の西サハラやスペインに近いモロッコでも話されている。スペイン語話者数の推定.セルバンテス文化センターの2017年の報告書 ”El espaol una lengua viva informe 2017” によると2017年のスペイン語を母語とする人口は約4億7700万人でその他に約1億人が第2言語としてスペイン語を習得しておりそれらの限られた能力のものを含めると約5億7200万人のスペイン語話者がいる。最大の話者人口を抱えているのがメキシコであり総話者の4人に1人約1億2千万人がメキシコに在住している。続くコロンビアアルゼンチン米国スペインがそれぞれ総話者人口の約1割の約4千万人の話者がいる。米国に関しては同じセルバンテス文化センターが2015年の報告で5260万人の話者という推定を出しておりこれはメキシコに次ぐ人口である。また米国のヒスパニック人口の3分の2がメキシコ系でありそれらを含めると総話者に占めるメキシコ系話者の比率は3人に1人となる。かつてはアラゴン地方（アラゴン語）カタルーニャ地方（カタルーニャ語）バレアレス諸島（カタルーニャ語）バレンシア地方（バレンシア語）アストゥリアス地方（アストゥリアス語）レオン地方（レオン語）ガリシア地方（ガリシア語）の言語がスペイン語（カスティーリャ語）の方言とされた時期もあったが現在ではカタルーニャ語バレンシア語ガリシア語はいずれも独立した言語であると考えられておりそれぞれの地方において公用語とされている。アラゴン語アストゥリアス語レオン語もカスティーリャ語から派生した言語ではなくその他のロマンス語同様俗ラテン語が変化して今日に至っている言語であり言語学的には別の言語であるがカスティーリャ語の方言の扱いを受けることが多いのが現状である。語頭にあった f の多くは h になり、その後発音上は消滅。強勢のある e, o の多くは ie, ue に二重母音化。-ct- の多くは -ch- に変化。-ll- はフランス語の -ill-, イタリア語の -gli- に対応する。cl-, pl- の多くは ll に変化。現在の音素 は古くは , z であり、別音素だった。語頭の s + 閉鎖音は前に e が付加（）され、esc-/esqu-, esp-, est- となった。母音間の d は消滅していることが多い。語頭にあるあとに母音が続く i と母音にはさまれた強勢のない i は y に変化した。y は本来半母音だったが、摩擦音で発音されるのが一般的になった。二重母音における の音は英語のそれと同じように語頭や語中では -i, 語末では -y とつづる（他のロマンス系言語の多くは y は外来語以外に用いない）。v は古くは と発音したが、b と同じ に変化し、その後、借用語において原語の v のつづりを b に置き換える傾向がある。一方、w は v に置き換えられることがある。スペインで話されているスペイン語とラテンアメリカのスペイン語では、発音、アクセントが若干異なる。それ以外にも、地方により発音などに差異が出ることがある。母音は a e i o u の5つで日本語とほぼ同じである。ただしu は標準日本語のよりも口をすぼめて発音する。長音促音は無いがアクセントのある母音はやや長めに発音されることが多いので日本語話者には長音に聞こえることがある。母音のうち a, e, o を強母音、i 、また半母音はそれぞれ 、 で表記する。弱母音 + 弱母音の場合、音節主音は後の母音である。強母音 + 強母音の連続は母音接続で、二重母音とはならず、 のように同じ強母音字が連続する場合を含め、別の音節として発音する。また、弱母音字でもアセント がある場合 は強母音として扱う。後述するように gue, gui, que, qui の u は黙字であり、二重母音の一部ではない。 のようにさらに母音字が続く場合は、黙字の u を無視したうえで、上記の規則に従う。ディエレシスがある ge, gi の e, i は二重母音である。スペイン語のアクセントは強勢アクセントである。子音字 b, ch, d, f, m, n, p, r, s, y はローマ字の日本語読みとほぼ同様の感覚で単語を読むことができる。一方、c, g, h, j, l , q, v, x, z はローマ字読みとかならずしも一致しない。子音の発音には地域差があり、ここで示したのは比較的広く用いられているものである。以下の子音の連続は二重子音となる。分節上、単子音と同様に扱う。dr, tr は二重子音であるが、dl, tl は二重子音ではない。外来語はその発音やつづりの特徴から以下のパターンが挙げられる。外来語の発音については地域や世代個人によって多少差がある。は古い外来語でよく見られるほか固有名詞。例えば Spain は または と発音する。助動詞haberの活用.助動詞haberの活用形は、過去分詞とあわせて完了時制をつくる。下記の表では、が動詞serの過去分詞形。 +宗教学は経験科学の様々な手法を用いて宗教を研究する学際的な学問である。ドイツ語圏ではと言う。もともとは神学の一部であったが独立しキリスト教の神学以外の分野を対象とするかたちで民俗宗教から新宗教まで幅広く研究する学問分野である。現在では研究手法により宗教社会学比較宗教学宗教心理学宗教人類学宗教民俗学などと分類される。特定宗教の教義の研究を行う神学教学宗学あるいは宗教哲学とは区別される。広義の宗教学ではこれらを含める場合もある。宗教学は経験科学の範囲内のみとするか形而上学的範囲を含めるかは課題である。宗教学は19世紀後半にヨーロッパにおいて成立した。欧米における経験科学の発達および植民地支配等による様々な宗教との接触が発生の背景にある。宗教学研究の初期の段階では、キリスト教と他の宗教を比較検討することにより、宗教の一般的要素、普遍的要素の追求や進化・発展過程の研究が行われた。マクス・ミュラーによるインドの宗教研究に基づいた東洋と西洋の宗教の比較や、ジェームズ・フレイザーによる古代ギリシア・古代ローマの宗教、ヨーロッパ民間信仰、原始宗教の比較研究がこれにあたる。また、社会学・心理学の発展において宗教はその研究対象となった。社会学の例として、エミール・デュルケームの『宗教生活の原初形態』や、マックス・ウェーバーの『プロテスタンティズムの倫理と資本主義の精神』があげられる。また、心理学においても、スターバックの宗教心理学や、ウィリアム・ジェームズの『宗教的経験の諸相』が19世紀末から20世紀はじめにかけて発表されている。また、文化人類学や民族学、民俗学においては、成立時より、多くの研究領域が重なっているといえる。このように宗教学は、「宗教」という研究対象に対し、様々な研究方法を用いて研究が進められている。個々の研究は宗教学の研究であると同時に社会学・心理学・文化人類学等それぞれの研究であるとも言える。音楽とは、音による芸術である。といったものまで様々な定義がある。音楽の歴史は有史以前まで遡ることが出来る。近年では人々の音楽を聴く行為を統計的に見ると、再生音楽が聴かれている割合が多くなっている（#生演奏 / 再生音楽）。広辞苑では「音による芸術」とした。4世紀古代ローマの哲学者アウグスティヌスのではと語った。に既にという表現がみられる。英語の"Music"を始めヨーロッパの多くの言語においては古代ギリシャ語の を語源とする。ムーサはミューズの名でも知られる芸術や文化を司る女神である。音楽の分類にあたって、まず注意すべきことがある。諸民族が展開してきた音楽文化や各文化の中に存在する多くの種目に対して恣意的な分類を行いレッテルをはることは、便利ではあるが、誤解を招く危険がある。というレッテル・分類用語は非常に不適切なのである。中立的な分類方法としては、などと分類する方法で、これは実際広く行われている。そして一部の国ばかりに関心を向けて取り上げておいて、他の国を無視するようでは、中立性を欠いていて、見方が偏っていることになる。そして、...と分類していることも、中立的で、なおかつ現実的なのである。上で指摘した中立的分類法の基本となる、国だけ分類する方法は一部を抜粋しただけでも以下のようなものがあることになる。上記の国別の分類に加えて、コトバンクで指摘されているように、各国名とジャンル名を組み合わせて、たとえば「○○国のポピュラーミュージック。音楽のとは音楽の様式や形式のことである。古来、音楽は多くの社会で娯楽、宗教、儀式などを通じ、生活に密接したものになっており、多くの特徴ある形式や様式を生み出してきた。音楽のジャンルは、現在聞くことの出来る音楽の様式・形式であると同時に、発生した源、歴史の手がかりとなっている。現代の音楽は様々なジャンルの複雑な合成になっていることが多い。音楽は有史以前から行われていたとされるがいつどのように始まったかは定かでない。ただそれは歌から始まったのではないかと考えられている。西洋では古代ギリシアの時代にはピタゴラスやプラトンにより音楽理論や音楽に関する哲学が始まっており古代ギリシアの音楽はギリシア悲劇や詩に伴う音楽が主であった。これが後のクラシック音楽に繋がっている。東洋では江戸時代まで総検校塙保己一らによって温故堂で講談された和学や、中国神話によると、縄の発明者の氏族が歌舞や楽器、楽譜を発明したとされる。塙保己一は、撚糸である縄や結縄の発祥を日本列島から出土する土器や房総半島飯岡の網小屋に遺る有結網に捜し求めた研究成果を群書類従に編纂した。クラシック音楽の音楽史においては、6世紀頃まで遡ることができる。まず、この頃にキリスト教の聖歌であるグレゴリオ聖歌や、多声音楽が生まれ（中世西洋音楽）、これが発展し、15世紀にはブルゴーニュ公国のフランドル地方でルネサンス音楽が確立された。16世紀には本格的な器楽音楽の発達、オペラの誕生が起こり、宮廷の音楽が栄えた（バロック音楽）。これ以前の音楽を初期音楽とよぶことが多い。その後18世紀半ばになると民衆にも音楽が広まり、古典派音楽とよばれる「形式」や「和声」に重点をおいた音楽に発展した。またこの頃から一般的に音楽が芸術として見られるようになる。19世紀には「表現」に重点を置いたロマン派音楽に移行し、各国の民謡などを取り入れた国民楽派も生まれる。20世紀頃には「気分」や「雰囲気」で表現する印象主義音楽や、和声および調の規制をなくした音楽などの近代音楽が生まれ、さらに第二次世界大戦後は現代音楽とよばれる自由な音楽に発展した。ポピュラー音楽の歴史は17世紀頃アメリカへの移民まで遡る。本格的に移民が行われるようになると白人によるミュージカルのような劇場音楽が盛んになった。またアフリカからの黒人により霊歌が現れ1970年代にはヒップホップの動きが現れた。...など。基本的に各ジャンルの記事の中に歴史の節がありそこで説明。日本では、縄文時代からすでに音楽が始まっていたが、5世紀から8世紀にかけて朝鮮半島・中国から音楽を取り入れたことからさまざまなジャンルの音楽が始まった。まず、平安時代に遣唐使を廃止して国風文化が栄えていた頃、外来音楽を組み込んだ雅楽が成立し、宮廷音楽が盛んになった。その後鎌倉時代・室町時代には日本固有の猿楽が始まり、能・狂言に発展した。江戸時代でも日本固有の音楽が発達し、俗楽に発展した。明治時代以降は音楽においても西洋化、大衆化が進み、西洋音楽の歌曲やピアノ曲が作曲された。昭和時代には歌謡曲や流行歌などの昭和時代のポピュラー音楽が始まり、戦後はアメリカのポピュラー音楽や現代音楽が取り入れられ、演歌やJ-POPに発展した。...など。基本的にはの節で解説されている。上記の要素に関連していわゆる西洋音楽の世界では一般に音楽はリズムメロディーハーモニーの三要素からなると考えられている。ただし実際の楽曲ではそれぞれが密接に結びついているので一つだけを明確に取り出せるわけではない。また音楽であるために三要素が絶対必要という意味ではない。たとえば西洋音楽以外ではハーモニーは存在しないか希薄であることが多いし逆に一部の要素が西洋音楽の常識ではありえないほど高度な進化を遂げた音楽も存在する。このようにこれら三要素の考え方は決して完全とは言えないが音楽を理解したり習得しようとする時に実際に用いられ効果をあげている。音楽行為に関しては、現代では一般的にが基本として考えられている。作曲とは、作曲者の心に感じた事を音によって表現することである。演奏とは、再現芸術ともよばれ、作曲された音楽を実際に音として表現する行為であり、原曲を変え。鑑賞とは音楽を聴いてそれを味わったり、価値を見極めたりすることである。作曲とは曲を作ることあるいは音楽の次第を考案することである。具体的には楽譜を作成してゆくということもあれば即興演奏という方法で楽譜制作は抜いて作曲をすると同時に演奏をしてゆくということもある。演奏とは実際に音を出すことつまり音楽を奏でることであり楽器を奏することだけでなく広義には歌を歌うことも含まれる。演奏には即興演奏もあれば譜面に従った演奏もある。なかでもジャズでは即興演奏が多用され一方クラシック音楽では通常は譜面の音符の通りに演奏されている。真に機械だけによる演奏は自動演奏と呼ばれている。鑑賞とは演奏を視覚聴覚等で楽しむことにより音楽的芸術を示すことである。音楽評論家等は職業としてそれを行っていると考えて良いだろう。楽器の編成は演奏する音楽のジャンルによってある程度左右される。例えば以下のようなものがある。生演奏 / 再生音楽.音楽は生演奏だけでなく記録再生されたを楽しむことができる。近年では人々の音楽を聴く行為を統計的に見ると再生音楽が聴かれている時間頻度が圧倒的に多くなっている。生演奏される音楽は、 パフォーマーがパフォームするたびに、多かれ少なかれ、異なるという特徴がある。音楽の記録・伝達方法として最も古いものは口承であるが、やがていくつかの民族は音楽を記号の形にして記す、いわゆる楽譜を発明し使用するようになった。各民族では様々な記譜法が開発されたが、11世紀初頭にイタリアのグイード・ダレッツォが譜線を利用した記譜法を開発し、これが徐々に改良されて17世紀に入るとヨーロッパにおいて五線譜が発明された。五線譜はすべての楽曲や楽器の表記に使用でき、さらに譜面上で作曲もできるほど完成度が高かったため、以後これが楽譜の主流となった。楽譜はあくまでも音楽のデータを記号に変換して記すものにすぎなかったが1877年にトーマスエジソンが蝋菅録音機を発明すると音楽そのものの記録が可能となった。録音の技術はその後も発達し続け1960年代には録音機器やシンセサイザーの普及がポピュラー音楽の製作手法を根本的に変えた。1990年代にはデジタルレコーディングが普及し音楽の加工の技術的な可能性が広がった。音楽を伝達する媒体には様々なものが存在する。記録媒体に音楽を保存するものとしてはSP盤LP盤EP盤コンパクトカセットCDビデオテープLDフロッピーディスクMDUSBSDHDDSSDDVDBDHVDなどが存在する。こうした記録媒体の音楽はウォークマンなどのデジタルオーディオプレーヤーをはじめとする録音再生機器によって再生され使用される。また音楽を配信する手段としてはAM放送FM放送などのラジオ放送やテレビなどの放送メディアが存在するほか最近ではデータ圧縮技術を活用してインターネット経由の音楽配信が盛んとなってきている。古くは王侯貴族や教会などが音楽家を保護し、そのなかで数々の名曲が生み出されていたが、18世紀頃よりヨーロッパにおいては市民の経済力が向上し、不特定多数の聴衆に向けての演奏会が盛んに行われるようになった。この傾向はフランス革命以後、上記の特権階級の消滅や市民階級の経済力向上に従ってさらに加速していった。また、16世紀には活版印刷の発明によって楽譜も出版されるようになった。印刷楽譜はそれまでの書写によるものより量産性・正確性・価格のすべてにおいて優れたものであり、音楽、とくに同一の曲の普及に大きな役割を果たした。楽譜出版は、19世紀には商業モデルとして確立し、音楽産業の走りとなった。19世紀末までは自分で演奏を行う以外は音楽を楽しむには基本的に音楽家が必要であったが1877年にトーマスエジソンが蓄音機を発明し次いで1887年にエミールベルリナーがこれを円盤形に改良しここからレコードが登場すると音楽そのものの個人所有が可能となり各個人が家庭で音楽を楽しむこともこれによって可能となった。次いで1920年代にラジオ放送が開始されマスメディアが音声を伝えることも可能になるとすぐに音楽番組が開始され不特定多数の人々に一律の音楽を届けることが可能となり音楽の大衆文化化が進んだ。そしてその基盤の上に音楽の制作や流通広告を生業とするレコード会社が出現し大規模な音楽産業が成立することとなった。その後テレビなどの新しいメディアの登場と普及カセットテープや1980年代のコンパクトディスクの登場など新しい媒体の出現1979年に発売されたウォークマンのような携帯音楽プレーヤーの登場などで音楽愛好者はさらに増加し音楽産業は隆盛の一途をたどった。これが変化するのは1990年代後半にインターネットが普及し初めてからである。インターネットを介した音楽供給はそれまでのように音楽を保存した媒体をもはや必要とせず物として音楽を所有する需要は減少の一途をたどった。一方で音楽祭や演奏会はこの時期を通じて開催され続けておりライブなどはむしろ隆盛を迎えているなど音楽産業を巡る環境は変化し続けている。音楽都市と言えば一般に、音楽文化が特に豊かな都市、音楽が住民の日常生活にすっかり溶け込んでいる都市、あるいは音楽産業が非常に栄えている都市、などのことを指す。以下はその例である。その他、音楽都市を標榜する市町村は全国各地に存在する。音楽を、単なるとして認識する脳のメカニズムは、まだ詳しくわかっていない。それどころか、ヒトが周囲の雑多な音の中からどうやって声や音を分離して聞き分けているのかなど、聴覚認知の基本的なしくみすら未解明なことが多い。しかし、音楽と脳の関係について、以下のようないくつかの点はわかっている。音楽のなだめるようなやる気を起こさせる音は、心臓血管の健康へのさまざまな利点を含む、幅広い健康上の利点を提供する。適切な状況で適切な種類の音楽を使用すると、ニーズに応じて、感情的な状態と全体的な健康状態を向上させることができる。音楽を研究する学問として音楽学がある。音楽理論に関するものとしては音楽哲学音楽美学がある。ほかに音楽の歴史を研究する音楽史音楽教育学音楽心理学音楽音響学などもある。西洋音楽と各民族の民族音楽を比較研究する比較音楽学は人類学の影響を受けて各民族の音楽文化を研究する民族音楽学へと変化した。また文学研究でも音楽との関連などが研究される。研究者が音楽評論を書くこともある。その文化的発展度を問わず音楽はどの民族にも普遍的に存在しており様々に利用されてきた。軍隊の行軍や指揮に音楽はつきもので現代においても多くの国家の軍は軍楽隊を所持している。日々の労働にリズムをつけ効率を高めるための労働歌もまた多くの民族に伝わっており日本でも田植え歌や木遣などはこれにあたる。歌垣のように求愛のために音楽を用いることも世界中に広く見られる。魔術的呪術的用途さらには宗教的用途に音楽を使用することも多くの民族に共通しており例えばヨーロッパにおいては教会が18世紀頃までは音楽の重要な担い手の一つだった。一方1990年代にアフガニスタンで政権を打ち立てたターリバーンは公共の場の音楽はイスラムの基準に合致しないと解釈しており徹底的な弾圧を行った。2021年にターリバーンが復権した際には直ちに有名歌手が殺害されたほか弾圧を恐れたアフガニスタン国立音楽院の教師や生徒100人以上が国外へ脱出した。ヨーロッパの中世大学教育における自由七科のひとつに音楽が含まれていたように音楽は教養としても重視されることが多くやがて19世紀に入り近代教育がはじまると音楽も初等教育からそのカリキュラムの中に組み込まれていった。明治維新後の日本もこの考え方を踏襲したが西洋音楽を扱える人材がほとんど存在しなかったため即時導入はできず明治15年のの発行を皮切りに徐々に唱歌が導入されていくこととなった。こうした一般教養としての音楽教育のほか音楽のプロを育成する音楽学校も世界各地に存在しさまざまな音楽家を育成している。音楽はしばしば、民族のアイデンティティと結びつきナショナリズムの発露をもたらす。世界のほとんどの独立国が国歌を制定しているのもこの用途によるものである。国歌だけでなく、一般の音楽においてもこうしたつながりは珍しくない。19世紀にはナショナリズムのうねりの中で、当時の音楽の中心地であるドイツ・フランス・イタリア以外のヨーロッパ諸国において、自民族の音楽の要素を取り入れたクラシック音楽の確立を目指す国民楽派が現れ、多くの名作曲家が出現した。民族音楽においてもナショナリズムとのつながりは一般的に強いものがあり、また、ポピュラー音楽でも、民族を越えてその国家内で愛唱される場合、国民の統合をもたらす場合がある。 +インドネシア共和国通称インドネシアは東南アジア南部に位置する共和制国家。首都はジャワ島に位置するジャカルタ首都特別州。インドネシアは5110kmと東西に非常に長く連なる世界最多の島嶼を抱える島国である。同国は赤道にまたがる1万3466もの大小の島により構成されている。国の公用語はインドネシア語である。人口は2億6400万人を超える世界第4位の規模でありまた世界最大のムスリム人口を有する国家としても知られている。島嶼国家であるため、その広大な領域に対して陸上の国境線で面しているのは、ティモール島における東ティモール、カリマンタン島（ボルネオ島）におけるマレーシア、ニューギニア島におけるパプアニューギニアの3国だけである。海を隔てて近接している国家は、パラオ、インド、フィリピン、シンガポール、オーストラリアなど。南シナ海南部にあるインドネシア領ナトゥナ諸島はインドシナ半島や領有権主張が競合するスプラトリー諸島と向かい合う。東南アジア諸国連合の盟主とされASEAN本部が首都ジャカルタにある。そのため2009年以降アメリカ中国など50か国あまりのASEAN大使がジャカルタに常駐しており日本も2011年5月26日にジャカルタにASEAN日本政府代表部を開設し大使を常駐させている。東南アジアから唯一G20に参加している。公式の英語表記は略称は 。日本語表記はインドネシア共和国略称はインドネシア。漢字表記は印度尼西亜略称は印尼。国名インドネシアは諸島を意味する接尾辞。ギリシャ語で島を意味するネソス の複数形ネシオイ に由来する。オランダ領東インド時代の1920年代に定着した。インドネシアの国旗は上部に赤、下部に白の2色で構成された長方形で、縦と横の比率が1:2である。モナコ公国の国旗と類似しているが、こちらは縦横比が4:5と異なる。ポーランド国旗とも似ているが、赤と白の配置が上下逆である。国章は、と呼ばれる。ガルーダはインド神話に登場する伝説上の鳥で、ヴィシュヌ神の乗り物と言われる。鷹のような図柄である。尾の付け根の羽毛は19枚、首の羽毛は45枚で、尾の羽毛は8枚、翼の羽毛は左右それぞれに17枚ずつあり、独立宣言をした1945年8月17日の数字を表している。先史時代は様々な出土品から石器時代と金属器時代の2つに大きく分けることができる。人類が使用する色々の道具を石器で作っていた時代である。なお当時は石器のみではなく竹や木からの利器や器具道具が作られていた。この石器時代をさらに旧石器時代中石器時代新石器時代巨大石器時代の4つに分けることができる。後にインドネシアとなる地域に住んでいたマレー系の人々は紀元前1世紀頃から来航するインド商人の影響を受けてヒンドゥー教文化を取り入れ5世紀頃から王国を建国していった。諸王国はインドと中国をつなぐ中継貿易の拠点として栄えシュリーヴィジャヤ王国シャイレーンドラ朝 古マタラム王国クディリ王国シンガサリ王国マジャパヒト王国などの大国が興亡した。12世紀以降はムスリム商人がもたらしたイスラム教が広まり人々のイスラム化が進んだ。大航海時代の16世紀になると香辛料貿易の利を求めてヨーロッパのポルトガルイギリスを本拠地としたオランダ東インド会社による覇権が確立された。東インド会社により搾取され続けていたインドネシアであったが、オランダはインドネシアの民衆が結束しないよう、320種以上あった種族語をまとめた共通語を作ることを禁じた。また、一切の集会や路上で3人以上が立ち話することも禁止され、その禁止を破ると「反乱罪」で処罰された。オランダは一部の現地人をキリスト教に改宗させ優遇することで彼らに間接統治させたり、搾取をする経済の流通は華僑に担わせたりしていた。オランダ人は18世紀のマタラム王国の分割支配によりジャワ島、19世紀のアチェ戦争によりスマトラ島のほとんどを支配するようになる。この結果、1799年にオランダ東インド会社が解散され、1800年にはポルトガル領東ティモールを除く東インド諸島の全てがオランダ領東インドとなり、ほぼ現在のインドネシアの領域全体がオランダ本国政府の直接統治下に入った。ただし、オランダと政体を変遷した。インドネシアは、1811年から1815年のネーデルラント連合王国建国まで英国領であった。1819年イギリスのトーマスラッフルズがシンガポールの地政学上の重要性に着目しジョホール王国の内紛に乗じてイギリス東インド会社の勢力下に獲得したことにオランダが反発。1824年に英蘭協約が締結されオランダ領東インドの領域が確定した。日本は南進論の影響もあり1925年には田邊宗英らの発起の三ツ引商事などがスラバヤへ進出した。オランダによる過酷な植民地支配下で、20世紀初頭には東インド諸島の住民による民族意識が芽生えた。ジャワ島では、1908年5月20日にブディ・ウトモが結成され、植民地政府と協調しつつ、原住民の地位向上を図る活動に取り組んだ。設立日である5月20日はと定められている。1910年代にはイスラームを紐帯とするサレカット・イスラームが東インドで大規模な大衆動員に成功し、1920年代にはインドネシア共産党が労働運動を通じて植民地政府と鋭く対立した。この地の民族主義運動が最高潮を迎えるのは、1927年のスカルノによるインドネシア国民党の結成と、1928年のである。インドネシア国民党の運動は民族の独立を掲げでは唯一の祖国インドネシア唯一の民族インドネシア民族唯一の言語インドネシア語が高らかに宣言された。しかしインドネシア共産党は1927年末から1928年にかけて反乱を起こしたことで政府により弾圧されスカルノやハッタが主導する民族主義運動もオランダの植民地政府によって非合法化された。スカルノらの民族主義運動家はオランダにより逮捕され拷問を受けた末に長く流刑生活を送ることになり以後の民族主義運動は冬の時代を迎えることになった。1939年ヨーロッパで第二次世界大戦が勃発。翌年オランダ本国はナチスドイツに占領された（オランダにおける戦い (1940年)）。アジアでは日中戦争激化に伴い英米は日本に対して厳しい態度で臨むようになりオランダ植民地政府もいわゆる対日「ABCD包囲網」に加わった。1941年2月初め日本は東南アジア地域を占領地とした場合を想定して軍政を研究し始めた。陸軍参謀本部第一部の中に研究班が設けられ南方占領地行政に関する研究が行われた。3月末『南方作戦に於ける占領地統治要綱案』を始めとする一連の軍政要綱案が作成されこの研究をもとに同年11月20日付けの大本営政府連絡会議で『南方占領地行政実施要綱』が策定された。この『実施要綱』の基本は「占領地に対しては差し当たり軍政を実施し治安の恢復重要国防資源の急速獲得及び作戦軍の自活確保に資す」ことに置かれていた。そして「国防資源取得と占領軍の現地自活の為民生に及ぼさざる得ざる重圧は之を忍ばしめ宣撫上の要求は右目的に反せざる限度に止（とど）むるものとす」とされていた。したがって独立運動に対しては「皇軍に対する信倚（しんい）観念を助長せしむる如く指導し其の独立運動は過早に誘発せしむることを避くるものとす」とした。これが「東亜の解放」「英米の支配からの解放」をスローガンに「大東亜共栄圏」の実現を主張した日本の本心でもあった。続く11月26日には東南アジア占領地域についての陸軍と海軍の担当地域の取り決めである『占領地軍政実施に関する陸海軍中央協定』が定められ蘭印地域のうちスマトラジャワ地域は陸軍担当それ以外の地域については海軍担当とされた。日本時間の1941年12月8日午前2時15分と最大限の歓迎で迎えた。インドネシアにおける日本の軍政についてはジャワ島を3つに分ける省制度を廃止したほかは基本的にオランダ時代の統治機構を踏襲した。州長官に日本人を配置しオランダ時代の王侯領には自治を認めジャカルタは特別市として州なみの扱いとした。軍政の実務は日本人の行政官が担い州以下のレベルには地方行政はインドネシア人が担当した。同時に日本海軍はボルネオの油田を日本陸軍はスマトラの油田を保有した。そして日本の統治はオランダ植民地政府により軟禁され流刑地にあったスカルノを救出して日本に協力させこの国民的指導者を前面に立て実施された。スカルノは日本に対して懐疑心を抱いていなかったわけではなかったが開戦前に受けたインドネシア独立に対するオランダの強硬な態度に鑑みオランダの善意に期待できない以上日本に賭けて見ようと考えたのであった。教育制度に関して日本は、オランダが長年行ってきた愚民化政策を取りやめ、現地の人々に高等教育を施し、官吏養成学校、師範学校、農林学校、商業学校、工業学校、医科大学、商船学校などを次々開設して、短期間に10万人以上の現地人エリートを養成した。1943年中盤以降日本はアジア太平洋地域における戦局悪化の趨勢を受けてジャワスマトラバリの現地住民の武装化を決定し募集したインドネシア人青年層に高度の軍事教練を施した。それらの青年層を中心にジャワでは司令官以下の全将兵がインドネシア人からなる郷土防衛義勇軍が発足した。郷土防衛義勇軍は義勇軍と士官学校を合併したような機関で38000名の将校が養成され兵補と警察隊も編成された。このような日本軍政期に軍事教練を経験した青年層の多数は後のインドネシア独立戦争期に結成される正規非正規の軍事組織で中心的な役割を果たすことになった。インパール作戦の失敗によって、ビルマ方面の戦況が悪化すると、日本は1944年9月3日には将来の独立を認容するを発表。さらに1945年3月に東インドに独立準備調査会を発足させ、スカルノやハッタらに独立後の憲法を審議させた。同年8月7日スカルノを主席とする独立準備委員会が設立され、その第1回会議が18日に開催されるはずであったが、8月15日に日本が降伏したことによって、この軍政当局の主導による独立準備は中止されることとなった。国連の調査では日本による占領中の飢饉と強制労働（ロームシャ）の結果400万人が死亡したとしている。しかし1945年8月15日に日本がオランダを含む連合国軍に降伏し念願の独立が反故になることを恐れたスカルノら民族主義者は同17日ジャカルタのプガンサアンティムール通り56番地でインドネシア独立宣言を発表した。独立宣言文の日付は皇紀を用いている。しかしこれを認めず再植民地化に乗り出したオランダと独立戦争を戦うことを余儀なくされた。インドネシア人の側は外交交渉を通じて独立を獲得しようとする外交派とオランダとの武力闘争によって独立を勝ち取ろうとする闘争派との主導権争いにより必ずしも足並みは揃っていなかったが戦前の峻烈な搾取を排除し独立を目指す人々の戦意は高かった。独立宣言後に発足した正規軍だけでなく各地でインドネシア人の各勢力が独自の非正規の軍事組織を結成し日本の連合国軍への降伏後に多数の経験豊かな日本の有志将校がインドネシアの独立戦争に参加して武装化した。彼らは連合国軍に対する降伏を潔しとしない日本軍人の一部でインドネシア側に武器や弾薬を提供した。これらの銃器の他にも刀剣竹槍棍棒毒矢などを調達し農村まで撤退してのゲリラ戦や都市部での治安を悪化させるなど様々な抵抗戦によって反撃した。この独立戦争にはスカルノやハッタら民族独立主義者の理念に共感し軍籍を離脱した一部の日本人3000人（軍人と軍属）も加わって最前列に立ってオランダと戦い（残留日本兵#蘭印（インドネシア））その結果1000人が命を落とした。しかしながらインドネシアに数百年来住む華僑（中国人）の大部分はオランダ側に加担してインドネシア軍に銃を向けた。他方で政府は第三国などに外交使節団を派遣して独立を国際的にアピールし、また、発足したばかりの国際連合にも仲介団の派遣を依頼して、外交的な勝利に向けても尽力した。結果として、1947年8月1日に国際連合安全保障理事会で停戦および平和的手段による紛争解決が提示された。独立戦争は4年間続きオランダに対する国際的な非難は高まっていった。最終的に共産化を警戒するアメリカの圧力によってオランダは独立を認めざるを得なくなった。こうした武力闘争と外交努力の結果1949年12月のでオランダから無条件で独立承認を得ることに成功しオランダ統治時代の資産を継承した。これによって国際法上正式に独立が承認された。しかしこの資産には60億ギルダーという膨大な対外債務（うちオランダ向け債務20億ギルダーについてはオランダが債務免除に同意した）も含まれており財政的な苦境に立たされることとなる。その解決のために円卓会議の取り決めを一方的に破棄外国資産の強制収容を行うなど強攻策をとりさらには国連から脱退するなどスカルノ政権崩壊まで国際的な孤立を深めていくこととなる。現在でも8月17日を独立記念日としておりジャカルタを中心に街中に国旗を掲揚して様々なイベントを開催し祝賀ムードに包まれることが恒例となっている。オランダからの独立後、憲法（1950年憲法）を制定し、議会制民主主義の導入を試みた。1955年に初の議会総選挙を実施、1956年3月20日、第2次アリ・サストロアミジョヨ内閣が成立した。国民党、マシュミ、NUの3政党連立内閣であって、インドネシア社会党（PSI）、インドネシア共産党は入閣していない。この内閣は5カ年計画を立てた。その長期計画は、西イリアン帰属闘争、地方自治体設置、地方国民議会議員選挙実施、労働者に対する労働環境改善、国家予算の収支バランスの調整、植民地経済から国民の利益に基づく国民経済への移行により、国家財政の健全化を図ることなどである。しかし民族的にも宗教的にもイデオロギー的にも多様で各派の利害を調整することは難しく議会制は機能しなかった。また1950年代後半に地方で中央政府に公然と反旗を翻す大規模な反乱が発生し国家の分裂の危機に直面した。この時期、1950年憲法の下で権限を制約されていたスカルノ大統領は、国家の危機を克服するため、1959年7月5日、大統領布告によって1950年憲法を停止し、大統領に大きな権限を与えた1945年憲法に復帰することを宣言した。ほぼ同時期に国会を解散して、以後の議員を任命制とし、政党の活動も大きく制限した。スカルノによる「指導される民主主義」体制の発足である。この構想は激しい抵抗を受け、中部・北・南スマトラ、南カリマンタン・北スラウェシのように国内は分裂した。ついに、スカルノは全土に対し、戒厳令を出した。スカルノは政治勢力として台頭しつつあった国軍を牽制するためにインドネシア共産党に接近し国軍との反目を利用しながら国政における自身の主導権を維持しようとした。この時期盛んにスカルノが喧伝したは「ナショナリズム(Nasionalisme）宗教が勃発した。1965年CONEFOに加盟した。スカルノのは、1965年の9月30日事件によって終わりを告げた。インドネシア国軍と共産党の権力闘争が引き金となって発生したこの事件は、スカルノからスハルトへの権力委譲と、インドネシア共産党の崩壊という帰結を招いた。1968年3月に正式に大統領に就任したスハルトは、スカルノの急進的なナショナリズム路線を修正し、西側諸国との関係を修復。スカルノ時代と対比させ、自身の政権をと呼んだ。スハルトはスカルノと同様に、あるいはそれ以上に独裁的な権力を行使して国家建設を進め、以後30年に及ぶ長期政権を担った。その間の強引な開発政策は開発独裁と批判されつつもインフラストラクチャーの充実や工業化などにより一定の経済発展を達成することに成功した。日本政府は国際協力事業団を通じインドネシア尿素肥料プロジェクトに参加した。その一方で東ティモール独立運動アチェ独立運動イリアンジャヤ独立運動などに対して厳しい弾圧を加えた。1997年のアジア通貨危機に端を発するインドネシア経済混乱のなか1998年5月にが勃発しスハルト政権は崩壊した。スハルト政権末期の副大統領だったユスフハビビが大統領に就任し民主化を要求する急進派の機先を制する形で民主化分権化の諸案を実行した。スハルト時代に政権を支えたゴルカルスハルト体制下で存続を許された2つの野党以外の政党の結成も自由化され1999年6月総選挙が実施され民主化の時代を迎えた。その結果、同年10月、最大のイスラーム系団体ナフダトゥル・ウラマーの元議長、アブドゥルラフマン・ワヒドに就任した。メガワティ・スカルノプトリは副大統領に選ばれた。しかし、2001年7月、ワヒド政権は議会の信任を失って解任された。メガワティ政権・ユドヨノ政権.代わって、闘争民主党のメガワティ政権が発足した。その後2004年4月に同国初の直接選挙で選ばれた第6代スシロ・バンバン・ユドヨノが2009年に60%の得票を得て再選され、2014年までの大統領の任にあった。2013年、MIKTAに加盟した。2014年7月の選挙で当選した闘争民主党のジョコウィドドが第7代大統領に就任した。2019年8月16日の議会演説で首都を現在のジャカルタからインドネシアのほぼ中央に位置するカリマンタン島の東カリマンタン州「北プナジャムパスール県」「クタイカルタネガラ県」に遷都する考えを表明した。遷都は2024年に開始される予定。多民族国家であり種族言語宗教は多様性に満ちている。そのことを端的に示すのはというスローガンである。この多民族国家に国家的統一をもたらすためのイデオロギーは20世紀初頭から始まった民族主義運動の歴史の中で様々な民族主義者たちによって鍛え上げられてきた。そうしたものの一つが、日本軍政末期にスカルノが発表したパンチャシラである。1945年6月1日の演説でスカルノが発表したパンチャシラは今日のそれと順序と語句が異なっているが、スハルト体制期以降も重要な国是となり、学校教育や職場研修などでの主要教科とされてきた。また、スハルト退陣後の国内主要政党の多くが、今もなお、このパンチャシラを党是として掲げている。現在のパンチャシラは以下の順序で数えられる。元首たる大統領は行政府の長である。その下に副大統領が置かれる。首相職はなく、各閣僚は大統領が指名する。特徴的なのがと呼ばれる組織で、大統領と各省の間で複数の省庁を管掌しており、2014年発足のジョコ・ウィドド政権では、、、が置かれている。第五代までの大統領と副大統領は、国民協議会。憲法改正によって大統領の法律制定権は廃止された。各種人事権については、議会との協議を必要とするなど、単独での権限行使は大幅に制限された。また議会議員の任命権も廃止され、議員は直接選挙によって選出されることになった。立法府たる議会は、 国民議会がある。まず、 の国民協議会は、2001年、2002年の憲法改正以前は、一院制の国民議会の所属議員と、各州議会から選出される代表議員195人によって構成されていた。国民協議会は、国民議会とは別の会議体とされ、国家意思の最高決定機関と位置づけられていた。国民協議会に与えられた権限は、5年ごとに大統領と副大統領を選出し、大統領が提示する国の施策方針を承認すること、一年に一度、憲法と重要な法律の改正を検討すること、そして場合により大統領を罷免すること、であった。このような強大な権限を国民協議会に与えていることが憲政の危機をもたらしたとして、その位置づけを見直す契機となったのは、国民協議会によるワヒド大統領罷免であった。3年余りの任期を残していた大統領を罷免した国民協議会の地位を改めるため、メガワティ政権下の2001年と2002年に行われた憲法改正により、国民協議会は国権の最高機関としての地位を失った。立法権は後述の国民議会に移されることになり、国民協議会は憲法制定権と大統領罷免決議権を保持するが、大統領選任権を国民に譲渡し、大統領と副大統領は直接選挙によって選出されることになった。これらの措置により、国民協議会は国民議会と地方代表議会の合同機関としての位置づけが与えられ、また、国民議会と地方代表議会のいずれも民選議員によってのみ構成されているため、国民協議会の議員も全て、直接選挙で選ばれる民選議員となった。 の国民議会は2000年の第2次憲法改正によって立法予算審議行政府の監督の3つの機能が与えられることになった。具体的には立法権に加えて質問権国政調査権意見表明権が国民議会に与えられまた議員には法案上程権質問提出権提案権意見表明権免責特権が与えられることが明記された。比例代表制により選出される。 の地方代表議会は2001年から2002年にかけて行われた第3次第4次憲法改正によって新たに設置が決まった代議機関であり地方自治や地方財政に関する立法権が与えられている。先述の通り総選挙で各州から選出された議員によって構成されている。スハルト政権期には政府・司法省が分有していた司法権が廃止され、各級裁判所は、司法府の最上位にある最高裁判所によって統括されることになり、司法権の独立が確保された。最高裁判所は法律よりも下位の規範（政令等）が法律に違反しているか否かを審査する権限を有する。他に憲法に明記される司法機関としては司法委員会と憲法裁判所がある。司法委員会は最高裁判所判事候補者を審査し国会に提示する権限及び裁判官の非行を調査し最高裁判所に罷免を勧告する権限を有する。憲法裁判所は法律が憲法に違反しているか否かを審査する権限を有する。憲法改正以前には大統領に属していた政党に対する監督権・解散権が憲法裁判所に移された。これにより、大統領・政府による政党への介入が排除されることになった。旧宗主国オランダとの武力闘争によって独立を勝ち取り、独立当初から外交方針の基本を非同盟主義に置いた。こうした外交方針は外交の方針はほぼ一貫しているといってよい。1950年代後半のスカルノ「指導される民主主義」期には1963年のマレーシア連邦結成を「イギリスによる新植民地主義」として非難しマレーシアに軍事侵攻した。国際的な非難が高まるなかで1965年1月スカルノは国際連合脱退を宣言し国際的な孤立を深めていった。インドネシア国内ではインドネシア共産党の勢力が伸張し国内の左傾化を容認したスカルノは急速に中華人民共和国に接近した。1965年の9月30日事件を機にスカルノが失脚しスハルトが第2代大統領として就任すると悪化した西側諸国との関係の改善を進めた。またスカルノ時代に疲弊した経済を立て直すために債権国の協力を仰いだ。1966年9月日本の東京に集まった債権国代表が債務問題を協議しその後援助について協議するインドネシア援助国会議（Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia - 略称 IGGI）が発足した。1967年8月東南アジア諸国連合発足時には原加盟国となった。総人口や国土面積は東南アジア最大でありASEAN本部は首都ジャカルタに置かれている。域内での経済文化交流の促進を所期の目標とし他のASEAN加盟国との連帯を旨としている。その一方で時折のぞく盟主意識地域大国意識は他国からの警戒を招くこともある。今日に至るまで日本をはじめとする西側諸国とは協力関係を維持しているが、スハルト体制期においても一貫して、ベトナムなど近隣の社会主義国や非同盟諸国とは良好な外交関係を保った。1999年の東ティモール独立を問う住民投票での暴動に軍が関与したと見られ、その後の関係者の処罰が不十分とされたことや、2001年のアメリカ同時多発テロによって米国との関係が悪化し、2005年まで武器禁輸などの制裁を受けた。このため、ロシアや中国との関係強化に乗り出し、多極外交を展開している。中国とは南シナ海にあるスプラトリー諸島。2020年1月にはナトゥナ諸島近海で中国漁船が操業したことに抗議、中国大使を召還した。日本とインドネシアの関係は良好であり1800社を超える日本企業がインドネシアで事業を展開している。特に近年日本文化がブームとなっており日本企業の投資や日本語を学ぶ人が増えている。大相撲やアニメなど日本文化のイベントも開催されている。MIKTAは、メキシコ 、インドネシア 、大韓民国 、トルコ 、オーストラリア の5ヶ国によるパートナーシップである。詳細は該当ページへ。インドネシア国軍（ - 略称）の兵力は2017年に39万5500人（陸軍30万400人海軍6万5000人空軍3万100人）であり志願兵制度である。その他に予備役が40万人。軍事予算は2002年に12兆7549億ルピアで国家予算に占める割合は3.71パーセントである。スハルト政権以来、米国を中心とした西側との協調により、近代的な兵器を積極的に導入してきたものの、東ティモール紛争の悪化により米国と軋轢が生じ、2005年まで米国からの武器輸出を禁じられた。この間にロシア連邦や中華人民共和国と接近し、これらの国の兵器も多数保有している。世界で最も多くの島を持つ国であり、その数は1万3466にのぼる。島の数は人工衛星の調査により算出されたもので、かつては1万8,110とも言われていたが、再調査の結果、2013年に現在の個数が明らかになった。当地を含む周辺ではユーラシアプレートやオーストラリアプレート太平洋プレートフィリピン海プレートなどがせめぎあっており環太平洋火山帯で世界で最も活動している火山の一つである。また、地震も多く、2004年のスマトラ島沖地震、及び2006年のジャワ島中部地震は甚大な被害を与えた。スマトラ島とジャワ島は、約60,000年前は陸続きであったが、11,000年前の大噴火があり、スンダ海峡ができて両島は分離した。これらの島々の全てが北回帰線と南回帰線の間に位置しており、熱帯気候である。国土をに区分している。大気中の二酸化炭素を吸収する役割を担う森林は、適切な利用・管理により地球温暖化防止に役立つ。同国における環境問題は国の人口密度の高さと急速な工業化に関連しており、深刻さを増しているために今も改善策が求められている。2層の地方政府が存在し第一レベルの地方政府が州が置かれている。第1レベル地方政府は2013年時点で以下のとおり、ジャカルタ首都特別州と4の特別州、29の州が設置されている。下記リストで名称右に*付きが、首都ジャカルタと4特別州。第2レベルの地方政府は2006年時点で349県91 市が置かれている。県と市には行政機能上の差異はなく都市部に置かれるのが市でそれ以外の田園地域等に置かれるのが県である。なお県市には行政区としての郡が置かれているがこれは区の担う行政機能に代わり地縁的慣習的なコミュニティであり行政区ではない。スハルト政権の崩壊後世界で最も地方分権化が進んだ国の一つに数えられている。しかし逆に言えば中央政府の力が弱く地方政府が環境破壊を進める政策を実施していても中央政府にはこれを止める力がない。IMFによると、2018年のGDPは1兆225億ドルであり、世界第16位である。一方、一人当たりのGDPは3,871ドルであり、世界平均の約34%である。世界銀行が公表した資料によると、2017年に1日1.9ドル未満であった。基本的に農業国である。1960年代に稲作の生産力増強に力が入れられ植民地期からの品種改良事業も強化された。改良品種IR8のような高収量品種は他にもつくられ農村に普及し栽培された。このような熱も冷めてゆき同年代の末にはコメの輸入が増加するに至った。農林業ではカカオ、キャッサバ、キャベツ、ココナッツ、米、コーヒー豆、サツマイモ、大豆、タバコ、茶、天然ゴム、トウモロコシ、パイナップル、バナナ、落花生の生産量が多い。特にココナッツの生産量は2003年時点で世界一である。オイルパーム。この2000年代以降のエステート作物面積の急激な拡大によって、森林破壊や泥炭湿地の埋立及びこれに伴う火災の発生などの環境破壊が進んでいることが指摘されている。海に囲まれた群島国家であるため水産資源も豊富だが、漁業や水産加工の技術向上、物流整備が課題となっている。プリカナン・ヌサンタラという国営水産会社が存在する。鉱業資源にも恵まれ、金、スズ、石油、石炭、天然ガス、銅、ニッケルの採掘量が多い。1982年、1984年、日本からの政府開発援助（ODA）でスマトラ島北部のトバ湖から流れ出るアサハン川の水でアサハン・ダム（最大出力51.3万キロワット）とマラッカ海峡に面したクアラタンジュンにアサハン・アルミ精錬工場が建設された。ニッケル鉱山は、南東スラウェシ州コラカ沖のパダマラン島のポマラと南スラウェシ州ソロアコ（サロアコ）にある。生産の80%が日本に輸出されている。ニッケルはカナダの多国籍企業インコ社が支配している。多国籍企業の進出はスハルト体制発足後の1967年外資法制定以降であり、採掘・伐採権を確保している。また、日本企業6社が出資している。鉱山採掘に伴い森林伐採で付近住民と土地問題で争いが起こる。国内産業を育成するため、未加工ニッケル鉱石の輸出を2014年に禁止したが、2017年に規制を緩和している。日本はLNGを2009年1月に脱退した。工業では軽工業、食品工業、織物、石油精製が盛ん。コプラパーム油のほか、化学繊維、パルプ、窒素肥料などの工業が確立している。パナソニックオムロンブリヂストンをはじめとした日系企業が現地に子会社あるいは合弁などの形態で多数進出している。独立後政府は主要産業を国有化し保護政策の下で工業を発展させてきた。1989年には戦略的対応が必要な産業として製鉄航空機製造銃器製造などを指定し戦略産業を手掛ける行政組織として戦略産業管理庁を発足させている。2019年時点、インドネシアには115の国営企業があり、クラカタウ・スチール、マンディリ銀行など17社がインドネシア証券取引所に株式を上場している。分野ごとに持ち株会社を設けるなど効率化を図っているが、一方で雇用維持など政府の意向が優先されることも多い。かつては華人系企業との癒着やスハルト大統領ら政府高官の親族によるファミリービジネス等が社会問題化し1996年には国民車「ティモール」の販売を巡って世界貿易機関（WTO）を舞台とする国際問題にまで発展した。しかし1997年のアジア通貨危機の発生により経済は混乱状態に陥りスハルト大統領は退陣に至った。その後政府はIMFとの合意によって国営企業の民営化など一連の経済改革を実施したが失業者の増大や貧富の差の拡大が社会問題となっている。小売業の最大チャネルは各地に約350万あると呼ばれる零細小売店である。インターネット通販は小売市場の3～5％程度と推測され地元企業のトコペディアやブカラパックシンガポール企業のラザダやショッピーが参入しておりワルンへの商品供給を担う企業もある。雇用・賃金と個人消費.労働者の生活水準を向上させるため月額式の最低賃金制度が施行されており2015年からはインフレ率と経済成長率に基づく計算式が導入され年8％程度上がりタイ王国を超える水準となっている。これに対して労働組合側は賃上げが不十分日系を含む企業側は人件費の上昇が国際競争力を低下させると主張し労使双方に不満がある。なおイスラム教徒が多数を占める国であるため従業員からメッカ巡礼の希望が出た場合企業はメッカ巡礼休暇として最長3カ月の休暇を出すことが法で規定されている。ただ改革と好調な個人消費によりGDP成長率は2003年から2007年まで4%〜6%前後で推移した。2008年には欧米の経済危機による輸出の伸び悩みや国際的な金融危機の影響等があったものの6.1%を維持。さらに2009年は政府の金融安定化策景気刺激策や堅調な国内消費から世界的にも比較的安定した成長を維持し4.5%の成長を達成。名目GDPは2001年の約1600億ドルから2009年には3.3倍の約5393億ドルまで急拡大した。今ではG20の一角をなすまでになっており同じASEAN諸国のベトナムとフィリピンと同様にNEXT11の一角を占め更にベトナムと共にVISTAの一角を担うなど経済の期待は非常に大きい。ただし、2011年より経常収支が赤字となる状況が続いており、従来から続く財政赤字とともに双子の赤字の状態にある。このような中日系企業の進出は拡大しているが投資環境の面で抱える問題は少なくない。世界銀行のでもビジネス環境は183国中121位に順位づけられておりこれはASEANの中でもとくに悪いランキングである。具体的には道路鉄道通信などのハードインフラの整備が遅れていることのほかソフトインフラとも言うべき法律面での問題が挙げられる。裁判所や行政機関の判断については予測可能性が低く透明性も欠如しておりこれがビジネスの大きな阻害要因になっていると繰り返し指摘されている。これに対し、日本のODAは、ハード・インフラ整備の支援に加え、近年は統治能力支援と連携して、規則制定のほか裁判官や和解・調停を担う人材の研修を支援している。2013年時点では、東南アジア全体でも有数の好景気に沸いており、日本からの投資も2010年には7億1260万ドルへと急増している。しかしナショナリズムが色濃く、2013年2月には当地を中心に石炭採掘を行っている英投資会社の株主総会が、同社の大半の取締役や経営陣を追放するというロスチャイルドによる提案の大部分を拒否した。これと関連して、国の経常赤字と資本流入への依存、貧弱なインフラや腐敗した政治や実業界など、いくつかの問題点も指摘されている。2014年の国際協力銀行が日本企業を対象に行ったアンケート調査では、として、中国を抜いて1位となった。技能実習制度などで、日本へ渡航して働くインドネシア人も多いが、人権保護や賃金支払いなどでトラブルも起きている。2010年の総人口は2億3764万1326人で中国インドアメリカに次ぐ世界第4位。2017年は2億6199万人。今後も人口ボーナスにより人口は着実に増加してゆく傾向にあり2050年の推計人口は約3億人。全国民の半分以上がジャワ島に集中しているため比較的人口の希薄なスマトラ島カリマンタン島スラウェシ島に住民を移住させるトランスミグラシと呼ばれる人口移住政策を行ってきた。2019年4月29日にはジョコ政権がジャワ島外への首都を移転する方針を閣議決定した。 ジョコウィドド大統領は同年8月自身のTwitterで首都の移転先をボルネオ島と発表した。大多数がマレー系で、彼らが直系の祖先であり、原マレー人と新マレー人の2種類に分けられる。原マレー人は、紀元前1500年頃に渡来した。原マレー人は先住民よりも高度な文化を持っていた。原マレー人は後から来た新マレー人によって追われていくが、ダヤク人、トラジャ人、バタック人として子孫が生存している。新マレー人は、マレー人、ブギス人、ミナンカバウ人の祖先であり、紀元前500年頃に渡来した。渡来時には青銅器製作の技術を獲得しており、数百年後には鉄器を使用し始める。彼らの使用した鉄器がベトナム北部のドンソン地方で大量に発見されていることから「ドンソン文化」と呼ばれる。ほかに約300の民族がおり、住民の内、ジャワ人が45%、スンダ人が14%、マドゥラ人が7.5%、沿岸マレー人が7.5%、その他が26%、中国系が約5%となっている。父系母系を共に親族とみなすであり姓がない人もいる。なお、法務省の統計では、2014年末では30,000人超、2018年では55,000人超のインドネシア人が日本に在住している。公用語はインドネシア語であり、国語となっている。会話言語ではそれぞれの地域で語彙も文法規則も異なる583以上の言葉が日常生活で使われている。インドネシア語が国語と言っても、日常で話す人は多くて3,000万人程度である。国の人口比にすると意外と少ないが、国語になっているため第2言語として話せる人の数はかなり多い。また、首都ジャカルタへ出稼ぎに向かう人も多い為、地方の人でもインドネシア語は必須であり、話せないと出稼ぎにも影響が出てくる。インドネシア語ジャワ語バリ語などを含むオーストロネシア語族の他にパプア諸語が使用される地域もある。憲法29条で信教の自由を保障している。パンチャシラでは唯一神への信仰を第一原則としているもののこれはイスラム教を国教として保護しているという意味ではない。多民族国家であるため、言語と同様、宗教にも地理的な分布が存在する。バリ島ではヒンドゥー教が、スラウェシ島北部ではキリスト教が法律として適用されている。2010年の政府統計によると、イスラム教が87.2%、プロテスタントが7%、カトリックが2.9%、ヒンドゥー教が1.6%、仏教が0.72%、儒教が0.05%、その他が0.5%となっている。イスラム教徒の人口は1億7000万人を超え世界最大のイスラム教徒。またイスラム教はジャワ島やスマトラ島など人口集中地域に信者が多いため国全体でのイスラム教徒比率は高いが非イスラム教徒の民族や地域も実際には多い。カリマンタン島やスラウェシ島ではちょうどイスラム教徒と非イスラム教徒の割合が半々ほど。東ヌサトゥンガラから東のマルク諸島ニューギニア島などではイスラム教徒比率は一割程度である（それもジャワ島などからの移民の信者が大半である）。またイスラム教徒多数派地域であっても都市部やスンダ人アチェ人地域のように比較的厳格な信仰を持つものもあればジャワ人地域のように基層にヒンドゥー文化を強く残しているものもある。また書面上はイスラム教徒となっていても実際にはシャーマニズムを信仰している民族も有る。魔術師呪術医と精霊を含めた超自然的な力を信じる人やの存在を肯定するインドネシア人は多い。なお、信仰の自由はあるといっても完全なものではなく、特に無神論は違法であり、公言をすると逮捕される可能性もある。夫婦別姓が基本。ただし通称として夫の姓を名乗ることも多い。男性側が改姓することも可能である。教育体系は、教育文化省が管轄する一般の学校と、宗教省が管轄するイスラーム系のマドラサ の二本立てとなっている。いずれの場合も小学校・中学校・高校の6・3・3制であり、このうち小中学校の9年間については、1994年、義務教育にすると宣言された。スコラでもマドラサでも、一般科目と宗教科目を履修するが、力点の置き方は異なる。大学をはじめとする高等教育機関も一般校とイスラーム専門校に分かれており、前者については1954年に各州に国立大学を設置することが決定された。以下は代表的な大学のリストである。米国CIAによる2011年の推計によれば15歳以上の国民の識字率は92.8%（男性95.6%女性90.1%）である。2010年の教育支出はGDPの3%だった。医療施設が26,000件を超えているが、それに反して医師が不足しており、人口1,000人辺りわずか0.4人ほどしか存在しない 。民族・宗教などの多様性や、過去のオランダやポルトガル、イギリスなどの分割統治の影響でいくつかの独立運動を抱えている。その一部には紛争へ発展したアチェ独立運動などもあった。東ティモールは独立運動の末、国連の暫定統治を経て2002年に独立したが、パプア州において独立運動が展開されており、カリマンタン島では民族対立が、マルク諸島ではキリスト教徒とイスラム教徒の宗教対立が存在する。なお、アチェ独立運動は2004年のスマトラ島沖地震の後、2005年12月27日に終結している。金品を目的とした強盗、スリ、ひったくり、置き引き、車上荒らし等の被害が多発しており、インターネットを通じての商品購入・売却を装った詐欺も確認されている。また、薬物犯罪も常態化しており、観光客が集まる繁華街の路上やナイトクラブなどの場所で、覚醒剤および大麻等の薬物を売りつけてくる売人が出没する事例が後を絶たない。最近では、市内で銃器を安価に購入出来ることから銃器等を使用した凶悪犯罪も増えており、同国を訪れる際は一層の注意を払う必要が求められている。Amnesty InternationalHuman Rights Watchおよび米国国務省による報告ではインドネシアで人権問題とされているのは西ニューギニア地域への弾圧。障害者の人権問題〜パスン.はインドネシア 語で足かせを意味する。重度の精神疾患者が本人や他人に危害を加えないようにするための因習である。治療手段を持たない貧困家庭で木製のフレームに患者の脚や手首に取り付けて拘束するために使用されている。1977年に違法化されたがインドネシア保険省の推計では国内の被害者は万8000人パスン被害者支援を行っているスリアニ協会によれば万人とされる。国内でもパスンは非人道的であると見なされているが精神障害者に対する社会的ケアが未だ貧弱であるために現在も存在している。家族が貧困で治療を断念し長期拘束後に刑務所へ入れることもある。2012年、AtmaHusadaMahakam地域精神病院により東カリマタンで名がパスンから解放され病院に収容された。彼らには政府から無料で薬が提供される。。こういった試みは政府のに準じて各地で行われているが貧困にある当事者家族に取ってはパスンが唯一の対処法であり、またその存在を恥じているため隠そうとしていることが問題の解決を妨げている。2013年6月RSJDの発表によれば2011年から記録されたパスン被害者は254名で年間では2012年の151人が最大だった。解消のためには家族に対する医学的治療への啓蒙が必要で教育や知識の不足がこの人権侵害の要因であると述べている。2014年までにとする宣言に向けて精神障害のある家族への支援が計画され、無料治療や束縛禁止を規制する精神保健法の整備がすすめられた。しかし国家の対策予算は40億ルピアに過ぎず解決は遠い。2016年2月28日政府はを宣言目標とした。社会問題省の記録では現在万人の被害者がいるとする。2017年にも中央政府は引き続き宣言をし対応を行なった。社会問題省の記録では特定された被害者4786人の内人が未だ束縛状態にあるとした。一方ベンクル州西カリマンタン東カリマンタンバリ東ヌサトゥンガラバベルでは宣言を達したとする。また被害者の特定と解放に加えて今後は障害や精神保健に関する情報提供や患者が退院後に利用できる滞在施設を試行するとした。社会問題省はソーシャルワーカーによる住民への啓蒙活動によってパスンを選択することなく適切な医学的社会的サービスにつながることを目指して活動している。その後も政府は隔年ごとに宣言目標を発して地方予算を設定しているが、2021年現在でも東ジャワだけで未だ1万2000人の被害者が推定されている。宗教文化は島ごとに特色を持ち日本ではバリ島のガムランなどのインドネシアの音楽や舞踊が知られる。またワヤンクリと呼ばれる影絵芝居やバティックと呼ばれるろうけつ染めも有名である。高温多湿な気候と丹念に洗濯する国民性のため、洗濯機は全自動式ではなく洗濯板が付いた二槽式が主流とされる。多彩な香辛料や蜂蜜などを調合した「ジャムウ」と呼ばれる伝統薬が広く生産・販売されている。インドネシア文学をインドネシア語、またはその前身であるムラユ語で、インドネシア人によって書かれた文学作品のことであると限定するならば、それは民族主義運動期に生まれたと言える。1908年、オランダ領東インド政府内に設立された出版局（バライ・プスタカ）は、インドネシア人作家の作品を出版し、アブドゥル・ムイスの『西洋かぶれ』（1928年）など、インドネシアで最初の近代小説といわれる作品群を出版した。また、インドネシア人によるインドネシア語の定期刊行物としては、1907年にバンドンでティルトアディスルヨが刊行したが最初のもので、その後、インドネシア語での日刊紙、週刊誌、月刊誌の刊行は、1925年には200点、1938年には400点を超えていた。20世紀の著名な文学者としてはなどの大河小説で国際的に評価されるプラムディヤアナンタトゥールの名を挙げることができる。以下代表的な作家詩人文学者を挙げる。ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が4件自然遺産が4件存在する。サッカーは最も人気のあるスポーツである。またバドミントンが盛んでありオリンピックで獲得したメダルの半分以上がバドミントンによるものである。ボクシングではWBA世界スーパー王者クリスジョンを生んだことで知られる。 +イラク共和国（イラクきょうわこく)通称イラクは中東の連邦共和制国家である。首都はバグダードでサウジアラビアクウェートシリアトルコイランヨルダンと隣接する。古代メソポタミア文明を受け継ぐ土地にあり世界で3番目の原油埋蔵国である。チグリス川とユーフラテス川流域を中心とする世界最古の文明メソポタミア文明（シュメール文明）を擁した地である。8世紀のアッバース朝は首都をイラクのバグダートに置き貿易やイスラム教の中心地として栄えた。アッバース朝衰退後の10世紀からは異民族支配を受け16世紀からはオスマン帝国の属州となった。第一次世界大戦でイギリス軍に占領され戦後イギリス委任統治領メソポタミアとなった。1932年に独立王国となり1958年の軍部クーデターで共和制になった。その後もクーデターが相次ぎ1979年からサダムフセインの独裁体制となった。クルド人自治問題イランイラク戦争や湾岸戦争の敗北経済制裁などの難問に強権で対処したが2003年に米英軍の攻撃を受け政権は崩壊。2005年10月に国民投票によって新憲法が承認され以降民主選挙による政府が樹立された。しばらく治安対策や復興支援のために米軍駐留が続いたが2011年に米軍が撤収した。民主化以降の政治体制は議院内閣制であり、議会は一院制で、州ごとの比例代表制および少数派を優先した全国区の比例代表制で選出される。任期は4年。元首である大統領は議会で選出され、大統領の任期も連動して4年である。大統領が任命する首相が行政権を握る。経済面では北部と北東部および南部で採掘される石油が豊富で、石油輸出が財政に占める割合が9割以上である。特に近年は原油生産量が急速に上昇している。同時に政府は石油依存体質からの脱却を目指している。人口は2020年のCIAの調査によれば約3887万人で民族はアラブ人トルクメン人アッシリア人などから構成される。言語はアラビア語とクルド語が公用語である。地理としては国土の中心をなすのはチグリス川とユーフラテス川が潤すメソポタミア平原でありの東部を占めている。北はトルコ東はイラン西はシリアとヨルダン南はサウジアラビアとクウェートに接し南部の一部はペルシア湾に臨んでいる。正式名称はアラビア語で（ラテン文字転写はJumhryatu l-‘Irq。読みはジュムフーリヤトゥル＝イラーク)。通称は（al-‘Irqアル＝イラーク)。公式の英語表記は、（リパブリック・オブ・イラーク )。通称、（イラーク)。日本語の表記は、イラク共和国。通称、イラク。イラークという地名は伝統的にメソポタミア地方を指す「アラブ人のイラーク」(al-‘Irq l-‘Arab) とザグロス山脈周辺を指す「ペルシア人のイラーク」(al-‘Irq l-Ajam) からなるが現在イラク共和国の一部となっているのは「アラブ人のイラーク」のみで「ペルシア人のイラーク」はイランの一部である。現イラクの国土は、歴史上のメソポタミア文明が栄えた地とほとんど同一である。メソポタミア平野はティグリス川とユーフラテス川により形成された沖積平野で、両河の雪解け水による増水を利用することができるため、古くから農業を営む定住民があらわれ、西のシリア地方およびエジプトのナイル川流域とあわせてとして知られている。紀元前4000年ごろからシュメールやアッカド、アッシリア、そしてバビロニアなど、数々の王国や王朝がこのメソポタミア地方を支配してきた。メソポタミア文明は技術的にも世界の他地域に先行していた。例えばガラスである。メソポタミア以前にもガラス玉のように偶発的に生じたガラスが遺物として残っている。しかしガラス容器作成ではまずメソポタミアがついでエジプトが先行した。Qattara遺跡 (現イラクニーナワー県のテルアルリマー) からは紀元前16世紀のガラス容器それも4色のジグザグ模様をなすモザイクガラスの容器が出土している。高温に耐える粘土で型を作成し塊状の色ガラスを並べたあと熱を加えながら何らかの圧力下で互いに溶け合わせて接合したと考えられている。紀元前15世紀になるとウルの王墓とアッシュールからは西洋なし型の瓶が遺跡からはゴブレットの破片が見つかっている。西暦634年ハーリドイブン＝アル＝ワリードの指揮のもと約18000人のアラブ人ムスリム からなる兵士がユーフラテス川河口地帯に到達する。当時ここを支配していたペルシア帝国軍はその兵士数においても技術力においても圧倒的に優位に立っていたが東ローマ帝国との絶え間ない抗争と帝位をめぐる内紛のために疲弊していた。サーサーン朝の部隊は兵力増強のないまま無駄に戦闘をくりかえして敗れメソポタミアはムスリムによって征服された。これ以来イスラム帝国の支配下でアラビア半島からアラブ人の部族ぐるみの移住が相次ぎアラブによってイラク と呼ばれるようになっていたこの地域は急速にアラブ化イスラム化した。8世紀にはアッバース朝のカリフがバグダードに都を造営しアッバース朝が滅びるまでイスラム世界の精神的中心として栄えた。10世紀末にブワイフ朝のエミール・は、第4代カリフのアリーの墓廟をナジャフに、またシーア派の第3代イマーム・フサインの墓廟をカルバラーに作った。1258年にバグダードがモンゴルのフレグハンによって征服されるとイラクは政治的には周縁化しイラン高原を支配する諸王朝 の勢力下に入った。16世紀前半にイランに興ったサファヴィー朝は、1514年のチャルディラーンの戦いによってクルド人の帰属をオスマン朝に奪われた。さらにオスマン朝とバグダードの領有を巡って争い、1534年にオスマン朝のスレイマン1世が征服した。(1609年 - 1610年)。1616年にサファヴィー朝のアッバース1世とイギリス東インド会社の間で貿易協定が結ばれイギリス人ロバートシャーリーの指導のもとでサファヴィー朝の武器が近代化された。1622年イングランドペルシア連合軍はホルムズ占領に成功しイングランド王国はペルシャ湾の制海権をポルトガルスペインから奪取した。1624年にはサファヴィー朝のアッバース1世がバグダードを奪還した。しかし1629年にアッバース1世が亡くなると急速に弱体化した。1638年、オスマン朝はバグダードを再奪還し、この地域は最終的にオスマン帝国の統治下に入った。18世紀以降、オスマン朝は東方問題と呼ばれる外交問題を抱えていたが、1853年のクリミア戦争を経て、1878年のベルリン会議でが築かれ、一時終息を迎えたかに見えた。しかし、1890年にビスマルクが引退すると、2度のバルカン戦争が勃発し、第一次世界大戦を迎えた。19世紀の段階では、オスマン帝国は、現在のイラクとなる地域を、と、の3州として統治していた 。一方オスマン帝国のバスラ州に所属してはいたがサバーハ家のムバーラク大首長のもとで自治を行っていたペルシア湾岸のクウェートは1899年に寝返ってイギリスの保護国となった。1901年に隣国ガージャール朝イランのマスジェデ・ソレイマーンで、初の中東石油採掘が行なわれ、モザッファロッディーン・シャーととの間で60年間の石油採掘に関するが結ばれた。1908年にダーシー利権に基づいてが設立された。1912年にカルースト・グルベンキアンがアングロ・ペルシャン石油会社等の出資でトルコ石油会社 を立ち上げた。という本を執筆したハンナ・バタートゥ氏は、イラクの王政が分裂した1921年から1958年までの期間について論じた。第1章では、イラクの階級区分の不明確な構造、アラブ人、クルド人、トルコ人、アルメニア人、アラム人、スンニ派のイスラム教徒、シーア派のイスラム教徒、キリスト教徒、ユダヤ人、高官、シャイフ、ウラマー、貴族階級の役人などを取り込んだアイデンティティの集合体、土地所有の大きさ、所得や資本のレベル、階級の移動、そして最後にヨーロッパとの提携のレベルについて論じられている。著者は、に基づいて統治されていたという。都市や部族の違いに加えて、部族間の分離および都市間の分離があり、イスラム教の下では団結していても、シーア派とスンニ派の対立下では分裂し、別々のマハッラで生活しながら原始的な通信の下では疎遠になっていた。第一次世界大戦ではクートの戦い でクートエルアマラが陥落するとイギリス軍は8ヶ月間攻勢に出ることが出来なかったがこの間の1916年5月16日にイギリスとフランスは交戦するオスマン帝国領の中東地域を分割支配するというサイクスピコ協定を結んだ。1917年に入るとイギリス軍は攻勢に転じ、3月11日には。しかし戦闘は北部を中心としてその後も行われた。1918年10月30日、オスマン帝国が降伏 。パリ講和会議 。1919年4月、英仏間で石油に関するを締結。 で現在のイラクにあたる地域はイギリスの勢力圏と定められ、サンレモ原油協定によってフランスはイラクでの25 %の石油利権を獲得した。トルコ革命 が勃発。大戦が終結した時点でもモースル州は依然としてオスマン帝国の手中にあったが、1920年6月にナジャフでが勃発する中、8月10日にイギリスはセーヴル条約によりモースル を放棄させようとしたが、批准されなかった 。1921年3月21日、ガートルード・ベルの意見によってトーマス・エドワード・ロレンスが押し切られ、今日のクルド人問題が形成された 。イギリス委任統治領メソポタミア.1921年8月23日に前述の3州をあわせてイギリス委任統治領メソポタミアを成立させて、大戦中のアラブ独立運動の指導者として知られるハーシム家のファイサル・イブン＝フサインを国王に据えて王政を布かせた。クウェートは新たに形作られたイラク王国から切り離されたままとなった。1922年10月10日 。1923年7月24日ローザンヌ条約でトルコ共和国との国境が確定し北クルディスタンが切り離された。1927年10月14日でキルクーク油田を発見。1928年イギリスとトルコが赤線協定を締結。1929年イギリスが を設立。1930年6月30日でイラク石油会社の石油利権を改正。 。ハーシム王家はイギリスの支援のもとで中央集権化を進め、スンナ派を中心とする国家運営を始め、1932年にはイラク王国として独立を達成した。一方とメロン財閥傘下のガルフ石油とが共同出資して1934年にクウェート石油会社を設立。1938年クウェート石油はブルガン油田を発見した。1941年4月1日、によりのクーデター政権が出来たが、5月ので崩壊した。6月、シリア・レバノン戦役。8月、イラン進駐。1943年、。1945年12月、ムッラー・がソ連占領下の北西部マハーバードでクルド人独立を求めて蜂起し、翌年クルディスタン共和国を樹立したが、イラン軍の侵攻にあい崩壊 。バルザーニーはソ連に亡命し、1946年8月16日にクルディスタン民主党結成。1948年。5月15日第一次中東戦争 が勃発。1955年中東条約機構 に加盟。1956年10月29日エジプトによるスエズ運河国有化に端を発する第二次中東戦争 が勃発。アブドルカリームカーシムらが参戦している。中東情勢の激化に伴いスーパータンカーが登場した。1958年にはエジプトとシリアによって結成されたアラブ連合共和国に対抗して、同じハーシム家が統治するヨルダンとアラブ連邦を結成した。1958年7月14日、のクーデターによって倒され 、ムハンマド・ナジーブ・アッ＝ルバーイー大統領とアブドルカリーム・カーシム首相による共和制が成立。カーシムは、親エジプト派を押さえ込む為にバルザーニーに帰国を要請し、1958年10月にバルザーニーが亡命先のソ連から帰国。親エジプト派のアーリフは罷免・投獄された。1959年3月7日、アラブ連合共和国が支援する親エジプト派が蜂起したが勃発。3月24日、中東条約機構 を脱退。1960年9月カーシム首相がイラク石油会社 の国有化を発表。1960年9月14日バグダッドで石油輸出国機構結成。1961年6月19日にクウェートがイラクと別の国として独立。6月25日カーシムがクウェート併合に言及すると7月1日にイギリス軍がを発動し独立を支援した。9月11日 が勃発した。第1次バアス党政権 .1963年2月8日に親エジプト派とバアス党の将校団のクーデターが起り、カーシム政権が倒された 。大統領にはアブドゥッサラーム・アーリフ、首相にはアフマド・ハサン・アル＝バクルが就任した。1963年11月18日にアブドゥッサラームアーリフ大統領ら親エジプト派の反バアス党クーデターが勃発 (1963年11月イラククーデター)。1966年4月13日アブドゥッサラームアーリフが航空機事故で死去。後継の大統領にアブドッラフマーンアーリフが就任。親エジプト派としてナーセルを支持し1967年にアメリカとの国交を断絶。第2次バアス党政権 .1968年7月17日にバアス党政権が発足 アフマドハサンアル＝バクルが大統領に就任した。1970年3月11日でクルディスタン地域 を設置。石油を産出するニーナワー県とキルクーク県は含まれなかった。1972年にソビエト連邦と友好条約を締結。1973年10月第四次中東戦争に参戦。同年10月16日イスラエル援助国に対してイラクを含むOPEC加盟6カ国は協調した石油戦略を発動しオイルショックが引き起こされた。第一次クルド・イラク戦争後の和平交渉が決裂し、バルザーニーが再び蜂起して が勃発。ペシュメルガ等を含め双方合わせて1万人超が死傷。その後、この戦いでイラク国軍を率いたサッダーム・フセインが実権を掌握した。サッダームフセイン政権.1979年7月16日にサッダームが大統領に就任した。就任直後にはクーデターが計画されたが未遂に終わり、同年7月30日までに34人が処刑、約250人が逮捕された。1980年にイランイラク戦争が開戦して1988年まで続けられた。1990年8月にクウェート侵攻後1991年に湾岸戦争となり敗北した。イラク武装解除問題 。による情報。2003年3月、イラク戦争に敗れてサッダームも死亡し、バアス党政権体制は崩壊した。戦後、イラクの石油不正輸出に国連のが関与していた国連汚職問題が発覚した。連合国暫定当局（米英共同統治）.旧イラク共和国の滅亡後はアメリカイギリスを中心とする連合国暫定当局（CPA）によって統治されることとなり（2003年4月21日 - 2004年6月28日）正式な併合編入こそ行われなかったものの実質的にアメリカ合衆国の海外領土に組み込まれた。イラク戦争終結後もスンニートライアングルで暫定当局に対する激しい抵抗があったが2003年12月13日のではサッダームフセインがダウルで拘束された。2004年4月ファルージャの戦闘でCPA側が圧勝する。2004年6月28日暫定政権に主権が移譲された。同時に有志連合軍は国際連合の多国籍軍となり治安維持などに従事した。8月にはシーア派政治組織が影響力を高めた。暫定政権は国連安全保障理事会が採択したイラク再建復興プロセスに基づいて2005年1月30日にイラクで初めての暫定議会選挙を実施し3月16日に初の暫定国民議会が召集された。4月7日にジャラルタラバニが初のクルド人大統領に就任。移行政府が4月28日に発足し10月25日に憲法草案は国民投票で賛成多数で可決承認された。新イラク共和国（第四共和政）.2005年12月15日に正式な議会と政府を選出するための議会選挙が行われた 。2006年3月16日に議会が開会し、2006年4月22日にシーア派政党連合の がヌーリー・アル＝マーリキーを首相に選出、5月20日に国連安全保障理事会が採択したイラクの再建復興プロセス最終段階となる正式政府が議会に承認されて発足し、イラク共和国として再独立を果たした。これはイラクで初めての民主選挙による政権発足である。2006年12月30日、サッダーム・フセインの死刑執行。2008年3月にはムクタダーサドルのマフディー軍と政府軍が戦闘状態となり シーア派内部の対立が顕在化した。世俗派の政党連合「」を構成するは2010年2月20日に第2回総選挙をボイコットすると表明した。これはイラク合意戦線の選挙立候補者にサッダーム旧政権の支配政党であるバアス党の元党員や旧政権の情報機関民兵組織のメンバーが含まれているとして選挙参加を禁止されたためであるが後に合意戦線はボイコットを撤回した。2010年3月7日に第2回議会選挙が行われた ()。アッラーウィーの世俗会派イラク国民運動が第1党 (91議席) となりマーリキー首相の法治国家連合は第2党となった (89議席)。しかしマーリキーは選挙に不正があったとしてこの結果を認めなかった。その後司法判断が下され「選挙結果は正当」となった。2010年8月19日までに、新生イラク軍の訓練のために残留したアメリカ軍も2011年末に撤退した。2010年11月に議会はタラバニを大統領にマーリキーを首相にヌジャイフィを国会議長に選出しマーリキー首相が提出した閣僚名簿を議会が承認して12月に第二次マーリキー政権が発足した。2011年12月26日、バグダッドにある内務省の正面玄関で自爆テロがあり、少なくとも5人が死亡、39人が負傷したと警察が発表した。バグダッドでは22日にも爆弾テロがあり、70人近い死者、200人以上の負傷者が出たばかりであった。。2017年8月31日ISILによって支配されていたイラク北部の都市タッルアファルでの戦闘に勝利し解放を宣言。2017年12月9日、アバーディ首相は、ISILからイラク全土を解放したと発表した。2005年10月15日の国民投票で承認されたイラク憲法では県と地域から構成された連邦国家と定義されているが現在でもクルディスタン地域 を除いて政府から自治権を移譲された県はないため連邦制自体が全土で浸透していないという。国家元首の役割を果たすのは共和国大統領および2人の副大統領で構成される大統領評議会である。それぞれイラク国民の3大勢力であるスンナ派 シーア派クルド人から各1名ずつが立法府によって選ばれる。大統領は国民統合の象徴として儀礼的職務を行う。大統領宮殿位置はに位置している。行政府の長である首相は、議員の中から議会によって選出される。副首相が2名。その他の閣僚は、大統領評議会に首相・副首相が加わって選任される。現政権の閣僚は37名 。一院制で国民議会がある。任期4年で定数は329（2018年現在）。第1回総選挙が2005年12月15日に行われた。第4回総選挙は2018年5月12日に行われた。2018年現在の主な政党連合と獲得議席数は以下の通り。また反政府デモ活動により早期選挙が求められている。2008年におけるイラク人の治安部隊は約60万人。駐留多国籍軍は米軍が15万人以上ほかに27カ国が派遣しているが治安部隊要員の拡充により戦闘部隊は減少傾向にある。クルド地方3県 南部5県 及び中部カルバラ県の計9県で治安権限が多国籍軍からイラク側に移譲されている。北部のクルド3県ではクルド人政府が独自の軍事組織をもって治安維持に当たっている。南部ではシーア派系武装組織が治安部隊と断続的に戦闘を行っている。スンニ派地域では米軍の支援を受けた覚醒評議会 が治安維持に貢献しているとされる。イランとは、イラク戦争でバアス党政権が崩壊して以降、電気、水道、道路などのインフラの復興支援を受けた。また、同じシーア派ということもあり、アメリカが敵視するイランとの関係を強化し、親イラン傾向が強まっている。エジプトとは、イスラエルとの国交回復の前後の1977年に国交を断絶した。イラン・イラク戦争での援助により両国の絆が深まった時期もあったが、湾岸戦争後はエジプトがアラブ合同軍などに参加し、疎遠な関係となった。湾岸戦争後は、エジプトはイラクの石油と食糧の交換計画の最大の取り引き先であり、両国の関係は改善に向かった。シリアとはアラブ諸国内での勢力争いや互いの国への内政干渉問題ユーフラテス川の水域問題石油輸送費イスラエル問題への態度などをめぐって対立。レバノン内戦においてはPLOへの支援を行ない1980年代後半には反シリアのキリスト教徒のアウン派への軍事支援も行なった。これに対してシリアはイラクのクウェート侵攻に際して国交を断絶し多国籍軍に機甲部隊と特殊部隊を派遣しレバノンからも親イラクのアウン派を放逐した。1990年代は冷めた関係が続いた。2000年になってバッシャールアル＝アサドが大統領になると石油の密輸をめぐる絆が強くなったが外交面では依然として距離をおいた関係になっている。ヨルダンはイランイラク戦争および湾岸戦争でイラクを支持したため両国の関係は強まった。1999年にアブドゥッラー2世が即位して以降も依然として良好である。イスラエルは1948年1967年1973年の中東戦争に参戦し強硬な態度を取った。イランイラク戦争中はイスラエル問題についての態度を軟化させ 1982年のアメリカによる平和交渉に反対せず同年9月のアラブ首脳会談によって採択されたフェス憲章 にも支持を表明した。ただし湾岸戦争ではクウェートからの撤退の条件としてイスラエルのパレスチナからの撤退を要求しイスラエルの民間施設をスカッドミサイルで攻撃した。イラクの地理について国土の範囲地形地質構造陸水気候の順に説明する。イラクの国土は東西870 km南北920 kmに及ぶ。国土の西端はシリア砂漠にありシリアヨルダンとの国境 である。北端はトルコとの国境 でクルディスタン山脈に位置する。東端はペルシャ湾沿いの河口 。南端はネフド砂漠中にありクウェートサウジアラビアとの国境 の一部である。イラクの地形は3つに大別できる。国土を特徴付ける地形は対になって北西から南東方向に流れる2 本の大河南側のユーフラテス川と北側のティグリス川である。ユーフラテス川の南側はシリア砂漠とネフド砂漠が切れ目なく続いており不毛の土地となっている。砂漠側は高度1000 mに達するシリアアラビア台地を形成しており緩やかな傾斜をなしてユーフラテス川に至る。2 本の大河周辺はメソポタミア平原が広がる。農耕に適した土壌と豊かな河川水によって人口のほとんどが集中する。メソポタミア平原自体も地形により二つに区分される。北部の都市サマッラより下流の沖積平野と上流のアルジャジーラ平原である。2 本の大河はクルナの南で合流しシャットゥルアラブ川となる。クルナからは直線距離にして約160 km川の長さにして190 km流れ下りペルシャ湾に達する。ティグリス川の東は高度が上がりイランのザグロス山脈に至る。バグダードと同緯度では400 mから500 m程度である。イラクとイランの国境はイラク北部で北東方向に張り出している。国境線がなめらかでないのはザグロス山脈の尾根が国境線となっているからである。イラク最高峰のもザグロス山中国境線沿いにそびえている。同山の周囲30 km四方にイラクで最も高い山々が見られる。アラビアプレートがユーラシアプレートに潜り込むように移動して地形を圧縮しペルシャ湾北岸まで延びるザグロス山脈を形成した。トルコ国境に伸びるクルディスタン山脈も褶曲山脈であり2000 mに達する峰々が存在する。ティグリスユーフラテスという2大河川が形成された原因もヒマラヤ山脈の南側にインダスガンジスという2大河川が形成されたのと同様プレートテクトニクスで説明されている。ティグリスユーフラテス合流地点から上流に向かってかつては最大200 kmにも伸びるが存在した。周囲の湿地と一体となり約1万平方kmにも及ぶ大湿原地帯を形成していた。湿原地帯には (沼沢地アラブ) と呼ばれる少数民族が暮らしておりアシと水牛を特徴とした生活を送っていた。しかしながら20世紀後半から計画的な灌漑排水計画が進められたため21世紀に至るとハンマール湖は 1/10 程度まで縮小している。イラクの陸水はティグリス、ユーフラテス、及びそれに付随する湖沼が際立つが、別の水系によるものも存在する。カルバラの西に広がるである。ネフド砂漠から連なるアルガダーフ・ワジ など複数のワジと地下水によって形成されている。ミル湖に流れ込む最も長いアルウィバード・ワジは本流の長さだけでも400 kmを上回り、4 本の支流が接続する。なお、イラク国内で最長のワジはハウラーン・ワジ であり、480 kmに達する。イラクの気候はほぼ全土にわたり砂漠気候に分類される。ティグリス川の北岸から北はステップ気候さらに地中海性気候に至る。したがって夏期に乾燥し5月から10月の間は全国に渡って降雨を見ない。南西季節風の影響もあって熱赤道が国土の南側を通過するため7月と8月の2カ月は最高気温が50 度を超える。ただし地面の熱容量が小さく放射冷却を妨げる条件がないため最低気温が30 度を上回ることは珍しい。一方北部山岳地帯の冬は寒くしばしば多量の降雪があり甚大な洪水を引き起こす。1921年に53.8 度の最高気温を記録したバスラは30年平均値でちょうど熱赤道の真下に位置する。首都バグダードの平均気温は8.5 度 (1月)、34.2 度 (7月)。年降水量は僅かに140 mmである。砂漠気候を中心とする乾燥した気候5000年を超える文明の影響により野生の大型ほ乳類はほとんど分布していない。イラクで最も大きな野生動物はレイヨウ次いでガゼルである。肉食獣としてはジャッカルハイエナキツネが見られる。小型ほ乳類ではウサギコウモリトビネズミモグラヤマアラシが分布する。鳥類はティグリス・ユーフラテスを生息地とする水鳥と捕食者が中心である。ウズラ 、カモ、ガン、タカ、フクロウ、ワシ、ワタリガラスが代表。ステップに分布する植物のうち、古くから利用されてきたのが地中海岸からイランにかけて分布するマメ科の低木トラガカントゴムノキ 、大輪の花が目立つハンニチバナ科の草、ヨーロッパ原産のムシトリナデシコが見られる。ティグリス・ユーフラテスの上流から中流にかけてはカンゾウが密生しており、やはり樹液が取引されている。両河川の下流域は湿地帯が広がり、クコ、ハス、パピルス、ヨシが密生する。土手にはハンノキ、ポプラ、ヤナギも見られる。ザグロス山中に分け入るとバロニアガシ が有用。樹皮を採取しなめし革に用いる。やはり創世記に記述がある。自然の植生ではないがイラクにおいてもっとも重要な植物はナツメヤシである。戦争や塩害で激減するまではイラクの人口よりもナツメヤシの本数の方が多いとも言われた。18の県 に分かれる。IMFの統計によると2020年のGDPは1695億ドルである。一人当たりのGDPは4223ドルで隣国のヨルダンと同等の水準であるが産油国が多い中東ではやや低い数値である。通貨はイラク戦争後のイラク暫定統治機構 統治下の2003年10月15日から導入されたイラク新ディナール。紙幣は、50、250、1000、5000、10000、25000の5種類。アメリカの評論誌Foreign Policyによれば、2007年調査時点で世界で最も価値の低い通貨トップ5の一つ。為替レートは1米ドル＝1260新ディナール、1新ディナール＝約0.1円。イラクは長らく、ティグリス・ユーフラテス川の恵みによる農業が国の根幹をなしていた。ところが、1927年にキルクークで発見された石油がこの国の運命を変えた。19世紀末に発明された自動車のガソリンエンジンが大量生産されるようになり、燃料としての石油の重要性が高まる一方だったからだ。1921年にはイギリスの委任統治下ながらイラク王国として独立していたため名目上は石油はイラクのものではあったが1932年にイラクが独立国となったのちもイギリスは軍を駐留し採掘権はイギリスBPのもとに留まった。利益はすべてイギリスの収入となりイラク政府民間企業には配分されなかった。第二次世界大戦を経た1950年、石油の需要が大幅に伸びはじめた際、ようやく石油による収入の50 %がイラク政府の歳入に加わることが取り決められた。イラクはその後ソ連に接近、南部最大のルメイラ油田がソ連に開発され、ソ連と友好協力条約を結んだ1972年、イラク政府はBP油田の国有化を決定、補償金と引き換えに油田はイラクのものとなった。石油危機による原油高の追い風で1970年から1980年まで年率11.9％という二桁の経済成長で当時のイラクの一人当たりGDPは中東で最も高くなり、サウジアラビアに次ぐ世界第2位の石油輸出国になった。1980年に始まったイラン・イラク戦争が拡大するうちに、両国が互いに石油施設を攻撃し合ったため、原油価格の上昇以上に生産量が激減し、衰退した。1990年のイラクによるクウェート侵攻の名目は、クウェート国内で革命政権を建てたとする暫定自由政府の要請があったこととしているが、背景には石油に関する摩擦があった。OPECによる生産割当をクウェートが守らず、イラクの国益が損なわれたこと、両国の国境地帯にある油田をクウェートが違法に採掘したこと、というのが理由である。イラクの原油生産量単位 万トン (United Nations "Statistical Yearbook")イラク経済のほとんどは原油の輸出によって賄われている。8年間にわたるイラン・イラク戦争による支出で1980年代には金融危機が発生し、イランの攻撃によって原油生産施設が破壊されたことから、イラク政府は支出を抑え、多額の借金をし、後には返済を遅らせるなどの措置をとった。イラクはこの戦争で少なくとも1000億ドルの経済的損害を被ったとされる。1988年に戦闘が終結すると新しいパイプラインの建設や破壊された施設の復旧などにより原油の輸出は徐々に回復した。1990年8月イラクのクウェート侵攻により国際的な経済制裁が加えられ1991年1月に始まった多国籍軍による戦闘行為 で経済活動は大きく衰退した。イラク政府が政策により大規模な軍隊と国内の治安維持部隊に多くの資源を費したことがこの状態に拍車をかけた。1996年12月に国連の石油と食糧の交換計画実施により経済は改善される。6ヵ月周期の最初の6フェーズではイラクは食料、医薬品およびその他の人道的な物品のみのためにしか原油を輸出できないよう制限されていた。1999年12月、国連安全保障委員会はイラクに交換計画下で人道的要求に見合うだけの原油を輸出することを許可した。現在では原油の輸出はイラン・イラク戦争前の四分の三になっている。2001～2002までに「石油と食料の交換」取引の下でイラクは、1日に280万バーレルを生産し、170万バーレルを輸出するようになり、120億ドルを獲得した。。医療と健康保険が安定した改善をみせたのにともない一人あたりの食料輸入量も飛躍的に増大した。しかし一人あたりの生活支出は未だにイランイラク戦争前よりも低い。世界食糧計画 の統計 によるとイラクの農地は国土の13.8 %を占める。天水では農業を継続できないがティグリスユーフラテス川と灌漑網によって農地を維持している。13.8 %という数値はアジア平均を下回るものの世界平均ヨーロッパ平均を上回る数値である。農業従事者の割合は低く、全国民の2.2 %にあたる62 万人に過ぎない。農業従事者が少ないため、一人当たり16.2 haというイラクの耕地面積は、アジアではモンゴル、サウジアラビア、カザフスタンに次いで広い。同2005年の統計によると主要穀物では小麦 次いで大麦 の栽培に集中している。麦類は乾燥した気候に強いからである。逆に米の生産量は13 万トンと少ない。野菜・果実ではトマト 、ぶどう が顕著である。商品作物としてはナツメヤシ が際立つ。エジプト、サウジアラビア、イランに次いで世界第4位の生産数量であり、世界シェアの12.6 %を占める。畜産業では、ヤギ 、ウシ が主力である。ナツメヤシはペルシャ湾、メソポタミアの砂漠地帯の原産である。少なくとも5000 年に渡って栽培されており、イラク地方の農業・経済・食文化と強く結びついている。とくにバスラとバグダードのナツメヤシが有力。バスラには800 万本ものナツメヤシが植わっているとされ、第二次世界大戦後はアメリカ合衆国を中心に輸出されてきた。イラン・イラク戦争、湾岸戦争ではヤシの木に被害が多く、輸出額に占めるナツメヤシの比率が半減するほどであった。バグダードのナツメヤシは国内でもっとも品質がよいことで知られる。イラクで栽培されているナツメヤシは、カラセー種 、ハラウィ種 、カドラウィ種 、ザヒディ種 である。最も生産数量が多いのはハラウィ種だ。カドラウィ種がこれに次ぐ。カラセー種は品質が最も高く、実が軟らかい。ザヒディ種はバグダードを中心に栽培されており、もっとも早く実がなる。実が乾燥して引き締まっており、デーツとして輸出にも向く。イラクの工業は自給的であり食品工業化学工業を中心とする。食品工業はデーツを原料とする植物油精製のほか製粉業精肉業皮革製造などが中心である。繊維産業も確立している。化学工業は自給に要する原油の精製及び肥料の生産である。重油の精製量は世界生産の1 %から2 %に達する 。一方建築材料として用いる日干しレンガレンガはいまだに手工業の段階にも達しておらず組織化されていない個人による生産に依存している。製鉄薬品電機などの製造拠点も存在するが国内需要を満たしていない。農機具工作機械車両などと併せ輸入に頼る。原油確認埋蔵量は1,120億バレルで、サウジアラビア・イランに次ぐ。米国エネルギー省は埋蔵量の90 %が未開発で、掘られた石油井戸はまだ2,000 本に過ぎないと推定。2009年時点の総発電量461億kWhの93 %は石油による火力発電でまかなっている。残りの7 %はティグリス・ユーフラテス川上流部に点在する水力発電所から供給された。イラクの送配電網は1861年にドイツによって建設が始まった。19世紀イギリスとドイツは現在のイラクがあるメソポタミアへの覇権を競っていた。鉄道と電力網の建設はドイツがティグリスユーフラテス川における蒸気船の運航はイギリスによって始まった。イラクの貿易構造を一言で表すと原油と石油精製物を輸出し工業製品を輸入するというものである。2003年時点の輸出額に占める石油関連の比率は91.9 %同じく輸入額に占める工業製品の割合は93.1 %であるからだ。同年における貿易収支は輸出輸入とも101億ドルであり均衡がとれている。輸出品目別では、原油83.9 %、石油 8.0 %、食品5.0 %、石油化学製品1.0 %である。食品に分類されている品目はほとんどがデーツである。輸入品目別では、機械73.1 %、基礎的な工業製品16.1 %、食品5.0 %、化学工業製品1.0 %。貿易相手国は輸出がアメリカ合衆国 18.6 %ロシアとCIS諸国トルコブラジルフランス輸入がアメリカ合衆国 13.6 %日本ドイツイギリスフランスとなっている。イラン・イラク戦争中の1986年時点における貿易構造は、2003年時点とあまり変わっていない。ただし、相違点もある。輸出においては、総輸出額に占める原油の割合が98.1 %と高かったにもかかわらず、採掘から輸送までのインフラが破壊されたことにより、原油の輸出が落ち込んでいた。結果として、12億ドルの貿易赤字を計上していた。製鉄業が未発達であったため、輸入に占める鉄鋼の割合が5.9 %と高かったことも異なる。貿易相手国の顔ぶれは大きく違う。2003年時点では輸出入ともアメリカ合衆国が第一だが、1986年の上位5カ国にアメリカ合衆国は登場しない。輸出相手国はブラジル、日本、スペイン、トルコ、ユーゴスラビアであり、輸入相手国は日本、トルコ、イギリス、西ドイツ、イタリアであった。イラクは鉄道が発達しており、国内の主要都市すべてが鉄道で結ばれている。2003年時点の総延長距離は2200 km。旅客輸送量は22億人、貨物輸送量は11億トンに及ぶ。イラクの鉄道網はシリア、トルコと連結しており、ヨーロッパ諸国とは鉄道で結ばれている。バグダードとアナトリア半島中央南部のコンヤを結ぶイラク初の鉄道路線。一方自動車は普及が進んでおらず自動車保有台数は95万台 に留まる。舗装道路の総延長距離も8400 kmに留まる。国連の統計によれば住民はアラブ人が79%クルド人16%アッシリア人3%トルコマン人2%である。ユダヤ人も存在していたがイスラエル建国に伴うアラブ民族主義の高まりと反ユダヤ主義の気運により迫害や虐殺を受けて国外に追放され大半がイスラエルに亡命した。ただしクルド人については難民が多く1ポイント程度の誤差があるとされている。各民族は互いに混住することなくある程度まとまりをもって居住しておりクルド人は国土の北部にアッシリア人はトルコ国境に近い山岳地帯にトゥルクマーンは北部のアラブ人とクルド人の境界付近に集まっている。それ以外の地域にはアラブ人が分布する。気候区と関連付けると砂漠気候にある土地はアラブ人がステップ気候や地中海性気候にある土地にはその他の民族が暮らしていることになる。かつてはスーダンからの出稼ぎ労働者やパレスチナ難民も暮らしていたがイラク戦争後のテロや宗派対立によりほとんどが国外に出国するか国内難民となっている。またイラン革命を逃れたイラン人がイラク中部のと呼ばれる町に定住している。イラク南部ティグリス・ユーフラテス川合流部は、中東で最も水の豊かな地域である。イラク人は合流部付近を沼に因んでマーシュと呼ぶ。1970年代以降水利が完備される以前は、ティグリス川の東に数kmから10 km離れ、川の流れに並行した湖沼群とユーフラテス川のアン・ナスリーヤ下流に広がるハンマール湖が一体となり、合流部のすぐ南に広がるサナフ湖とも連結していた。マーシュが途切れるのはようやくバスラに至った地点である。アシで囲った家に住み、農業と漁労を生業としたマーシュ・アラブと呼ばれる民族が1950年代には40万人を数えたと言う。マーシュ・アラブはさらに2種類に分類されている。まず、マアッダンと呼ばれるスイギュウを労役に用いる農民である。夏期には米を栽培し、冬期は麦を育てる。スイギュウ以外にヒツジも扱っていた。各部族ごとにイッサダと呼ばれるムハンマドを祖先とうたう聖者を擁することが特徴だ。マアッダンはアシに完全に依存した生活を送っていた。まず、大量のアシを使って水面に「島」を作り、その島の上にアシの家を建てる。スイギュウの餌もアシである。南部のベニイサドはアラビアから移動してきた歴史をもつ。コムギを育てマーシュ外のアラビア人に類似した生活を送っている。マアッダンを文化的に遅れた民族として扱っていたがスイギュウ飼育がマアッダンだけの仕事となる結果となり結果的にマアッダンの生活様式が安定することにつながっていた。またアフリカ大陸にルーツを持つアフリカ系住民も非常に少数ながら生活している。そのほとんどがアラブの奴隷商人によってイラクに連れてこられた黒人の子孫とみられる。アラビア語、クルド語が公用語である。2004年のイラク憲法改正以来クルド語がアラビア語と共に正式な公用語に追加された。その他アルメニア語、アゼリー語や現代アラム語 なども少数ながら使われている。書き言葉としてのアラビア語 は、アラブ世界で統一されている。これはコーランが基準となっているからである。しかし、話し言葉としてのアラビア語 は地域によって異なる。エジプト方言は映画やテレビ放送の言葉として広く流通しているが、この他にマグレブ方言、シリア方言、湾岸方言、アラビア半島方言などが認められている。イラクで話されているのはイラク方言である。ただし、イラク国内で共通語となっているバグダードの言葉と山岳部、湾岸部にもさらに方言が分かれている。イラクにおける教育制度は、伝統的なコーランを学ぶ学校に始まる。イギリス委任統治領時代から西欧型の初等教育が始まり、独立前の1929年から女性に対する中等教育も開始された。現在の教育制度は1978年に改訂され、義務教育が6年制となった。教育制度は充実しており、初等教育から高等教育に至るまで無料である。国立以外の学校は存在しない。1990年時点の統計によると、小学校は8917校である。3年制の中学校への進学は試験によって判断され、3人に1人が中学校に進む。大学へ進学を望むものは中学校卒業後、2年間の予備課程を修了する必要がある。首都バグダードを中心に大学は8校、大学終了後は、19の科学技術研究所に進むこともできる。通常は婚姻時に改姓することはない(夫婦別姓)が、西欧風に夫の姓に改姓する女性もいる。イスラム教が国民の 99 %を占め次いでキリスト教 0.8 %ヒンドゥー教 その他 である。イスラム教徒の内訳はシーア派 60 - 65 %スンナ派 32 - 37 % である。キリスト教（カトリック東方正教会アッシリア東方教会等）はアッシリア人と少数民族に限られている。1987年の時点では140万人（全体の8%）のキリスト教徒が暮らしていたが1990年代とさらに2003年のフセイン政権崩壊以降とで多くが国を離れた。2010年の時点での人口比は0.8%と報告されている。全世界のイスラム教徒に占めるシーア派の割合は高くはないがイラク国内では過半数を占める。イラク国内では被支配層にシーア派が多い。シーア派は預言者の後継者最高指導者 (イマーム) が誰であるかという論争によってスンナ派と分裂した。シーア派は預言者の従弟であるアリーを初代イマームとして選んだがアリーの次のイマームが誰なのかによってさらに主要なイスマーイール派ザイド派十二イマーム派ハワーリジュ派などに分裂している。イラクで優勢なのはイランと同じイマームの再臨を信じる十二イマーム派である。シーア派法学の中心地は4つの聖地と一致する。すなわちカルバラーナジャフおよび隣国イランのクムとマシュハドである。スンナ派ではシャーフィイー学派、ハナフィー学派、ハンバル学派、マーリク学派の4法学派が正当派とされている。イラク出身のスンナ派イスラム法学者としては、以下の3人が著名である。8世紀まで政治・文化の中心であったクーファに生まれたアブー・ハニーファ は、ハナフィー法学派を創設し、弟子のアブー・ユースフと孫弟子のシャイバーニーの3人によって確立し、今日ではムスリムの信奉する学派のうち最大のものにまで成長した。バスラの は合理主義を標榜したムウタズィラ学派に属していたが後に離れる。ムウタズィラ派がよくしていたカラーム をもちいて論争し影響力を低下させた。同時に伝統的な信条をもつアシュアリー派を創設した。ガザーリー は、ペルシア人であったがバグダードのニザーミーヤ学院で教え、イスラーム哲学を発展させた。と呼ばれる。アシュアリー学派、シャーフィイー学派の教えを学び、シーア派のイスマーイール派などを強く批判した。後に、アリストテレスの論理学を受け入れ、イスラーム哲学自体に批判を下していく。イスラム神秘主義者としてはメディナ生まれの が著名である。バスラに住み、禁欲主義を説いた。神の意志と自らの意志を一致させるための精神修行法を作り上げ、ムウタズィラ派を開く。ムウタズィラ派は合理的ではあったが、彼の精神修行法は神秘主義 につながっていった。ヤジーディー派はイラク北部のヤジーディー民族だけに信じられており、シーア派に加えキリスト教ネストリウス派、ゾロアスター教、呪術信仰が混交している。聖典はコーラン、旧約聖書、新約聖書。自らがマラク・ターウースと呼ぶ堕落天使サタンを神と和解する存在と捉え、サタンをなだめる儀式を行うことから悪魔崇拝者と誤解されることもある。1990年時点のキリスト教人口は約100万人である。最大の分派は5割を占めるローマカトリック教会。アッシリア人だけはいずれにも属さずキリストの位格について独自の解釈をもつアッシリア東方教会 に属する。19世紀まではモースルのカルデア教会もネストリウス派に属していたがローマカトリック教会の布教活動により東方帰一教会の一つとなった。サービア教はコーランに登場し、ユダヤ教やキリスト教とともに啓典の民として扱われる歴史のある宗教である。マンダ教はそのサービア教と同一視されてきた。バプテスマのヨハネに付き従い、洗礼を非常に重視するため、水辺を居住地として選ぶ。ティグリス・ユーフラテス両河川のバグダード下流から、ハンマール湖に到る大湿地帯に多い。古代において西洋・東洋に広く伝播したグノーシス主義が原型と考えられている。ユダヤ教徒はバビロニア時代から現在のイラク地方に根を下ろし10世紀に到るまでユダヤ教学者を多数擁した。イスラエル建国以前は10万人を超える信者を居住していたが移民のため1990年時点でユダヤ教徒は数百人しか残っていない。イラク国民の嗜好品としてもっとも大量に消費されているのが、茶である。国連の統計によると、1983年から1985年の3年間の平均値として国民一人当たり2.63 kgの茶を消費していた。これはカタール、アイルランド、イギリスについで世界第4位である。国が豊かになるにつれて茶の消費量は増えていき、2000年から2002年では、一人当たり2.77 kgを消費し、世界第一位となった。日本茶業中央会の統計によると、2002年から2004年では戦争の影響を被り消費量が2.25 kgと低下しているが、これでも世界第4位である。イランやトルコなど生産地が近く、イラク国内では茶を安価に入手できる。細密画、アラビア書道、モスク建築、カルバラーやナジャフなどのシーア派聖地。伝統的な楽器としてリュートに類似するウード、ヴァイオリンに類似するレバーブ、その他ツィターに似たカーヌーン、葦の笛ナーイ、酒杯型の片面太鼓ダラブッカなどが知られている。ウードは西洋なしを縦に半分に割ったような形をした弦楽器である。現在の研究では3世紀から栄えたササン朝ペルシア時代の弦楽器バルバトが起源ではないかとされるが、アル=ファーラービーによれば、ウードは旧約聖書創世記に登場するレメクによって作られたのだと言う。最古のウード状の楽器の記録は紀元前2000年ごろのメソポタミア南部 にまで遡る。ウードはフレットを使わないため、ビブラート奏法や微分音を使用するアラブの音階・旋法、マカームの演奏に向く。弦の数はかつては四弦で、これは現在においてもマグリブ地方において古形を見出す事が出来るが、伝承では9世紀にキンディー によって一本追加され、五弦になったとされる。現在では五弦ないし六弦の楽器であることが多い 。イラクのウード奏者としては、イラク音楽研究所のジャミール・バシールJamil Bachir、バグダード音楽大学のナシル・シャンマNaseer Shamma、国際的な演奏活動で知られるアハメド・ムクタールAhmed Mukhtarが著名である。スターとしてウード奏者のムニール・バシールMunir Bashirも有名。カーヌーンは台形の共鳴箱の上に平行に多数の弦を張り渡した弦楽器で手前が高音の弦となる。指で弦をつまんで演奏する撥弦楽器であり弦の本数は様々だが百本に達するもの等もある。また現在、東アラブ古典音楽における核の一つとしてイラクのバグダードはエジプトのカイロと並び重要な地である。それだけでは無くイスラームの音楽文化の歴史にとってもバグダードは大変に重要な地で、アッバース朝時代のバグダードではカリフの熱心な文芸擁護によりモウスィリー、ザルザル、ズィリヤーブ等のウードの名手、キンディー、ファーラービー、サフィー・アッ＝ディーン等の精緻な理論体系を追求した音楽理論家が綺羅星のごとく活躍をした。その様子は千夜一夜物語にも一部描写されている。時代は変遷し、イスラームの音楽文化の主流はイラク国外の地域に移ったのかも知れないが、現在でもかつての栄華を偲ばせる豊かな音楽伝統を持つ。バグダードにはイラーキー・マカーム と呼ばれる小編成で都会的な匂いのする室内楽の伝統がある。民謡にはカスィーダと呼ばれるアラブの伝統詩を謡い上げるものイラク独自の詩形を持つマッワールパスタなどが知られる。伝統的な結婚式では他アラブ圏でも同様だがズルナと呼ばれるチャルメラ状の楽器とタブルと呼ばれる太鼓がしばしば登場する。またクルド人は独特の音楽を持つ。現代のイラク人は西洋のロックヒップホップおよびポップスなどをラジオ放送局などで楽しんでおりヨルダン経由でエジプトのポップスなども輸入されている。イラクはアメリカ合衆国エジプトに次ぎ1974年3月5日に世界遺産条約を受託している。1985年にバグダードの北西290 kmに位置する平原の都市遺跡ハトラ が文化遺産に2003年にはハトラの東南東50 kmにあるティグリス川に面した都市遺跡アッシュール がやはり文化遺産に認定されている。アレクサンドロス大王の東征によって生まれた大帝国が分裂後に生まれたセレウコス朝シリアは紀元前3世紀ハトラを建設した。セレウコス朝が衰弱するとパルティア帝国の通商都市宗教の中心地として栄えた。2世紀にはローマの東方への拡大によってパルティア帝国側の西方最前線の防衛拠点となる。ローマ帝国の攻撃には耐えたがパルティア帝国は衰亡しパルティア帝国に服していたペルシス王国が東から版図を拡大する中224年に破壊された。226年にはパルティア自体が滅びペルシス王国はサーサーン朝ペルシアを名乗る。アッシュールは紀元前3000年ごろメソポタミア文明最初期のシュメールの都市としてすでに成立していた。その後シュメールの南方に接していたアッカド帝国の都市となりウル第三王朝を通じて繁栄紀元前2004年の王朝崩壊後も商業の中心地として継続した。アッシリアが成立するとその版図となり古アッシリア時代のシャムシアダド1世 (前1813年-前1781年在位) は王国の首都をアッシュールに定め廃れていたエンリル神殿を再建している。1000年の繁栄の後新アッシリア王国のアッシュールナツィルパル2世はニムルドを建設し遷都したためアッシュールの性格は宗教都市へと変化した。紀元前625年に成立しアッシリアを侵略した新バビロニア王国によって同614年に征服破壊される。アッシリア自体も同612年に滅びている。その後パルティア帝国が都市を再建したが短期間の後サーサーン朝ペルシャによって再び破壊されその後再建されることはなかった。アッシュールはドイツ人のアッシリア学者フリードリヒ・デーリチによって発掘調査が進められたため、遺物の多くはベルリンのペルガモン博物館に展示・収蔵されている。フセイン政権下の祝祭日を示した。イラクではフセイン政権時代前はバスケットボールイラク代表やサッカーイラク代表などが国際試合を行っており、特にサッカーはアジア最強とも言われていたが、フセイン政権になり、特にウダイ・サッダーム・フセインがイラクオリンピック委員長に就任して以降、ウダイによる拷問により多数のスポーツ選手が殺害され、イラク国内においてスポーツ界に暗い影を落とした。また、スタジアムなどのスポーツ関連施設もフセイン政権下では公開処刑場と化していた。1990年代におけるスポーツ界でイラクが起こした著名な出来事と言えば、1994 FIFAワールドカップアジア最終予選・対日本戦において試合終了直前に引き分けに持ち込み、日本のワールドカップ初出場の夢を打ち砕いたが挙げられる。やがてアメリカによりフセイン政権が崩壊すると、徐々にスポーツ界も復興し始め、サッカーイラク代表もアジアカップ2007で初めてとなるアジアの頂点を制し、アジア列強として再び力を取り戻しつつある。 +イラン・イスラム共和国と境を接する。また、ペルシア湾を挟んでクウェート、サウジアラビア、バーレーン、カタール、アラブ首長国連邦に面する。首都はテヘラン。ペルシア、ペルシャともいう。前6世紀のアケメネス朝時代から繁栄しサーサーン朝時代にはゾロアスター教が国教だったが642年にアラブ人に滅ぼされイスラム教が広まった。16世紀初めに成立したサファビー朝がシーア派十二イマーム派を国教としイラン人の国民意識を形成した。18世紀のカージャール朝を経て1925年からパフラヴィー朝になったが1979年のルーホッラーホメイニー師によるイラン革命により王政は廃され宗教上の最高指導者が国の最高権力を持つイスラム共和制が樹立された。政治体制は1979年に制定されたイランイスラーム共和国憲法によって規定されており国の元首である最高指導者の地位は宗教法学者に賦与され自由はに分類されている。外交面ではパフラヴィー朝時代にはアメリカ合衆国の強い影響下にあったが革命によりアメリカとの関係が悪化特にアメリカ大使館人質事件以降公然たる敵対関係に入った。アメリカからはテロ支援国家に指定されている。他方でイラン革命指導者は反共主義者が多いためソビエト連邦とも友好的ではなく革命後の外交は排外主義的な非同盟中立路線を基本とする。近年は核兵器開発を行っている疑惑から経済制裁を受けている。2015年にオバマ政権下のアメリカと核合意を締結して制裁解除を取り付けたがトランプ政権が破棄し制裁が再開されたため段階的に核合意履行停止を進めている。経済面ではパフラヴィー朝時代にアメリカからの経済援助を元手に経済各分野の近代化を進め、高度経済成長を成し遂げた。イラン革命の混乱とイラン・イラク戦争で経済は停滞したが、その後立て直しが図られた。世界有数の石油の産出地であり、それが国の主要財源である。しかし近年は長引くアメリカの制裁と新型コロナウイルスのパンデミックにより経済状態が深刻化している。軍事面では王政時代からの伝統を持つ正規軍と別に革命後に創設された革命防衛隊という最高指導者直轄の親衛隊的軍事組織が存在するのが特徴である。革命防衛隊はイラン国外の対外工作にも深くかかわりアメリカのトランプ政権からに指定された。男性に2年の兵役を課す徴兵制を採用しており兵力は61万人ほどである。2017年の国勢調査によると人口は約8千万人で、世界で17位であった。多くの民族と言語が存在する多文化国家であり、主要な民族の構成はペルシア人 (61%)、アゼルバイジャン人 (35%)、クルド人 (10%)、ロル族 (6%) である。宗教は99%がイスラム教徒でその大部分 (89%) がシーア派である。トルクメン人・バルーチ人・クルド人など10%がスンニ派を信仰している。極めて少数派としてユダヤ教・キリスト教・ゾロアスター教・バハイ教の教徒もいるが、バハイ教は非合法にされている。言語はペルシア語が公用語で大半を占めているが、他にクルド語やアゼルバイジャン語などがある。地理としては総面積は1648195 平方キロメートル で中東で2番目に大きく世界では17位である。北部を東西にアルボルズ山脈が北西部から南東部にザーグロス山脈が走りその間にイラン高原が広がる。国土のほとんどがイラン高原上にある。同国はユーラシアの中心に位置しホルムズ海峡に面するため地政学的に重要な場所にある。首都であるテヘランは同国の最も大きな都市であり経済と文化の中心地でもある。イランには文化的な遺産が多く存在しユネスコの世界遺産には22個登録されている。これはアジアでは3番目世界では11番目に多い。イラン人自身は古くから国の名をに改められたものの混乱が見られた。1959年、研究者らの主張によりモハンマド・レザー・シャーがイランとペルシアは代替可能な名称と定めた。その後1979年のイラン・イスラーム革命によってイスラーム共和制が樹立されると、国制の名としてイスラーム共和国の名を用いる一方、国名はイランと定められた。現在の正式名称はペルシア語で 通称 。公式の英語表記はIslamic Republic of Iran通称Iran。日本語の表記は通称イランであり漢字表記では伊朗伊蘭とも当てた。イランの歴史時代は紀元前3000年頃の原エラム時代に始まる。アーリア人の到来以降王朝が建設されやがてハカーマニシュ朝が勃興。紀元前550年にキュロス大王がメディア王国を滅ぼしてペルシアを征服しさらにペルシアから諸国を征服して古代オリエント世界の広大な領域を統治するペルシア帝国を建国した。紀元前539年にバビロン捕囚にあったユダヤ人を解放するなど各地で善政を敷きまたゾロアスター教をその統治の理念とした。アケメネス朝はマケドニア王国のアレクサンドロス大王率いるギリシャ遠征軍によって紀元前330年に滅ぼされたが、まもなく大王が死去してディアドコイ戦争となり、帝国は三分割されてセレウコス朝が成立し、ローマ・シリア戦争でセレウコス朝が敗れるとパルティアは離反した。パルティア滅亡後は226年に建国されたサーサーン朝が続いた。サーサーン朝は度々ローマ帝国と軍事衝突し259年/260年にシャープール1世は親征してきたウァレリアヌス帝をエデッサの戦いで打ち破り捕虜にしている。イスラーム期に先立つアケメネス朝以降のこれらの帝国はオリエントの大帝国として独自の文明を発展させローマ帝国やイスラム帝国に文化政治体制などの面で影響を与えた。7世紀に入るとサーサーン朝は東ローマ帝国のヘラクレイオス帝との紛争やメソポタミアの大洪水による国力低下を経てアラビア半島に興ったイスラーム勢力のハーリドイブンアル＝ワリードらが率いる軍勢により疲弊。636年のカーディスィーヤの戦い642年のニハーヴァンドの戦いでイスラーム勢力に敗北を重ね651年に最後の皇帝ヤズデギルド3世が死去したことを以て滅亡した。イランの中世はこのイスラームの征服に始まる幾多の重要な出来事により特色付けられた。873年に成立したイラン系のサーマーン朝下ではペルシア文学が栄え10世紀に成立したイラン系のブワイフ朝はシーア派イスラームの十二イマーム派を国教とした最初の王朝となった。11世紀から12世紀にかけて発達したガズナ朝やセルジューク朝やホラズムシャー朝などのトルコ系王朝は文官としてペルシア人官僚を雇用しペルシア語を外交や行政の公用語としたためこの時代にはペルシア文学の散文が栄えた。1220年に始まるモンゴル帝国の征服によりイランは荒廃した。モンゴル帝国がイスラーム化したフレグ・ウルスが滅亡した後、14世紀から15世紀にかけてイラン高原はティムール朝の支配下に置かれた。1501年にの教主であったイスマーイール1世がタブリーズでサファヴィー朝を開いた。シーア派イスラームの十二イマーム派を国教に採用したイスマーイール1世は遊牧民のクズルバシュ軍団を率いて各地を征服した。また、レバノンやバーレーンから十二イマーム派のウラマーを招いてシーア派教学を体系化したことにより、サファヴィー朝治下の人々の十二イマーム派への改宗が進んだ。1514年のチャルディラーンの戦いによってクルド人の帰属をオスマン帝国に奪われた。第五代皇帝のアッバース1世はエスファハーンに遷都し各種の土木建築事業を行ってサファヴィー朝の最盛期を現出した。1616年にアッバース1世とイギリス東インド会社の間で貿易協定が結ばれるとイギリス人のロバートシャーリーの指導によりサファヴィー朝の軍備が近代化された。しかし1629年にアッバース1世が亡くなると急速にサファヴィー朝は弱体化し1638年にオスマン帝国の反撃で現在のイラク領域を失い1639年のでオスマン朝との間の国境線が確定した。サファヴィー朝は1736年に滅亡しその後は政治的混乱が続いた。1796年にテュルク系のアーガー・モハンマドが樹立したガージャール朝の時代に、ペルシアはイギリス、ロシアなど列強の勢力争奪の草刈り場の様相を呈することになったの賠償金を支払い、在イランロシア帝国臣民への治外法権を認めさせられるなどのこの不平等条約によって本格的なイランの受難が始まった。こうした情況に危機感を抱いた、アーザルバイジャーン州総督のアッバース・ミールザー皇太子は工場設立や軍制改革などの近代化改革を進めたものの、1833年にミールザーが病死したことによってこの改革は頓挫した。1834年に国王に即位したモハンマド・シャーは失地回復のために1837年にアフガニスタンのヘラートへの遠征を強行したものの失敗し、1838年から1842年までのにてイギリスがアフガニスタンに苦戦した後、イギリスは難攻不落のアフガニスタンから衰退しつつあるイランへとその矛先を変え、1841年にガージャール朝から最恵国待遇を得た。更にモハンマド・シャーの治世下には、ペルシアの国教たる十二イマーム派の権威を否定するセイイェド・アリー・モハンマドがバーブ教を開くなど内憂にも見舞われた。モハンマド・シャーの没後、1848年にナーセロッディーン・シャーが第四代国王に即位した直後にバーブ教徒の乱が発生すると、ガージャール朝政府はこれに対しバーブ教の開祖セイイェド・アリー・モハンマドを処刑して弾圧し、宰相ミールザー・タギー・ハーン・アミーレ・キャビールの下でオスマン帝国のタンジマートを範とした上からの改革が計画されたが、改革に反発する保守支配層の意を受けた国王ナーセロッディーン・シャーが改革の開始から1年を経ずにアミーレ・キャビールを解任したため、イランの近代化改革は挫折した。ナーセロッディーン・シャーは1856年にヘラートの領有を目指してアフガニスタン遠征を行ったが、この遠征はイギリスのイランへの宣戦布告を招き、敗戦とパリ条約によってガージャール朝の領土的野心は断念させられた。こうしてイギリスとロシアをはじめとする外国からの干渉と内政の改進を行い得ないガージャール朝の国王の下で19世紀後半のイランは列強に数々の利権を譲渡する挙に及んだ。1872年のロイター利権のような大規模な民族資産のイギリスへの譲渡とロシアによる金融業への進出が進む一方臣民の苦汁をよそに国王ナーセロッディーンシャーは遊蕩を続けた。を締結したが戦争の二期目に突入しイギリス軍は撤退した。このような内憂外患にイラン人は黙して手を拱いていたわけではなく、1890年に国王ナーセロッディーン・シャーがイギリス人のジェラルド・タルボトにタバコに関する利権を与えたことを契機として、翌1891年から十二イマーム派のウラマーの主導でタバコ・ボイコット運動が発生し、1892年1月4日に国王ナーセロッディーン・シャーをしてタバコ利権の譲渡を撤回させることに成功した。第四代国王ナーセロデッィーン・シャーが革命家レザー・ケルマーニーに暗殺された後、1896年にモザッファロッディーンが第五代ガージャール朝国王に即位した。だが、ナーセロデッィーン・シャーの下で大宰相を務めたが留任し、政策に変わりはなかったため、それまでの内憂外患にも変化はなかった。しかしながら1905年に日露戦争にて日本がロシアに勝利すると、この日本の勝利は議会制と大日本帝国憲法を有する立憲国家の勝利だとイラン人には受け止められ、ガージャール朝の専制に対する憲法の導入が国民的な熱望の象徴となり、同時期の農作物の不作とコレラの発生などの社会不安を背景に、1905年12月の砂糖商人への鞭打ち事件を直接の契機として、イラン立憲革命が始まった。イラン人は国王に対して議会 (majles) の開設を求め、これに気圧された国王は1906年8月5日に議会開設の勅令を発し、9月9日に選挙法が公布され、10月7日にイラン初の国民議会 (Majiles-e Shoura-ye Melli) が召集された。しかしながらその後の立憲革命は、立憲派と専制派の対立に加え、立憲派内部での穏健派と革命派の対立、更には労働者のストライキや農民の反乱、1907年にイランをそれぞれの勢力圏に分割する英露協商を結んだイギリスとロシアの介入、内戦の勃発等々が複合的に進行した末に、1911年にロシア帝国軍の直接介入によって議会は立憲政府自らによって解散させられ、ここに立憲革命は終焉したのであった。なお、この立憲革命の最中の1908年5月にマスジェド・ソレイマーンで油田が発見されている。1911年の議会強制解散後、内政が行き詰まったまま1914年の第一次世界大戦勃発を迎えると、既にイギリス軍とロシア軍の勢力範囲に分割占領されていたイランに対し、大戦中には更にオスマン帝国が侵攻してタブリーズを攻略され、イラン国内ではドイツ帝国の工作員が暗躍し、国内では戦乱に加えて凶作やチフスによる死者が続出した。1917年10月にロシア大十月革命によってレーニン率いるロシア社会民主労働党ボルシェヴィキが権力を握ると、新たに成立した労農ロシアはそれまでロシア帝国がイラン国内に保持していた権益の放棄、駐イランロシア軍の撤退、不平等条約の破棄と画期的な反植民地主義政策を打ち出した。これに危機感を抱いたイギリスは単独でのイラン支配を目指して1919年8月9日に「英国・イラン協定」を結び、イランの保護国化を図った。この協定に激怒したイランの人々はガージャール朝政府の意図を超えて急進的に革命化し、1920年6月6日にミールザー・クーチェク・ハーン・ジャンギャリーによってギーラーン共和国が、6月24日に北部のタブリーズでアーザディスターン独立共和国の樹立が反英、革命の立場から宣言されたが、不安定な両革命政権は長続きせずに崩壊し、1921年2月21日に発生したイラン・コサック軍のレザー・ハーン大佐によるクーデターの後、同1921年4月にイギリス軍が、10月にソビエト赤軍がそれぞれイランから撤退し、その後実権を握ったレザー・ハーンは1925年10月に「ガージャール朝廃絶法案」を議会に提出した。翌1926年4月にレザー・ハーン自らが皇帝レザー・パフラヴィーに即位し、パフラヴィー朝が成立した。パフラヴィー朝成立後1927年よりレザーパフラヴィーは不平等条約破棄軍備増強民法刑法商法の西欧化財政再建近代的教育制度の導入鉄道敷設公衆衛生の拡充などの事業を進めたが1931年に社会主義者共産主義者を弾圧する「反共立法」を議会に通した後1932年を境に独裁化を強めまたガージャール朝が欠いていた官僚制と軍事力を背景に1935年7月のゴーハルシャードモスク事件や1936年の女性のヴェール着用の非合法化などによって十二イマーム派のウラマーに対抗し反イスラーム的な統治を行った。なおイスラームよりもイラン民族主義を重視したパフラヴィー1世の下で1934年10月にフェルドウスィー生誕1000周年記念祭が行われ1935年に国号を正式にペルシアからイランへと変更している。1930年代後半にはナチスドイツに接近し1939年に第二次世界大戦が勃発すると当初は中立を維持しようとしたが1941年8月25日に連合国によってイラン進駐を被りイラン軍は敗北しイギリスとソ連によって領土を分割された。イラン進駐下では1941年9月16日にレザーパフラヴィーが息子のモハンマドレザーパフラヴィーに帝位を譲位した他親ソ派共産党のトゥーデ党が結成され1943年11月30日に連合国の首脳が首都テヘランでテヘラン会談を開くなど戦後イランを特徴づける舞台が整えられた。また北部のソ連軍占領地では自治運動が高揚し1945年12月12日にアゼルバイジャン国民政府が1946年1月22日にはクルド人によってマハーバード共和国が樹立されたが両政権は共にアフマドガヴァーム首相率いるテヘランの中央政府によって1946年中にイランに再統合された。1940年代に国民戦線を結成したモハンマド・モサッデク議員は、国民の圧倒的支持を集めて1951年4月に首相に就任した。モサッデグ首相はイギリス系アングロ・イラニアン石油会社から石油国有化を断行したによって失脚させられ、石油国有化は失敗に終わった。このモサッデグ首相追放事件によってパフラヴィー朝の皇帝モハンマドレザーパフラヴィーは自らへの権力集中に成功した。1957年にCIAとFBIとモサドの協力を得て国家情報治安機構 を創設しこの秘密警察SAVAKを用いて政敵や一般市民の市民的自由を抑圧したシャーは白色革命の名の下米英の強い支持を受けてイラン産業の近代化を推進し大地主の勢力を削ぐために1962年に農地改革令を発した。特に1970年代後期にシャーの支配は独裁の色合いを強めた。1978年に入るとテヘランで1万人規模の反政府デモが発生するようになり、8月31日には暴徒が銀行に放火するなどした。イラン・イスラーム共和国.シャーの独裁的統治は1979年のイランイスラーム革命に繋がりパフラヴィー朝の帝政は倒れ新たにアーヤトッラーホメイニーの下でイスラム共和制を採用するイランイスラーム共和国が樹立された。新たなイスラーム政治制度は先例のないウラマーパレスチナのハマースなどのイスラエルの打倒を目ざすイスラーム主義武装組織への支援によって非常に緊張したものとなった。クルド人はイラン革命を支持し、自治権の獲得を目指していたが、革命成立後の政府は受け入れずにイラン・クルディスタン民主党を非合法化。1979年8月、クルド人はイラン西部のケルマーンシャー州や西アーザルバーイジャーン州の都市を占拠するなど大規模な反乱を起こしたが、翌月までに大半が鎮圧された。革命による混乱が続く1980年には隣国イラクのサッダームフセイン大統領がアルジェ合意を破棄してイラン南部のフーゼスターン州に侵攻しイランイラク戦争が勃発した。この破壊的な戦争はイランコントラ事件などの国際社会の意向を巻き込みつつ1988年まで続いた。国政上の改革派と保守派の争いは、選挙を通じて今日まで続くものである。保守派候補マフムード・アフマディーネジャードが勝利した2005年の大統領選挙でもこの点が欧米メディアに注目された。2013年6月に実施されたイラン大統領選挙では保守穏健派のハサンロウハーニーが勝利し2013年8月3日に第7代イランイスラーム共和国大統領に就任した。2021年6月18日に投票が行われたイラン大統領選挙ではエブラーヒームライースィーが当選した。この選挙では政界の有力者の多くが出馬を禁じられ立候補者が保守強硬派だらけとなったこともあり投票率は著しく低迷した。イランの政体は1979年以降の憲法の規定による立憲イスラーム共和制である。政治制度的に複数の評議会的組織があって複雑な関係をなしている。これらの評議会は民主主義的に選挙によって選出される議員で構成されるもの宗教的立場によって選出されるものあるいは両者から構成されるものもある。以下で説明するのは1989年修正憲法下での体制である。イランの政治制度の特徴は、何といっても「法学者の統治」である。これは、イスラーム法学者の解釈するイスラームが絶対的なものであることを前提とし、現実にイスラーム法が実施されているかを監督・指揮する権限を、イスラーム法学者が持つことを保障する制度である。この制度は、シーア派イスラームならではの制度といってよい。イランはシーア派のなかでも「十二イマーム派」に属するが、一般にシーア派の教義では「イマーム」こそが預言者の後継者として、「イスラームの外面的・内面的要素を教徒に教え広める宗教的統率者」としての役割を担うとされている。シーア派はイジュティハードの権限を持つイスラーム法学者を一般大衆とは区別し、この解釈権を持つイスラーム法学者（モジュタヒド）に確固とした政治的・宗教的地位を与えている。モジュタヒドの最高位にあるのが、「マルジャエ・タグリード(模倣の源泉、大アーヤトッラー)」である。マルジャエ・タグリードはシーア派世界の最高権威であるが、ローマ教皇のように必ず1人と決まっているわけではなく、複数人のマルジャエ・タグリードが並立することがある。1978年から1979年のイラン・イスラーム革命によって、マルジャエ・タグリードの1人であったホメイニーがイランの最高指導者となり、宗教的のみならず、政治的にも最高の地位に就くこととなった。イランでは立候補者の数が多い。2000年2月に行われた第6回国会選挙では、290名の定員に対し、7,000人近くが立候補し、2001年の第8回大統領選挙では、840名が立候補した。特に国会選挙では投票の際投票者が一名を選択するのではなくその選挙区の定員数まで何人でも選定することができる。従ってテヘランのように30名もの定員がある選挙区では2 3人しか選ばない者もいれば30人まで列記して投票する者もいる。つまりどのような投票結果になるか予想しにくい制度であるばかりか死票や票の偏りがおこりやすい。テヘランのような大都会では投票が有名人に集中し候補者は規定票を獲得できず第2ラウンドへ持ち込まれるケースも多い。国会選挙の場合投票総数の三分の一を獲得しなければたとえ定員数内の上位でも当選にはならない。そして第2ラウンドの選挙になる。しかしこうしたやり方では選挙費用がかさむ上第2第3ラウンドとなれば選挙結果が決まるまで時間がかかりすぎ国会の空白期間が生じる。そのため2000年1月上旬選挙法の改正が行われ第一ラウンドの当選をこれまでの投票総数の3分の1から25パーセント以上獲得すれば当選とし第2ラウンドでは従来通り投票総数の50パーセント獲得すれば当選というように改正された。護憲評議会は、選挙の際に、立候補者の資格審査を行なっている。は、その法学上の資格と社会から受ける尊敬の念の度合いによって、専門家会議が選出する。終身制で任期はない。現在の最高指導者はアリー・ハーメネイー。大統領は最高指導者の専権事項以外で、執行機関たる行政府の長として憲法に従って政策を執行する。法令により大統領選立候補者は選挙運動以前に監督者評議会による審査と承認が必要で、国民による直接普通選挙の結果、絶対多数票を集めた者が大統領に選出される。任期は4年。再選は可能だが連続3選は禁止されている。大統領は就任後閣僚を指名し、閣議を主宰し行政を監督、政策を調整して議会に法案を提出する。大統領および8人の副大統領と21人の閣僚で閣僚評議会が形成される。副大統領、大臣は就任に当たって議会の承認が必要である。首相職は1989年の憲法改正により廃止された。またイランの場合、行政府は軍を統括しない。議会はといい、一院制である。立法府としての権能を持ち、立法のほか、条約の批准、国家予算の認可を行う。議員は任期4年で290人からなり、国民の直接選挙によって選出される。議会への立候補にあたっては監督者評議会による審査が行われ、承認がなければ立候補リストに掲載されない。この審査はに特に厳しく、例えば2008年3月の選挙においては7,600人が立候補を届け出たが、事前審査で約2,200人が失格となった。その多くがハータミー元大統領に近い改革派であったことから、議会が本当に民意を反映しているのか疑問視する声もある。また、議会による立法のいずれについても監督者評議会の承認を必要とする。日本語の報道では国会とも表記される。専門家会議は国民の選挙によって選出される86人のイスラーム知識人から構成される。1年に1回招集され会期は約1週間。選挙の際は大統領選議会選と同じく立候補者は監督者評議会の審査と承認を受けなければならない。専門家会議は最高指導者を選出する権限を持つ。これまで専門家会議が最高指導者に対して疑問を呈示したことはないが憲法の規定上専門家会議は最高指導者の罷免権限も持つ。監督者評議会は12人の法学者から構成され、半数を構成するイスラーム法学者6人を最高指導者が指名し、残り半数の一般法学者6人を最高司法権長が指名する。これを議会が公式に任命する。監督者評議会は憲法解釈を行い、議会可決法案がシャリーアに適うものかを審議する権限をもつ。したがって議会に対する拒否権をもつ機関であるといえよう。議会可決法案が審議によって憲法あるいはシャリーアに反すると判断された場合、法案は議会に差し戻されて再審議される。日本の報道では護憲評議会と訳されるが、やや意味合いが異なる。公益判別会議は議会と監督者評議会のあいだで不一致があった場合の仲裁をおこなう権限を持つ。また最高指導者の諮問機関としての役割を持ち、国家において最も強力な機関の一つである。最高司法権長は最高指導者によって任じられ最高裁判所長官および検事総長を任じる。一般法廷が通常の民事刑事訴訟を扱い国家安全保障にかかわる問題については革命法廷が扱う。革命法廷の判決は確定判決で上訴できない。またイスラーム法学者特別法廷は法学者による犯罪を扱うが事件に一般人が関与した場合の裁判もこちらで取り扱われる。イスラーム法学者特別法廷は通常の司法体制からは独立し最高指導者に対して直接に責任を持つ。同法廷の判決も最終的なもので上訴できない。2009年現在のイラン政府の対外政策の基本的な思想は全ての国家国民との公正かつ相互的な関係構築をすることである。シリアは他のアラブ諸国と異なり非スンナ派政権である事に加えイランイラク戦争ではシリアバース党とイラクバース党との対立も絡みシーア派が国民の大多数を占めるイランを支持した。イランとは現在でも事実上の盟邦関係を継続中で反米反イスラエル反スンニ派イスラム主義国際的孤立化にあるなど利害が一致する点が多い。近年ではシリア内戦でイランがアサド政権を支援するなど政治面の他経済軍事面でも一体化を強めつつある。近年ではイラク戦争やアラブの春の混乱でイラクシリアエジプトなどの中東の有力国が国力を落とす中相対的に中東におけるイランとサウジアラビアの影響力が拡大した。それぞれシーア派とスンナ派の盟主としてシリアやイエメンの内戦では異なる勢力を支援し事実上の代理戦争の様相を呈している他両国の外交官の追放など対立が表面化している。米国は、第二次世界大戦の結果としてイランの統治への干渉を開始しました。そこでは、ジャン・チャールズ・ブロトンズが彼の著書が許可されました。 これはイスラム法と一致していなかったため、イランの聖職者から反発を受け、アヨットラー・ルーホッラー・ホメイニーの登場を扇動しました。これが1978年から1979年のイラン革命につながり、シャー政権の転覆を促し、。2009年のイランの反アフマディーネジャード派の大規模なデモにイギリス大使館の関係者が関与していたことが知られているがイラン情報省海外担当次官は大統領選挙後のデモの発生にアメリカとヨーロッパの財団機関が関与していた事実があったとして。日本の新聞でもアメリカ政府がイランの体制の根幹にゆさぶりをかける、という内容の記事が掲載されたことがあり、米誌2010年2月3日号でもアメリカ政府関係者がこの頃のデモに関して、イランへの内政干渉を完全に肯定し、西欧化を押し付けようとする覇権主義的な発言をしている。2010年2月の革命31周年の際には、数千万人の体制派の国民が行進に参加したとされに今年も我々は勝利し、革命を守りぬいたと最高指導者ハーメネイ師が述べている。イラン政府はイスラム革命時から1989年にホメイニー師が死去するまではアメリカに対して強硬な姿勢だったが、その後は、アリー・ハーメネイー師、ハーシェミー・ラフサンジャーニー大統領、モハンマド・ハータミー大統領、マフムード・アフマディーネジャード大統領などが、アメリカがイランに対する敵視政策を止め、アメリカもイランも互いに相手国を理解し、相手国の立場を尊重し、平等互恵の関係を追求する政策に転換するなら、イランはいつでもアメリカとの関係を修復すると表明している。ラフサンジャーニー大統領は1996年のアトランタオリンピックに選手を派遣した。ハータミー大統領は文明の対話を提唱し、2001年9月11日のアメリカに対する武力行使を非難し、被害を受けた人々に哀悼を表明した。アフマディーネジャード大統領はイラク国民が選挙で選出した議会と政府の樹立後の、イラクの治安の回復に協力すると表明している。ブッシュ 政権→オバマ政権→トランプ政権の間でイランとの関わりに向けていくつかの重要な変化が起こり、両方の変化は核兵器の交渉を通じて描かれています。ダンコムは、そのような異なる政治的ダイナミクスについて論じ、イラン政府は自国の核開発問題について、核エネルギーの生産を目指すもので、核兵器開発ではないと今までに一貫して表明してきており、アフマディネジャド大統領はと断言している。非同盟諸国は2006年9月の首脳会議でイランによる平和利用目的の核開発の権利を確認する宣言等を採択し、会議の議長国キューバやエジプトもこれを支持している。欧米での反イスラーム的行為.2010年9月のイスラーム聖典を破り、それに火をつけた。これらの行為に対して、全世界で大規模な抗議運動が巻き起こった。聖地イェルサレムでも同時期に似たような反イスラーム的行為が行われた。このような事件に対して最高指導者アリーハーメネイーはメッセージのなかでイスラーム教徒とキリスト教徒を対立させることがこの事件の真の首謀者の望みであるとしと表明した。そしてこの事件の真の計画指示者についてと強調した。この事件に対しインド領カシミールアフガニスタンでも抗議デモが行われイランでは抗議のために多くの都市のバザールが9月15日を休業とした。元ムスリムは、これを訳して出版したことが原因ではないかと考えられている。詳細は悪魔の詩を参照。国軍として、陸軍・海軍・空軍などから構成されるイラン・イスラム共和国軍を保有している。イランは核拡散防止条約 (NPT) に加盟しているが国際社会からイランの核開発問題が問題視されている。また、国軍とは別に、パースダーラーン省に所属する2つの準軍事組織保有している。1979年にイスラム革命の指導者ホメイニー師の命で設立された、志願民兵によって構成されている準軍事組織「バスィージ（人民後備軍）」が存在している。設立時には2,000万人の若者（男女別々）で編成された。この数字は国民の27%超である。イランは31の州からなっている。イランの人口上位5都市は以下の通り。イランは北西にアゼルバイジャン（国境線の長さは432 km。以下同様）、アルメニア (35 km) と国境を接する。北にはカスピ海に臨み、北東にはトルクメニスタン (992 km) がある。東にはパキスタン (909 km) とアフガニスタン (936 km)、西にはトルコ (499 km) とイラク (1,458 km) と接し、南にはペルシア湾とオマーン湾が広がる。面積は1,648,000 km2で、うち陸地面積が1,636,000 km2、水面積が12,000 km2であり、ほぼアラスカの面積に相当する。イランの景観では無骨な山々が卓越し、これらの山々が盆地や台地を互いに切り離している。イラン西半部はイランでも人口稠密であるが、この地域は特に山がちでザーグロス山脈やイランの最高峰ダマーヴァンド山 (標高: 5,604 m) を含むアルボルズ山脈がある。一方、イランの東半は塩分を含むキャビール砂漠、ルート砂漠のような無人に近い砂漠地帯が広がり、塩湖が点在する。平野部はごくわずかで大きなものはカスピ海沿岸平野とアルヴァンド川（シャットゥルアラブ川）河口部にあたるペルシア湾北端の平野だけである。その他小規模な平野部はペルシア湾ホルムズ海峡オマーン湾の沿岸部に点在する。イランはいわゆる「人類揺籃の地」を構成する15か国のうちの1つと考えられている。全般的には大陸性気候で標高が高いため寒暖の差が激しい。特に冬季はペルシャ湾沿岸部やオマーン湾沿岸部を除くとほぼ全域で寒さが厳しい。国土の大部分が砂漠気候あるいはステップ気候であるが、ラシュトに代表されるイラン北端部は温暖湿潤気候に属し、冬季の気温は0℃前後まで下がるが、年間を通じて湿潤な気候であり、夏も29℃を上回ることは稀である。年間降水量は同平野東部で680 mm、西部で1700 mm以上となる。テヘランなどの内陸高地はステップ気候から砂漠気候に属し、冬季は寒く、最低気温は氷点下10度前後まで下がることもあり降雪もある。一方、夏季は乾燥していて暑く日中の気温は40度近くになる。ハマダーン、アルダビールやタブリーズなどのあるイラン西部の高地は、ステップ気候から亜寒帯に属し、冬は非常に寒さが厳しく、山岳地帯では豪雪となり厳しい季節となる。特に標高1,850 mに位置するハマダーンでは最低気温が-30度に達することもある。イラン東部の中央盆地は乾燥しており、年間降水量は200 mmに満たず、砂漠が広がる砂漠気候となる。特にパキスタンに近い南東部砂漠地帯の夏の平均気温は38℃にも達する酷暑地帯となる。ペルシア湾、オマーン湾沿岸のイラン南部では、冬は穏やかで、夏には温度・湿度ともに非常に高くなり平均気温は35℃前後と酷暑となる。年間降水量は135 mmから355 mmほどである。イランの経済は中央統制の国営イラン石油会社や国有大企業と農村部の農業および小規模な商業ベンチャーによるサービス業などの私有企業からなる混合経済である。政府は以前から引き続いて市場化改革を行い石油に依存するイラン経済の多角化を図っており収益を自動車産業航空宇宙産業家電製造業石油化学工業核技術など他の部門に振り分け投資している。チャーバハール自由貿易地域キーシュ島自由貿易地域の設定などを通して投資環境の整備に努め数億ドル単位での外国からの投資を呼び込むことを目指している。現代イランの中産階級の層は厚く堅実で経済は成長を続けているが一方で高インフレ高失業率が問題である。インフレ率は2007年度の平均で18.4%2008年4月には24.2%にまで達している。イランイスラム革命は富の再分配も理念の一つとしていたが実際には貧富の格差は大きい。縁故主義により経済的に成功したり海外への留学を楽しんだりする高位聖職者や政府軍高官の一族はと呼ばれている。財政赤字は慢性的問題で、これは食品、ガソリンなどを中心とする年総計約72億5000万ドルにものぼる莫大な政府補助金が原因の一つとなっている。これに対してアフマディーネジャード政権は、2010年からガソリンや食料品などに対する補助金の段階的削減に踏み切り、低所得層に対しては現金給付に切り替えている。イランはOPEC第2位の石油生産国で、2016年時点の生産量は200万バレル/日である。確認されている世界石油埋蔵量の10%を占める。また天然ガス埋蔵量でもロシアに続き世界第2位である。原油の輸出は貴重な外貨獲得手段であるとともに1996年の非常に堅調な原油価格は、イランの財政赤字を補完し、債務元利未払金の償還に充てられた。農業については国家投資生産自由化による活発化が目指され外国に対する売り込みマーケティングなどで輸出市場を開発し全般的に改善された。ナツメヤシピスタチオ花卉など輸出用農業生産物の拡大大規模灌漑計画により1990年代のイラン農業は経済諸部門の中でも最も早い成長のあった分野である。一連の旱魃による踏み足局面もあるが農業はいまだにイランで最大の雇用を持つ部門である。イランはバイオテクノロジーと医薬品製造などにも力を入れている。主要貿易国はフランス、ドイツ、日本、イタリア、スペイン、ロシア、韓国、中国などである。1990年代後半からはシリア、インド、キューバ、ベネズエラ、南アフリカ共和国など発展途上国との経済協力も進めている。また域内でもトルコとパキスタンとの通商を拡大させており、西アジア・中央アジアの市場統合のビジョンを共有している。2019年現在イランを訪れる海外からの観光客は800万人から900万人。イランの観光は多様でアルボルズ山脈とザグロス山脈でのハイキングやスキーペルシャ湾やカスピ海のビーチでの保養など様々なアクティビティがある。イラン政府は国内の様々な観光地への観光客誘致に力を入れており近年観光客数は増加している。国際線の拠点空港としてテヘランにエマーム・ホメイニー国際空港が存在している。フラッグキャリアであるイラン航空が国内路線および国際路線を運行している。またアーリヤー航空 イランアーセマーン航空 サーハー航空も運行している。国有鉄道であるイラン・イスラーム共和国鉄道が全土を結んでいる。主要都市では地下鉄として以下のアジアハイウェイ 9路線が全土を通っている。また首都テヘラン近郊では高速道路も建設されている。イランの人口は20世紀後半に劇的に増加し、2006年には7000万人に達した。しかし多くの研究では21世紀への世紀転換点には、人口増加率の抑制に成功し、ほぼ人口補充水準に到達した後、2050年頃に約1億人で安定するまで人口増加率は徐々に低下してゆくものと考えられている。人口密度は1平方キロメートルにつき約40人である。イランは2005年時点、約100万人の外国難民などに約200万から300万人程度存在すると見積もられる。イランの民族はその使用言語と密接な関係にあり、次いで宗教が重要である。すなわちエスニック・グループの分類は何語を話す何教徒か、に依存する部分が大きい。イランの公用語はインド・ヨーロッパ語族イラン語群のペルシア語で人口の約半数はこれを母語とするが、チュルク系のアゼルバイジャン語を母語とする人も非常に多く人口の四分の一にのぼり、さらにペルシア語以外のイラン語群の諸語やその他の言語を話す人びともいる。先述のように、それぞれの民族の定義や範囲、あるいはその人口や全体に占める割合に関してはさまざまな議論があるが、イランに住むエスニック・グループは主に次のようなものである。ペルシア人、クルド人 、アラブ人 、バローチ 、ロル 、トルクメン 、ガシュガーイー、アルメニア人、グルジア人、ユダヤ人、アッシリア人、タリシュ人、、その他 である。しかし以上の数字は一つの見積もりであって、公式の民族の人口・割合に関する統計は存在しない。国際連合の統計によるとイランにおける識字率は79.1%であり女性の非識字率は27.4%に達する。イラン人とは狭義にはイランイスラーム共和国の国民の呼称。歴史的には中央アジアを含むペルシア語文化圏に居住しイラン人とみなされている人々。1935年にイランが正式な国名であると宣言されるまではギリシア語に由来するペルシア人の名称でよばれていた。イラン国民を構成するのは、多様な言語的・民族的・宗教的アイデンティティを持つ人々である。イラン系言語集団には、中央高原部に住み、ペルシア語あるいはその方言を母語とし、シーア派信徒である中核的イラン人（通常イラン人という時のイラン人）、クルド人、ロル族ならびにバフティヤーリー族、バルーチ人などである。テュルク系言語集団には、大集団のアゼリー（アゼルバイジャン人、一般には自他称ともトルコ人）、トルキャマーン（トルクメン人）、遊牧民のカシュカーイー、シャーサヴァン、アフシャールなど。南部のイラク国境にはアラビア語の話者集団がいる。宗教面では、国教の十二イマーム派の他に、スンナ派にはクルド人（シーア派信徒もいる）、バルーチ人、トルクメン人など、キリスト教徒（アルメニア人、東アラム語を母語とするアッシリア人など）、ユダヤ教徒、ゾロアスター教徒が存在する。ホラズム生まれのビールーニーブハラ生まれのブハーリーその近郊生まれのイブンスィーナーまたトゥース生まれのアブーハーミドガザーリーはもっぱらアラビア語で著述しているが中央アジアを含むペルシア語文化圏生まれであるために狭義のイラン人からはイラン人であるとみなされている。その他イランイスラーム革命後増大したイラン系アメリカ人バーレーンやドバイに数世代連続して居住するペルシア語方言を母語とするファールス州南部出身者などもここに含めることができる。主要な言語はペルシア語アゼルバイジャン語ガシュガーイー語タリシュ語である。イランにおけるイラン系言語の分布状況は以下の通り。1. 北部及びカスピ海沿岸部西方にギラキ語、東方にマーザンダラーン語の二大方言がある。4)セムナーン語及びサンゲサル語トルコ国境からイラク国境一帯にかけての、コルデスターン（ペルシア語で「クルド（人）の地」）地方を中心に居住する、クルド人の母語。クルド人の居住域は、イラン・イラク・トルコ・シリアの4国に分断されている。クルド語全体の話者人口は、統計のとり方によって数百万から千百万の間を上下する。ギャブリー語」という意味でイスラーム教徒から区別する他称である。話者は自分たちの言語をダリー語と呼んでいる。13)キャヴィール方言キャヴィール方言で話される方言の総称である。フール語など。14)ファールス方言群カーゼルーン周辺やシーラーズの北西地域など、ファールス地方で使用される方言の総称。ファールス州からフーゼスターン州エスファハーンの西方の広大な地域で話されるロル系遊牧民の言語。バフティヤーリー語はこの下位方言に属している。16)スィーヴァンド語シーラーズの北方スィーヴァンドで話される言語。南西イランに位置しながら言語学的には北西言語に属し言語島を成している。17)ラーレスターン語パキスタン、アフガニスタン南西部、イランに及ぶ広範囲で使用される。音韻面では最も保守的な言語の一つである。19)バーシュキャルド語大部分のイラン人はムスリムでありその90%がシーア派十二イマーム派である(詳細はイランのイスラームを参照）。ほかに非ムスリムの宗教的マイノリティがおり主なものにバハイ教ゾロアスター教ユダヤ教キリスト教諸派などがある。このうちバハーイーを除く3宗教は建前としては公認されており、憲法第64条に従い議会に宗教少数派議席を確保され、公式に「保護」されているなどかつての「ズィンミー」に相当する。これら三宗教の信者は極端な迫害を受けることはないが、ヘイトスピーチや様々な社会的差別などを受けることもある。また、これら公認された宗教であれ、イスラム教徒として生まれた者がそれらの宗教に改宗することは出来ず、発覚した場合死刑となる。一方バハイ教。ホメイニー自身もたびたびバハイ教をと断じて禁教令を擁護していた。歴史的にはマニによるマニ教もイラン起源とも言える。またマズダク教は弾圧されて姿を消した。通常婚姻時に改姓することはないが夫の姓を後ろに加える女性もいる。2002年の推計によれば15歳以上の国民の識字率は77%であり世銀発表の2008年における15歳以上の識字率は85%となっている。2006年にはGDPの5.1%が教育に支出された。主な高等教育機関としてはテヘラン大学 アミールキャビール工科大学 アルザフラー大学 イスラーム自由大学 シャリーフ工科大学などの名が挙げられる。イランの教育制度は次の四段階に分けられる。学年暦の始めメフル月一日に満6歳になっていれば入学できる。5年間の義務教育である。昔は小学児童の数が多すぎて二部制時には三部制の授業が行われたこともある。遊牧民のいる地域では時々普通の黒テントではなく白い丸型のテントが目につく。これは季節によって移動するテント学校である。ペルシア語の名称が指すように進路指導期間である。11歳よりの3年間である。この3年間の学習の結果に基づき次への進学段階で理論教育と工学技術職業のどちらかのコースに分けられる。3. 中等教育（ 高等学校）4年間。1992年より新制度が導入された。理論教育課程では第一年度は人文科学科と実験数学科とに分かれ第二年次以降は前者はさらに 文化文学専攻と 社会経済専攻にまた後者は 数学物理専攻と 実験科学専攻に分かれる。この3年を修了した後に4年目は大学進学準備過程が与えられる。4. 大学（ 単科大学は）全国共通試験を受けて、進学先・専攻が決まる。年に一度しか試験がないので、ある意味で、日本以上のきつい受験戦争がある。このため予備校が繁盛している。受からなければ、男子は兵役に就く。イラン・イラク戦争の殉教者が家族にいる場合は、優先的に入学が許可されている。ちなみに、私学・イスラーム自由大学と次に述べるパヤーメ・ヌールを除き、授業料は無料である。 パヤーメヌールは通信教育大学でイラン各地に140のセンターを持っている。学生数は約20万人であり授業料は私学イスラーム自由大学より安い。センターによっては女学生が8割に達するところがある。外国在住の学生は60名前後なかには日本人もいる。(2) 私学・イスラーム自由大学（ ）は、革命後に各地で開設され、イランの教育程度を上げるのに貢献している。また、出講すると高額の手当がもらえるので、他大学の教官にも人気がある。国立と異なり、ここは私学であるため授業料を取る。国立に受からなかった学生が進学することが多い。 大学を除く学校の総称はアラビア語起源のマドラセという。そのほかに幼稚園、障がい児と英才のための特別教育制度、中等教育を終えた人が2年間学ぶ教員養成講座、成人のための識字教育制度などがある。イランというより、中東教育全域の教育の特徴は、大学教育も含めて暗記教育である。ことである。教科書に書いてあることをそのまま丸暗記する。これは大学生にも当てはまる。先生の講義を筆記し、それをそのまま一字一句暗記するのである。森田は、このようなイランの学校教育を「声の文化」が現れているとし、以下の三つの場面を根拠に挙げている。1. 小学校での授業方法現在のイランの公立小学校で行われている授業方法は三つの段階に分かれている。一つの段階は「教える」（ ）で二つ目の段階は「読む」（ ）であり三つ目の段階は「問う」（ ）である。まず「教える」段階では教師は児童を指名し教科書を声に出して読ませる。読んでいる途中で難しい言葉の解説を行ったり分かりにくい表現について内容をわかりやすく説明したりする。とにかくこの段階では教科書に何が書かれているのかについて理解する段階である。その段階が終わると次は「読む」段階である。これは授業中にすることではなく帰宅後に児童たちがそれぞれ行わなければならないことである。家に帰った児童はそれぞれ教科書を暗記するときに家族の誰か特に母親に手伝ってもらうケースが多い。というのもイランの場合教科書の暗記というのは教科書の内容を文字で書けることを意味していない。あくまでも教科書を口頭でいえるようになることが重要なのである。日本の宿題は文字を書くことが多いため家族がそれを手伝う必要はほとんどない。しかしイランの場合宿題をする時に教科書を見ながらこどもがきちんとその内容を一字一句間違えずにいえるかどうかをチェックする人が必要になる。第三段階の「問う」段階では、教科書の内容を暗記できているのかとか、教師がチェックするための問いである。教師は児童を指名し、教科書の内容について質問する。この質問の答えは、口頭で行われる。また、答える時、一つの単語を答えさせるようなことはない。教科書の2 - 3行から成る一部分全体を口頭で一字一句そのままに答える必要がある。イランでは、このような、口頭で教科書の内容を素早く言えること、それが小学校で育成される能力となっている。2. 私立男子中学校で行われた科学発表会研究発表を行うにあたって発表内容を全て暗記し一人一人の訪問者に対して口頭で説明を行うという方法がとられていた。もしこのような発表会が日本であった場合に第一に考えられる方法は発表内容を全て大きな紙に書き壁に貼ることであっただろう。イランにおいて研究内容を紙に書いて壁に貼るという習慣がないわけではない。しかしそういった研究発表はあくまで個人的に行われるものであり学校全体やグループを形成して行われるものではない。研究発表はあくまでも口頭で行われるのが普通である。3. イランにおける小学校一年生向けのペルシア語の教科書そこでは、文字教育よりも音声教育が優先していることがわかる。一年生の教科書の最初の数ページには、文字ではなく、絵だけが描かれている。最初の授業において教師はいきなりアルファベットの学習を始めることはない。授業の最初に教師は絵を見ながらペルシア語で絵に合わせた物語を語り、正しいペルシア語の発音の仕方などを教える。イラク・アフガニスタン及びパキスタンとの国境地帯並びにシスタン・バルチスタン州の一部の地域を除き、治安状況は首都テヘランを含めて概ね平穏に推移しているが、2020年1月3日に米国によるイラン革命ガード高官の殺害を端緒とする米・イラン関係の緊張状態が続いており、不測の事態が発生するおそれを孕んでいる。また同国において犯罪件数等に関する統計は公表されていないが、各種報道に照らすと一般犯罪は慢性的に発生しているものと見られている。1979年のイラン・イスラーム革命後、シャリーアに基づく政治体制が導入されたこともあり、同性愛者・非ムスリムの人権状況は大きく低下した。憲法では公式にシーア派イスラームの十二イマーム派を国教としており他のイスラームの宗派に対しては“完全なる尊重”に処された。なお加害者は鞭打ちの刑で済んだ。女性に対してはヒジャーブが強制されており行動性行為恋愛などの自由も著しく制限されている。イラン革命前では欧米風の装束が男女ともに着用されていたが現在では見られない。同性愛者に対しては共和国憲法で正式にを設けており発覚した場合は死刑である。刑罰においても、シャリーアに基づくハッド刑の中には人体切断や石打ちなど残虐な刑罰が含まれており、また未成年者への死刑も行われている。イランにおけるこれらの状況は世界の多数の国の議会政府国際機関NGOや隣国イラク国民からも人権侵害を指摘され人権侵害の解消を求められている。イランで最初に出た新聞は、を編集長とする、紙である。これは1833年に創刊された。1851年には官報としてVagha-ye Ettafaghihehなどである。第二次世界大戦中の1941年に連合国軍隊がイランに進駐、新聞の自由が大いに強調されたが、モサッデグ首相が失脚した1953年から、再び新聞への統制が強化された。1955年に成立した新聞法によれば、新聞雑誌の発行には内務省の許可を得なければならない。発行者は30歳以上のイラン人で、少なくとも3ヶ月以上続刊できるだけの資力を持っていなければならない。官公吏は芸術、文芸に関するもののほか、新聞雑誌を刊行することはできない。許可期間は6ヶ月で、各新聞は6ヶ月ごとに許可を更新する必要がある。反乱、放火、殺人を先導したり、軍事機密をもらしたりした場合のほか、反イスラーム的な記事を載せたり、王室を侮辱する記事を掲載した場合は、それぞれ6ヶ月以上2年以下の禁固刑に処せられる。また、宗教・民族の少数者を差別した記事を載せた場合の罰則もある。さらに厚生省が医薬の広告を厳重に監視している点も、イランの特色である。通信社は1937年に外務省が設立したパールス通信があり現在も政府管轄下にある。新聞には朝刊紙と夕刊紙が存在し朝刊紙で発行部数が多いのはなどである。イランではメジャーな新聞。刊行されている新聞のなかで最も歴史が古い。1871年創刊。エッテラーアートとはニュースの意味である。このエッテラーアートの英語版としてみなされているのが1935年に創刊のである。ケイハーンは大空または世界の意で世界報ということろである。1943年に創刊された。エッテラーアートよりは野党よりの傾向がある。その他にもテヘラン市役所で出版されているハムシャフリーテヘランに本拠を置く英字新聞等がある。イランにおけるラジオの導入は1940年に設立されたテヘランラジオに遡りテレビの導入は1958年に始まった。イラン革命後現在の放送メディアは国営放送のイランイスラム共和国放送 に一元化されている。イランでは全メディアが当局による直接間接の支配を受けており文化イスラーム指導省の承認が必要である。インターネットも例外ではないが若年層のあいだで情報へのアクセス自己表現の手段として爆発的な人気を呼びイランは2005年現在世界第4位のブロガー人口を持つ。また海外メディアの国内取材も制限されており、2010年にイギリスBBCの自動車番組トップ・ギアのスペシャル企画で、出演者とスタッフが入国しようとした際は、ニュース番組ではないにもかかわらずBBCという理由で拒否されたシーンが放送されている。イランは文化、すなわち美術、音楽、建築、詩、哲学、思想、伝承などの長い歴史がある。イラン文明が数千年の歴史の波乱を乗り越えて今日まで連綿として続いてきたことは、まさしくイラン文化の賜物であった、と多くのイラン人が考えている。イランのイスラーム化以降はイスラームの信仰や戒律が文化全般に影響を及ぼしている。イスラームのシーア派を国教とするイラン革命後の現体制下では特にそれが強まり法的な規制を伴っている。例えば書籍を販売するにはイスラムの価値観に合っているかが審査される。米料理が多く食べられる。また、カスピ海やペルシャ湾から獲れる魚料理に、鳥・羊・牛などの他、ラクダ｜駱駝等も用いる肉料理、野菜料理などは種類豊富。最もポピュラーなのは魚・肉などを串焼きにするキャバーブである。野菜料理は煮込むものが多い。ペルシア料理研究家のナジュミーイェ・バートマーングリージー（Najmieh Batmanglij）は、自著『』で「イラン料理はペルシア絨緞同様に、色彩豊かでかつ複雑である。他の中東料理と共通する部分は多いが、もっとも洗練され、創意に富むといわれる」と述べている。イラン革命以前は飲酒が盛んであり現在でも密かに飲まれている。ペルシア文学は高く評価される。ペルシア語は2500年にわたって用いられ文学史上に明瞭な足跡を残している。イランにおいては詩作が古代から現在まで盛んであり続け中世ののジャラールウッディーンルーミーらのようにイラン詩人らの詩美は世界的に注目を浴びた。20世紀に入ると、ペルシア新体詩をも乗り越え、ノーベル文学賞候補ともなったアフマド・シャームルーや、イラン初の女流詩人パルヴィーン・エーテサーミー、同じく女流詩人であり、口語詩の創造を追求したフォルーグ・ファッロフザードのような詩人が現れた。小説においても20世紀には生前評価を得ることはできなかったものの『生き埋め』（1930年）『盲目の梟』（1936年）などの傑作を残したサーデグヘダーヤトが現れた。イスラーム化以後、イラン世界ではイスラーム哲学が発達した。11世紀には中世哲学に強い影響を及ぼしたイブン・スィーナーや哲学者にしてスーフィーでもあったガザーリーが、17世紀には超越論的神智学を創始したモッラー・サドラーが活動した。クラシック音楽においては新ロマン主義音楽作曲家としてなどイラン文化を題材とした作品を書いたアンドレオッセンや指揮者でありペルシャ国際フィルハーモニー管弦楽団を創設したアレクサンダーラハバリらの名が特筆される。ポピュラー音楽に於いてはイランポップと総称されるジャンルが存在する。ロックは禁止されているがテヘランのロックバンド のアルバムはアメリカやヨーロッパでも発売されている。その他には などのバンドや らのミュージシャンも国内外で広く活動をしている。イランの建築は様々な伝統と歴史から構造および芸術における観点の両方で非常に深い多様性を示している。同国において伝統的なペルシャ建築は継続性を維持するもの近代的な建築は革新を追求するものとして区分けされている。イラン映画は過去25年間に国際的に300の賞を受賞し、全世界的に評価されている。イランにおいて初の映画館が創設されたのは1904年と早く、イラン人によって初めて製作されたトーキー映画はアルダシール・イーラーニーによるでヴェネツィア国際映画祭作品賞を受賞したダールユーシュ・メフルジューイーのような社会派の映画人が活動した。現代の著名な映画監督としてははベルリン国際映画祭の金熊賞とアカデミー賞の外国語作品賞を受賞した。イラン国内には数多くの史跡が存在し積極的にユネスコの世界遺産への登録が行われている。2014年6月の時点でイランのUNESCO世界遺産登録物件は17件に達しその全てが文化遺産である。括弧内は登録年。イラン暦の元日にあたる春分の日に祝われる新年（ノウルーズ）の祝祭は2009年にユネスコの無形文化遺産に登録されている。イランの国技はレスリングであり強豪国として知られる。2012年のロンドンオリンピックでは金メダル3個を含む計6個のメダルを獲得した。イランではサッカーが盛んでありイランサッカー協会は1920年に創設された。サッカーイラン代表はアジアの強豪として知られ現在までに初出場となった1978年のアルゼンチン大会と1998年のフランス大会2006年のドイツ大会2014年のブラジル大会2018年のロシア大会と5度のFIFAワールドカップに出場している。 +勝負事における、勝敗が決定しない結果。チュニジア共和国、通称チュニジアは、北アフリカのマグリブに位置する共和制をとっている国家。西にアルジェリア、南東にリビアと国境を接し、北と東は地中海に面する。地中海対岸の北東にはイタリアが存在する。首都はチュニス。アフリカ世界と地中海世界とアラブ世界の一員であり、アフリカ連合とアラブ連盟と地中海連合とアラブ・マグレブ連合に加盟している。最も早くと呼ばれ、アフリカ大陸の名前の由来になった地域である。正式名称は、（ : al-Jumhrya at-Tnisya、 : アル・ジュムフーリーヤ・アッ・トゥーニスィーヤ）。通称は、（Tnis）。日本語の表記はチュニジア共和国。通称チュニジア。テュニジアと表記されることもある。漢字表記は突尼斯。は、首都チュニスのアラビア語名と同じで、正式名称はといったような意味合いである。トゥーニスやチュニスの語源は紀元前4世紀にチュニスの地に存在した古代都市トゥネス で、英語名など欧米諸言語や日本語の国名チュニジアは、トゥネスが転訛した Tunus 地名語尾の -ia を付してつくられ、オスマン帝国による呼称に倣ったものである。古代にはフェニキア人が交易拠点としてこの地に移住し紀元前814年頃にはカルタゴアフリカをイスラム世界に編入した。ウマイヤ朝イフリキーヤが成立した。ハフス朝は西はアルジェから東はトリポリにまで至る領土を統治し、を著したイブン・ハルドゥーンなどが活躍した。しかし、ハフス朝は徐々に衰退し、16世紀初頭にオスマン帝国の支配から逃れるためにスペインの属国になった1574年にオスマン帝国によって滅ぼされがチュニジアに成立した。フサイン朝はフランス支配を挟んで252年間にわたり統治を行った。1837年に即位した時代に始められた西欧よりの政策と富国強兵策によって、チュニジアは近代化=西欧化政策を採った。などの活躍により1861年には憲法が制定され、はイスラーム世界およびアフリカ世界初の立憲君主となった。しかし、保守派の抵抗によって1864年に憲法は停止され、近代化=西欧化政策は挫折した。1869年には西欧化政策の負担によって財政は破綻した。1878年のベルリン会議でフランスの宗主権が列国に認められると、フランスによるチュニジア侵攻が行われ、1881年の、1883年のでフランスの保護領フランス領チュニジアとなった。この結果、ベイは名目のみの君主となり、事実上の統治はフランス人総監が行い、さらに政府および地方自治の要職もフランス人が占めた。1907年にはチュニジア独立を目的とする結社が成立した。首相から横滑りで大統領となったブルギーバは1959年に憲法を制定し社会主義政策を採るが1970年代には自由主義に路線を変更した。しかし長期政権の中ゼネストと食糧危機など社会不安が高まり1987年には無血クーデターが起こりベン＝アリー首相が大統領に就任しブルギーバ政権は終焉した。1991年の湾岸危機ではイラクのサッダームフセイン政権を支持しアラブ人の連帯を唱えた。1990年代には隣国アルジェリアでイスラーム主義組織によるテロが繰り広げられ内戦に発展したためイスラーム主義組織は厳しく弾圧された。現在では、イスラーム諸国のなかでは比較的穏健なソフトイスラムに属する国であり、中東と西洋のパイプ役を果たしている。観光地としても発達し、アフリカの国の中では良好な経済状態である。一方で若者の失業率は30%前後と未だに高い。2010年末に始まった退陣要求デモが全土に拡大する中2011年1月14日に国外に脱出したベン＝アリー大統領の後任としてまずモハメッドガンヌーシ首相が暫定大統領への就任を宣言翌1月15日に憲法評議会は規定に基づき下院議長のフアドメバザを暫定大統領に任命。この一連の事件はジャスミン革命と呼ばれる（「ジャスミン革命」は2011年1月現在正式な名称ではない。詳細は該当ページを参照）。2011年10月23日、中東・北アフリカ地域で広がっている政変が行われた。穏健派のが第1党に進出した。4割の得票で89議席、CPRが29議席、エタカトルが20議席を獲得した。今回は33の選挙区ごとに政党の候補者リストに投票する比例代表選挙であった。参加政党数は80を超え、立候補者数も1万1千人と多かった。11月19日制憲議会選挙で第1党になったアンナハダと二つの世俗政党が政権協議した結果、ハマディ・ジェバリのムスタファ・ベンジャアファルが就任する。22日に選挙後初の議会が開かれ、主要人事が承認された。2013年2月野党党首暗殺事件の責任を取りジェバリ首相が辞任。マルズーキ大統領は3月内相に組閣要請した。2013年7月ラライエドは繰り返される世俗派野党党首暗殺を受け混乱収集のために12月をめどに総選挙を行うと表明。2014年1月26日制憲議会は新憲法案を賛成多数で承認し、27日にマルズーキ大統領が署名した。チュニジアの政体は共和制大統領制を採用する立憲国家である。現行憲法は1959年6月1日に公布されたもの。国家元首である大統領は国民の直接選挙により選出される。任期は5年。再選制限は無い。憲法により大統領は行政の最高責任者とされ首相閣僚各県の知事の任免権軍の最高指揮権非常事態宣言の発令権など強大な権力を与えられている。首相および閣僚評議会は大統領の補佐機関に過ぎない。立法府は両院制で2002年の憲法改正により新設された上院と従来立法府として存在してきた代議院で構成される。上院の定数は126議席でうち85議席は地方議会による間接選挙により選出され41議席は大統領による任命制である。代議院は定数189議席で全議席が国民の直接選挙により選出される。議員の任期は上院が6年代議院が5年である。チュニジアでは1988年の憲法改正で複数政党制が認められたが2011年の政権崩壊まで与党立憲民主連合になっている。過去にもイスラーム主義政党も存在したが、共産党と同様に結党が禁じられていた。司法権は最高裁判所が担っている。チュニジア軍は陸軍海軍空軍の三軍から構成され総人員は約35000人である。三軍の他にも内務省指揮下の国家警備隊と沿岸警備隊が存在する。成人男子には選抜徴兵制が敷かれている。兵器体系はかつて中国から購入した哨戒艇などを除いて殆ど西側に準じている。独立直後から暫くはフランス軍のビゼルト基地問題やアルジェリア戦争への対応を巡ってフランスと対決する姿勢で接したが1970年代以降は親フランス親西側政策が続いている。1980年代に入るとアラブ連盟の本部がカイロからチュニスになり事務局長にチュニジア人が選ばれ1990年代のエジプトの連盟復帰までアラブ諸国の盟主にもなった。初代大統領ブルギーバはセネガルの初代大統領サンゴールらと共にフランコフォニー国際組織の設立に尽力した。1974年1月にチュニジア国内の親アラブ派の意向によってリビアと合邦が宣言されアラブイスラム共和国の成立が宣言されたがこの連合はすぐに崩壊した。その後リビアはチュニジアと対立し1980年のガフサ事件ではリビアで訓練を受けたチュニジア人反政府勢力がガフサの街を襲撃し多くの被害を出した。1985年にはリビア軍がチュニジアとの国境付近に集結しチュニジアを威嚇した。パレスチナ問題を巡ってはチュニジアは僅かながら第三次中東戦争と第四次中東戦争にアラブ側で派兵した。1982年にパレスチナ解放機構の本部がチュニスに移転したがオスロ合意後の1994年にパレスチナに再移転した。チュニジアにはパレスチナ人難民はごく僅かしか流入しなかった。チュニジアはイスラエルを承認しているが関係は決して良好とは言えずガザ紛争 においてはイスラエルを非難している。在留日本人数 - 136名在日チュニジア人数 - 907名チュニジアには24のウィラーヤに分かれている。各県の県知事は大統領による任命制。国土は、北端から南端までが約850キロメートル、東の沿岸から西方の国境まで約250キロメートルと細長く、南北に伸び、南端は先の細いとがった形である。東はリビア、西はアルジェリアに隣接する。北岸、東岸は地中海に面する。国土は北部のテル地域と中部のステップ地域、南部のテル地域の3つに大きく分けられる。北部地中海沿岸にはテル山地がありその谷間を北東にメジェルダ川が流れている。メジェルダ川流域のメジェルダ平野は国内で最も肥沃な穀倉地帯になっている。東側の地中海に面した海岸線は約1300キロメートルにわたる。北からチュニス湾ハンマメット湾ガベス湾と並び良港も多い。この沿岸部に古くから定住民が集住した。。その南には、アルジェリアから続くアトラス山脈中の国内最高峰であるシャンビ山（1,544m）以東がドルサル山地となっている。ドルサル山地は地中海からの湿気を遮るため、ドルサル山地より南はガベス湾までステップ気候になっていて、西部の標高400m〜800mの地域をステップ高原、東部の標高400m以下の地をステップ平原と呼ぶ。ステップ高原の南には平方5000kmのジェリド湖（塩湖）がある。この塩湖の北にある町メトラーウィやその西のルダイフでは19世紀の末からリン鉱石の採掘が開始され、現在ではその産出量は世界第5位で、チュニジアの主要な輸出品ともなっている。。ガベス湾の沖にはジェルバ島が存在する。南半分はサハラ砂漠になっておりマトマタから南東にダール丘陵がリビアまで続く。ダール丘陵から東には標高200m以下のジェファラ平野が広がる。この砂漠は風によって絶えず景色が変化する砂砂漠ごつごつした石や砂利と乾燥に強い植物がわずかにみられる礫砂漠または植生のない岩肌がむき出しになっている岩石砂漠が広がっており砂砂漠は一部であり大部分は礫砂漠と岩石砂漠で占められている。ケッペンの気候区分によると北部の地中海沿岸部は地中海性気候となり地中海沿岸を南に行くとスファックス付近からステップ気候になる。さらに南のサハラ砂漠は砂漠気候となる。春から夏にかけてサハラ砂漠から北にシロッコと呼ばれる熱風が吹き出す。北部では冬に雪が降ることがある。チュニスの年間降水量は470mm前後だが北部のビゼルトでは1000mmを越える。2000年代からチュニジアは経済の自由化と民営化のさなか、自らが輸出指向の国であることに気づいており、1990年代初期から平均5%のGDP成長でありながらも、政治的に結びついたエリートが恩恵を受ける汚職に苦しんだ。 チュニジアには様々な経済があり、農業や工業、石油製品から、観光にまで及ぶ。2008年ではGDPは410億ドル(公式為替レート)もしくは820億ドル（購買力平価）であった。 農業分野はGDPの11.6%、工業は25.7%、サービス業は62.8%を占める。工業分野は主に衣類と履物類の製造や自動車部品と電子機器の生産からなる。チュニジアは過去10年間で平均5%の成長を成し遂げたが、特に若年層の高い失業率に苦しんでいる。チュニジアは2009年には世界経済フォーラムによってアフリカにおいてもっとも競争力のある経済と位置づけられた。全世界でも40位であった。 チュニジアはエアバスやヒューレットパッカードなどの多くの国際企業の誘致に成功した 。観光は2009年にはGDPの7%と37万人分の雇用を占めていた。変わらずヨーロッパ連合がチュニジアの最大の貿易パートナーであり、現在チュニジアの輸入の72.5%、チュニジアの輸出の75%を占めている。チュニジアは地中海沿岸でヨーロッパ連合のもっとも確固とした貿易パートナーの1つであり、EUの30番目に大きい貿易パートナーに位置づけている。チュニジアは1995年7月に、ヨーロッパ連合とを締結した最初の地中海の国である。ただし、効力が生じる日の前に、チュニジアは両地域間の貿易で関税を撤廃し始めた。チュニジアは2008年に工業製品への関税撤廃を完了し、そのためEUとの自由貿易圏に入った最初の地中海の国になった。はチュニスで建設されている完全なスポーツ都市である。集合住宅に加え多くのスポーツ施設からなるこの都市は50億ドル(約500億円)かけてUAEのBukhatirグループによって建設される。 チュニスファイナンシャルハーバーは30億ドル(約300億円)の開発利益を見込むプロジェクトにおいてチュニス湾にある北アフリカで初めてのオフショア金融センターになる。 チュニステレコムシティはチュニスにおけるITハブを作成する30億ドル(約300億円)規模のプロジェクトである。チュニジア経済には小麦とオリーブを中核とする歴史のある農業、原油とリン鉱石に基づく鉱業、農産物と鉱物の加工によって成り立つ工業という三つの柱がある。そのため他のアフリカ諸国より工業基盤は発達しており、1人当たりのGDPは約4000ドルでありモロッコやアルジェリアと共にアジアの新興国とほぼ同じレベルである。急速な成長を見せているのは欧州諸国の被服製造の下請け産業である。貿易依存度は輸出34.4%、輸入45.2%と高く、狭い国内市場ではなく、フランス、イタリアを中心としたEU諸国との貿易の占める比率が高い。2003年時点の輸出額80億ドル、輸入額109億ドルの差額を埋めるのが、24億ドルという観光収入である。国際的には中所得国であり、アフリカ開発銀行 の本部が置かれている。フランスやリビアに出稼ぎしているチュニジア人労働者からの送金も大きな外貨収入源となっている。アトラス山脈の東端となる国の北側を除けば国土の大半はサハラ砂漠が占めるものの農地の占める割合が国土の31.7%に達している。ヨーロッパに比べて早い収穫期を生かした小麦の栽培と輸出乾燥気候にあったオリーブと野菜栽培が農業の要である。食糧自給率は100%を超えている。北部は小麦栽培と畜産が盛ん。ヒツジを主要な家畜とする畜産業は北部に集中するが農業に占める比率は中部南部の方が高い。2005年時点の生産高を見ると世界第5位のオリーブも目立つ。チュニジア鉱業の中核は、世界第5位のリン鉱石、主な鉱山は国土の中央部、ガフサ近郊にある。油田は1964年にイタリア資本によって発見され、南部のボルマ近郊の油田開発が進んでいる。一方、リビア国境に近いガベス湾の油田はあまり進んでいない。2004年時点の採掘量は、原油317万トン、天然ガス82千兆ジュールである。エネルギー自給率も100%を超えている。このほか、亜鉛、銀、鉄、鉛を採掘している。これはプレート移動によって形成された褶曲山脈であるアトラス山脈に由来する。全体的な鉱業の様相はアトラス山脈西端に位置する国モロッコとよく似ている。チュニジア工業は農業生産物の加工に基づく食品工業鉱物採取と連動した化学工業加工貿易を支える機械工業と繊維業からなる。食品工業は6000万本にも及ぶオリーブから採取したオリーブ油と加工野菜である。主な工業都市は首都チュニス。輸出に占める工業製品の比率が81%、輸入に占める工業製品の比率が77.8%であるため、加工貿易が盛んに見える。これは、繊維産業と機械産業によるものだ。輸出を品目別に見ると、衣料37.0%、電気機械11.9%、原油5.4%、化学肥料4.7%、織物3.7%である。一方、輸入は、繊維14.7%、電気機械11.9%、機械類10.7%、自動車6.9%、衣料5.3%である。食料品が輸出に占める割合は7.6%、輸入では9.0%。主な貿易相手国はEC諸国、特に旧宗主国であったフランスと支配を受けたイタリアである。輸出入ともこの2国が約5割の比率を占める。金額別では輸出相手国が、フランス、イタリア、ドイツ、隣国リビア、ベルギー、輸入相手国がフランス、イタリア、ドイツ、スペイン、ベルギーである。首都チュニスにはチュニス・カルタゴ国際空港があるほか、ヨーロッパではリゾート地として知られるにはエンフィダ＝ハンマメット国際空港が、ジェルバ島にはジェルバ＝ザルジス国際空港があり、いずれの空港も主として周辺国やヨーロッパの都市と結ばれている。北部を中心に、チュニジア鉄道が敷設されている。A1、A2、A3、A4の4つが主要路線となっている。また、一部区間はの一部分となっている。イスラーム国だが世俗的な国家であり独立と同年の1956年ブルギーバ初代大統領の「国家フェミニズム」の下で制定された家族法によってトルコと同様に一夫多妻制や公共の場でのスカーフやヴェールの着用は禁止されている。続くベンアリー大統領もフェミニズム政策を踏襲し1993年には婚姻後の夫婦共有財産も個別財産として選択可能となった。家族法制定から現在まで女性の社会進出が著しくアラブ世界で最も女性の地位が高い国となっている。イスラム世界では珍しくチュニジアは中絶が法律で認められている国である。1956年の独立時から2007年までの人口増加が約2.3倍である。住民はアラブ人が98%である。チュニジアの先住民はベルベル人やフェニキア人だったが7世紀のアラブによる征服以降住民の混血とアラブ化が進んだため民族的にはほとんど分けることが出来ない。残りはヨーロッパ人が1%ベルベル語を話すベルベル人ユダヤ人黒人などその他が1%である。アラビア語が公用語であるが独立前はフランスの保護下にあったことからフランス語も広く普及しており教育政府メディアビジネスなどで使われるなど準公用語的な地位となっている。教授言語はフランス語とアラビア語の両方となっており大多数の国民がフランス語を話すことが可能である。アラビア語チュニジア方言はマルタ語に近い。またごく少数ながらベルベル語の一つであるシェルハも話されている。イスラームが国教であり、国民の98%はスンナ派で、僅かながらイバード派の信徒も存在する。その他、ユダヤ教、キリスト教。イスラームも比較的戒律は緩やかで、女性もヴェールをかぶらず西洋的なファッションが多く見られる。1980年代にイスラーム主義の興隆と共にヴェールの着用も復古したが、1990年代に隣国アルジェリアでイスラーム主義者と軍部の間で内戦が勃発すると、イスラーム主義は急速に衰退し、ヴェールの着用も衰退した。チュニジア南部のジェルバ島はユダヤ人居住区の飛び地となっており、島のエル・グリーバ・シナゴーグは世界で最も古いシナゴーグの内の一つである。6歳から16歳までの初等教育と前期中等教育が無償の義務教育期間となっており、その後4年間の後期中等教育を経て高等教育への道が開ける。チュニジアの児童は家庭でアラビア語チュニジア方言を学んだ後、学校で6歳から正則アラビア語の読み書きを、8歳からフランス語の読み書きを、12歳から英語を教わる。2004年のセンサスによれば、15歳以上の国民の識字率は74.3%である。主な高等教育機関としては、ザイトゥーナ大学も挙げられる。代表的なチュニジア料理としてはクスクス（粒状のパスタ）ブリックラブレビなどが挙げられる。チュニジアはイスラーム国であるがワインの生産国でもある。チュニジアワインにはフランスの影響によりロゼワインも多い。マツの実入りのミントティーがありオレンジゼラニウムなどの花の蒸留水フラワーウォーターはコーヒー菓子に入れる。大多数のチュニジア人の母語はアラビア語である。。現代の代表的なチュニジア出身の作家としては、アルベール・メンミ、アブデルワハブ・メデブ、ムスタファ・トゥリリなどが挙げられる。中世においてと呼ばれるチュニス出身のイブン・ハルドゥーンはにてアサビーヤを軸に文明の発達や没落を体系化し、独自の歴史法則理論を打ち立てた。ハルドゥーンは労働が富を生産するとの概念を、18世紀に労働価値説を唱えたアダム・スミスに先んじて説くなど天才的な学者であった。チュニジアは映画製作の盛んな国ではないがチュニジア出身の映像作家としてはのムフィーダトゥラートリなどの名が挙げられる。1966年から二年に一度カルタゴ映画祭が開催されている。チュニジア国内にはユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が7件自然遺産が1件存在する。国技はサッカーであり2016年現在サッカーチュニジア代表は初出場となった1978年のアルゼンチン大会以降1998年のフランス大会2002年日韓共同大会2006年のドイツ大会まで3期連続でFIFAワールドカップに出場した。主なプロクラブとしてはエスペランスチュニスクラブアフリカーンエトワールサヘルCSスファクシアンなどの名が挙げられる。バレーボールも盛んでありバレーボールチュニジア男子代表はアフリカ諸国の強豪に挙げられる。陸上競技ではモハメドガムーディがメキシコシティオリンピック男子5000mで金メダルなどメダル4個競泳でウサマメルーリが2008年の北京オリンピック男子1500m自由形でアハメドハフナウィが2021年の東京オリンピック男子400m自由形でそれぞれ金メダルを獲得している。 +トルコ共和国（トルコきょうわこく、）、通称トルコは、西アジアに位置するアナトリア半島（小アジア）と東ヨーロッパに位置するバルカン半島東南端の東トラキア地方を領有する共和制国家。首都はアナトリア中央部のアンカラ。アジアとヨーロッパの2つの大州にまたがる。北は黒海とマルマラ海西と南は地中海アルメニアアゼルバイジャンイランイラクシリアと接する。トルコ語による正式国名は、」を意味するturcoに由来する。英語など諸外国語では、トルコ共和国の前身であるオスマン帝国の時代から、Turkey、Turquie など、などの名称が国名として用いられており、自己をトルコ人の国家と認識することはなかった。はアナトリアへの移住以前中央アジアで暮らしていたトルコ人がモンゴル高原を中心とする遊牧帝国突厥を築いた6世紀頃には既に使われていた民族名だが語源には諸説ある。現在のトルコ共和国では一般に突厥の建国をもってと考えられている。アナトリアには旧石器時代（1万1000年から60万年前）からの遺跡が存在する。紀元前2000年末頃から鉄を作る技術が中近東世界に広がった。この地域が鉄器時代に入ったと考えられる。国土の大半を占めるアジア側のアナトリア半島など様々な民族文明が栄えた地である。一方北アジアではトルコ北部カスピ海東岸の隅地に逃亡して歴史の記録から消える。11世紀にトルコ系のイスラム王朝セルジューク朝の一派がアナトリアに立てたルームセルジューク朝の支配下でムスリムの戦いで敗れ一時滅亡するがアナトリア南部の険によって抵抗し命脈を保った一族がティムールの死後にオスマン朝を復興した。19世紀衰退を示し始めたオスマン帝国の各地ではナショナリズムが勃興して諸民族が次々と独立し欧州列強がこれに介入した（東方問題）。帝国はオスマン債務管理局を通して列強に財政主権を握られ第一次世界大戦で敗北した。こうしてオスマン帝国は英仏伊ギリシャなどの占領下に置かれ完全に解体された。中でもギリシャは自国民居住地の併合を目指してアナトリア内陸部深くまで進攻した（希土戦争 (1919年-1922年)）。また東部ではアルメニア国家が建設されようとしていた。これらに対してトルコ人ら（旧帝国軍人や旧勢力進歩派の人）は1919年5月国土国民の安全と独立を訴えて武装抵抗運動を起こした（トルコ独立戦争）。1920年4月アンカラに抵抗政権を樹立したムスタファケマル（アタテュルク）の下に結集して戦い1922年9月現在の領土を勝ち取った。1923年アンカラ政権はローザンヌ条約を締結して共和制を宣言した。翌1924年にオスマン王家のカリフをイスタンブールから追放し西洋化による近代化を目指すイスラム世界初の世俗主義国家トルコ共和国を建国した。イスラム法（シャリーア）は国法としての地位を喪失。大陸法の影響を受けただけでなくアメリカ合衆国などからの直接投資も受け入れることになった。第二次世界大戦では中立を維持したが末期の1945年になり連合国の勝利が確定的になるとその圧力により2月23日にナチスドイツと大日本帝国に対して宣戦布告した。第二次世界大戦後はソ連に南接するため反共の防波堤として西側世界に迎えられ1952年には北大西洋条約機構。1956年頃ユーロバンクの資金調達先となったため外貨準備を著しく減らした。これを輸出で補うため単位作付面積あたりの綿花収穫量を急速に伸ばしたがソ連が既に1944年から輸出量を世界で最も急ピッチに増産していた。1952年に暴落した価格で南米諸国とも競争するも機関化する1980年代まで外貨準備を十分に確保することができなかった。国父アタテュルク以来イスラムの復活を望む人々などの国内の反体制的な勢力を強権的に政治から排除しつつ西洋化に邁進してきたへの加盟にはクルド問題やキプロス問題ヨーロッパ諸国の反トルコイスラム感情などが障害となっている。トルコ側もEU加盟よりはレジェップタイイップエルドアン政権下の2010年代から2020年代にかけて国内での反対派弾圧やイスラム回帰。優先している。特にアルメニアとはナゴルノ・カラバフ紛争以外にも、アルメニア人虐殺への存否を含む見解の相違や、アララト山の領有権問題を抱え、緊張した関係が続いている。アルメニアの民族派は東南部を西アルメニアだと主張して返還を求めている。2013年MIKTAに加盟した。1982年に定められた憲法では世俗主義が標榜されている。三権はほとんど完全に分立しており憲法の目的が務めるが首相の権限が強い議院内閣制に基づくものであった。司法府は下級審である司法裁判所刑事裁判所および控訴審である高等控訴院憲法裁判所で構成され通常司法と軍事司法に分離されている。司法は政党の解党判断党員の政治活動禁止といった政治的な事項についても判断できる。その後により大統領は国民投票により選出されることとなりまた任期も7年から5年へと短縮された。を経たのちでは大統領権限が強化され議院内閣制を廃止することが定められている。政治は多党制の政党政治を基本としているが政党の離合集散が激しく議会の選挙は小党乱立を防ぐため10%以上の得票率を獲得できなかった政党には議席がまったく配分されない独特の方式をとっている。この制度のため2002年の総選挙では選挙前に中道右派イスラム派が結集して結党された公正発展党が得票率14.3%と最低得票率10%以上の票を獲得し71議席を獲得結果的に公正発展党は340議席となり前回より12議席を減らすこととなった。独立候補は最低得票率の制限がなくクルド系候補など27議席を獲得した。ムスタファケマルアタテュルク以来強行的に西欧化を押し進めてきたがその歴史においてケマルをはじめ政治家を数多く輩出した軍が政治における重要なファクターとなることがあり政治や経済の混乱に対してしばしば圧力をかけている。1960年に軍は最初のクーデターを起こしたがその後参謀総長と陸海空の三軍および内務省ジャンダルマ。2009年3月29日自治体の首長や議員を選ぶ選挙が行われた。イスラム系与党の公正発展党が世俗派野党の共和人民党などを押さえ勝利した。2010年9月12日には、与党・公正発展党の執行機関欧州委員会は、加盟に向けての一歩だと讃えた。2014年8月28日にエルドアン首相は大統領に就任しアフメトダウトオール外相が首相となったが2016年5月22日にはビナリユルドゥルムが新たな首相に就任した。その後2017年に大統領権限の強化と首相職の廃止を盛り込んだ憲法改正案が可決され2018年7月9日に首相職は廃止された。外交面では北大西洋条約機構加盟国である。またNATO加盟国としては唯一非欧米軍事同盟である上海協力機構の対話パートナーであり中露との軍事協力も行うなどもはや西側一辺倒の外交路線ではなくなっている。政府の公式見解では自国をヨーロッパの国としており、現代では経済的・政治的にヨーロッパの一員として参加しつつあり、ヘルシンキ宣言に署名している。2002年に政権についた公正発展党は、イスラム系を中心とする政党ながら軍との距離を慎重に保って人権問題を改善する改革を進めてきた。2004年には一連の改革が一応の評価を受け、条件つきではあるものの欧州委員会によって2005年10月からの欧州連合への加盟交渉の開始が勧告された。現在、国内世論と戦いながら加盟申請中である。なお、加盟基準であるコペンハーゲン基準については現在議論が行われている。国土の96%がアジアのアナトリア半島にあり人口でもアジア側が9割弱を占める。1890年に、現在の和歌山県東牟婁郡串本町沖で発生したエルトゥールル号遭難事件で日本の対応が評価されたことなどから、両国の友好関係が築かれている。日本には多くのトルコ友好協会があり、交流が積極的に行われている。＜トルコ政府連携協会＞隣国のギリシャとは緊張関係が続いている。古くはギリシャ人国家であった東ローマ帝国が現在のトルコにあたる地域を支配していたがやがてオスマン帝国がそれを滅ぼし支配下に置いた。その後19世紀初頭に列強の後押しでギリシャが独立しを掲げて衰退の進むオスマン帝国からの領土奪回を目論んだ。バルカン戦争第一次世界大戦後に領土をめぐる希土戦争が起こりギリシャとトルコの住民交換で解決された。しかし当時イギリスの植民地だったキプロス島の帰属は決められなかったためキプロス独立後にキプロスとトルコのみが国家の承認をしている北キプロスに分裂した。隣国のアルメニア共和国とは緊張関係が続いている。アルメニアの民族派がヴァン県など東南部をアルメニア人の奪われた土地だと主張している。一部のアルメニア人の反トルコ主義や西アルメニアの返還の主張にはトルコの保守層の警戒感を招いている。元々アルメニア王国との国境は時代により大きく変化しており国民国家の概念が成立する前から対立が続いていた。またトルコはイスラーム信者が多くキリスト教を国教にしているアルメニアとは宗教対立の側面もある。ナゴルノカラバフ問題に対しては同じくアルメニアと対立するイスラーム国家のアゼルバイジャンの立場に立つ。MIKTAの5か国によるパートナーシップである。詳細は該当ページへ。軍事組織として陸軍海軍空軍で組織されるトルコ軍 と内務省に所属するジャンダルマ沿岸警備隊 が置かれている。兵役は男子に対してのみ課せられている。兵役期間は高卒以下の学歴の場合は15か月であり大卒以上の学歴の場合は将校として12か月か二等兵として6か月を選択できるようになっている。なお国外に連続して3年以上居住している場合3週間の軍事訓練と約5000ユーロの支払いで兵役免除になりなお兵役期間終了後は41歳まで予備役となる。2011年末には金銭を納めることで兵役を免除可能とすることで事実上良心的兵役拒否を合法化した。兵員定数はないが三軍あわせておおむね約38万人程度の兵員数である。またジャンダルマと沿岸警備隊は戦時にはそれぞれ陸軍海軍の指揮下に入ることとされている。ただしジャンダルマについては平時から陸軍と共同で治安作戦などを行っている。指揮権は平時には大統領に戦時には参謀総長（）に属すると憲法に明示されており戦時においては文民統制は存在しない。また首相および国防大臣には軍に対する指揮権監督権は存在しない。ただし軍は歴史的にもまた現在においても極めて政治的な行動をとる軍隊でありまた国防予算の15%程度が議会のコントロール下にない軍基金国防産業基金などからの歳入であるなど平時においても軍に対する文民統制には疑問も多い。この結果軍はいわば「第四権」といった性格を持ち世俗主義や内政の安定を支える大きな政治的社会的影響力を発揮してきた。1960年と1980年にはクーデターで軍事政権を樹立したこともある。近年はエルドアン政権の権限強化とそれに対するクーデター失敗経済発展に伴う社会の成熟多様化により軍部の影響力は以前より低下している。軍事同盟としては1952年以降は北大西洋条約機構加盟国でもあった。2国間同盟としては1996年、イスラエルと軍事協力協定および軍事産業協力協定を締結しており、1998年からは実際にアメリカ合衆国、イスラエルとともに3国で共同軍事演習が行われた。NATO加盟国としては唯一非欧米国家グループである上海協力機構の対話パートナーにもなっており2015年にはエルドアン大統領によって正規加盟が要請された。軍事装備は西側のものだけではなく中華人民共和国の協力で弾道ミサイルのや多連装ロケットシステムのを導入しておりNATOのミサイル防衛を揺るがすHQ-9やS-400のような地対空ミサイルも中国やロシア連邦から購入する動きも見せた。2010年にはアメリカやイスラエルと行ってきた「アナトリアの鷲」演習を中国と実施し中国と初めて合同軍事演習を行ったNATO加盟国となった。2019年にはロシアの地対空ミサイルS-400を搬入。アメリカ政府はロシアへの軍事機密漏洩を警戒してF-35戦闘機国際共同開発からトルコを排除した。南東部においてはクルディスタン労働者党との戦闘状態が長年続いている。南隣にあるイラクとシリアに対しても、国境をまたいで活動するPKKやイスラム国など反トルコ勢力への攻撃と、親トルコ派勢力の支援を目的に、派兵や越境空爆をしばしば行っている。2016年にはペルシャ湾岸のカタールの基地を利用する協定を締結した。有力な軍需産業を有している。一例を挙げれば政府系企業の航空宇宙産業（TAI）や民営のバイカル防衛が軍用無人航空機を開発製造しておりシリア内戦やリビア内戦に投入されたほか複数の国が輸入している（「2020年ナゴルノカラバフ紛争#戦術」「#工業」も参照）。国土はヨーロッパ州とアジア州にまたがり北の黒海と南のエーゲ海地中海をつなぐボスポラス海峡-マルマラ海-ダーダネルス海峡によって隔てられる。面積は日本の2倍で北緯35度から43度東経25度から45度に位置し東西1600キロメートル南北800キロメートルに及ぶ。アナトリア半島は中央に広大な高原と海沿いの狭小な平地からなり高原の東部はチグリス川ユーフラテス川の源流である。東部イラン国境近くにはヴァン湖とアララト山がある。国内に多くの断層を持つ地震国であり近年では1999年のイズミット地震でマルマラ海沿岸の人口密集地が大規模な被害を受けた。なお他の地震国の多くと同様国内に数多くの温泉が存在し中にはヒエラポリス-パムッカレなど世界遺産の中に存在するものもある。中近東という位置や地中海やエーゲ海からくる印象から、一般に温暖な印象であるが、沿岸地域を除くと冬は寒冷な国である。エーゲ海や地中海の沿岸地方は温暖で、ケッペンの気候区分では地中海性気候に属し、夏は乾燥していて暑く、冬は温暖な気候で保養地となっている。イスタンブールのあるマルマラ海周辺やヨーロッパトルコ地域は地中海性気候と温暖湿潤気候の中間に属し、夏は他地域よりは涼しく、冬は比較的寒くなり雪も降る。黒海沿岸地方は温暖湿潤気候に属し、年間を通じトルコ降水量が最多である。深い緑に覆われている。国土の大半を占める内陸部は大陸性気候で寒暖の差が激しく乾燥しており、アンカラなどの中部アナトリア地方はステップ気候や高地地中海性気候に属する。夏は乾燥していて非常に暑くなるが、冬季は積雪も多く、気温が−20°C以下になることも珍しくない。東部アナトリア地方は亜寒帯に属し冬は非常に寒さが厳しく東部の標高1500mを超えるような高原地帯では1月の平均気温は−10°Cを下回る。標高1757mにあるエルズルムでは気温がしばしば−30°Cを下回り−40°Cに達することもある酷寒地である。ヴァン県のチャルディラーンで48.8°Cを記録している。地方行政制度はオスマン帝国の州県制をベースとしてフランスに範をとり全土を県（）と呼ばれる地方行政区画に区分している。1999年以降の県の総数は81である。各県には中央政府の代理者として知事（）が置かれ県の行政機関（）を統括する。県行政の最高権限は4年任期で民選される県議会が担い県知事は県議会の決定に従って職務を遂行する。県の下には民選の首長を有する行政機関が統括する。都市人口率は2015年時点で 約73.4%であり世界平均である。このうちアナトリア高原など山岳部に位置する都市はアンカラガズィアンテプコンヤディヤルバクルである。国の東部には小規模な都市が目立ち、特に東北部、または黒海沿岸には都市への人口の集中があまり見られない。その背景には、南東部などの後進地域の若年層が雇用機会を求めて、イスタンブール、アンカラ、イズミル、ブルサ、アンタルヤといった西部大都市へ移動していることがあり、地域格差の拡大につながる社会問題となっている。IMFによると、2018年の国内総生産を占める。漁業は沿岸部では比較的盛んであるが、エーゲ海ではギリシャ領の島々が本土のすぐ近くに点在しているため、領海・排他的経済水域や公海上の漁獲量をめぐる国際問題が起きることもある。工業は軽工業が中心で、繊維・衣類分野の輸出大国である。近年では、世界の大手自動車メーカーと国内の大手財閥との合弁事業が大きな柱となっており、ヨーロッパ向け自動車輸出が有力な外貨獲得源になっている。具体的には、国内最大の財閥であるサバンジュ財閥と日本のトヨタ自動車、国内2位の財閥であるコチ財閥とイタリアのフィアット、国内4位の財閥であるオヤック財閥とフランスのルノーが挙げられる。また、コチ財閥のアルチェリッキ・ベコ、ゾルル財閥のヴェステルなど、家電・エレクトロニクス部門の成長も期待されている。工業化が進んでいるのは北西部のマルマラ海沿岸地域が中心である。ヨーロッパ、中東、アフリカの結節点という輸出における地理的優位さもあり、製造業の生産能力や技術力は向上している。上記以外にもアパレルのLC Waikiki、軍事関連のアセルサンといった有力メーカーが育っている。新型コロナウイルス感染症が世界に広がった2020年、トルコは約140カ国にマスク、人工呼吸器、防護服といった衛生・医療物資を送った。経常収支が赤字であるため、ロシア連邦を含むヨーロッパ諸国などから訪れる観光客は、貴重な外貨収入源となっている。外国人観光客数は2014年のピークで3,683万人。その後、シリア内戦に誘発された相次ぐテロ事件やロシア軍爆撃機撃墜事件、2016年トルコクーデター未遂事件が起きたため、2016年は約2,500万人に減ったものの、2017年以降は回復している。2021年5月時点、新型コロナウイルス感染症の世界的流行下でもトルコは観光客を受け入れており、国民に課せられている外出制限も観光客には適用されていない。空路のほかクルーズ客船も利用されている。エーゲ海沿岸地域やイスタンブール内陸のカッパドキアなどが観光地として人気が高い。地中海に面する西部と首都アンカラ周辺地域以外では農業の比重が大きい。特に東部では地主制がよく温存されているなど経済近代化の立ち遅れが目立ち農村部の貧困や地域間の経済格差が大きな問題となっている。国土は鉱物資源に恵まれている。有機鉱物資源では石炭の埋蔵量が多い。2002年の時点では亜炭褐炭の採掘量が6348万トンに達した。これは世界シェアの7.0%であり世界第6位に位置する。しかしながら高品位な石炭の生産量はこの20分の1過ぎない。原油も採掘されている。金属鉱物資源では、世界第2位の産出量の（200万トン、世界シェア17.9%）マグネシウムをはじめ、アンチモン、金、鉄、銅、鉛、ボーキサイトなどの鉱物を産出する。しかしながら、石炭は火力発電など燃料として国内で消費し、マグネシウムの国際価格が低迷していることから、同国の輸出に占める鉱物資源の割合は低く、4%程度（2002年時点）に過ぎない。石油天然ガスについては黒海で開発を進め2002年の段階から生産を始めていたが近年石油は100億バレルガスは1兆5千億立方メートルと莫大な埋蔵量であることが分かった。これにより2023年から40年間にわたって国内消費分を賄うことができるようになるとの見通しである。1990年代の後半から経済は低調で政府は巨額の債務を抱え国民は急速なインフレーションに悩まされていた。歴代の政権はインフレの自主的な抑制に失敗し2000年からIMFの改革プログラムを受けるに至るが同年末に金融危機を起こした。この結果トルコリラの下落から国内消費が急激に落ち込んだ。2002年以後は若干持ち直し、実質GNP成長率は5%以上に復調、さらに同年末に成立した公正発展党単独安定政権の下でインフレの拡大はおおよそ沈静化した。2005年1月1日には100万トルコリラとする新通貨を発行し、実質的なデノミネーションが行われた。なお2009年より、新トルコリラは再びという名称に変更されている。近年のGDP成長率は2010年9.2%、2011年8.5%、2012年2.2%となっている。貿易は慢性的に赤字が続いている。2003年時点では輸出466億ドルに対し輸入656億ドルであった。ただしサービス収支たとえば観光による収入（90億ドル2002年）所得収支たとえば海外の出稼ぎからの送金などが多額に上るため経常収支はほぼバランスが取れている。輸出・輸入とも過半数を工業製品が占める。世界第2位の生産量を占める毛織物のほか、毛糸、綿糸、綿織物、化学繊維などの生産量がいずれも世界の上位10位に含まれる、厚みのある繊維産業が輸出に貢献している。衣料品を輸出し、機械類を輸入するという構造である。輸出品目では工業製品が 83.2%を占め、ついで食料品9.9%、原材料・燃料5.0%である。工業製品では衣類21.1%、繊維・織物 11.1%、自動車10.5%、電気機械8.6%が主力であり、鉄鋼も輸出している。輸出相手国はヨーロッパ圏が主力であり、ドイツ 15.8%、アメリカ合衆国7.9%、イギリス7.8%、イタリア6.8%、フランス6.0%の順である。日本に対する最大の輸出品目はマグロ、ついで衣料品である。輸入品目でも工業製品が65.9%に達する。ついで原材料・燃料21.3%、食料品4.0%である。品目別では機械類13.4%、電気機械9.2%、自動車7.7%、原油6.9%、繊維・織物5.0%である。輸入相手国も欧州が中心で、ドイツ13.6%、イタリア7.9%、ロシア7.9%、フランス6.0%、イギリス5.0%の順である。日本からの最大の輸入品目は乗用車、ついで自動車用部品である。交通の中心となっているのは、旅客・貨物ともに陸上の道路交通である。鉄道は国鉄が開通した。その後も、アンカラ－コンヤ間でも完成するなど、各地で高速鉄道建設が進められ近代化が図られている。政府は道路整備を重視しており、国内の道路網は2004年時点で6万3,220キロメートルに及んでいる。また、イスタンブールとアンカラを結ぶ高速道路が存在し、非常に多くのバス会社が多数の路線を運行している。また、世俗主義国家であるとはいえイスラム教国であるため、これらのバスでは親子や夫婦などを除き男女の相席をさせることはまずない。いまだ雇用所得が低いことや高額の自動車特別消費税のために自家用車の普及はあまり進んでいない。また農村部においては現在でも人的移動や農作物の運搬のためにトラクターや馬を用いることはごく普通である。農村部や地方都市において露天バザールが開催される日にはアンカラやイスタンブールとはかけ離れたこれらの光景をよく目にすることができる。国土の位置するバルカン半島やアナトリア半島は古来より多くの民族が頻繁に往来した要衝の地であり複雑で重層的な混血と混住の歴史を繰り返してきた。現在のトルコ共和国が成立する過程にもこれらの地域事情が色濃く反映されている。前身である多言語多宗教国家のオスマン帝国ではこのような地域事情を汲み取ってと規定されそれぞれの宗教が多数派を形成する国々への出国を余儀なくされている。こうした経緯もあり長年国内の民族構成に関する正確な調査が実施されず政府は国内に居住するトルコ国民を一体として取り扱い国民はすべてトルコ語を母語とする均質なであるという建前を取っていた。これが新生トルコを国際的に認知したローザンヌ条約におけるトルコ人の定義であると同時にトルコにおける少数民族とは非イスラム教のギリシャ人アルメニア人ユダヤ人の三民族であることを定義した。しかしながら実際には共和国成立以前から東部を中心にクルド人をはじめ多くの少数民族が居住する現状を否定することができず現在では民族的にトルコ人ではないあるいはトルコ語を母語としない国民も国内に一定割合存在することを認めてはいるもののそれらが少数民族とは認知していない。少数派の民族としてはクルド人アラブ人ラズ人ギリシャ人アルメニア人ヘムシン人ザザ人ガガウズ人などが共和国成立以前から東部を中心に居住している。特にクルド人はトルコ人に次ぐ多数派を構成しておりその数は1400万から1950万人といわれている。かつて政府は国内にクルド人は存在しないとの立場からクルド語での放送出版を禁止する一方なる呼称を用いるなど差別的に扱っていた。しかしながら現在では少数民族の存在を認める政府の立場から山岳トルコ人という呼称は用いられることがない。実際問題として長年の同化政策の結果今や言語がほぼ唯一の民族性のシンボルとなっている。2004年にはクルド語での放送出版も公に解禁され旧民主党においてクルド語放送が行われた。2008年末には24時間クルド語放送を行うためTRTに第6チャンネルが開設され2009年1月から本放送を開始した。なお、クルド人はいわゆる北部南東アナトリア地域は全域で政治活動を展開し、総選挙において一定の影響力を保持している。1960年以降、全国的な農村部から都市への移住が増加したことに伴いクルド人も都市部への移住が進み、現在はクルド人の都市居住者と農村部居住者との割合が大幅に変化しているとみられる。ある推計によると、1990年以降最も多数のクルド人が存在するのは、南東アナトリア6県のいずれでもなく、イスタンブール県であるとの結果も存在する。各都市のクルド人は、その多くが所得水準の低い宗教的にも敬虔なイスラム教徒であるといわれており、昨今の都市部における大衆政党として草の根活動を行ってきたイスラム系政党躍進の一因と結びつける見方も存在する。公用語のトルコ語のほか、クルド語などが話されている。1934年にを姓とし庶民は父の名あだ名居住地名職業名や縁起のいい言葉を選んで姓をつけている。婚姻の際は以前は夫婦同姓のみが認められていたが2001年の法改正により女性の複合姓が認められさらに2014年に最高裁において婚前の姓のみを名乗ることを認めないことは憲法違反との判決が下され完全な夫婦別姓も選択可能となったことで選択的夫婦別姓制度が実現している。宗教構成は宗教の帰属が身分証明書の記載事項でもあることからかなり正確な調査結果が存在する。それによると人口の99%以上がムスリムである。一方各宗派に関しては身分証明書にその記載事項がないことから宗教のように詳細な宗派区分の把握ができておらず不明な点も多い。その結果一般的にはムスリムを信奉する国民の大半はスンナ派に属するといわれているが一方で同じイスラム教の中でマイノリティであるアレヴィー派の信奉者が国内にも相当数存在しているとの主張もあり一説には20%を超えるとも言われている。そのほかの宗教には東方正教会、アルメニア使徒教会、ユダヤ教、カトリック、プロテスタントなどが挙げられるが、オスマン帝国末期から現共和国成立までに至る少数民族排除の歴史的経緯から、いずれもごく少数にとどまる。一方で、東方正教会の精神的指導者かつ第一人者であるコンスタンディヌーポリ総主教はイスタンブールに居住しており、正教徒がごく少数しか存在しないトルコに東方正教会の中心地がある状況が生み出されている。国内にある東方正教会の神品を養成するためのは1971年から政府命令によって閉鎖されており、東方正教会への政府からの圧迫の一つとなっている。義務教育機関として8年制の初等教育学校なども存在する。初等教育学校を含めてほぼ全ての学校が国立だが私立学校も存在する。ただし私立学校の1か月間の学費は給食費施設費などを含めて一般労働者の月収とほぼ同等で極めて高価である。公立高校・公立大学への入学にはそれぞれLGS・SSの受験を必要とし、成績順で入学校を決定する。受験競争は存在し、高校入試・大学入試のために塾（）に通うことも珍しくない。教員数・教室数はともに十分な数には達しておらず、初等教育学校は午前・午後の二部制である。また学校設備も不十分で、体育館・プールなどは公立学校にはまず存在しない。特に大都市の学校では運動場は狭くコンクリート張りで、バスケットボールやフットサルが精一杯である（地方においては芝生のサッカー場などを持つ学校も多い）。また、図書館も存在しないか、あっても不十分である。学校設備の問題に関しては国も認識し、世界銀行からの融資を受けるなどして改善を図っているが、厳しい財政事情もあって改善が進んでいない。2004年現在、男子児童の就学率は統計上ほぼ100%に到達したが、女子児童の非就学者は政府発表で65万人程度存在し、政府はキャンペーンを展開するなどその解消に努めている。しかし、女子非就学者の問題には経済事情に加え、男女共学のうえ、いまだ保守的なイスラムを奉ずる地域ではヘッドスカーフ着用禁止の初等教育学校に通わせることを宗教的な観点から問題視する親が存在するという事情もあり、女子非修学者の減少はやや頭打ちの状態である。イスラム教の教えに基づいた創造論が学校などで公然と教育されており、進化論への検閲行為などの問題が生じている。また、クルド語を教育することはおろか、教育機関などでので使用することさえ法律で禁止されており、これに違反した場合は国家反逆罪などで起訴される。実際に投獄された一般のクルド人も多い。トルコの治安は現在不安定さが目立ちがちとなっている。2007年以降同国警察が犯罪統計を公表していないために詳細な件数は不明であるものの日本と比べると一般犯罪性犯罪偽警察官による犯罪も散見されている。政治的な理由でネット検閲が行われている。2014年には裁判所の命令がなくてもウェブサイトを遮断したりインターネットを通じて個人の閲覧記録を収集したりすることを首相に認める法律が可決されている。そのため、YouTubeなどGoogle関連を含む約3,700の外部サイトへのアクセスは政府によってブロックされており、反政府運動の抑え込みや言論統制を理由にFacebookやTwitterなどソーシャル・ネットワーキング・サービスも度々ブロックされている。2017年4月29日、政府は国内からのウィキペディアへの通信を遮断したと発表。はウィキペディアに政府がテロ組織と連携しているような記事が書かれていることを非難し、と主張している。当局はウィキペディアに対して削除を要請したが、ウィキペディア側は拒否したという。ウィキペディア側が要請に応じた場合、遮断解除を行うとしている。国土は、ヒッタイト、古代ギリシア、ローマ帝国、イスラームなど様々な文明が栄えた地であり、諸文化の混交が文化の基層となっている。これらの人々が残した数多くの文化遺産、遺跡、歴史的建築が残っており、世界遺産に登録されたものも9件に及ぶ（詳しくは「トルコの世界遺産」を参照）。伝統的な文化はこのような基層文化にトルコ人が中央アジアからもたらした要素を加えて、東ヨーロッパから西アジアの諸国と相互に影響を受け合いながら発展してきた。近現代のオスマン帝国トルコはちょうど日本の文明開化と同じように西洋文明を積極的に取り入れてきたがそれとともにトルコ文学演劇音楽などの近代芸術は言文一致運動や言語の純化運動社会運動などと結びついて独自の歴史を歩んできた。こうした近代化の一方で歴史遺産の保全に関しては立ち遅れも見られる。無形文化財ではオスマン古典音楽の演奏者は著しく減少しまた剣術弓術などいくつかの伝統的な技芸は既に失われた。有形の遺跡もオスマン帝国時代以来のイスラム以前の建築物に対する無関心は現在も少なからず残っており多くの遺跡が長らく管理者すら置かれず事実上放置されてきた。近年はいくつかの有名な古代ギリシャやローマ帝国時代の遺跡やイスラム時代の建築が観光化されて管理が行き届くようになったが依然として多くの遺跡は風化の危機にさらされている。このような状況に対する懸念も表明されているがその保全対策は財政事情もありほとんど全く手つかずの状態である。トルコ料理は伝統的に世界三大料理の一つとされ、ギリシャ料理やシリア地方の料理とよく似通っている。またイスラム教国ではあるが飲酒は自由に行われており、ブドウから作られアニスで香りがつけられたラクが有名である。ワインやビールの国産銘柄も多数ある。コーヒー粉末と砂糖を入れた小さな容器を火にかけて煮出すトルココーヒーはユネスコの無形文化遺産に登録された。伝統的なトルコ音楽の一つオスマン古典音楽はアラブ音楽との関係が深く現代のアラブ古典音楽で演奏される楽曲の多くはオスマン帝国の帝都イスタンブールに暮らした作曲家が残したものである。オスマン帝国とトルコ共和国で行われてきた伝統的な軍楽メフテルは多くの国に脅威と衝撃を与え、音楽家は着想を得ていくつものトルコ行進曲を製作した。トルコにおける映画製作活動は、第二次世界大戦後から劇的に増加して行く形で高まった。最近ではアラブ世界、そして米国でもその存在が認知されるほどに成長を見せている。建築は、イランとギリシャ双方の影響を受け、独自の壮麗なモスクやメドレセなどの建築文化が花開いた。その最盛期を担ったのがミマール・スィナンであり、スレイマン・ジャミィなどに当時の文化を垣間見ることができる。俗になどと呼ばれている公衆浴場文化の伝統に連なる。逆に、中東やアラブの後宮として理解されているハレムとは実はトルコ語の語彙であり、多くの宮女を抱えたオスマン帝国の宮廷のイメージが、オリエンタリズム的な幻想に乗って伝えられたものであった。国内にはユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が11件複合遺産が2件存在する。国民的なスポーツとしては、まずサッカーを頂点に2部リーグ、3部リーグ、さらにその下部の地域リーグが置かれ、プロ・アマ合わせれば膨大な数のクラブが存在する。また、サッカークラブの多くは総合スポーツクラブの一部であり、バスケットボール・バレーボールなど、他種目のスポーツチームを同じクラブが抱えることも多い。UEFA加盟国であるため、スュペル・リグ上位クラブはUEFAチャンピオンズリーグやUEFAヨーロッパリーグに参加可能である。その中でもイスタンブールのフェネルバフチェは4大クラブと呼ばれ、テレビ・新聞などでの報道量もほかに比べ抜群に多い。これらのクラブは実力的にも上位にあるため、UEFA主催のリーグに参加することも多い。UEFA主催のリーグに参加するクラブは、半ばトルコ代表として扱われることもあり、これらの強豪は地域にかかわらず全国的に人気がある。また、イスタンブールのフェネルバフチェ・ガラタサライ・ベシクタシュの3クラブはイスタンブール証券取引所に上場する上場企業でもある。2004-05シーズンのUEFAチャンピオンズリーグの決勝はイスタンブールのアタテュルク・オリンピヤット・スタドゥで行われ、イスタンブールの奇跡が起こった。サッカートルコ代表は2002 FIFAワールドカップで3位に入るなど健闘した。この大会では開催国の日本と韓国に勝利しており、同一大会で2つの開催国に勝つという珍しい記録を達成した。また優勝したブラジルには2回敗北している。ほかにプロスポーツとしてはバスケットボールとバレーボールのプロリーグが存在する。特にバスケットボールはNBAでのトルコ人選手の活躍や2010年に世界選手権が開催されたこともあり、近年人気が上昇している。また2005年から2011年まではF1トルコGPが開催されており、WRCのラリー・オブ・ターキーとあわせてモータースポーツにおける発展も期待される。650年の歴史を持つ伝統格闘技としてヤールギュレシがあり、国技となっている。アマチュアスポーツとしてはレスリング、重量挙げなど人気がある。またトルコ人の気風を反映してか、柔道・空手道の道場も非常に多い。競馬や競走馬の生産も行われており、日本産馬ではディヴァインライトがトルコで種牡馬として供用されている。チュルク系民族の伝統的な騎馬により争われる競技は、おもにトルコ東部の民間に残っている。 +ロシア連邦はユーラシア大陸北部に位置する連邦共和制国家。首都はモスクワ市。領土は旧ロシア帝国およびソビエト連邦の大半を引き継いでおり、ヨーロッパからシベリア・極東に及ぶ。面積は1709万平方キロメートル以上と世界最大である。ロシアは国際連合安全保障理事会常任理事国であり、独立国家共同体の指導国であるだけでなく、G20、欧州評議会、アジア太平洋経済協力、上海協力機構、ユーラシア経済共同体、欧州安全保障協力機構、世界貿易機関（WTO）などの加盟国である。かつてG8加盟国であったが、2014年3月にクリミア併合を強行したことでG8の参加資格を停止された。核拡散防止条約により核兵器の保有を認められた5つの公式核保有国の1つであり、世界最大の大量破壊兵器保有国である。国防費は2010年以降増加の一途を辿っている。常備軍のロシア連邦軍は地上軍・海軍・航空宇宙軍の3軍の他、戦略ロケット軍と空挺軍の2つの独立兵科で構成されている。運用面では地理的に分割された軍管区に権限が委譲されており、それぞれに統合戦略コマンドが設置されて3軍と通常兵器部隊を指揮している（戦略核兵器部隊は指揮権外）。現役軍人は約90万人である。政治体制はソビエト連邦時代の共産党一党独裁制が放棄されて多党制に基づく選挙が行われるようになったが2003年以降は事実上ウラジーミルプーチン大統領率いる与党統一ロシアの一党優位政党制になっている。複数政党制や選挙は一応存在するが選挙から反体制派候補を排除するなどプーチン体制に有利な政治システムが構築されており政治的意思を表明する機会に乏しい。｢法の独裁」による統治を目指す強権的体質が内外から批判されておりエコノミスト誌傘下の研究所エコノミストインテリジェンスユニットによる民主主義指数は世界134位と後順位で「独裁政治体制」に分類されている（2019年度)。また国境なき記者団による世界報道自由度ランキングも149位と後順位である（2020年度)。GDPは2014年時点でロシアの経済は名目GDPで世界第9位であった。鉱物及びエネルギー資源は世界最大の埋蔵量であり世界最大の原油生産国および世界最大の天然ガス生産国の1つである。しかし資源依存の経済体質であるため近年は原油安で経済が停滞している。加えて2014年にクリミア併合を強行したことにより欧米から経済制裁を受けて更なる打撃を受けている。人口はロシア連邦国家統計庁によれば1億4680万人人やトルコ系のウズベク人、またシベリアや極東の少数民族なども存在し、合計で100以上の民族がある。公用語はロシア語だが、少数民族の言語も存在する。宗教はキリスト教徒が人口の60％を占め、その大半がロシア正教会の信者である。イスラム教徒も人口の8％ほどおり、仏教徒も存在する。地理としてはロシアの国境は北西から南東へノルウェーフィンランドエストニアラトビアともにカリーニングラード州と隣接するリトアニアおよびポーランドベラルーシウクライナジョージアアゼルバイジャンカザフスタン中華人民共和国モンゴル国朝鮮民主主義人民共和国と接する。海上境界線としては日本とはオホーツク海宗谷海峡根室海峡珸瑤瑁水道アメリカ合衆国アラスカ州とはベーリング海峡で接する。ロシアの面積は1707万5400km2で世界最大であり地球上の居住地域の8分の1を占める。国土が北アジア全体および東ヨーロッパの大部分に広がることに伴いロシアは11の標準時を有し広範な環境および地形を包含する。ロシアの歴史は、3世紀から8世紀までの間にヨーロッパで認識され始めた東スラヴ人の歴史に始まる。9世紀、ヴァリャーグの戦士の精鋭およびその子孫により設立・統治され、キエフ大公国の中世国家が誕生した。988年、東ローマ帝国からキリスト教正教会を導入し、次の千年紀のロシア文化を特徴づける東ローマ帝国およびスラブ人の文化の統合が始まった。キエフ大公国は最終的に多くの国に分裂し13世紀には領土の大部分がモンゴルに侵略され遊牧国家ジョチウルスの属国になりロシアが西洋から隔絶される原因となった（タタールのくびき)。モスクワ大公国は次第に周辺のロシアの公国を再統合しキエフ大公国の文化的政治的な遺産を支配するようになった。クリコヴォの戦いでジョチウルスを破った後ジョチウルスは衰退しイヴァン3世がモスクワ帝国を建設。ピョートル大帝はロシア人がバルト海に行く道を確保し1703年にバルト海に面するサンクトペテルブルクを建設した。1712年にサンクトペテルブルクはロシアの首都になり1721年にロシアは帝国になった。周辺諸国の併合などを繰り返し史上第3位の領土を持つ帝国となり版図はポーランドから北米のアラスカまで広がった。1917年のロシア革命の後ロシアソビエト連邦社会主義共和国がソビエト連邦最大かつ指導的な構成国となった。世界初の憲法上の社会主義共和国及び広く認められた超大国となり第二次世界大戦において連合国の勝利に決定的な役割を果たした。ソビエト連邦時代には世界初の人工衛星及び世界初の有人宇宙飛行を含む20世紀のもっとも重要な複数の技術的偉業を経験した。東西冷戦で対峙するアメリカ合衆国に双璧となる超大国として国際社会で重要な位置を占めたがソ連共産党による一党独裁の弊害が噴出するようになり1991年にソビエト連邦の崩壊に至った。新たにロシア連邦を国名としロシアも同等の国名とされた（1992年の憲法改正により)。ロシアの国旗は革命前の白青赤の3色旗に戻り国際連合における地位などは基本的に旧ソ連を引き継いでいる。ロシア連邦（ラテン文字転写 ）も使われる。英語表記は 。ロシア連邦憲法第1条第2項でロシア連邦とロシアは同じ意味としておりロシア語においてもロシア連邦の意味でロシアが使われることがある。ロシアの国名は、現代のロシア北西部とウクライナ、ベラルーシにあたるルーシという国家のギリシア語名から派生したと称したことにより対外的にも正式の国名となった。ルーシのギリシャ語風名称としてのロシアや隣国を破って旧キエフルーシの東側領土の大半を影響下に収めたこと帝政時代の極東への進出と拡張により大国となった。その権力の正統性を説明するためモスクワは東ローマ帝国からローマ帝国の威信も受け継いだという学説も考案された。こうしたことからモスクワ大公国はを国号として用いるようになった。国名の日本語表記の変遷.前はよりロシア語名に近いロシヤと書かれることが少なくなかったが1980年代頃からギリシャ語風のとした。今日のロシア人は様々な民族の混血によって成立しているためその起源を一つに絞ることはできないが国家や文化言語の変遷においての祖となる人々は北東ルーシと呼ばれる地域に古くから居住していた。その地に暮らした東スラヴ系の諸部族はフィン系の民族と隣接しており言語や文化習慣において大きな影響を受けた。やがてその多くは同化しほかの地域の東スラヴ人とは異なる文化を築いていった。ロシア人にはフィンウゴル系遺伝子もある程度見られる。古代ギリシャの作家プロコピオスは、スラブ人を民主主義に住み、彼らが犠牲にするという単一の神を信じる野蛮人と表現した。プロコピオスの説明によると、全てのスラブ人は見た目がとても美しく、似たような服を着ており、お互いにほとんど違いはなかった。スラブ人の男性はしばしば長い髪を着た。スラヴ人には独自の文化と神話があった。世界は自然の法則を支配する天の神々と人々の習慣や行動を支配する地下の（クトニオスの）神々という2つの反対の力によって支配されていると信じられていた。5世紀の初めにスラブの部族は極東ロシアの領土に移動しこの地域を支配し始めた。同時にスラブの部族は地理的に西部（ヨーロッパに残っている）と東部に分かれた。北東ルーシには、ノルマン人ではないかと推測されている、民族系統不明の人々が進出しており、交易や略奪、やがては入植を行った。862年にはヴァリャーグの長リューリクが大ノヴゴロドの公となり、町は東ローマ帝国との貿易拠点として発展した。後代に書かれた原初年代記 には、リューリクの一族が東スラヴ人の居住地域に支配を広げていったと記録される。9世紀後半にヴァリャーグはドニエプル地方に拠点を移した。そのため、それから13世紀にかけてのルーシの中心は、現在はウクライナの首都となっているキエフであり、現在のロシアの中心である北東ルーシはむしろ辺境化し、モスクワの街もまだ歴史には登場していなかった。ヴァリャーグの支配者層を含めてスラヴ化したキエフ大公国は、9世紀に東ローマ帝国から東西教会分裂以後に正教会となる東方のキリスト教とギリシャ文化を受容し、独特の文化を育んだが、13世紀初頭にモンゴル人による侵入で2世紀にわたってジョチ・ウルスの支配下に入った。その混乱の中で、それまでキエフにあった府主教座はウラジーミル・ザレースキイへ移された。数多くいるルーシ諸公の1人に過ぎなかったモスクワ公はモンゴル支配下でルーシ諸公がハンに納める貢納を取りまとめる役を請け負うことで次第に実力をつけ15世紀にジョチウルスの支配を実質的に脱してルーシの統一を押し進めた。府主教座もモスクワへ遷座した。国家は独立性の高い大公国となった。のちモスクワ大公はイヴァン3世のときツァーリ（皇帝）の称号を名乗りその支配領域はロシアツァーリ国と自称するようになった。16世紀にイヴァン4世（雷帝）が近代化と皇帝集権化シベリア進出などの領土拡大を進めたが彼の死後はその専制政治を嫌っていた大貴族の抗争で国内が大混乱（動乱時代）に陥った。モスクワ大公国の主要貴族（ボヤーレ）たちはツァーリの宮廷の権威を認めず士族民主主義の確立していたポーランドリトアニア共和国を慕った。この民主派のボヤーレたちはポーランドリトアニア共和国とモスクワ大公国との連邦構想さえ打ち立てツァーリ専制を嫌っていた農民や商人をまとめ上げさらには共和国軍をモスクワ領内に招き入れてツァーリ派と戦い共和国軍とともにモスクワを占領した。一方ツァーリ派の貴族や商人たちは政商ストロガノフ家の援助でニジニノヴゴロドにおいて義勇軍を組織した。義勇軍側はモスクワ政策を巡ってローマカトリック主義のポーランド国王兼リトアニア大公が信教自由主義のポーランドリトアニア共和国議会と激しく対立していたことを絶好の機会とし「反ローマカトリック闘争」の形で急速に数を増した。そして1612年ドミートリーポジャールスキーとクジマミーニンの指揮の下モスクワ市内のクレムリンに駐屯していた共和国軍の治安部隊を包囲攻撃11月1日して撃破モスクワを解放した。この民主派に対するツァーリ派およびローマカトリックに対するロシア正教会の勝利は21世紀現在でも国民の祝日となっている（11月4日）。ここで中世ロシアは終わりロマノフ朝の成立とともに近代ロシアが始まることになる。1613年にロマノフ朝が成立すると、大貴族と農奴制に支えられ、封建色の強い帝国の発展が始まった。17世紀末から18世紀初頭にかけて、ピョートル1世され日露関係史が実質的に始まった。彼女の時代に農奴制が固定化されていった。アレクサンドル1世の治世において1803年に勃発したナポレオン戦争に参戦し、1812年にはナポレオン・ボナパルト指揮のフランス帝国軍に侵攻されたが、大損害を負いながらもこれを撃退（1812年ロシア戦役）。戦後はポーランド立憲王国やフィンランド大公国を支配して、神聖同盟の一員としてウィーン体制を維持する欧州の大国となった。国内でのデカブリストの乱やポーランド反乱などの自由主義・分離主義運動は厳しく弾圧された。1831年に始まるエジプトトルコ戦争以降はロシアの南下政策を阻むイギリスとの対立が激化し中央アジアアフガニスタンガージャール朝ペルシアやテロリズムを横行させ無政府主義者による皇帝暗殺にまで発展した。この時期極東ではアロー戦争の仲介料として沿海州を清から獲得しウラジオストクを建設した。19世紀末期には、ロシアはそれまでのドイツ帝国・オーストリア＝ハンガリー帝国との三帝同盟からフランス第三共和国との露仏同盟に外交の軸足を移し、汎スラヴ主義によるバルカン半島での南下を極東での南下政策と平行させた。フランス資本の参加によりシベリア鉄道の建設が行われている。20世紀初頭になると極東への関心を強め、満州や朝鮮に手を伸ばそうとしたが、日本と衝突して1904年の日露戦争となった。1905年に血の日曜日事件など一連の革命騒動が発生し、ポーツマス条約を結んで敗れると、戦後の1907年にロシアはイギリスと英露協商、日本と日露協約を締結し、三国協商に立ってドイツやオーストリアと対立した。国内ではドゥーマの開設やピョートル・ストルイピンによる改革が行われたが、皇帝ニコライ2世の消極的姿勢もあって改革は頓挫し、帝国の弱体化は急速に進行した。その中で、都市部の労働者を中心に社会主義運動が高揚した。1914年に勃発した第一次世界大戦では連合国の一員として中央同盟国となった。ソビエト連邦とロシア連邦共和国の首都がサンクトペテルブルクからモスクワへと約200年ぶりに復され同時にサンクトペテルブルクはレニングラードに改称された。ロシア連邦共和国内に居住する少数民族についてはその人口数などに応じて自治共和国自治州民族管区などが設定され事実上ロシア連邦共和国とは異なる統治体制をとった。ソビエト体制でのロシア連邦共和国は他の連邦加盟共和国と同格とされたが面積人口とも他の共和国を圧倒していたロシアでは事実上連邦政府と一体となった統治が行われた。ソ連共産党内には連邦崩壊直前の1990年まで創設されず第二次世界大戦後の国際連合でもウクライナや白ロシアと異なり単独での加盟が認められなかった。1930年代の世界恐慌で多くの資本主義国が不況に苦しむ中、ソビエト連邦はその影響を受けず、レーニンの後を継いだスターリンによる独裁的な主導の下でと重工業化が断行され、高い経済成長を達成した。しかし、その実態は農民からの強制的な収奪に基づく閉鎖的な工業化であった。農村弾圧の結果、ウクライナやロシア南西部では大飢饉が発生した。その歪みはやがて政治的な粛清と強制収容所の拡大など恐怖に基づく支配をもたらす事態へとつながった。1939年9月の第二次世界大戦勃発直前に一時ナチスドイツとモロトフリッベントロップ協定を結んで協調しポーランド第二共和国をソ連ポーランド不可侵条約を一方的に破棄して侵攻しポーランドを占領冬戦争でフィンランドにも圧迫を加え1939年12月の理事会において国際連盟から除名された。1940年にはバルト諸国占領によりソビエト連邦へ併合しさらにルーマニアからベッサラビア地方を割譲させた。1941年6月には独ソ不可侵条約を一方的に破棄したナチスドイツのヒトラーに突如攻め込まれて西部の広大な地域を占領され（バルバロッサ作戦）危険な状況に陥った。しかし1942年初頭に首都モスクワ防衛に成功した後英米をはじめとする連合国の助力もあってスターリングラード攻防戦およびクルスクの戦いを境に1943年後半には反攻に転じて独ソ戦の主導権を握り最終的には大戦に勝利した。さらにポーランド東半ドイツルーマニアフィンランドチェコスロバキアの一部などを併合し西に大きく領土を広げた。極東方面では1945年8月日本に日ソ中立条約の不延長を通告して参戦。満州国やサハリン南部千島列島朝鮮北部に侵攻して占領した。戦後は新領土内の非ロシア人の住民を追放しロシア人などを入植させる国内移住政策が進められた。特にエストニアやラトヴィアなどではロシア人の比率が急増しソビエト連邦解体後の民族問題の原因となった。旧ドイツ領のカリーニングラード州でもロシア人の比率が急増して8割以上を占めるようになった。1946年には旧ドイツ領の東プロイセンの北部をカリーニングラード州日本に侵攻して占領したサハリン島南部（南樺太）とクリル列島（千島列島歯舞群島色丹島を含む）全域を南サハリン州として編入した（南サハリン州は1947年にサハリン州に吸収）。一方1954年には黒海沿岸のクリミア半島（クリミア州）がウクライナに移管されロシア連邦共和国の領土は2014年のクリミア半島編入以前のロシア連邦にあたる領域になった。日本はサンフランシスコ講和条約で一部領土を放棄したものの、千島列島南部の北方領土の返還を要求。それ以外の千島列島及び南樺太はロシア領土ではなく帰属未定地であると主張している。ロシアはサンフランシスコ講和条約に調印していない。なお、日本はユジノサハリンスクに在ユジノサハリンスク日本国総領事館を設置している。日本外務省によれば、当総領事館が位置しているユジノサハリンスク市をはじめとした南樺太は、サンフランシスコ平和条約によりその全ての権利・権限及び請求権を放棄したため、以降ソビエト連邦及びこれを承継したロシアが継続的に現実の支配を及ぼしており、これに対してロシア以外のいかなる国家の政府も領有権の主張を行っていないことなどを踏まえ、千島列島及び南樺太を含む地域を管轄地域とする在ユジノサハリンスク日本国総領事館を設置したものであるとしている。戦後、ソ連は強大なソ連軍の軍事力を背景に1949年の北大西洋条約機構を行っている。1985年にソ連の指導者となったミハイル・ゴルバチョフは冷戦を終結させる一方、ソ連を延命させるためペレストロイカとグラスノスチを掲げて改革に取り組んだものの、却って各地で民族主義が噴出し、共産党内の対立が激化した。党内抗争に敗れた改革派のボリスエリツィンはソ連体制内で機能が形骸化していたロシアソビエト連邦社会主義共和国を自らの権力基盤として活用し1990年に議長となると同年6月12日にロシア共和国と改称して主権宣言を行い翌年にはロシア共和国大統領に就任した。1991年8月のクーデターではエリツィンが鎮圧に活躍し連邦を構成していた共和国はそろって連邦を脱退していった。同年12月25日にはソ連大統領ミハイルゴルバチョフが辞任し翌日12月26日ソビエト連邦は崩壊した。1991年12月26日のソビエト連邦崩壊によりロシア共和国が連邦から離脱してロシア連邦として成立しエリツィンが初代ロシア連邦大統領に就任した。またソビエト連邦崩壊により世界規模のアメリカの覇権が成立し当時はこれを歴史の終わりと見る向きも現れた。ロシア連邦は、旧ソ連構成国の連合体である独立国家共同体・国際法上の関係を基本的に継承し、大国としての影響力を保持している。国名は1992年5月ロシア連邦条約によって現在のロシア連邦と最終確定した（ロシア連邦への国名変更はソ連大統領ゴルバチョフ辞任の当日である1991年12月25日当時のロシア最高会議決議による）。エリツィン政権下では市場経済の導入が進められたが急激な移行によってロシア経済は混乱し長期的な低迷を招いた。その一方でこの時期にはと呼ばれる新興財閥が台頭し政治的にも大きな影響力を持つようになった。ソ連政府は国民にあまねく賃貸住宅を配分していたがそれらを建設するだけで巨額の財政負担となっており財政再建中のロシア連邦がリフォームすることなどかなわず無償で住民が物件を取得できるようになり急激な私有化を進めた。私有化されていないものは地方自治体への譲渡が進み人口減少社会となるなか若者向けに低家賃で貸し出されている。1993年には新憲法制定をめぐって激しい政治抗争と、ロシア人およびロシアへの残留を希望するチェチェン共和国のチェチェン人勢力との間で第二次チェチェン紛争が発生した。1999年夏からイスラム急進派の排除という名目のもとにロシア軍は全面的な攻勢に出ている。同年8月にロシアの首相に就任したウラジミール・プーチンらがこの強硬策を推進した。1996年11月、ロシアは第一回だけで10億ドルのユーロ債を起債した。それまでの累積ユーロ債発行額は160億ドルほどに達した。1999年12月8日、当時の大統領エリツィンとベラルーシの大統領アレクサンドル・ルカシェンコとの間で、将来の両国の政治・経済・軍事などの各分野での統合を目指すロシア・ベラルーシ連盟国創設条約が調印された。しかし、その後、後継大統領に就任したウラジーミル・プーチンが、ベラルーシのロシアへの事実上の吸収合併を示唆する発言を繰り返すようになってからは、これに反発するベラルーシ側との対立により、両国の統合は事実上停滞状態となっている。1999年12月31日、当時の大統領エリツィンが任期を半年余り残して突然辞任した。首相のウラジーミル・プーチンが大統領代行に就任し、2000年3月の大統領選挙に圧勝して大統領に就任した。による統治をめざす強権的体質が内外から批判される一方、安定した経済成長により国民の高い支持率を維持し、2004年にも再選された。2003年、ミハイル・ホドルコフスキーが脱税などの罪で逮捕・起訴され、ユコスの社長を辞任した。シブネフチとの合併が取り消されるなどして株価が乱高下し、内部者取引が横行した。2005年にロシアの住宅私有化率は63パーセントに達し、国際的な不動産価格の下落へつながっていった。2007年、ホドルコフスキーを除くユコス株主らはロシア政府がユコスを破綻させたとしてハーグの常設仲裁裁判所へ提訴した。2010年6月26日、政府側のロスネフチに賠償命令が出た。7月27日には内部者取引と株価操作を取り締まる法案が可決された。これは翌年から施行された。2014年7月、ユコス破綻事件で政府は19億ユーロの賠償金支払いを命じられていたが、12月に欧州人権裁判所が政府の上訴を棄却した。2016年4月、ハーグ地区裁判所が、ロシア政府に株主らへ500億ドルの賠償金支払いを命じた常設仲裁裁判所の判決を棄却した。政権初期にチェチェン共和国への軍事作戦を再開するとともに周辺各共和国への締めつけも図った。チェチェン独立派を支持するサウジアラビアなどアメリカに友好的な湾岸のスンニ派諸国との関係悪化を招いた。これらの過程において報道管制を強化し、反政府的な報道機関やジャーナリストは強い圧力をかけられた。対外的には、上海協力機構を通じて中華人民共和国やイランとの関係を強化し、また中央アジア各国とはエネルギー開発の面での協力を強めた。ウクライナで親西欧政権ができると、天然ガス供給停止措置をとることで圧力をかけ、間接的にドイツやフランスへの自国の影響力を誇示した。また、プーチンの大統領就任当初はアメリカ同時多発テロ事件以降の対テロ戦争という目的から蜜月と言われたアメリカとの関係も、イラク戦争やイラン核開発疑惑といった諸問題を扱う中で悪化、また米国が主導する旧ソ連各地のカラー革命などロシアの裏庭地域へのアメリカによる露骨な政治介入、上院議員のマケインに代表されるアメリカの反ロシアネオコン勢力が中心となって行った東ヨーロッパのミサイル防衛構想、ソ連崩壊時に北大西洋条約機構は東方へ拡大しないとしたゴルバチョフと当時のアメリカ大統領ブッシュの取り決めが破られ、実際にはNATOの東方拡大が進んだなどの理由により、関係は冷却化した。一方で、首脳同士の懇談は頻繁であり、かつての冷戦とは違った様相である。プーチンが行った事業はいずれも西側諸国から強圧的であるとの批判が多いものの、結果的にはロシアの国際的地位を向上させた。これにはプーチン政権発足後から続くエネルギー価格の急騰により、対外債務に苦しんでいたロシアが一転して巨額の外貨準備国となり、世界経済での影響力を急速に回復したことも寄与している。2007年には2014年の冬季オリンピックを南部のソチで開催するソチオリンピックの招致に成功した。2008年5月、側近のドミートリー・メドヴェージェフが大統領に就任したが、プーチンも首相として引き続き残留した。同年、メドヴェージェフ政権下で南オセチア問題を原因とする南オセチア紛争が発生。これはソ連崩壊後、初めての対外軍事行動となっている。これらの行動から国際政治での多極主義を唱えて、ロシアが新たな一極となろうとしていると思われる。事実、「アメリカの裏庭」であるベネズエラ、エクアドルなどの反米的な中南米諸国との関係を強化している（逆にアメリカは「ロシアの裏庭」であるウクライナ、ジョージア（グルジア）などとの関係を強化している）。このように、冷戦終結後の一極主義の維持を目指すアメリカ側と対立する「新冷戦」の開始をもいとわないとも見られ、緊張状態が続いている。クリミア半島編入とシリア内戦をめぐる欧米との対立.2014年ウクライナ騒乱により財政援助を目的にロシアとの関係を強化していた同国の大統領ヴィクトルヤヌコーヴィチが解任されるとロシアのプーチン大統領は反発しオレクサンドルトゥルチノフ大統領代行の暫定政権を承認しなかった。2月後半から以前からクリミア半島に駐留していたロシア軍部隊によって1954年までロシア領で親ロシアの住民が多いクリミア自治共和国セヴァストポリ特別市を掌握した。クリミア自治共和国とセヴァストポリは3月16日にウクライナからの独立とロシアへの編入を問う住民投票を実施しその結果を受けて翌3月17日に両者はクリミア共和国として独立しロシアへの編入を求める決議を採択した。翌3月18日プーチンはクリミア共和国の要請に応じ編入に関する条約に署名して事実上クリミア半島を併合した。アメリカ合衆国欧州連合そして日本などの諸外国政府はクリミアの独立とロシアへの編入は無効であるとしロシアとの間で対立が続いている。この経緯によってロシアはG8の参加資格を停止され欧米諸国がロシアに経済制裁を科した。2011年から始まったシリア内戦では反体制派を支援する欧米に対し、中東での影響力を維持したいロシアがイランと共にバッシャール・アル＝アサド政権に対して軍事的・経済的に援助を行っていることで欧米諸国と代理戦争に近い様相となり、対立を深めている。2015年9月30日にはロシア連邦軍がアサド政権を支援する直接的な軍事介入を開始。これ以降、膠着状態だった戦況はアサド政権側に大きく傾いたことに加え、アサド政権とクルド人勢力の双方を支援していることから両者の仲介や、当初はアサド政権打倒を目指し欧米と協調して反体制派を支援していたトルコがクルド人勢力への対応で欧米と対立するに伴いシリア戦後処理へのトルコの引き込み、さらにエジプトやイラク、イスラエルといった親米国家であるもののアサド政権打倒後のシリアの安定に懐疑的な近隣国にも接近しつつあり、シリア内戦の収束に向けて主導的な役割を発揮し、中東での確固たる地位を築いている。プーチンによる外交は、アメリカの大統領バラク・オバマを差し置いて世界的な影響力を持ち、クリミア半島併合以降はとりわけ国民の支持も手厚くなっている。一方、2013年以降に原油価格の暴落が続いたことで、天然資源に依存した脆弱な経済体制が浮き彫りとなり、深刻な経済的困窮を招いている。現在一部の欧米諸国はロシアへの経済制裁の解除及び緩和をし始めているがアメリカを中心とする西側の欧米主要国はいまだにそういった様相を見せておらず原油価格の上昇も当分は見込めないことからロシアは経済的に長い停滞期間が続いている。西側諸国から孤立しつつある一方上海協力機構を中心に非欧米諸国との結びつきを強めることで国際社会での存在感を見せつけている。2016年12月アメリカで親ロシア派と公言していたドナルドトランプ政権への政権交代があったもののアメリカ国内でロシアへの敵対感情が高まっているため弱腰外交と捉えられるような親露外交は回避し米露間の関係が修復する兆しは一向にない。アメリカ大統領選挙のサイバー攻撃やミンスク和平合意の不履行による報復措置がとられたりロシアが条約に違反したとして中距離核戦力全廃条約から撤退するなど両国間の溝は深まるばかりである。2021年1月、アメリカで反ロシア派と公言しているジョー・バイデン政権への政権交代があり、今後も米露関係修復の見込みはないと考えられている。国政では連邦制、共和制・半大統領制をとっている。国家元首であるロシア連邦大統領がおり、三権であるロシア連邦大統領は国家元首で、国民の直接選挙で選ばれる。ソビエト連邦への加盟構成以降、大統領の任期は4年であったが、2008年の憲法改正によって6年となった。国家元首である大統領は行政には含まれないが、行政に対して強大な指導力を発揮する。大統領は議会の長を兼ねる。第2次ウラジーミル・プーチン政権が発足してからが2015年にそれぞれ成立し、政府の統制が強化されている。一方、ロシアは反体制派への統制を強化してはいるものの、そもそも旧西側の欧米諸国が支援するロシアの反プーチンリベラル勢力は大多数のロシア国民の間では至って不人気となっており、与党の統一ロシアは高い支持率を保っている。これは、初代大統領のボリス・エリツィン政権時代の親欧米派オリガルヒによるロシアの富の私物化や市場経済化による国民生活の混乱に起因し、急激な貧富の格差拡大の受け入れを強いられているロシア国民の大半は安定を求めているからである。ロシア連邦議会からなる。下院議員は任期4年で、小選挙区制と比例代表制により半数ずつ選出される仕組みであったが、2005年4月23日完全比例代表制に移行する選挙制度改正が下院を通過した。また、5パーセント条項が7パーセント条項へと議席を獲得するためのハードルが上げられ、ウラジーミル・プーチン政権、シロヴィキおよび与党統一ロシアに有利な選挙戦が展開された。また、大統領と同様に2008年に任期が5年に延長された。ロシアの司法には最高位にがある。その下に地域裁判所がある。裁判は大陸法型である。行政府からの訴追は司法省が担当する。1996年に陪審制を連邦各地に順次導入することを決定2010年までにすべての地域で導入された。以前から死刑の執行を停止していたが2009年11月19日に憲法裁判所は死刑の廃止を規定している欧州人権条約を批准するまでは死刑の執行を停止するという命令を出した。この憲法裁判所の命令でロシアの死刑制度は事実上廃止された。2010年1月15日ロシア下院は欧州人権条約第14追加議定書を賛成多数で批准し名目上も死刑が廃止された。ロシアは欧州評議会の加盟国47か国中同議定書の最後の批准国となった。複数政党制を採用しており主要政党以外にはリベラル派や中道派をはじめ社会主義や共産主義民族主義愛国主義を活動理念に掲げる政党が存在する。ロシア連邦政府は1990年代まで続いたソビエト連邦の正式な後継政権で国際連合では安全保障理事会の常任理事国5か国の一つでもありその他国際組織でソ連の持ち分を引き継いでいる。国際関係は多面的であり世界の191か国と関係を持ち大使館を144か所置いている。国際関係の方針は大統領が決め具体的には外務省が執行する。かつての「超大国」を引き継いではいるが現在の多極体制へ移行した世界の中でその立場は専門家の間で様々に議論されており列強ではあるが「潜在的な超大国」扱いである。ロシアはに参加している。欧州評議会とも友好的であったが現在は様々な分野で対立が顕著である。21世紀になってからは、豊富な原油や天然ガスなどエネルギー資源を梃子に、特に欧州と中央アジアに対し、急速に影響力を拡大している。ソビエト連邦の崩壊後の弱体性から比較すると相当影響力を取り戻したといえ、豊富な資金力を背景に軍備の更新を進めており、ロシア政府との協議なしにソ連時代の旧東側の東ヨーロッパへのミサイル防衛基地の展開を進めている米国やNATOとの緊張状態は高まりつつある。ロシアが欧米から批判されている問題の一部に同国における人権問題自由でないメディアLGBT禁止問題ノビチョクなどがある。両国の間では経済的な交流がいくつかあるが過去のシベリア抑留北方領土問題それに起因する漁民銃撃と拿捕事件資源問題（サハリン2を参照）なども生じておりその関係はあまり良くない。その上でロシア人の日本に対する信頼はアメリカイギリスに対する信頼よりも高いという調査結果がある。ロシアはブラジルと重要な同盟関係を構築しており、宇宙・軍事技術をはじめ、電気通信などの分野でパートナーシップを結んでいる。ブラジルはBRICSのメンバーでもある。インドとは大幅な防衛戦略上の関係を結んでおりインドはロシア連邦製兵器の最大の顧客である。中華人民共和国とは2001年に中露善隣友好協力条約を結び東シベリア太平洋石油パイプラインの支線も大慶油田へ引いている。傍らで上海協力機構やBRICsでの関係も深めており良好な間柄となっている。南アフリカはソ連と公式の外交関係を結んでいたことから後継国のロシアと深い関係性を持っており、1992年2月28日付で完全な外交関係を樹立している。南アフリカはBRICSの1国として加盟。キューバとはソ連時代から緊密な協力関係を築いておりソ連崩壊以降も外交関係を維持している。ロシアが2014年3月にウクライナからクリミア半島を併合した際キューバは同半島をロシアの一部として承認している。ロシアとサウジアラビアの両国はと呼ばれており世界の原油生産の約4分の1を占めている。ロシア連邦軍にはロシア陸軍海軍空軍がありこれとは別に戦略ミサイル部隊（)航空宇宙防衛軍空挺軍もある。2017年には約100万人が軍に属しておりこれはである 。これに加えてソビエト時代の招集を考えると約250万人の予備役（在郷軍人）がおりその総数は約2500万に上るともいわれている 。18才から27才の国民男子は全て1年間の兵役義務がある。ロシアは世界で最大の核兵器部隊を持ち米国以外で唯一の戦略爆撃機隊がある。ロシアの戦車部隊は世界最大で海軍の海上部隊空軍は世界でも最大級である。ロシアでは軍需産業が盛んである。軍事関係の世界的な供給者としては2001年には世界の30パーセントを占め80か国へ輸出しており世界でも上位にあった 。ストックホルム国際平和研究所の調査では2010 - 2014年には世界第2位の輸出国で2005 - 2009年に比して37パーセントの増加を示した。ロシアは56か国および東部ウクライナの反乱部隊へ武器を供給した。世界最大の面積を持つロシアはユーラシア大陸の北部にバルト海沿岸から太平洋まで東西に伸びる広大な国土を持つ。その面積は日本の約45倍アメリカの約1.7倍にも達し南米大陸全体の大きさに匹敵する大きい)。国土の北辺は北極圏に入り人口も希薄だが南辺に近づくと地理的に多様となり人口も多くなる。ヨーロッパ部（ヨーロッパロシア）とアジア部（シベリア）の大部分は広大な平原で南部のステップから北は広大な針葉林の森であるタイガがその大部分を占めている。さらに高緯度になると樹木が生育しないツンドラ地帯となる。黒海とカスピ海の間の南の国境にはヨーロッパ最高峰（カフカス地方をヨーロッパに含めた場合）のエリブルース山を含むカフカース山脈がありヨーロッパとアジアの境界にはウラル山脈がある。面積を見るとヨーロッパ部よりアジア部の方が広大であるが、国土の西端に当たるヨーロッパ部に人口や大都市、工業地帯、農業地帯が集中していること、さらにスラブ文化のつながりから、ロシアをヨーロッパに帰属させる分類が一般的である。国土を囲む海域には北極海の一部であるバレンツ海、白海、カラ海、ラプテフ海、東シベリア海と、太平洋の一部であるベーリング海、オホーツク海、日本海、そして西のバルト海と西南の黒海があり、海岸線は3万7,000kmに及ぶ。これらの海に浮かぶロシア領の主要な島には、ゼムリャフランツァヨシファ、ノヴァヤゼムリャ（米国を越える史上最大規模の核実験が行われた)、セヴェルナヤ・ゼムリャ諸島、ノヴォシビルスク諸島、ウランゲル島、サハリン（樺太)、そして日本との領土問題を抱えるクリル諸島がある。特に北極海に面した地域をはじめ、冬季は北極寒波の影響が強いため厳寒であり、氷点下を下回る日が長く続く。ロシア領内の主要な川にはヨーロッパ部のドン川大型で良質のチョウザメが多数生息するヴォルガ川カマ川オカ川アジア部のオビ川エニセイ川レナ川サケ類の漁獲で有名なアムール川などの大河が挙げられる。これらの下流域は日本で大河とされる最上川北上川や四万十川よりも川幅が広くいずれもセントローレンス川下流域に近い川幅がある。またアジア部の大河はアムール川を除いて南から北へ流れ北極海へ注ぐ。ブリヤート共和国のバイカル湖は世界一古く水深の深い湖として有名な構造湖である。このほかソ連時代の水力ダム建設によって生まれた大規模な人造湖が存在する。ロシアには基本的に大陸性気候が卓越する。すなわち気温の年較差が大きい。ケッペンの気候区分に従うと亜寒帯。しかしながら夏季には最高気温が30°Cを超える。典型的な植生は北極海沿岸がツンドラ南に下るにしたがって針葉樹林のタイガ混交林プレーリーステップに移行していく。右図はロシアを中心とした地域にケッペンの気候区分を適用したものである。以下、気候区分にしたがって特徴と地域区分を示す。ロシア連邦は85の連邦構成主体と呼ばれる地方行政体からなる連邦国家である。連邦構成主体としては46の「州｣（ oblast')9の( avtonomnyj okrug）がある。ただしこのうちのクリミア共和国とセヴァストポリ連邦市はウクライナと帰属係争中である。プーチン政権は、連邦政府の地方への影響力拡大を図り、85の連邦構成主体とは別に、2000年5月13日に全土を7つに分けた連邦管区を設置した。2014年時点ではウクライナと係争中のクリミア連邦管区を含め、9つになっている。連邦管区には連邦大統領の代理人としての大統領全権代表が派遣され、連邦構成主体を監督している。さらに、2004年12月に地方自治体の首長を選挙制で選ぶ方式から、大統領が指名して地方議会が承認するという方式に転換した。事実上の官選化となるこの措置に対し、欧米諸国ではプーチン政権による強権支配が民主主義を脅かすという批判が生じた。ロシアには人口100万人を超える都市が15ある。最大の都市は首都モスクワ（1260万人（2021年)）である。続くサンクトペテルブルク（545万人（2021年)）との2都市が規模としては飛び抜けて大きく独立したロシア連邦の構成主体としてほかの州や連邦内の共和国と同格となる。ウラル山脈東山麓のエカテリンブルクチェリャビンスクシベリアのオムスクノヴォシビルスクを除く都市はすべてウラル山脈よりも西側すなわちヨーロッパロシアに位置する。一方厳しい気候条件のために長らく人口希薄地域だった極東部や北極海沿岸地域でも19世紀以降に鉄道港湾整備や鉱業開発などに伴う都市建設が進みハバロフスクやウラジオストクは50万人を超える人口を持つ。ロシアはブラジル・中国・インドとともにと呼ばれる新興経済国群の一つに挙げられているが、この中でロシアは1人あたりのGDPが最も先進国に近い。IMFによると、2021年のロシアのGDPは1兆5800億ドルであり、世界第11位である。一方、1人あたりのGDPは1万1,163ドル で首都モスクワと地方の格差もあり、ロシア全体では先進国より低い水準である。中村逸郎は、GDPの約70パーセントを国民の1パーセントである富裕層が持っている としている。ソ連解体後、ボリス・エリツィン大統領の主導のもと市場経済化が進められたが、このために却って急速なインフレーションを招き、1990年代半ばには経済的に落ち込んだ。その後、成長に転じつつあったが1997年のアジア通貨危機の影響を受けて1998年に財政危機を招き、再び落ち込んだ。2014年のクリミア併合による欧米から経済制裁と石油価格の下落により経済は低迷している。2019年現在ロシアはアメリカとサウジアラビアに次ぐ世界第3位の原油生産国 であり同時にサウジアラビアに次ぐ世界第2位の原油輸出国である。2003年以来の原油価格上昇によって貿易収支が改善し市場経済転換後の長い経済停滞を脱し急速な景気回復が見られた。豊富な地下資源を武器に石油の価格が高いときに成長が続く。その石油産業への依存の重さや自由化の恩恵に与った者とそうでない者の貧富の格差の拡大チェチェン独立派武装勢力によるテロのリスクなど不安定要因もいくつかは見られる。石油価格が高かった2000年にはGDP成長率が10パーセントを越える一方インフレーションも抑制され好調が続いた。一人当たり名目GDPも1999年には1334ドルに過ぎなかったのが2006年には6879ドルと5倍強の増加を見せた。しかし輸出の6割以上を原油や天然ガスなどの鉱物資源に頼る経済構造となっているいわゆるモノカルチャー経済である。モーリーロバートソンはと説明している。農産物の自給自足にも力を入れておりロシアは世界におけるとして知られている。米国農務省は2016年度2017年度で生産量は記録的に高いものとなっている。加えて米の栽培効率は1ヘクタールあたり7100キロでヨーロッパにおいて米を生産する国で知られるスペインイタリアに比較しても多いものとなっているうえアジア諸国より多い。同国の米はウズベキスタンタジキスタントルクメニスタントルコにも輸出されている 。米国農務省による2021-22年度推計ではロシアの小麦は生産量が過去最多の8600万トン輸出量は4000万トンで世界一を維持する見通しである。ソ連時代は大量の穀物を輸入していたが平坦な国土に農地が広がっておりロシア経済の安定化に伴い農機や肥料の投入増畜産の効率向上による飼料に使う小麦の節約で生産性や輸出余力が高まった。欧米の経済生産による通貨ルーブルの下落も輸出競争力を高めているがパン価格の上昇に国民が不満を抱くと輸出関税などで国外への出荷を抑えようとする政策も採られている。ロシアはもっとも鉱物資源が豊富な国の一つである。産出量が世界シェア10位以内となる資源だけで20種類に及ぶ（以下の統計数値は経済産業調査会『鉱業便覧 平成14年版』による2002年時点のもの）。有機鉱物資源では、天然ガス（2,1807千兆ジュール、21.9パーセント、2位）、原油（3.5億トン、10.3パーセント、2位）、燃料に用いられる亜炭（8,668万トン、9.5パーセント、4位）、石炭（1.6億トン、4.4パーセント、6位）の採掘量が多い。原油と天然ガスの産出量は1位の国（サウジアラビアと米国）との差が小さく、いずれも2ポイント未満の差にとどまる。このため、統計年度によっては1位となることもある。これらの有機鉱物資源のうち、国内で消費される比率が高いのが石炭と亜炭である。ロシアは世界有数の観光地として知られている。観光スポットが各地にあり海外から多くの観光客が訪れている。その中で最も代表的なものとして知られているのは世界遺産に登録されているサンクトペテルブルク歴史地区と関連建造物群や赤の広場である。ロシア経済に占める貿易の割合は急拡大している。1992年時点では、国民総生産3,978億ドルに対し、輸出が381億ドル、輸入が350億ドルであった。2003年には、国民総生産4,885億ドルに対し輸出は1,260億ドル、輸入524億ドルに増加しており、輸出の伸びが著しい。これは原油および、石油関連の生産・輸出拡大によるものである。ロシアの貿易構造は1992年から2003年までの約10年間で大きく変化してきた。1992年時点ではソ連を構成していた諸国に対する貿易が、輸出で7割、輸入で5割を占め経済ブロックを形成していた。品目では機械と原油、化学工業製品を輸出し、建設機械と軽工業品、食料を輸入していた。ところが、2003年時点では輸出入とも相手国が分散する。原油，石油製品を輸出し、機械、自動車を輸入している。つまり、機械工業の落ち込みと原油輸出の大幅な伸びが特徴と言える。1992年時点の輸出品の品目別の比率はUnited Nations Statistical Yearbook 2003などによると建築機械ベラルーシウクライナ中国アメリカとなっている。日本との貿易は順調に拡大している。日本からの輸入額は15億ドルから45億ドルへ、輸出額は28億ドルから62億ドルに伸びている。品目は輸入を中心に変化した。日本への輸出の変化を見ると、1992年時点は魚介類、木材の2品目で5割弱を占め、アルミニウム、映像機器、通信機器、バスに変わった。品目が自動車に集中したことになる。ロシアにとって軍需産業はソ連時代から重要な地位を占めており、今後も積極的に輸出拡大を続けるとしている。輸出額は2011年は100億ドルを超え、2012年には150億ドルを超えるとされ順調に推移している。民間転用も積極的に行っており、宇宙・航空・情報通信産業など多岐にわたる。しかし、政治的な理由で輸出ができなくなるなど不安定な要素も含んでいる。しかし、ロシアを含め世界の軍事費は今後も増え続けるとされ、軍需産業は今後も拡大を続けるとされている。ロシアの科学技術はピョートル大帝がロシア科学アカデミーとサンクトペテルブルク大学を設立し博学者ミハイルロモノーソフがモスクワ大学を設立した啓蒙時代から急速に発展した。19世紀から20世紀にかけてロシアは多くの著名な科学者を輩出しており物理学天文学数学コンピューティング化学生物学地質学地理学などの学系分野に重要な貢献を果たしている。元素周期表のドミトリメンデレーエフ近年ではポアンカレ予想のグリゴリーペレルマンなどが著名である。なおロシアにおいて発明家や技術者の存在は電気工学造船航空宇宙兵器通信IT核技術宇宙技術などに幅広く影響を及ぼしている。20世紀のロシアの人口動態は第一次大戦干渉戦争期そして第二次世界大戦期と2度にわたって激減したがその後は回復傾向にあった。しかし1992年以降再び人口減少が続き1992年で最大1億4800万人いた人口が2050年には1億1000万人程度まで減少すると見られている。原因には出生率の低下や男性の平均寿命がきわめて短くなっていることがある。ロシアの男性の平均寿命は1987年以降短くなる傾向にあり世界銀行の統計によると1994年には57.6歳まで低下した。その後回復し2017年時点では67.5歳である。女性は1993年に71.2歳まで低下したが2017年には77.6歳と上昇男女差は10歳ときわめて大きいままである。ちなみに2008年OECD諸国の平均は男性77.2歳女性82.8歳と男女差は6歳程度である。続いていた人口減少は2012年に止まり2014年のクリミア併合で人口増加に転じたが2016年の減少に戻り2020年は約51万人の減少 となった。また出生率も2015年には1.78をピークに上昇したが2018年時点では1.5人程である。ロシアには182の民族が存在している多民族国家である。2010年の統計によると約80パーセントは東スラブ系民族となっており、ロシア人が全人口の77.71パーセントを占める。同じ東スラブ人のウクライナ人の割合も1.35パーセントと全体の3位となっており、ベラルーシ人やポーランド人を含めたスラブ系全体では82.7パーセントを占める。チュルク系のタタール人はロシア人に次いで多い民族集団となっており全体の3.72パーセントを占め、バシキール人やチュヴァシ人、トゥヴァ人、アルタイ人、カザフ人、ウズベク人、アゼルバイジャン人、サハ人などのチュルク系民族はロシア全体の8.7パーセントを占める。コーカサス系で最も多いのがチェチェン人で全体では6位の1パーセントを占めイングーシ人オセット人アヴァール人アルメニア人グルジア人などを合わせるとコーカサス系民族はチュルク系に次いで多い3.7パーセントを占めている。ウラル系はマリ人モルドヴィン人カレリア人ウドムルト人ネネツ人などで構成され全体の1.6パーセントを占めている。そのほか、モンゴル系民族のカルムィク人、ブリヤート人、ツングース系民族のエヴェンキ人、エスキモー系のユピク人、さらに、ユダヤ人やゲルマン系のドイツ人など多くの非スラヴ系民族がいるが、公用語であるロシア語が民族共和国を含め全域でほぼ完全に通用する。ロシア語が公用語である。ロシアの各共和国の公用語として以下の28言語がある。法律上結婚可能な年齢は成人となる年齢と同じ18歳である。ただし尊重すべき理由があるときはそれ以下の年齢でも認められる場合がある。結婚後の姓は夫婦どちらかの姓に合わせる同姓の場合は妻が夫の姓に合わせることが多い。なおロシア連邦民法典19条により個人の姓名前父称の変更は一定の手続きにより可能である。婚姻登録の申請は特別な事情がある場合を除き、結婚する1か月前までに行う（家族法典11条）。宗教やほかの形式での結婚式が行われることもあるが、家族関係や出生・死亡を扱う市民登記機関であるザックス（、ザークスなどとも表記）にある結婚式場で婚姻の署名などを式典形式で行う結婚式がよく行われる。これはソビエト連邦時代からのものである。ロシア人を含めた多くの民族がキリスト教正教会の信徒であるが、カトリック、プロテスタントやイスラム教、ユダヤ教、仏教などの信徒も少なくない。ロシア憲法においては全市民へ無料のユニバーサルヘルスケアが保障されている。しかし無料で医療が受けられる範囲は法定の範囲に限定されている。ロシアの人口1人あたりの医師数病院数医療従事者数は世界の中で最も多く一時はソ連崩壊によって社会経済生活様式の変化を受けて悪化したがしかし2000年代半ばからは回復しており平均余命は2006年と比べて男性で2.4年女性で1.4年ほど長くなった。2009年には、ロシアの平均余命は男性で62.77歳、女性で74.67歳であった。平均余命の男女差が大きい理由は、主に労働年齢層での死亡率の高さに起因し、それは予防可能な死であった。このような男女の余命差と第二次世界大戦の戦死者によって人口男女差は大きく、女性1人あたり男性0.859人となっている。ロシア政府は2006年から本格的に少子化対策や医療対策に取り組んでおり、その後の出生率や死亡率は徐々に改善されている。年金の支給は男性が60歳から、女性が55歳となっているが2018年に引き上げが決定し、2030年までに引き上げが行われる。ロシアの治安は不安定さが幾ヶ所に見受けられる面を持つ。同国内務省が発表した「2017年時におけるロシア国内の犯罪情勢」によれば、全犯罪の登録件数約2058,500件（4.7％減）の内93.0％が摘発されており、同年にロシアで認知された「テロ行為」は37件（前年比＋48％）、テロに準じた犯罪を含む「テロの性格を有する犯罪」は1,871件（前年比－16％）発生している。傍らで犯罪による死亡者数は29,300人 (0.5%増)で、公共施設における犯罪件数は738,000件（6.6％減)となっている。都市部では外国人を狙った強盗やスリ、置き引き、詐欺、クレジットカードやキャッシュカードのスキミング等の犯罪が多発しており、被害者の中には日本人も含まれているとの報告がある。一方で一般国民による反体制抗議運動は集会法の罰則強化を始めとする当局による規制の強化により実施されにくい状況になっているもののそれにも拘わらず首都モスクワ市内では反政権活動家による抗議集会等が開催されており参加者が数万人規模となることもあるとされている。これらの活動は現時点において平穏に行なわれているが一部の無許可集会等の参加者が治安当局に逮捕されることもあり旅行などで同国を訪れたり滞在する際にはトラブルを回避する為にもそれらの集会やデモには近付かず干渉しないことを心掛ける必要性が求められる。現状この節は日本語版記事があるものが列挙されているだけであり主要なものを紹介しているとはいえない状態である。ロシアにおける言論の自由についての批判はを参照。公的機関も含め、YouTubeやInstagramの利用も盛んである。ロシア国内には、ユネスコの世界遺産リストに登録された文化遺産が16件、自然遺産が10件存在する（2015年の第39回世界遺産委員会終了時点）。そこには、モンゴルと共有する自然遺産が1件、リトアニアとだけ共有する文化遺産が1件、ウクライナ、エストニア、スウェーデン、ノルウェー、フィンランド、ベラルーシ、モルドバ、ラトビア、リトアニアと共有する文化遺産1件が含まれる。クリスマスが1月7日なのはキリスト教の宗教行事はロシア正教が公認しているユリウス暦に基づいて行われていることによる（正教会ではほかにエルサレム総主教庁グルジア正教会セルビア正教会アトス山などがユリウス暦を採用している）。現在の暦であるグレゴリオ暦は歴史的にはカトリック側が作った暦であるためである。すなわちグレゴリオ暦（新暦）1月7日がユリウス暦の12月25日に相当する。2100年2月28日まではグレゴリオ暦とユリウス暦のずれは13日である。「旧正月」も同様の理由から1月14日に祝う。ソ連時代は1917年にロシア革命でソヴィエト政権が成立した11月7日が革命記念日として最大の祝日になっていたがプーチン政権は2005年にこれを廃止し帝政時代に「モスクワ解放記念日」となっていた11月4日を「国民団結の日」として復活させた。ソ連時代からオリンピックで毎回優れた成績を残しており、メダル獲得数では上位にランクされることが多い。ロシアは1980年のモスクワオリンピックをはじめ、国際スポーツ競技大会の開催も数多い。2014年には黒海沿岸のソチで冬季オリンピックを開催している。国内リーグにはロシアサッカープレミアリーグアイスホッケーのコンチネンタルホッケーリーグなどがある。またソ連崩壊の前後から多くのロシア人指導者が国外に移住し陸上競技フェンシング体操競技新体操アーティスティックスイミングフィギュアスケートなどの種目で世界各国の選手を指導している。ロシア旧ソ連発祥のスポーツとしては日本の柔道と西洋のレスリングなどをベースに編み出されたサンボが挙げられる。他方で、ドーピング問題で国家的な関与があったとして国際的な非難がされている。2018年平昌オリンピックでは国家としての参加が認められず、ロシアの選手はOARという呼称で個人での参加となった。このオリンピックでは、公式記録上はOARとしての記録である。また、優勝しても国旗の掲揚、国歌の演奏はされず、代わりにオリンピック旗が掲揚され、オリンピック賛歌が演奏された。この平昌大会から正式競技となったカーリング混合ダブルスで、当初は銅メダルを獲得したロシアのペアのドーピングが発覚しメダルを返還するなど、アンチドーピング対策が大きな課題となっている。2019年に世界アンチ・ドーピング機関は、ロシアのドーピングのデータ改ざんに対して4年間国としての参加を認めない処分を決定。2021年に開かれた2020年東京オリンピック・パラリンピックではROC、RPCとして参加した。 +現代では以下のように、文脈によって様々な意味をもつ多義語である。という日本語は明治時代の学者西周がフィロソフィーに対してあてた訳語である。したがってという意味でありそれだけではまだ何を研究する学問であるかは示されていない。この語では内容が規定されていないのである。哲学以外の大抵の学問は分野名を聞いただけでおおよその内容が察せるこのように対象によってこの学を規定することができないと「対象を扱う«方法»に共通点がありそれによって規定できるのはないか」との期待が生まれることがあるがそのような期待も裏切られ哲学に一定の方法が存在しうるわけではない。日本語辞典の広辞苑では次のように説明している。観念論的な形而上学に対して唯物論的な形而上学もある。諸科学が分化独立した現在では哲学は学問とされることが多いが科学とされる場合もある。科学と学問以外に、哲学の分野の包括的な用語としては、学(science・Wissenschaft) があり、広辞苑は次のように説明している。哲学者による哲学の定義.近現代哲学において代表的な哲学者の言説を以下に記述する。啓蒙思想時代の哲学者でありまたドイツ観念論哲学の祖でもありそして近現代哲学に大きな影響力を持ち続けている哲学者イマヌエルカントは哲学について次のように説明している。現代思想において特に分析哲学に多大な影響を及ぼした哲学者ルートヴィヒウィトゲンシュタインは哲学について次のように説明している。現代思想において、特に大陸哲学に多大な影響を及ぼした哲学者、マルティン・ハイデッガーは、哲学について次のように説明している。古典ギリシア語の「フィロソフィア」（ピロソピアーフィロソフィア）という語は「愛」を意味する名詞「フィロス」（）の動詞形「フィレイン」（）と「知」を意味する「ソフィア」（）が結び合わさったものでありその合成語である「フィロソフィア」は「知を愛する」「智を愛する」という意味が込められている。この語はヘラクレイトスやヘロドトスによって形容詞や動詞の形でいくらか使われていたが名称として確立したのはソクラテスまたはその弟子プラトンが自らを同時代のソフィストと区別するために用いてからとされている。古典ギリシア語のと述べている。英語をはじめとした多くの言語でをそのまま翻字した語が採用されている。例えばなどである。日本で現在用いられている以外にも様々な哲学用語の訳語を考案している。漢語の本場である中国では西周が作ったという訳語がいわば逆輸入されて現在も使われている。経緯としては清末民初の主に変法運動期の知識人たちが同じ漢字文化圏に属する日本の訳語和製漢語を受容したことに由来する。と訳されることが多かった。17世紀・明末の中国に訪れたイエズス会士ジュリオ・アレーニは、西洋の諸学を中国語で紹介する書物を著した。同書のなかでフィロソフィアは、と訳されている。日本の場合幕末から明治初期にかけて洋学。なお兆民は晩年の著書でと述べたことでも知られる。上述の中国の変法運動期の知識人の間でも、と訳したほうが適切ではないか、という見解が出されることもあった。という旨を述べている。紀元前の古代ギリシアから現代に至るまでの西洋の哲学を眺めてみるだけでも、そこには一定の対象というものは存在しない。西洋の哲学を眺めるだけでも、それぞれの時代の哲学は、それぞれ異なった対象を選択し、研究していた。ソクラテス以前の初期ギリシア哲学では対象はという身近で実践的な問題が中心となった。ヨーロッパ中世では、哲学の対象は自然でも人間でもなくを基盤として学ばれるものであった。さらに時代が下り近代になると人間が中心的になり自己に自信を持った時代であったのでとする経験論者が対立した。カントはこれら合理論と経験論を総合統一しようとした。19世紀20世紀ごろのニーチェベルクソンディルタイらはいわゆるということを中心的課題に据えた。このように哲学には決して一定の対象というものは存在しなく対象によって規定できる学問ではなく冒頭で述べたようにただとでも呼ぶしかない とされている。学問としての哲学で扱われる主題には、真理、本質、同一性、普遍性、数学的命題、論理、言語、知識、観念、行為、経験、世界、空間、時間、歴史、現象、人間一般、理性、存在、自由、因果性、世界の起源のような根源的な原因、正義、善、美、意識、精神、自我、他我、神、霊魂、色彩などがある。一般に、哲学の主題は抽象度が高い概念であることが多い。これらの主題について論じられる事柄としては定義性質複数の立場見解の間の整理などがある。これをひとくくりにということについて考える分野である。また、といった問いの答えを模索する営みとして、旧来の神学や科学的な知識・実験では論理的な解答を得られない問題を扱うものであるとも言える。またこのようなテーマは法哲学の現場に即しておらず、真偽が検証不可能であり、実証主義の観点からナンセンスな問いであると考える立場もある。こちらはひとくくりにということはどういうことなのか何がよりよいのかを考える分野である。過去の哲学を扱うものとしての哲学.このような意味での哲学はより具体的にはとりわけ古代ギリシアのギリシア哲学、中世のスコラ哲学、ヨーロッパの諸哲学。また、諸学問の扱う主題について特にこうした思考を用いて研究する分野は哲学の名を付して呼ぶことが多い。例えば、歴史についてその定義や性質を論じるものはと呼ばれる。これらは哲学の一分野であると同時にそれら諸学の一部門でもあると考えられることが多い。哲学ではしばしば多くの「学派」が語られる。これは通常特定の哲学者の集団（師弟関係であったり交流があったりする場合も少なくない）に特徴的な哲学上の立場である。古代ギリシア哲学、自然哲学、形而上学、実念論、唯名論、大陸合理主義、イギリス経験論、ドイツ観念論、超越論的哲学、思弁哲学、生の哲学、現象学、実存主義、解釈学、新カント派、論理実証主義、構造主義、プラグマティズム、大陸哲学特定の学者や学者群に限定されないについても多くの概念が存在している。言及される主要なものに存在論実在論観念論決定論宿命論機械論相対主義二元論一元論独我論懐疑主義などがある。哲学は様々な形で細分化される。以下に挙げるのはそのなかでも特に広く用いられている分類専門分野の名称である。貫成人が次の三つの種類に哲学を分類している。即ち型の三つである。第一のタイプは自然イデア神といったすべての存在を説明する絶対的原理の存在を前提するものであり古代や中世の哲学が含まれる。第二のタイプは認識の主体に焦点を当てて主観と客観の対立図式に関する考察を行うもので近世や近代の哲学は主にこのタイプとされる。第三のタイプは人間を含む全ての存在を生成するシステムをについて考えるものでクロードレヴィ＝ストロースの構造やルートヴィヒウィトゲンシュタインの言語ゲームがこれに該当する。第一のタイプの絶対的存在が自身は常に同一にとどまりつつ他の物体に影響を与えるのに対し第三のタイプの全体的なシステムは可変的であるという。古代ギリシャ哲学はイスラム世界に受け継がれ、イスラム世界において、アッバース朝のカリフ、マームーンは国家的事業として、ギリシャ語文献を翻訳させた。翻訳センター・研究所・天文台であるが設けられた。翻訳の大半は、ヤコブ派、ネストリオス派などの東方キリスト教徒が、シリア語を介して行った。ギリシャ哲学のアラビア語への翻訳で中心を占めたのは、アリストテレスとその注釈者の著作であった。ネオプラトニズムについてはプロティノスやプロクロスの原典からの直接の翻訳が行われずネオプラトニズムの著作がアリストテレスの著作だとして伝わることになった。キンディーはイスラーム最初の哲学者と言われる。イブン=ザカリーヤーラージーはアリストテレスの哲学ではなく原子論やプラトン主義の影響を受けた珍しい哲学を展開した。ファーラービーは、神から10の知性（=ヌース）が段階的に流出（放射）すること、そして第10の知性が月下界を司っている能動知性で、そこから人間の知性が流出している、という理論を打ち立てた。政治哲学の分野でも、アリストテレスを採用せず、（ネオプラトニスムでは忘れられていた）プラトン的政治論を採用した。イブン＝シーナーはイスラーム哲学を完成させたと言われている。イスラームのイベリア半島においてはイブン＝ルシュドがアリストテレス研究を究めアリストテレスのほぼ全著作についての注釈書を著した。そしてイブン＝シーナーのネオプラトニスムを廃し純粋なアリストテレス主義に回帰しようとした。ヨーロッパ哲学の大きな特徴として、 があり、古代、近代、現代といった節目を設けて根底的な相違を見出すようなことが比較的容易であると言える。古代、近代、現代といった枠組みの中でも大きく研究姿勢が異なる学者、学派が存在する場合も珍しくない。上述のようにフィロソフィアフィロソフィという語そのものは西洋で生まれ時代が下ってから東洋に伝わったものであるがタイトルに東洋哲学と冠した書籍書名にと称する例 が存在する。また東洋哲学研究所日本哲学史フォーラム といった団体が存在するほかいくつもの大学で東洋哲学を研究する過程が設置されている。以上のように東洋の思想を哲学と呼称する例はしばしばみられる。哲学の中でもインドを中心に発達した哲学で、特に古代インドを起源にするものをいう。インドでは宗教と哲学の境目がほとんどなく、インド哲学の元になる書物は宗教聖典でもある。インドの宗教にも哲学的でない範囲も広くあるので、インドの宗教が全てインド哲学であるわけではない。中国では春秋戦国時代に諸子百家が現れた。中でも老子や荘子の道家孔子や孟子荀子らの儒家がよく取り上げられる。時代が下ると南宋では形而上学的思索を含む朱子学が生まれ明代には朱子学を批判して陽明学が登場した。東洋にも哲学はありインドと中国は大きな影響を持っている。日本哲学は伝統的には中国の影響を受けて来たが現代ではヨーロッパの影響も無視出来ないものがある。これと同時に、日本におけるヨーロッパ哲学の研究は、全く異なる生活現場でヨーロッパ同様にヨーロッパ哲学を扱うことは奇妙であり、伝統を汲まない、必然性を欠いたものであるといった指摘もある。日本のヨーロッパ哲学の研究者が、徹底的な議論をすることなく、むしろ議論の場を作らせず、ヨーロッパの哲学とはほど遠い、哲学とはほど遠い現状がある。西田幾多郎を発表、知情意が合一で主客未分である純粋経験の概念を提起した。またその後、場所の論理あるいは無の論理の立場を採用した。彼の哲学はと呼ばれるようになった。井筒俊彦などを著し、東アジア・インド・イスラーム・ユダヤの神秘主義を元に、ひとつの東洋哲学として構造化することを試みた。哲学と宗教は共に神の存在に関連している分野である。そのため厳密な区分は難しい。宗教と神学と哲学の境界は必ずしもはっきりしない。ただ、合理的な追求を試みる態度によって異なっている、とする人もいる。西洋哲学の萌芽ともいえるソクラテス以前の哲学の中にはそれまでの迷信を排したものがある。例えばホメロスの詩はそれまでの民衆の狂信的要素を極力退けているものになっていると言われる。この点古代ギリシア人及びその哲学には二つの傾向が見られた。一つは合理的で冷静もう一つは迷信的で熱狂的であるというものであり彼らはその合理性によって多くの迷信を克服したが恐怖や苦難に見舞われた際に以前の迷信が再び頭をもたげた。オルフェウスは‘清めの儀式’や天上地獄の教義について述べていて後のプラトンやキリスト教に影響を与えた。日本の仏教でも例えば極楽浄土と地獄に関する教え等を説いている。プラトンは永遠で恒久なる存在について考えたが彼の場合は少なからず認識といった知的なアプローチを説いた。後世においてライプニッツは時間の絶対性の観点からして時間の始源より以前に時間を遡ることが論理的に不可能であるとしその始源に神の座を据えたと言われる。現代では宇宙のビッグバン説や時間の相対性といった発想が反論として挙げられるだろう。宗教や神の存在に関する知的な理解を求めた人々は、しばしば哲学的な追究をし、逆に信仰生活に重点を置いた人々は、哲学的に手のこんだ解釈やへ理屈めいた議論を敬遠したといえるだろう。同じ宗教にたずさわりながら、知的に優れ業績を残した人もいれば、実践を重んじ困っている人を助けることを日々実行する人もいれば、迷信的なものにとらわれた人もいた。信仰心のあつい人は、しばしば、哲学をする人の中に、詭弁で他人を議論の袋小路に追い込む酷薄な人を見てとり、哲学者を不信の目で眺めた。ただし、知的なだけでなく、人格的にも傑出した哲学者に限れば、人々の尊敬を広く集めた。また哲学と宗教との差異としてなにがしか態度の有無が挙げられることがある。宗教ごとに性質はことなるのでひとくくりに語ることは難しいが例えばアブラハムの宗教など）には信仰の遵守を求めるドグマ性がある時として疑問抜きの盲信を要求しがちな面があるとして比較されることはある。18世紀～19世紀ごろから自然科学が成功を収め神的なものに疑問符が突きつけられるようになったため、唯物論思考など神を介しない考え方も力を得てきている一方、古代から、否定的確証にも肯定的確証にも欠けるとして科学・宗教いずれの見解も留保する不可知論的立場もあり、これは現代でも支持者がいる。中世哲学研究者の八木雄二は、と自説を主張している。つまり、哲学を理性的な吟味を行うことと定義し、その定義より神学は哲学に含まれると述べているのである。は著書でといった哲学史観を示している。これは今日一般的な哲学観であり中世哲学史家のエティエンヌジルソン科学哲学者のカールポパー もこれと同じ哲学観を持っている。哲学と思想、文学や宗教の関係について、相愛大学人文学部教授の釈徹宗はと述べている。と主張の形で表出することになるため、哲学は思想としてしか表現されないことになる。このために思想と哲学の混用は避けられない。哲学と思想を区分することのメリットは具体的な使用事例で発見することができ、たとえば思想史と哲学史は明らかに異なる。通常は思想家とされない人物でも、その行動や事業を通して社会に影響を与えた場合には思想史の対象となる。これに対して哲学史の対象は哲学者の範囲にとどまり、哲学を最大限に解釈したとしても、政治家や経営者が哲学史で論じられることはない。しかし思想史においては、実務を担当し世界の構造を変えようとした人々は思想史の対象として研究対象になる、とする。一方で小坂修平は別の立場をとり であるとする。小阪はこの区別に基づき19世紀後半から20世紀前半にかけて生まれてきた思想は分析哲学や現象学を除けば哲学の枠組みには収まらず現代思想になるとする。一部の哲学は、理知的な学問以外の領域とも深く関わっている点に特徴がある。古代ギリシア哲学が詩と分かちがたく結びついていたこと、スコラ哲学や仏教哲学のように、信仰・世界観・生活の具体的な指針と結びついて離れない例があることなどが指摘できる。理性によって物事を問いながらも、言葉を用いつつ、人々の心に響く考えやアイディアを探すという点では文学などの言語芸術や一部の宗教と通じる部分が多い。哲学者の名言が多いのはそのためでもある。例えば日本では大学の主に文学部の中のという学部が存在する。八木雄二は前節で述べたように哲学を理性的な吟味を行うことと定義した上で人文科学はと述べている。自然科学は数学的方法を適用することで数学的方法を適用できない人文科学は哲学によってそれらが理性的であるかが確認できそういった数学的方法や哲学的吟味を受容してこそそれらは学問として認められるのだと彼は主張している。学問分野としての哲学の特徴.哲学を学ぶということについて、イマヌエル・カントはと主張している。後世の著作物の中に太古の思想との類似性が見つけられる場合、それが先哲の思索を継承したのか、独自の着想によるものかは即断できないが、明らかに以前には無い発想が述べられている場合、しばしばそれが重要な哲学的な独創性を意味していることがある。一方で思索は極めて属人的な営みであり、思索家の死や沈黙、著作物の散逸などにより容易に否定され失われてしまうが、弟子達の著作によりその思想が後世にまで残り、多大な影響力を及ぼしているものがある。思索の継承と橋頭堡を打ち立てた先哲に対し敬意を払い続ける態度もまた哲学の顕著な特徴である。一方で異なる学派間の対立は民衆の懐疑と嘲笑的態度独断の蔓延とそれによる思想の貧困化につなり戦乱が続いた時代は思想が停滞後退した。ヨーロッパにおいて教会の権力が頂点に達した頃には哲学はしばしば神学的な問題に用いられ近代には先哲の批判的継承のうえに独自の哲学を打ち立てた近代哲学者たちが現れた。逆に、哲学者自身が及ぼした影響の痕跡が後世に見られることもある。哲学が専ら同時代の観察と分析に徹しているという意見もある一方で、旺盛な活動によって世に知られた哲学者もいる。他の学問と哲学を区別する特徴となるような独自の方法論が哲学にあるかどうかというのはなかなか難しい問題である。少なくとも近代哲学においてはデカルト以来、疑いうるものを懐疑する態度、できるだけ明晰に思考する態度、事物の本質に迫ろうとする態度が哲学を特徴づけてきたといえるだろう。ただこれだけであれば学問の多くに共通する特徴でもあるし逆に理性や常識を信頼するタイプの哲学が哲学でないことになってしまう。分析哲学においては概念分析という道具を手にすることで自然科学とは異なる独自の思考形態が成立したがこれも哲学すべてを特徴づける思考形態であるとは言いがたい。三森定史によれば、科学と哲学は区別されるべきであり、科学が外観学への批判を込めて としている。哲学はその黎明期において、科学において大切でかつ難しいといわれる仮説の発明を、重要な形で成してきた。ソクラテス以前の哲学者と呼ばれるタレス、アナクシマンドロスといった自然学者はいずれも自然現象の説明を目論んだ。19世紀までは科学（science）、自然科学（natural science）という言葉は現代的な意味で用いられておらず、それらに相当する分野を指す言葉としては「自然哲学」（natural philosophy）ないしは「自然学」（Physics）という言葉が使われており（例えばニュートンの『プリンキピア』の正式名称は『自然哲学の数学的諸原理』である）、今日的な意味での「哲学的」な自然の探求と「自然科学的」な自然の探求とは伝統的には切れ目のないひとまとまりの領域として扱われてきたが、その中においても今から振り返って、「自然科学的」な部分と「哲学的」な部分を区別することができる。そうした「自然科学的」部分は伝統的に人間の作為を含まない対象（自然）を観察、分類することを主眼としてきた。また近代に至っては実験という形で積極的に自然に介入することを重視する実験科学が登場しさらに19世紀以降には目に見えるものからその背後の秩序を推測してモデル化するという営みが科学の中心となってきた。例えば、時間について考察する哲学者は同じ問題を扱う物理学者とは違い観察や実験の積み重ねによらず結論を導くことがある。また、哲学者は物理学の成果を参照しそれを手がかりに哲学的思索を行うことはあるが、現代において物理学者が（自然）哲学の成果を積極的に参照することは少ないようである。こうした分離や性格の差が生じた理由はいくつか考えられるが知識の取得法（方法論データのとり方理論の当てはめ方論争の決着のさせ方など）が確立した分野が順次哲学から分離していった結果哲学はデータのとれないことについて考える領域なのだという了解が後から成立してきたという事情はおそらくあるだろう。そうしたものの見方から捉えると先の時間の例について言うならわれわれの主観的経験や世界を捉えるためのもっとも基本的な形而上学としての時間は未だに物理学はもちろん心理学でもうまくとらえきることのできない対象でありそのために哲学的な時間論の対象となるわけである。客観的データになじまないもうひとつの領域が規範の領域、つまりを論じる文脈であるが、これは自然科学というよりは、むしろ倫理学の領域であろう。哲学も決して自然科学的知見を無視するわけではないので自然科学によってもたらされる新たな発見はしばしば旧来の哲学に重大な脅威を与えてきた。またそもそも古代の哲学者が成した科学的発見が自身の手による実験によって証明されていることがある。自然科学が自然哲学から分化して以降とくに近代の哲学者は自然科学者の成果を重視し両者の親和性を失わないよう不断の努力を行ってきたしまた近代においては観察や経験を重要視する哲学者たちが生まれた。また一方で科学者たち自身が扱わないような非常に基礎的な問題。あるいは科学が他の姿をとりうる論理的現実的可能性を論じることで一度は忘れられた仮説を再発掘する原動力となったり新しい科学理論の形を呈示したりする場合もある。歴史的に有名な事例としては全ての力が引力と斥力の二つに集約されるというドイツ観念論のテーゼが電力と磁力の統合というエルステッドの発見に結びついたといった例がある。なお近年の英米哲学では認識論の自然化を提唱したクワインのように自然主義という名の下に哲学を自然科学の一部とする動きがある。伝統的に論理学は哲学の一分野として研究されてきた。論理学は伝統的にわれわれの推論のパターンを抽出することを目的としてきた。特に伝統的な論理学においては、前提が正しければ確実に正しい結論を導くことができる手法としての三段論法が主な研究の対象であった。推論の厳密さを重視する哲学においては論理学は主要な研究の対象であり政治や弁論術、宗教、数学や科学の諸分野において論理学は重要な研究の対象であり続けた。古代の哲学者たちはしばしば現代でいう論理学者や数学者を兼ねていた。論理学の直接の関心は推論の妥当性や無矛盾性にありかならずしも人間や社会や自然の諸事象が考察の焦点にならない。もし疑いようのない前提から三段論法を用いて人間や社会や自然の諸事象についての結論を導き出すことができるならそれは非常に強力な結論となりうる。哲学者たちが論理学を重視してきたことは当然といえるだろう。しかし逆にいえば、三段論法の結論の厳密さはあくまで前提の正しさに依拠するものであり前提がとんでもないものであれば結論もとんでもないものが出てしまう。たとえば「すべてのカラスは黒い。この鳥は黒くない、したがってこの鳥はカラスではない」といった推論では最初の前提が間違いで本当は白いカラスもいるような場合、結局あやまった結論にたどりついてしまう（参照:ヘンペルのカラス）。この問題は重要で、たとえばジョン・スチュアート・ミルは三段論法が内包するこの危うさについて結論を知っていないならば、大前提の全称判断は得られないのだから、三段論法は一種の循環論証であると批判した。一方彼は帰納法の四大規則をこしらえたが、それらは因果律が仮定される限り有効に用いられるものであり、まったく単純枚挙による機能にもとづいてのみ、容認しうるものであることを白状せねばならなかった。哲学的論理学においてはしばしば推論規則そのものの哲学的な正当性が問題となってきた。古典論理については排中律の是非が問題となってきたし帰納論理についてはそもそも帰納論理なるものが成立するのかどうか自体が問題となった。こうした検討は認識論や科学哲学といった他の分野にも大きな影響を与えてきた。20世紀の初頭までには古典論理による推論の限界が明らかにされる一方でその公理系そのものを懐疑する視点から様相論理学直観論理や矛盾許容論理などの展開も提示されている。欧米に比べ、日本では女性の哲学者はまだ圧倒的に少ない。著名な女性の哲学者としては、ヒルデガルト・フォン・ビンゲン、ローザ・ルクセンブルク、ハンナ・アーレント、シモーヌ・ヴェイユ、シモーヌ・ド・ボーヴォワール、エリザベス・アンスコム、ジュリア・クリステヴァ、ジュディス・バトラー、カトリーヌ・マラブーなどが挙げられる。広義の哲学は思索を経て何かの意見や理解に辿り着く営みであり、そのような営みの結果形成されたり選ばれたりした思想、立場、信条を指すこともある。例えば、「子育ての哲学」「会社経営の哲学」などと言う場合、このような意味での哲学を指していることが多い。また哲学は個々人が意識的な思索の果てに形成獲得するものに限定されず生活習慣伝統信仰神話伝統芸能や慣用表現その他の文化的諸要素などと結びついて存在している感受性価値観世界観などを指す場合もある。つまり物事の認識把握の仕方概念あるいは発想の仕方のことである（こうしたものは思想と呼ばれることも多い）。このような感受性や世界観は必ずしも理論体系として言語によって表現されているわけではないが、体系性を備え、ひとつの立場になっていると考えられることがしばしばある。貫成人はに含めるかが異なることによるためだとする。現代理工医学からの批判.脳神経科学コンピュータ科学AI研究からの批判.という問題を解明してきた脳科学計算機科学人工知能研究開発等に関連して神経科学者分子生物学者のフランシスクリックはと批判している。こうした観点において、哲学はの学問・科学に過ぎない、と評価されている。脳科学者の澤口俊之はクリックに賛同し、次のように述べている。実際、哲学は暇（スコレー）から始まったとアリストテレスが伝えており、上記のような否定的発言も的外れではないと、科学哲学者の野家啓一は言う。また、うつ病の有無を血液（血中PEA濃度）で計測する検査法を開発し、臨床現場でも用いている心療内科医の 川村則行 は数学・論理学・数理論理学からの批判.数学者論理学者である田中一之はと述べている。計算機科学者（コンピュータ科学者）論理学者電子工学者哲学博士（Ph.D. in Philosophy）であるは哲学者たちによる数学的な言及の多くがと批判している。田中によると、ゲーデルの不完全性定理について哲学者が書いた本が、フランセーンの本と同じ頃に書店販売されていたが、哲学者の本は専門誌によって酷評された。その本は全体として読みやすく一般読者からの評判は高かったが、ゲーデルの証明の核について、根本的な勘違いをしたまま説明していた。同様の間違いは他の入門書などにも見られる。フランセーンによれば不完全性定理のインパクトと重要性についてしばしば大げさな主張が繰り返されてきた。たとえばという言があるがこれらは乱暴な誇張とされる。不完全性定理が一番大きな衝撃を与えたと思われる数学においてさえを証明した”というような誤解が一般社会哲学宗教神学等によって広まり誤用されている。数学者ダヴィットヒルベルトは的なヒルベルト流の見解を持っていた。哲学等においてという類の発言がよくあるが、これは実際の不完全性定理やゲーデルの見解とは異なる。正確に言えば、ヒルベルトの目的を拡張する必要がある、ということをゲーデルが不完全性定理を通して示したのだった。日本数学会が編集した第4版では、不完全性定理について次の通り記述されている。量子論・量子力学・理論物理学からの批判.哲学者は、科学とは違う日常的言語での概念さえ理解していない。ディラックの考えでは非科学的な日常的言語をいくら使っても正確な意思疎通を行うことはできない。量子力学を説明してくれと言う家族や友人に対してディラックはと返した。宇宙の背後にある等の研究が進められている。生物学・進化生物学・進化生態学からの批判.の序文で、進化生物学者リチャード・ドーキンスはと述べている。前掲書の第一章ではこう述べる。また進化生物学者社会生物学者のロバートLトリヴァースは前掲書へ以下の序文を寄稿した。同時にトリヴァースはとしている。哲学や人文学からの批判は生物学へそして生物学について解説したドーキンスへ向かった。その批判は例えば遺伝子の理論を極端に単純化して捉えつつ遺伝子との関連が薄い事物を同列に置いていた（「遺伝子は利己的でも非利己的でもありえない。原子がやきもち焼きだったりゾウが抽象的だったりビスケットが目的論的だったりすることがありえない以上に」等）。批判に対しドーキンスは前掲書の中で「利己的」等の生物学用語を挙げつつ「このような言い回しはそれを理解する十分な資格を備えていない（あるいはそれを誤解する十分な資格を備えたというべきか？）人間の手にたまたま落ちるということさえなければ無害な簡便語法である」と反論した。彼は次のようにも記している。また前掲書中でドーキンスは文化的自己複製子の理論に関してと述べている。彼によると破壊的で危険なミームの典型例は宗教であり。なおの邦訳者の一員である進化生態学者岸由二は40周年記念版の後書きでこの本をと呼び次のように評価している。物理学宇宙物理学からの批判.の中で宇宙物理学者の須藤靖は、科学についての哲学的考察が、実際には科学と関係が無いことを指摘している。須藤は、哲学的に論じられていると述べている。須藤によると学問の扱う問題が整理され分化したことで科学と哲学もそれぞれ異なる問題を研究するようになった。これはと返した。対談で須藤は「これまでけっこう長時間議論を行ってきました。おかげで、意見の違いは明らかになったとは思いますが、果たして何か決着がつくのでしょうか？」と発言し、伊勢田は「決着はつかないでしょうね」と答えている。。学問分野として全面的な否定や揶揄の対象にされることが多い点も哲学ならではの特徴といえる。ちなみにこの批判の中には哲学者とされる者によって展開されるものも含まれそのような批判が一つの哲学的立場になっている場合もある。抽象的な概念を巡る定義や論争などは証拠によって決着を着けたり万人が合意するような立場に辿りつけたりする可能性が低く。また、大学の哲学教員など現代の職業哲学者の従事する学問としての哲学は理性と言語による思考に特化しており必ずしも詩や宗教などと密接に結びついているわけではない。これに関して理性や言語による思考には限界や欠陥があり、人間の豊かな感性、感情を見落としがちであり哲学は学問分野としてそのような本質的限界、欠陥を抱え込んだ分野であると批判されることもある。また理性や言語を重んじる価値観は近代以降の西洋の諸文化に特徴的なものであると見做して攻撃する立場もある。既存の哲学が中心であることや習慣などに埋め込まれて存在していて言語化されたり理性的な吟味の対象にならない思想を哲学の一種として扱わない傾向にあったりすることなどをそのような価値観の表れと考え問題視する立場もある。1990年代半ばより、ポストモダンやフランス現代思想に分類される一部の哲学者並びに思想家が数学や物理学などの自然科学の理論や用語を、その意味を理解しないままに模倣したり、読者を煙に巻いたりしていることへの批判が起こった。哲学者のこうした欺瞞を批判した最も著名な例としてソーカル事件がある。彼らの論文に用いた数学らしき記号の羅列は数学者でなくとも自然科学の高等教育を受けた者ならそれが出鱈目であることはすぐに見抜けるお粗末なものだったのである。森岡正博は日本の大学や哲学教室倫理学教室学会や懸賞論文は制度化されており本来答えるべき哲学的課題に向き合えていないと批判している。学会は文献学特定個人の思想著名哲学者の思想に偏重しており直面した根本問題を検討することをに先延ばしすることに特徴があるとしている。哲学の<純粋探求>の凄みと快楽は理解するもののそれは本当に向かい合うべき問いから巧妙に逃げているのではないかと問題提起する。古代ギリシャの時代の時代から、フィロソフィアが役に立たないと思う人がいた。アリストテレスはその著において 次のような逸話を提示することで、そうではないと示した。コロサイの信徒への手紙の中でパウロは以下のように哲学を「むなしいだましごと」と称している箇所がある。 +ブラックミュージック () あるいは黒人音楽（こくじんおんがく）とはアメリカの黒人発祥の音楽の総称を表す言葉。強いビート感・グルーヴ感が特徴。ブルースゴスペルソウルR&Bジャズファンクヒップホップといった現在世界的に様々な形で展開されているジャンルを生みまたポップスやロックカントリー等にも影響を与え20世紀に生まれた多くのポピュラー音楽の源泉となった。大きく分けると黒人霊歌やゴスペルなどの宗教歌 (sacred music) と奴隷制時代のプランテーションソング (work song) から現代のヒップホップまで連なる世俗音楽 (secular music) の二つに分類できるがその分類も便宜的な機能上のものであって実質ブラックミュージックはすべて呼応しあいコールアンドレスポンスのように境界なく連続している。は自然科学の一分野である。古代ギリシアの自然学として自然哲学から独立した意味を持つようになった。物理学の古典的な研究分野は、物体の運動、光と色彩、音響、電気と磁気、熱、波動、天体の諸現象である。化学、生物学、地学などほかの自然科学に比べ数学との親和性が非常に強い。物理現象の微視的視点と巨視的視点.材料力学や流体力学は巨視的現象の法則からなる独立した物理学上の理論体系である。ここで注意しなければならないのは材料力学や流体力学はそれらの適用範囲においては、他の理論から完全に閉じた理論体系として存在していることである。現代の物理学はたとえば素粒子論がある一方で熱力学があるように巨視的現象の理論と微視的現象を記述する力学とをつなぐ理論や現象も重要なテーマとして研究されている。一般的にこの分野では統計物理学と呼ばれる強力な手法が使われる。ルートヴィッヒボルツマンらによって開発されたこの手法は構成粒子の振る舞いを統計的に処理することによって巨視的現象と結びつけるものである。物理学では、理論やモデルを数式として表現することが多い。物理学の研究において最も重要なステップの一つは物理法則を数式に表現する前の段階観測された事実の中から記述すべき基本的な要素を抽出する行為である。電磁気学に貢献したマイケルファラデーが正規の教育を受けなかったため数学的知識がなかったにもかかわらずさまざまな発見を成し遂げたことやノーベル賞を受賞したリチャードPファインマンが液体ヘリウムについて論じた論文やジョージガモフが初めてビッグバン理論を提唱した論文には数式が出てこないことは自然界の中に記述すべき対象を見つけ出す営みが物理学において重要なステップであるということを示している。物理学の歴史は一見異なる現象を同一の法則の異なる側面であるとして統一的に説明していく歴史でもあった。地上付近での物体の落下と月の運動を同じ万有引力によるものとしたニュートンの重力の理論はそれまであった惑星の運動に関するケプラーの法則やガリレイの落体運動の法則が万有引力の別の側面であることを示した。マクスウェルはそれまでアンペールやファラデーらが個別に発見していた電気と磁気の法則が電磁気という一つの法則にまとめられることを導き電磁波の存在を理論的に予言し光が電磁波の一種であることを示した。20世紀に入るとアインシュタインが相対性理論によって、時間と空間に関する認識を一変させた。彼はさらに重力と電磁気力に関する統一場理論の研究に取り組んだが実現しなかった。しかし、その後も統一場理論に関する研究は他の研究者たちによって続けられ、新しく発見された核力も含めて統一しようとする努力が続けられた。1967年頃電磁気力と弱い力に関する統一場理論（ワインバーグ・サラム理論）が提唱され、後の実験的な検証により理論の正当性が確立した。この理論により、電磁気力と弱い力は同じ力の異なる側面として説明されることになった。自然界に存在する重力電磁気力強い力弱い力の四つの相互作用のうち上記の電弱統一理論を超えて電磁気力強い力弱い力に関する統一場理論である大統一理論重力電磁気力強い力弱い力の四つの相互作用全てに関する統一場理論。古典的な物理学では、物理現象が発生する空間と時間は、物理現象そのものとは別々のものと考えられてきたが、重力の理論によって、物質の存在が空間と時間に影響を与えること、物質とエネルギーが等価であることが解明されたことから、現代物理学では、物理現象に時間と空間、物質とエネルギーを含める。物理学はほかの自然科学と密接に関係している。物理学で得られた知見が非常に強力なために、他の自然科学の分野の問題の解決に寄与することも多く、生物学、医学など他の分野との連携も進んでいる。特に化学においては密接に関連する分野が多く、特に物理学的な手法を用いる分野として物理化学という分野が設けられている。生物学においても、生物の骨格や筋肉を力学的に考察したり、遺伝子レベルでの解析や進化の物理的考察を行う分子生物学がある。地球科学においても地球を物理的な手法を用いて研究する地球物理学があり、地震学・気象学・海洋物理学・地球電磁気学等は地球物理学の代表的な分野であるといえる。今日の物理学は自然科学のみならず人文科学・社会科学とも関係している。人文科学においては哲学との学際領域に自然哲学がある。また、心理学も精神物理学を通じて物理学と関係している。社会科学においては中学校・高等学校における教科としての物理は教育学と密接に関係しており、経済現象を物理的に解明する経済物理学は経済学との学際的分野であるといえる。天動説や暦の作成などの天文学が最古の物理学である。初期文明であるシュメール人古代エジプト人インダス文明などは太陽や月などの天体を観察した。これらの天体は宗教的に崇拝され現代からすれば非科学的な現象の説明もされたがこれがのちの天文学や物理学へと成長する。16世紀以前のヨーロッパにおいて科学は、キリスト教的な要素を含んだアリストテレスの自然哲学が主流であった。アリストテレスは物質の振る舞いをによって説明し、例えば天体が地球の周りを回るのは回転しようとする目的があるためだとした。自然哲学は観測よりも哲学を重視したため、試行的な試験で事象を説明する現代科学とは性質が異なる。また、この時既に数学は中東やエジプトなどで発達していたが、自然哲学的な物理に使われることはなかった。しかし古代ギリシアにおいて実証的な考え方がされていなかったわけではなく、紀元前3世紀のアルキメデスは自然哲学では無視されていた数学を自然と結びつけ、数学や物理に数々の貢献をした。続くヒッパルコスやプトレマイオスなども幾何学や天文学を発達させた。また、アリストテレスの時代より前の紀元前5世紀にはすでにレウキッポスやデモクリトスなどがそれまでの超自然的説明を否定して自然現象には原因となる理論があるとして原子の存在などを考えていた。中世のイスラームの学者は、他のギリシャ文化と共にアリストテレスの物理学を継承した。その黄金期には観察と先験的な推論に重点を置いた初期の科学的方法を発展させた。最も注目すべきは、イブン・サール、アル・キンディー、イブン・アル・ハイサム、アル・ファリス、アビセナ等による視覚と視力の分野である。アル・ハイサムが書いたは視覚に関する古代ギリシャの考え方を最初に反証したばかりでなく、新しい理論を作り出した。この本では史上初、ピンホールカメラの現象を研究することで、目自体の仕組みをさらに詳しく調べた。解剖学と既存の知識を使って、どのように光が目に入り、焦点が合い、目の後ろに投影されるかを説明したのである。さらに、現代の写真撮影の開発から数百年前に、既にカメラ・オブスクラを発明した。全7冊のは、600年以上にわたって、東洋と西洋の中世の芸術における視覚の理論から、視点の性質への学問全体の考え方に大きな影響を与えた。 グロセテストやダ・ヴィンチから、デカルト、ケプラー、ニュートンまで、後世の多くのヨーロッパの学者や思想家が影響を受けている。近世に入り、科学的研究法の発展の中で実験による理論検証の重要性が認識され始めた。16世紀後半、ガリレイは力学現象の研究を行い、落体の法則と慣性の法則を見出した。1687年にニュートンはを出版した。ニュートンの示した理論は、ガリレイらの発見した法則を一般化し、包括的な説明を与えることに成功した。ニュートンの理論の中で最も基礎的な法則として、運動の法則と万有引力の法則が挙げられる。これらの法則は、天体の運行などの観測結果をよく説明することができた。ニュートン自身は力学法則を幾何学を用いて記述したが、オイラーなど後世の研究者によってそれらの理論は代数学的に記述されるようになった。ラグランジュ、ハミルトンらは古典力学を徹底的に拡張し、新しい定式化、原理、結果を導いた。重力の法則によって宇宙物理学の分野が起こされた。宇宙物理学は物理理論をもちいて天体現象を記述する。18世紀から、ボイル、ヤングら大勢の学者によって熱力学が発展した。1733年に、ベルヌーイが熱力学的な結果を導くために古典力学とともに統計論を用いた。これが統計力学の起こりである。1798年に、ランフォードは力学的仕事が熱に変換されることを示した。1840年代に、ジュールは力学的エネルギーを含めた熱についてのエネルギーの保存則を証明した。電気と磁気の挙動はファラデーオームらによって研究された。マクスウェルは1855年から1864年までに発表した3つの論文でマクスウェルの方程式で記述される電磁気学という単一理論で二つの現象を統一的に説明した。この理論によって光は電磁波であると予言された。この予言は後にヘルツによって実証された。1895年にレントゲンがX線を発見し1896年にはベクレルがウランの放射能を1898年にはピエールキュリーとマリキュリーがウランよりも強力な放射能を持つラジウムを発見した。これが核物理学の起こりとなった。トムソンは1899年に原子よりもはるかに小さな質量を持ち負の電荷を持つ電子の発見を発表し1904年には最初の原子のモデルを提案した。このモデルは現在プラムプディング模型として知られている。1905年、アインシュタインは特殊相対性理論を発表した。アインシュタインの相対性理論において、時間と空間は独立した実体とは扱われず、時空という一つの実体に統一される。相対性理論は、ニュートン力学とは異なる慣性座標系間の変換を定める。相対速度の小さな運動に関して、ニュートン力学と相対論は近似的に一致する。このことはニュートン力学の形式に沿って定式化された相対論的力学において明確になる。1915年、アインシュタインは特殊相対性理論を拡張し、一般相対性理論で重力を説明した。特殊相対論によって、力学と電磁気学の理論は整合的に説明できるようになったが、重力に関してはニュートンの万有引力の法則以上の満足な説明を与えることができなかった。一般相対論によって、重力の作用を含めた包括的な説明ができるようになった。一般相対論において、ニュートンの万有引力の法則は低質量かつ低エネルギーの領域における近似理論と見なすことができた。1911年にラザフォードの下で原子の研究が進展しその時の散乱実験から電荷を持つ物質を核とする原子像が提唱された。原子核を構成する正電荷の粒子は陽子と呼ばれる。電気的に中性な構成物質である中性子は1932年にチャドウィックによって発見された。1900年代初頭にプランクアインシュタインボーアたちは量子論を発展させ離散的なエネルギー準位の導入によってさまざまな特異な実験結果を説明した。1925年にハイゼンベルクらがそして1926年にシュレーディンガーとディラックが量子力学を定式化しそれによって前期量子論は解釈された。量子力学において物理測定の結果は本質的に確率的である。つまり理論はそれらの確率の計算法を与える。量子力学は小さな長さの尺度での物質の振る舞いをうまく記述する。また量子力学は凝縮系物理学の理論的な道具を提供した。凝縮系物理学では誘電体半導体金属超伝導超流動磁性体といった現象物質群を含む固体と液体の物理的振る舞いを研究する。凝縮系物理学の先駆者であるブロッホは結晶構造中の電子の振る舞いの量子力学的記述を1928年に生み出した。第二次世界大戦の間、核爆弾を作るという目的のために、研究は核物理の各方面に向けられた。ハイゼンベルクが率いたドイツの努力は実らなかったが、連合国のマンハッタン計画は成功を収めた。アメリカでは、フェルミが率いたチームが1942年に最初の人工的な核連鎖反応を達成し、1945年にアメリカ合衆国ニューメキシコ州のアラモゴードで世界初の核爆弾が爆発した。場の量子論は特殊相対性理論と整合するように量子力学を拡張するために定式化された。それはファインマン朝永シュウインガーダイソンらの仕事によって1940年代後半に現代的な形に至った。彼らは電磁相互作用を記述する量子電磁力学の理論を定式化した。場の量子論は基本的な力と素粒子を研究する現代の素粒子物理学の枠組みを提供した。1954年にヤンとミルズはゲージ理論という分野を発展させた。それは標準模型の枠組みを提供した。1970年代に完成した標準模型は今日観測される素粒子のほとんどすべてをうまく記述する。場の量子論の方法は多粒子系を扱う統計物理学にも応用されている。松原武生は場の量子論で用いられるグリーン関数を統計物理学において初めて使用した。このグリーン関数の方法はロシアのアブリコソフらにより発展され固体中の電子の磁性や超伝導の研究に用いられた。2018年時点において物理学の多くの分野で研究が進展している。スーパーカミオカンデの実験からニュートリノの質量が0でないことが判明した。このことを理論の立場から理解しようとするならば、既存の標準理論の枠組みを越えた理解が必要である。質量のあるニュートリノの物理は現在理論と実験が影響しあい活発に研究されている領域である。今後数年で粒子加速器によるTeV（テラ電子ボルト）領域のエネルギー尺度の探査はさらに活発になるであろう。実験物理学者はそこでヒッグス粒子や超対称性粒子の証拠を見つけられるのではないかと期待している。量子力学と一般相対性理論を量子重力の単一理論に統合するという半世紀以上におよぶ試みはまだ結実していない。現在の有望な候補はM理論とループ量子重力理論である。宇宙物理学の分野でも1990年代から2000年代にかけて大きな進展が見られた。特に1990年代以降大口径望遠鏡やハッブル宇宙望遠鏡COBEWMAP などの宇宙探査機によって格段に精度の良い観測データが大量に得られるようになり宇宙論の分野でも定量的で精密な議論が可能になった。ビッグバン理論及びインフレーションモデルに基づく現代の-CDM宇宙モデルはこれらの観測とよく合致しているが反面ダークマターの正体や宇宙の加速膨張を引き起こしていると考えられるダークエネルギーの存在など依然として謎となっている問題も残されている。これ以外にガンマ線バーストや超高エネルギー宇宙線の起源なども未解決でありこれらを解明するための様々な宇宙探査プロジェクトが進行している。凝縮物質の物理において高温超伝導の理論的説明は未解明の問題として残されている。量子ドットなど単一の電子光子を用いたデバイス技術の発展により量子力学の基礎について実験的検証が可能になってきておりさらにはスピントロニクスや量子コンピュータなどへの応用展開が期待される。 +新聞学は狭義には新聞についての広義には新聞以外も含めたマスコミュニケーション過程についての社会科学的研究の総称。1916年カールビュッヒャー の尽力によりライプツィヒ大学にの名を冠した研究所が設立され正式な初代代表者となったのは1926年から1933年に代表を務めたエリックエフェルト であった。1926年にはと題した最初の学術誌がカールデスター とヴァルターハイデ によって創刊された。1930年代にはベルリンのフリードリヒヴィルヘルム大学にも新聞学部門が設けられた。その主任であったエミールドヴィファート は長きにわたる闘争と幾多の議論を経て映画やラジオもすべて新聞学の研究対象に含まれるものとし新聞学の拡張を行なった。新聞学はコミュニケーション学の先駆けであったと考えられる。日本の大学には、もっぱら新聞学について教育する部門として新聞学科などが設けられている場合がある。1932年、上智大学の専門部に新聞科が設置された。これはその後1948年に、学制改革を経て文学部新聞学科となった。GHQの指導により、戦後の1946年には早稲田大学政治経済学部に新聞学科がつくられたが同時期の学制改革として続く。1951年に日本新聞学会が設立され、日本におけるマス・コミュニケーション研究の中心的な学会となっていたが、1991年の決定に基づいて、学会の名称は1993年に日本マス・コミュニケーション学会へ改められた。日本新聞学会が1952年から刊行していた学術誌『新聞学評論』は学会名の改称を受けて1993年から『マスコミュニケーション研究』と改題された。ソクラテスは、ソクラテスの若さに関する重要な情報を提供している。プラトンの対話篇は古代から残されたソクラテスに関する最も包括的な著述でありこの著作により倫理学と認識論の分野でのソクラテスの貢献が知られるようになった。ソクラテスのアイロニーやソクラテスの対話法あるいはエレンコスを有名にしたのはこのプラトンが描いたソクラテスである。しかし実在したソクラテスとプラトンの対話篇でのソクラテスの描写との違いに関しては疑問が残されている。ソクラテスは後代の古代の哲学者たちと現代の哲学者たちに絶大な影響を及ぼした。芸術文学ポピュラーカルチャーの中でのソクラテスの描写によりソクラテスは西洋哲学伝統の中で最も広く知られる人物の一人になった。釈迦キリスト孔子と並び四聖人に数えられる。生前のソクラテスと直接面識交流があった人物によるソクラテスの言行人物像について述べられたまとまったテキストで今日まで伝わっているものとしてはソクラテスの死後に書かれた後世のテキストとしては、アリストテレスの『形而上学』第1巻におけるわずかな言及を除けば、約600年後に伝聞情報をまとめた、したがって一般的にソクラテスの人物像や思想の推定はクセノポンとプラトンの著作を土台としさらにディオゲネスの情報で補強する形で行われる。クセノポンとプラトンが描くの共通点と差異.クセノポンとプラトンが描いているソクラテスの人物像は、など、概ね共通している。しかし、決定的に異なるのが、クセノポンがの第4巻第7章において、ソクラテスが、といった有用性・実用性に欠けるものを学ぶことに賛成しなかった（他の哲学者たちのように、そうした「神々の領域」に踏み込むことは、不毛かつ良くない危険なことであり、その時間・労力を「人間の領分」における他の有用な学習・探求に当てるべきと考えた）と述べている点である。（同様な内容の記述は、同書の第1巻第1章などにも見られる。）プラトンが対話篇で描くソクラテスはクセノポンが描く場合と同じく敬神的ではあるもののイデア論の萌芽が見える初期のの頃から徐々にプラトン自身の思想の代弁者となり中期以降に至ってはピュタゴラス派やエレア派の徒と交わりながらイデア論を展開したり魂の肉体からの浄化また、クセノポンはヘルモゲネスから聞いた話として、裁判前のソクラテスは、老齢によって身体・思考・記憶が衰え、これまでのようなを印象付けるプラトンの描き方とは一線を画している。父は彫刻家ないし石工のソプロニスコス母は助産婦のパイナレテとされる。アテナイに生まれ生涯のほとんどをアテナイに暮らした。彼はペロポネソス戦争においてアテナイの植民地における反乱鎮圧としてのポテイダイア攻囲戦ボイオティア連邦との大会戦で重装歩兵として従軍した。青年期には自然科学に興味を持ったとの説もあるが晩年は倫理や徳を追求する哲学者としての生活に専念した。プラトンのにおいてソクラテスが語ったところによると、彼独特の思想・スタイルが形成されるに至った直接のきっかけは、彼の弟子のカイレフォンが、デルポイにあるアポロンの神託所において、巫女にと答えられたことにある。これを聞いて、自分が小事・大事ともに疎くて賢明ではない者であると自覚していたソクラテスは驚き、それが何を意味するのか自問した。さんざん悩んだ挙句、彼はその神託の反証を試みようと考えた。彼は世間で評判の賢者たちに会って問答することで、その人々が自分より賢明であることを明らかにして神託を反証するつもりであった。しかし実際に賢者と世評のある政治家や詩人などに会って話してみると彼らは自ら語っていることをよく理解しておらずそのことを彼らに説明するはめになってしまった。それぞれの技術に熟練した職人達ですらたしかにその技術については知者ではあるがそのことを以って他の事柄についても識者であると思い込んでいた。こうした経験を経て彼は神託の意味をとしてソフィスト達のように報酬を受け取るでもなく家庭のことも省みず極貧生活も厭わずに歩き廻っては出会った賢者たちの無知を指摘していくことをライフワークとするようになる。これらの説明をそのまま鵜呑みにするならば、後世への影響のあり方はさておき、知恵の探求者、愛知者としての彼の営みそのものは、その旺盛な知識欲や合理的な思考・態度とは裏腹に、ことを目指すという。 +ソクラテスは当時賢人と呼ばれていた政治家や詩人達さらには手工者をはじめとして様々な人を次々に訪ねを検証するために対話を行なった。その結果彼らの無知に対する無自覚ぶりと無知を自覚している自分の優越性神託の正しさを確信し決意と使命感を持ってその活動にのめり込んでいくこととなりソクラテスが賢者であるという評判が広まる一方で無知を指摘された人々やその関係者からは憎まれ数多くの敵を作ることとなり誹謗も起こるようになった。更に暇を持て余した富裕市民の息子達はソクラテスを面白がって追い回しその試問を傍聴しその中からは影響されて試問を模倣する者達も現れそんな青年達の試問の餌食となった人々もまたソクラテスへの憎悪を募らせることとなった。又、そんなソクラテスを、喜劇作家のアリストパネスがにおいて、といった、自然哲学者とソフィストを混ぜ合わせたような怪しい人物として描いて揶揄し、大衆にその印象を広めたり、ペロポネソス戦争で講和を破って戦争を再開した挙句、敵国スパルタに亡命し、アテナイの敗北を招いたアルキビアデスや、その後の三十人政権の指導者となったクリティアスなどが、ソクラテスに教えを施された弟子であったと見なされていたことも、ソクラテスを攻撃する絶好の口実となった。このため、ソクラテスはなどの罪状で公開裁判にかけられることになった。アテナイの500人の市民がソクラテスの罪は死刑に値すると断じた。原告は詩人のメレトスで、政界の有力者アニュトスらがその後ろ楯となった。しかし、ソクラテスの刑死の後、など複雑な事情があったと考えられる。ソクラテスは自身の弁明を言い渡される。票決は2回行われ、1回目は比較的小差で有罪。刑量の申し出では常識に反する態度がかえって陪審員らの反感を招き大多数で死刑が可決された。神事の忌みによる猶予の間にクリトン、プラトンらによって逃亡・亡命も勧められ、またソクラテスに同情する者の多かった牢番も彼がいつでも逃げられるよう鉄格子の鍵を開けていたが、ソクラテスはこれを拒否した。当時は死刑を命じられても牢番にわずかな額を握らせるだけで脱獄可能だったが、自身の知への愛（フィロソフィア）と「単に生きるのではなく、善く生きる」意志を貫き、票決に反して亡命するという不正を行なうよりも、死と共に殉ずる道を選んだとされる。紀元前399年ソクラテスは親しい人物と最後の問答を交わしてドクニンジンの杯をあおり従容として死に臨んだ。この顛末は弟子であるプラトンの著作にくわしく書かれている。ソクラテスには、カイレポン、クリトン、プラトン、アリスティッポス、アンティステネス、エウクレイデス、クセノポン、アルキビアデス、クリティアス等々、と考えていた。ソクラテスの家族についてはクセノポンやプラトンの著作でも一部言及されているがディオゲネスラエルティオスの第2巻第5章にあるソクラテスの項目に詳細にまとめられている。それによると父親は石工（彫刻家）ソプロニスコス母親は産婆パイナレテでありアテナイのアロペケ区で生まれ育った。妻はクサンティッペと、義人アリステイデスの娘ミュルトの2人で、クサンティッペとの間にはランプロクレス、ミュルトとの間にはソプロニスコス、メネクセノス、計3名の息子をもうけた。一夫多妻だったのは、当時のアテナイの人口不足を解消するための議決に沿った措置とのこと。クサンティッペは口やかましく激情的な性格だったことが知られており、第2章にてアンティステネスがソクラテスに妻クサンティッペについて問い質す記述からも、それが伺える。ソクラテスの思想は内容的にはイオニア学派の自然哲学者たちに見られるような唯物論的な革新なものではなくという当時の伝統的な考え方の延長線上に彼の思想はある。それにも拘らず彼が特筆される理由はむしろその保守性を過激に推し進めた結果としてのそういった彼の姿勢がその数多くの内容的な欠陥不備素朴さにもかかわらず半端な独断論に陥っている人々よりは思慮深く卓越した人物であると看做される要因となり哲学者の祖の一人としての地位に彼を押し上げることとなった。ディオゲネスラエルティオスの第1巻序章の記述によるとイオニア学派が始めたの祖に位置付けられる。（ソクラテスが後世に名をはせることになった理由としては、彼の弟子の中に、古代ギリシャの哲学者にして著述家であり、アカデメイアの創設者でもあるプラトンがいたこと、そして、そのプラトンが自身の著作の中心的な登場人物として、師であるソクラテスを用いたことを、挙げることができる。）また彼の弟子達の多種多様な思想展開からもわかるように、着眼点によって様々な解釈が可能な、多面的な性格を持ち合わせていた思想家であったとも言える。ちなみに、相当皮肉屋な人物であったようで、死刑が確定し、妻のクサンティッペが「無実の罪で死ぬなんて！」と嘆いた時も、「じゃあ僕が有罪で死んだほうがよかったのかい？」といったといわれる。ソクラテスの一見わかりづらい思想態度を理解するには、彼の生きた当時の時代背景や、ギリシャ世界におけるアテナイの立ち位置を知ることが、いくらか助けになる。まず、彼に先行する哲学者やソフィスト達は、ほとんどがアナトリア半島（小アジア半島）沿岸や黒海周辺、あるいはイタリア半島の出身であり、ギリシャ世界における知的活動は、こういった植民市・辺境地によって先導されてきたものであり、アテナイを含むギリシャ中心地域は、それと比べると、古くからの神話や伝統に依存した保守的な土地柄であったという全体像を確認しておく必要がある。ソクラテスが生きた紀元前5世紀当時のアテナイはペルシャ戦争を経てギリシャ世界の中心地としての地位を確立し最盛期を迎えると共に徹底した民主政が確立された時代からペロポネソス戦争の敗戦後状況による社会的政治的混乱を経て没落していく時代にまたがっている。当然そこには辺境地の哲学者達の知識や優秀なソフィスト達が集まってくるし民主政における処世術や弁論術を学ぶべく彼らは歓迎されることになる。こうして古くからの神話伝統に寄りかかった旧秩序が崩れ徳弁論術の講釈に長けたソフィスト達唯物論無神論的な自然哲学者の知識などが新旧入り乱れアテナイの知的環境は混乱する。ソクラテスの思想はこういった引き裂かれた知的混乱状況の中アテナイ人としての保守性と知的好奇心合理的思考の狭間で揺れ動きつつどれにも与し得ないまま誰の意見もが無知思い込みを孕んだ怪しいものであることの経験的発見と神々への信仰心が独特な形で結びつくことで成立したものだと言える。そのため彼の思想的立場はアテナイの保守層とも外来辺境のソフィスト哲学者とも合致せずそのどれに対しても相対的で「無知の知」を投げかける特殊なものとなっている。しかしペロポネソス戦争の敗戦とその後の三十人政権による恐怖政治に対する怨念が渦巻くアテナイではソクラテスは他のソフィストや唯物論無神論哲学者達と同類のアテナイを堕落させた危険思想家の一人と看做され政治的に敵視されることとなりソクラテスは裁判にかけられ死刑となる。ソクラテスはアポロンの託宣を通じてもっとも知恵のある者とされた。ソクラテスはこれを、自分だけがということを自覚しており、その自覚のために他の無自覚な人々に比べて優れているのだと考えたとされる。その結果、彼は知者を僭称する独断論者たちの無知を暴くための論争に明け暮れることになる。彼のを背景とした知無知に対するこだわりがあるとしたならばそこで真誠な半神たちによる裁判を受けることができるしホメロスやヘシオドスと交わったりオデュッセウスやシシュフォスと問答することもできるどちらにしろ幸福であるというわけである。であるがゆえに死を恐れて不正な裁判に屈することなどなく善き生を貫徹できるし善き生を貫徹した者は死に際しても幸福である。このように死後については「知らない」がそれを自覚しているがゆえにそれについての諸説を冷静に「知る」ことができるしひいてはどちらに転んでも自分や善き生を送った者にとって幸福であることも「知る」ことができだから死を恐れずに善き生をまっとうできる対照的に知に対する節度をわきまえない独断論者たちはどこかでつまずき知りもしないことに踊らされ翻弄されそうはならないといった具合に「善き生」と「無知の知」はひとつの円環を成し「無知の知」は「善き生」にとっての必須条件となっている。 +また一般に、ソクラテスは対話を通じて相手の持つ考え方に疑問を投げかける問答法により哲学を展開する。その方法は自分ではなく相手が知識を作り出すことを助けるということで「産婆術と呼ばれる。プラトンが描くソクラテス像に則るならばソクラテスの業績営みの特徴は人生や社会に関わる抽象概念や曖昧な事柄を明確化しようとしたことにあると言える。ポリスの自由市民達が尊ぶ徳正義善敬虔節制（分別）勇気……とは一体何なのかあるいはそれを教えると称するソフィスト達彼らが駆使する社会操縦術（説得術）である弁論術（レトリケー）等は一体何であるのかそういった曖昧なまま放置されている物事を再度入念に吟味検証することを彼は要求する。そしてそのためには一方通行のまま疑問に答えてくれない弁論や書物では役に立たずしっかりと質疑応答を経て合意を重ねながら対象を深く探求していける問答が必要になる。なお話をわかりやすくするためにそういった抽象概念や曖昧な事柄を具体的実用的な事柄に置き換えつつ問うのも彼の特徴の一つだと言える。例えば「医者は医術を教え彫刻家は〜建築家は〜大工は〜鍛冶屋は〜靴屋は〜ではソフィストは何を教えるのか？」などが典型である。また抽象概念同士の関係性や数一致性不一致性範疇所属なども執拗に問うていく。こういった飽くなき概念の明晰化の追求知識人間の吟味と向上これが彼の考えた愛知（哲学）の営みだと推察できる。こういった一見現実社会に直接役立ちそうもない重箱の隅をつつくような思索を、青年期を過ぎてなお延々と続ける人々を苛立たせる。そして、に登場するトラシュマコスなどのように、公然とソクラテスを非難する人々も出てくることになる。しかしながら、そうしてソクラテスを非難する人々が拠って立っている考えの曖昧さですら、ソクラテスにとっては明確化の対象であり、そういった人々もまた、格好のカモとして、ソクラテスの明確化の渦の中に巻き込まれていくことになる。こうして、タレースなどミレトス学派（イオニア学派）に始まる自然哲学とは対照的な、人間・社会にまつわる概念を執拗に吟味・探求する哲学がソクラテスによって開始され、後にその弟子であるプラトン、更にその弟子であるアリストテレスが、（ピタゴラス教団やエレア派の影響を受けつつ）形而上学をそこに持ち込むことによって、その両者（「自然」と「人間・社会」）のあり方の説明を、包括的に一つの枠組みに統合・合理化したという見解が、一般的に広く受け入れられている。彼の最も重視した概念はよい生き方としてのアレテーである。という意味で、人間のアレテーは魂をよりよくすることであり、刑罰もそのために有効だとする。また、アレテーを実践する者の人生は幸福であるとも主張した。しかし、これはプラトンの考えという説もある。なぜなら、ソクラテスは著書を残していないからである。において、死刑を待ち、拘留されているソクラテスに逃亡を促しに来た弟子のクリトンに対して、彼はと彼自身を非難させ、クリトンに逃亡の説得を諦めさせた。これは、中世・近代に様々に展開していくことになる社会契約論の原型とも言える。彼の弟子であるプラトンや、その弟子であるアリストテレスも、徳の概念と関連させつつ、様々な国家論を論じていくことになる。ソクラテスは徳に従いおかしいと思うことは相手が誰であろうと忌憚無く問い正しいと思うことは誰に反対されようとも実践すべきであることを身を以て示した。その結果彼は自ら死刑を受け入れることになる。ソクラテスは時折といった訴状の内容にも影響を与えたと考えられる。著作をおこなわなかった理由.ソクラテスは書記言語が野放しの状態で広まることを激しく非難していた。ソクラテスは話し言葉つまりとは違って意味音旋律強勢抑揚およびリズムに満ちた吟味と対話によって1枚ずつ皮をはぐように明らかにしていくことのできる動的実体であると考えた。書き留められた言葉は反論を許さず柔軟性に欠けた沈黙であったのでソクラテスが教育の核心と考えていた対話のプロセスにはそぐわなかったのである。ソクラテスは、書き言葉が記憶を破壊すると考えた。個人的知識の基盤を形成するにふさわしい厳密さを期待できるのは暗記するという非常な努力を要するプロセスのみであり、そうして形成した知識基盤は教師との対話の中で磨いていくことができるという信念を抱いていたからである。ソクラテスは読字を恐れていたわけではないが過剰な知識が必然的にもたらす結果表面的な理解しかできないことを恐れていた。ソクラテスはよりよく知識を伝えるには相手の理解に合わせて問いを投げかけて考えを促し誤解を避けるために表現を選び知識を伝える適切なタイミングを計ることが必要でありそれができるのは書物ではなく対話だけだと考えていた。ソクラテスは自説を著作として残さなかったため、今日ではその生涯・思想共に他の著作家の作品を通してうかがい知ることができるのみである。これはとして知られる一連の問題を発生させている。同時代の作家の内、劇作家・詩人のアリストパネスは戯曲『雲』においてギリシャのソフィストたちを揶揄し、その筆頭としてソクラテスを挙げている。ここではソクラテスの言動は揶揄のために誇張されていると考えられる。同じくソクラテスの弟子であるプラトンの記した一連の対話篇にはソクラテスが頻繁に登場する。しかしながら、特に以降のソクラテスはプラトンの思想を表現するための人物として利用されている感がある。他の弟子による文章の一部やプラトンの弟子にあたるアリストテレスによる記述をはじめ、後世の著作家による記述も残っている。ソクラテスの弟子の一人とされるクセノポンは『ソクラテスの思い出』などソクラテスに関する文章を記しており今日まで比較的よく保存されている。ただし西洋哲学の場においては「一切の哲学はプラトンの注釈である」と言われるようにソクラテスについての理解もプラトンの著作と思想（プラトン主義）を通じて行われる厚い伝統がありクセノポンの描くソクラテスは通俗的で哲学者としての力量をとらえきれていないとする風潮がある。またソクラテスは容姿はグロテスクで弟子のプラトンに「我が師ソクラテスは世界で1番醜い。しかし1番賢い。」と言われていた。クセノポンのソクラテス像.でクセノポンが繰り返し強調しているのはソクラテスはとしている。クセノポンのソクラテスの態度はキリスト教の伝統的神秘主義に近い。この書でのダイモニオンについてのソクラテスの解説はキリスト教の聖霊論に非常に類似している。また、というナザレのイエスの教えがソクラテスにおいては、あたかも意図的であるかのように全く逆さまに書かれている点である。これは、戦争に参加もしたソクラテスの根本姿勢がアテナイ民主制の伝統的価値観に依拠していることによるのであり、この点においてソクラテスをナザレのイエスよりも孔子に引き寄せて評価する立場もある。概してにおけるソクラテスはプラトンの登場人物としてのソクラテスよりも明瞭に宗教的人物である。クセノポンはソクラテスは自分が裁判に訴えられたと知るとすぐさま反論を組み立て始めたがダイモニオンがそれを制止したと書いている。ストア派の創始者であるキティオンのゼノンは商人時代に書店で『思い出』に出会ったことから哲学の道に入った。一般にストア派におけるソクラテスの影響はプラトンではなくクセノポンを通じてのものである。 +スポーツは、一定のルールに則って勝敗を競ったり、楽しみを求めたりする身体活動などの総称である。になったと考えられている。日本では大正時代末ころからスポーツという言葉は一般化されたが、当時は欧米から入ってきたものだけを指していた。という表現で柔道や空手などの武道も含めるようになったのは戦後のことである。20世紀末ころから、エンジンのついた乗り物で競技をすることも身体活動が重要な要素を占めるため、などと呼ぶことがある。ビデオゲームによる対戦会もコントローラ操作という身体活動で対戦するためe-Sportsと呼ばれるようになった。の英語表記には集合的な意味で用いると種目別に表現するような場合に用いる / の二種類がある。またやなどのように形容詞的に用いる場合にはsportsという語が用いられることが普通である。特にアメリカでは集合的な意味で用いる場合にもという慣用表現が多用される。しかし学会の名称や学術書の表題などのように学術的な意味で集合的に用いる場合にはやなどのように語尾にを付けない表記が大多数を占めている。スポーツそのものは特に地域的な偏りなく原始的な文明も含めて古代から全世界において行われており古代エジプト王朝成立以前のエジプトにおいてすでに競走が行われていたことがわかっている。古代文明のうちでスポーツを特に重視したのは古代ギリシアであり紀元前776年以降オリュンピアで4年に1回行われた古代オリンピックはギリシアの全都市が参加する大規模なもので大会期間中は戦争が禁じられ勝者には栄誉が与えられた。なおギリシアではこのほかにもネメアー大祭イストミア大祭ピューティア大祭といった大競技大会が開催されていた。古代オリンピックはローマ帝国の統治下でも継続しおそらく393年に行われた第293回大会まで1000年以上継続したが394年にキリスト教の支持の元でテオドシウス1世によって禁止令が発出されたことによって終わりを迎えた。スポーツそのものは世界各地で盛んに行われてきたが、19世紀中頃になるとイギリスにおいてルールの整備と組織化が相次いで行われ、近代スポーツが誕生した。近代スポーツの誕生は、スポーツの隆盛と競技種目数の増加を招いた。サッカーとラグビーのように、いくつかの種目はルールの確定と厳格化によって原型から分化し、異なるスポーツとして発展し始めた。いくつかのスポーツは発祥地から遠隔地の諸国へと広がり、世界的な広がりを持つようになったが、特にイギリスの植民地においては、イギリス発祥のスポーツがそのまま伝播し、クリケットやラグビーのように共通のスポーツ文化を保持するようになった。また、野球やアメリカン・フットボールのように、スポーツが伝播した先で現地文化の影響を受けて変化し、新たな競技として分化することも珍しくなかった。フランスのピエール・ド・クーベルタンは古代オリンピックの復興を唱え、1896年には第1回アテネオリンピックがギリシアのアテネで開催された。このオリンピック大会は徐々に成長していき、やがて世界最大のスポーツイベントとなっていった。スポーツは当初アマチュアリズムに重点が置かれていたが、19世紀後半よりアメリカでスポーツのプロ化がはじまり、やがてヨーロッパにも広がっていった。1970年代に入るとスポーツ・フォー・オール政策が各国で導入されてスポーツの一般市民への普及が図られ、また1980年代に入ると大規模競技大会の商業化が急速に進んで、スポーツ人口および商業規模は大幅に拡大した。スポーツには様々な分類方法がある。たとえば、金銭を目的としない「アマチュア・スポーツ」と、金銭を目的とする「プロフェッショナル・スポーツ」に大別する方法がある。スポーツ技術、記録などの向上を目指し、人間の極限への挑戦を追求する選手のスポーツをと言う。例えばオリンピックなどが挙げられる。それに対して、老若男女、だれもがスポーツに「楽しみ」を求め、健康づくりや社交の場として行うスポーツ、身近な生活の場に取り入れられているスポーツを日本では「生涯スポーツ」と呼ぶ。楽しむことを主たる目的として行うスポーツを「レクリエーショナル・スポーツ」と分類する方法もある。何らかの障害者を持つ人々が行うスポーツをと分類する方法がある。非常に多種類あり、競技会も多種で、大規模な国際大会であるパラリンピックも行われている。フィールドとして水を利用して行うスポーツをと分類する。風や空気の力を主に利用するスポーツをと分類することもある。パラグライディング。道具としてボール」と分類する。原動機のついた乗り物類を用いるスポーツをと分類する。オートバイ競技や自動車レース､ツーリング、PWCなどが挙げられる。動物を使うスポーツは動物スポーツと総称されるが、スポーツと動物の関係は多様であり、馬術や競馬のように人が乗るものや、闘牛のように動物同士を戦わせるものなどさまざまな種類が存在する。に分類してしまうことが適切なのか不適切なのか、議論を生むことはあり、実際に、過去にも柔道連盟などでも何度も議論になってきた歴史がある。また、たとえば合気道は基本的に試合形式では行わない。合気道の師範は一般に、合気道をスポーツと呼ぶことには違和感を表明している。伝統的なスポーツと比較しつつ、新しく考案されたスポーツをと分類することもある。競技スポーツについては以下のように分類される。スポーツ競技一覧も併せて参照のこと。個人の成績だけで勝負を決めるもの。対人競技・競走・採点競技.相手と直接対戦し、勝敗を決めるスポーツのこと。相手と同時に対戦して着順で優劣を決めるか個別に所要時間の記録をとってその結果で優劣を決めるスポーツのこと。相手とは同時に対戦はせず優劣が決まるスポーツのこと。かつてフィギュアスケートは相対評価の6点満点方式だったが、2002年ソルトレークシティー五輪の不正採点事件を機に加点方式に変更されたといわれる。基礎点に加点・減点したの合算。オリンピックのモットーとして有名な、版には第1章の10.に書かれている。各種目のファンや競技者の人口統計.主なスポーツのファンの人口と人気順は、下図のようになっている。各種スポーツではそれぞれ競技大会が行われまた複数の競技を総合的に開催する総合競技大会も数多く行われている。総合競技大会の中でも最も大規模かつ著名なものは4年に1度行われるオリンピックである。このほかアジア競技大会のように地域別のものコモンウェルスゲームズのように政治的紐帯によるものなどさまざまな区分による総合競技大会が存在する。また各種競技単独で世界各国が参加して行われる国際大会も数多く存在する。こうした国際大会の中で最も大規模かつ人気のあるものはサッカーのFIFAワールドカップである。参加に対して報酬を得られるかどうかによってスポーツ選手はアマチュアスポーツとプロフェッショナルスポーツの2つに分けられる。また報酬を得ているもののそれのみで生計を立てられないセミプロの選手も存在する。アマチュアとして一般市民が余暇の1つとして行うスポーツは多岐にわたっており、市民チームやクラブは無数に存在するほか、市民マラソンのように一般市民が参加できる個人競技大会も存在する。競技スポーツだけでなく、健康のために個人で行うスポーツの参加者も多く、ジョギングやエアロビクスなどの流行と隆盛をもたらした。世界最大のスポーツ大会であるオリンピックは、創設者のクーベルタン以降長らくアマチュアリズムの理想を掲げており、アマチュアしか出場することができなかった。なかでも第5代国際オリンピック委員会会長だったアベリー・ブランデージは強硬なアマチュア論者として知られ、プロの排除を厳格に遂行したが、この頃にはソヴィエト連邦をはじめとする共産圏諸国が国家の威信をかけて育成した、いわゆるの進出が進んでおり、この方針は多くの摩擦を引き起こした。こうしたことからブランデージ退任後の1974年にこの方針は削除され、以後プロの進出が急速に進んだ。これに対し一部の人気のあるスポーツにおいては優秀なプレイヤーがプロフェッショナル化しスポーツ参加のみで生計を立てることができるようになっている。各国において人気のあるスポーツは異なるためプロ化しているスポーツも国ごとに異なっている。人気に高いスポーツには多くの観客が集まりさらにマスメディアによって放映される試合には膨大な数の視聴者を見込むことができるため一部のプロスポーツでは莫大な金額が動きトッププレイヤーは高額な報酬を得ることができる。スポーツ選手としての収入のほかトッププレイヤーはコマーシャルの出演によっても多額の収入を得られる場合がある。こうしたことから世界の年収ランキングにおいては数人のトップ選手がランクインすることが常である。スポーツは参加者・ファンともに膨大な人口がいるため、スポーツに関連した産業も巨大なものとなっている。スポーツ用品産業には各種スポーツに専用の道具を生産するものだけでなく例えば各チームのユニフォームやスポーツ用シューズの生産なども含まれる。こうしたスポーツ用品は参加者のほかお気に入りの選手と同じ商品を求めるファンや機能やデザインを気に入った一般市民をも販売対象としている。メディア産業においてスポーツは重要な地位を占めている。プロスポーツの試合や世界大会のスポーツ中継には膨大な数の視聴者がおりその広告収入を見込んで有力スポーツのイベントには莫大な放映権料が提示される。放映権料のほかにスポーツイベントにおいては有力企業がスポンサーシップを獲得し資金を拠出する代わりに独占的な広告の権利を得る。こうしたスポンサー契約は高い広告効果を持つため各社は契約獲得にしのぎを削っている。放映権料はプロスポーツやオリンピックなどの大規模競技大会において総収入の過半を占めることが常でありスポーツ界を支える柱の一つとなっているが一方でマスメディアの都合により試合時間や時期の変更さらには競技ルールの変更が行われることもある 。テレビやラジオでは試合中継のほかにも結果がスポーツニュースとして流され翌日の新聞でもしばしば大きく報道される。スポーツ関係を主に扱うスポーツ新聞も各国に存在し各スポーツに特化したスポーツ雑誌も多数発行されている。登山やスキー、水上スポーツなど一部のスポーツは特定の場所でしか行うことができないため、スポーツを行うことを目的としたスポーツツーリズムも盛んに行われている。特に冬季にはアルプス山脈地方を中心に多くの観光客がスキーリゾートを訪れ、スキー客数は増加の一途をたどっている。また、大規模なスポーツイベントを観戦するための旅行や、スポーツチームが合宿や遠征を行うための旅行もスポーツツーリズムの小さくない部分を占める。スポーツツーリズムは該当地域の経済に好影響を与える一方で、環境や文化の破壊などの問題をもたらす場合もある。スポーツと賭博の間の関係は国によってさまざまである。2009年には世界の商業賭博総額3350億ドルの内競馬が7%スポーツくじが5%を占めていた。ただしスポーツ賭博を完全に禁じている国も珍しくなくさらに同じ国内においてもスポーツ賭博の対象として認められている競技と一切禁じている競技とが存在する。日本では戦前から認められていた競馬に加え1948年から1951年にかけて競艇競輪オートレースが相次いで公営競技化されたほか2001年からはサッカーを対象にスポーツ振興くじが発売されている。グローバリゼーション・ナショナリズム.19世紀以降、いくつかのスポーツは発祥地から遠隔地の諸国へと広がり、世界的な広がりを持つようになった。スポーツはルールの共有や整備を通じて、発祥地の文化を越えて普遍的な方向へと進む傾向があるが、一方で元々それを固有文化としていた地域においては、固有性と普遍性の間で衝突が起きる場合がある。それぞれの競技には国際的な統括団体として国際競技連盟が存在しており、各国の国内競技連盟間の調整や国際大会の主催、各国間の相互交流などを行っている。ただし競技が行われる地域はそれぞれ異なっており、サッカーのように比較的偏りなく全世界で行われるスポーツもあれば、北米・カリブ海・極東に競技者の集中している野球や、イギリス連邦諸国で主に行われるクリケットやラグビーのように一部地域で強い人気を持つものもある。こうした国際的な人気スポーツに対し、ある1カ国や1民族で長く行われている民族スポーツも世界各地に存在し、根強い人気を誇っている。スポーツとナショナリズムの間には、すでに19世紀において強い相関が認められ、21世紀においても各種国際大会の勝敗は各国のナショナリズムの高揚をもたらす。1969年には、関係の極度に悪化していたホンジュラスとエルサルバドル間の対立が1970 FIFAワールドカップ・予選の両国対決をきっかけに爆発し、サッカー戦争と呼ばれる戦争へとつながったこともある。多くの文明において身体を鍛えることは教育の一環として非常に重視されていた。ヨーロッパにおいてはそれまで教育においては軽視されていた体育がルネサンス期以降カリキュラムに採り入れられるようになり19世紀に義務教育が導入されると体育も必修科目となった。日本でも明治政府がこの考え方を取り入れ1872年の学制発布時に教科の一つとなり以後学校教科としての体育が定着していった。スポーツを対象とした学問分野はスポーツ科学と総称される。スポーツ科学の起源は19世紀末にさかのぼり当初はより高い身体能力の構築や選手の治療といったスポーツ医学の分野からはじまったがやがてスポーツ社会学など人文社会科学分野にも広がりを見せるようになりまた自然科学においても医学以外の分野へ発展していった 。1970年代には人類学との関連も始まり1980年代にはスポーツ人類学が確立した。こうしたスポーツ科学の発展はより競技者の能力を引き出せる質の高いスポーツ用具の開発を促しまた映像技術の活用によってより優れたスポーツ技術が一般化され記録の更新へとつながっていった。判定にもビデオ判定が導入されることにより誤審の減少へとつながっている。スポーツは市民の文化や健康にとって欠かせないものと考えられており、多くの国家でスポーツを振興するためのスポーツ政策が実施されている。プロスポーツの拡大やスポーツ人口の増大は都市におけるスポーツスタジアムの建設を不可欠なものとしたが、こうしたスタジアム建設は都市にとって大規模な再開発や都市基盤整備の契機となる。スポーツを題材とした作品は数多く存在し、文学、映画、漫画など多くの分野でそれぞれ傑作が生まれている。美的な事柄についての哲学である美学の領域において、近年スポーツに注目する理論家が増えてきた。例えば、デビッド・ベストは、スポーツと芸術との類似性について書き、倫理との関連性なしにスポーツが純粋に美的なものに近いことを強調した。ベストは、芸術の特徴として、人生に道徳的な考察をもたらす能力を持っていることを挙げる。スポーツにはこのような能力はないが、多くのスポーツの楽しみは間違いなく美的なものであると彼は考えた。1998年にスロヴェニア共和国のリュブリヤーナで行われた第14回国際美学会議で発表されたヴォルフガングヴェルシュの論考と呼びうるものになっているとヴェルシュは考えた。 +両国国技館は、日本の東京都墨田区横網一丁目にある大相撲の興行のための施設。公益財団法人日本相撲協会が所有している。プロレスボクシングなどの格闘技の興行会場その他のスポーツ競技の会場ポピュラー音楽のライブ会場としても使用される。クラシック音楽のコンサートが開かれた事例もある。なおという呼称は日本相撲協会が一般向けに用いる通称であり、同協会による正式な呼称は国技館である。番付では、旧字体で國技館と表記している。1833年となって常設館建設に動くことになった。その後、日本初のドーム型鉄骨板張の洋風建築の建物となった。屋根は法隆寺金堂を真似た。約13,000人収容できた。開館当初は仮称で、翌年から国技館という呼び方が定着した。また、鉄柱308本と鉄材538tで建造された大屋根が巨大な傘に見えたため、大鉄傘という愛称で呼ばれていた。その後、日本大学が日本相撲協会から旧国技館（墨田区両国）を買収。1958年（昭和33年）から1982年（昭和57年）までの間は、日本大学講堂だった（下記詳述）。回向院の近辺には旧国技館跡の説明板が建てられている。先代は現在の国技館とは異なり京葉道路沿いの本所回向院の境内にあった。1906年（明治39年）6月着工、3年後の1909年（明治42年）5月に竣工し、6月2日に開館式が行われ、6月場所より使用された（それまでは小屋掛け［臨時に設備を設けて行なうこと］による「回向院場所」が行なわれていた)。しかし6月場所の番付上は「常設館」とだけあって、まだ国技館の名は無かった。6月場所は本来は5月18日より興行との番付が発表されており、工事の遅延によって場所が延期となって6月開催となったという経緯がある。設計は日本銀行本店や東京駅浜寺公園駅の設計者として知られる辰野金吾とその教え子葛西萬司での愛称は当時のデザインに由来する。工事費用は27万円。枡席約1000席を含む13000人が収容可能で3000人程度しか収容できなかった小屋掛け時代の3倍以上の収容能力となった。実際の収容人数は20000人以上ともされていた。建物の内径は62m中央の高さは25mあった。天候に関係なく興行を打てるようになったことで優勝制度が自然発生的に生まれたとする見方もある。こうして竣工した常設館の名称は当初は設立委員会の委員長を務める伯爵板垣退助が提案した「尚武舘」（しょうぶかん）が有力な候補となっていた。ところが大の相撲好きだった作家の江見水蔭が開館式の式次第のために起草した披露文の中に「角力は日本の國技なり」という一文を見た委員の一人年寄の三代尾車（元大関大戸平）はこれに甚く感じるところがあり土壇場になって名称に「國技舘」を提案した。この名称については5月29日の委員会で話し合われたがまとまらず結局開館式の直前になって板垣の最終決定という形でこれを了承。これを受けて6月1日付の『朝日新聞』に「國技舘を觀る」という記事が掲載された。午前5時の祝砲に始まった翌2日の開館式は空前の盛会となり土俵の中央に立った板垣が「國技舘」と命名されたことを高らかに宣言すると会場は拍手万雷に包まれた。翌3日付の『朝日』が「國技と名づけられたる角力道がいや榮に榮えゆくべき瑞相とは知られたり」と書いたように相撲はここに神事から国技へと変貌を遂げたのである。なお命名が最後までずれ込んだため当初の番付表などにはまだ「両國元町常設館」とあったが翌年1月場所の番付表に初めて「本所元町國技舘」の名称が記された。1917年火災保険は約13万円だった。使用不能の間は靖国神社境内に仮小屋を建てて興行を行なった。新国技館は葛西博士により屋根は亜鉛製にて設計され1918年（大正7年）7月に地鎮祭起工式1919年（大正8年）4月3日に鉄柱崩壊事故があるも1920年（大正9年）1月15日に完成開館式を挙行した。1920年（大正9年）9月1日に再建興行したが1923年（大正12年）9月1日の関東大震災で屋根柱など外観を残して再度焼失。再建の結果翌年の夏場所から興行を再開した。再建中1924年（大正13年）1月に愛知県名古屋市で本場所が行われたこともある。なお同年11月にも同球場で秋場所が開催された以来72年ぶりであった。両国メモリアルホール.日本の降伏による第二次世界大戦敗戦後の1945年場所が行なわれた。晴天10日間と露天並みの興行だった。占領軍から本場所開催許可の一つの条件としてという要請で1場所限り土俵の直径を15尺11月場所と11月場所終了後の第35代横綱双葉山引退披露が旧国技館での最後の興行となった。以降はプロボクシングやプロレスリングなどの会場として使用された。ちなみに日本初の公開プロレスは1951年9月30日にメモリアルホールで開催されており大相撲を廃業したばかりの力道山がリングサイドで観戦約1ヵ月後の10月28日にエキシビションながら同じメモリアルホールのリングに上がり前世界チャンピオンのボビーブランズと対戦しこれがプロレスデビューとなった。また全日本柔道選手権大会の会場にも使用された。1952年4月1日の接収解除後協会が再び国技館としての使用を検討したもののすでに蔵前国技館の建築が始まっておりまた自動車用の駐車場などを設置する場所的な余裕が無いことから使用を断念国際スタジアムに売却した。国際スタジアムではローラースケートリンクとしてまたプロボクシングやプロレスリングなどの会場としても利用された。国際スタジアムは旧国技館を1958年6月に日本大学に譲渡し「日本大学講堂」（通称日大講堂）となる。日大講堂は日大の行事よりもプロボクシングやプロレスリングコンサートなど多くの興行イベントに使用されていた。プロレスでは主に全日本プロレスが東京でのビッグマッチに使用しており1974年12月には日本人で初めてNWA世界ヘビー級王座を獲得したジャイアント馬場のジャックブリスコとの初防衛戦が日大講堂で行われた。ボクシングでは大場政夫が出場したWBA世界フライ級タイトルマッチ他にも輪島功一と小熊正二の世界戦が行われた。1968年としても使用された。1976年大相撲からプロレスラーに転向した天龍源一郎がこの日大講堂での全日本プロレスの興行において断髪式が盛大に行われた。1975年（昭和50年）の消防法改正によりスプリンクラーの設備がないままでは集会施設として使用できないこととなった。日大側は設備の設置を検討したが老朽化により屋根がもたないと判断。消防法が施行された1977年4月以降はほぼ使用されない状態となった。このため墨田区は両国の発展に支障をきたすとして1978年に大学へ善処するよう注文を付けている。1982年に解体された。以降日大の入学式卒業式は日本武道館で挙行されるようになった。日大講堂に解体されるまで国技館当時のの姿を堅持していた。解体後の跡地には複合ビル施設のが建設された。キーテナントは劇場シアターでありその他オフィス住宅レストランなどからなる。その中庭には旧国技館の土俵の位置がタイルの色で示されている。1985年11月30日に完成。翌年1月9日盛大に落成式が催され千代の富士と北の湖の両横綱による三段構えが披露された。その場所で千代の富士はと明暗分かれる世代交代の場所となった。蔵前国技館は厚木の海軍倉庫の鉄骨を払い下げてもらい建設されたものであり昭和50年代に入ると傷み具合は相当激しくなってきた。春日野理事長は1974年（昭和49年）の就任直後から理事会で新国技館建設の構想を打ち明けていてのちに記者会見で「私が入門したのは昭和十四年の初場所なんです。ご承知のとおりその場所はあの双葉山関が安芸ノ海関に敗れ七十連勝をストップされた歴史的な場所です。私はその日たまたま翌日の取組表をもらいに行って"双葉散る"の場面を目撃しているんですよ。まあ座ブトン灰皿までが飛ぶ大変な騒ぎでした。それでまたいつか両国で相撲をという思いは人一倍強かったんですね」「新しい両国国技館を建てたいという夢を描いたのは横綱の現役時代なんですよ。毎日両国の春日野部屋を車で出て蔵前国技館へ車で向かう途中旧国技館（当時の日大講堂）の前を通るんです。だんだん古くなってさびれていく様を見るにつけようし私が…という思いがつのっていったんです」 と述べ"両国帰還" の姿勢を鮮明にする。春日野理事長は最初に日大講堂の買い戻しを検討するも、敷地が蔵前国技館よりも狭いことからこの案は立ち消えになり、両国駅北側に狙いを定める。ちょうど国鉄が赤字解消を目指して遊休地の処分に積極的になっていた時代背景もある。1980年4月27日に着工した。大相撲の本場所引退相撲NHK福祉大相撲などで協会自らが使用するほか設計段階より多目的に使える構造として構想されていて新日本プロレスのG1 CLIMAX決勝戦からは毎年全日本ロボット相撲大会が開催されるほか毎年2月には国技館5000人の第九コンサートが行なわれている。煌めく青春 南関東総体2014では相撲競技の会場となった。イベント会場としての利用.プロレス興行でのこけら落としは1985年3月9日の全日本プロレスであった。しかし、輪島大士ら力士出身者の全日本プロレス入りが相次いだことなどから、全日本は日本武道館を主に使用するようになり、両国国技館は新日本プロレスの会場として定着していく。新日本の初使用は1985年4月18日（当日のメインイベントはアントニオ猪木 対 ブルーザーブロディ戦）である。だが前年のIWGP優勝戦蔵前国技館大会の暴動事件から日本相撲協会に気を使った新日本がトップレスラーのブルーザーブロディに「入場コスチュームのチェーンの持ち込み禁止」を通達激怒したブロディが猪木を試合前に襲撃するという一幕があった（ブロディは結局チェーンを持ってリング入りしている。またブロディは3月の全日本両国大会にもチェーン持参で参戦している）。しかし1987年12月27日にたけしプロレス軍団の登場に激怒したファンが暴動を起こしその際に座布団を破ったり設備を破壊するなどしたため日本相撲協会から無期限使用禁止を言い渡された（1989年2月に解除）。なお1991年の第1回G1 CLIMAX決勝戦において蝶野正洋が優勝した際リング上に大量の座布団が投げられたため以後座布団の使用が禁止されている。現在は年2回のビッグマッチに使用されている。一方の全日本は武藤敬司体制となってから武道館が使用できなくなったのもありと題したPPV興行としてビッグマッチを再び両国で開いている。全日本から分かれる形で旗揚げされたプロレスリング・ノアは長らくビッグマッチを武道館で開いていたため両国を使用することがなかったが、2011年限りで武道館から撤退したため、2012年7月22日に初の両国大会を開催した。この大会では力士出身である力皇猛の引退セレモニーも執り行われた。1986年4月5日に、全日本女子プロレスがビッグマッチを開いていた。2007年2月のLLPWを最後に女子プロレス興行は行われなくなったが、2012年4月29日にスターダムが初進出。2014年10月11日にはLLPW-Xが7年ぶりに開催された。2021年12月29日にスターダムが8年ぶり2度目の開催、2022年3月19日に東京女子プロレスが初開催をそれぞれ予定。2009年にはインディー団体のDDTプロレスリングも進出して「両国ピーターパン」と題したビッグイベントを夏に開催している（2012年は武道館を使用したが、2013年は再び両国に戻し2日間に渡り開催）。2015年には同じくインディー団体の大日本プロレスも進出（デスマッチを売りにしている団体であるが、蛍光灯・ガラス・画鋲など、破片等が飛散する凶器の使用は禁止）。過去には近畿を拠点とするDRAGON GATEも東京におけるビッグマッチの会場として使用した時期がある（大田区体育館建て替えのための代替。現在は建て替え後の大田区総合体育館を使用）。FFF（1998年解散）、格闘探偵団バトラーツ（2001年解散）も会場として使用したことがある。2010年には世界最大のプロレス団体WWEの日本大会が開催され、2017年の開催も決定している。2010年から2015年までIGFが、12月に開催し、2012年以降はINOKI BOM-BA-YEを大晦日興行として行われていた。2015年11月15日には、天龍源一郎の引退興行が催された。又新日本プロレスでは年二回ビッグマッチを行なっている。2020年には両国3連戦も計画している。ボクシングでは、浜田剛史3試合を全て両国国技館で開催。2017年には村田諒太がここで世界王者となり、日本人初となるオリンピックメダリストのプロボクシング世界王者となった。また世界戦のみならず日本プロボクシング協会主催のチャンピオンカーニバルで1998年スーパーフェザー級王者コウジ有沢の5階級日本タイトルマッチ同時開催興行等も実施された。2020年東京オリンピックではボクシング競技会場として使用された。その他格闘技では、高田延彦が1991年12月にUWFインターナショナルと銘打って元WBC世界ヘビー級王者トレバー・バービックに圧勝。その後も極真会館主催の全日本空手道選手権大会と全世界ウェイト制空手道選手権大会、パンクラス、SRC、THE OUTSIDER、シュートボクシングなどで開催実績がある。他のスポーツ競技では1985年の新両国国技館開場の年に日本女子代表チームが出場したバレーボールの国際試合が開催されたことがある。2011年にはFIG体操ワールドカップ東京大会の会場となった。2018年10月にはプロ卓球リーグTリーグ開幕戦の会場として使用された。試合が行われたわけではないが2020年12月にプロ野球読売ジャイアンツがファン感謝デーの会場として使用したことがある。スポーツ以外のイベント.1985年12月31日には、民放同時放送のメイン会場として使用された。1986年4月29日には内閣の主催により昭和天皇御在位60年記念式典を挙行した。1992年には格闘ゲーム『ストリートファイターII』、1993年にはそのバージョンアップの『ストリートファイターIIターボ』、1994年にはさらなるバージョンアップの『スーパーストリートファイターII』（いずれもスーパーファミコン版）の全国大会が行われた。同1992年12月6日には等のゲーム大会やUFOキャッチャー選手権が開かれたりや司会者にマイケル富岡ゲストに所ジョージ高橋由美子大森うたえもん大川興業林原めぐみ等が出演した。メガドライブやメガCDの新作ソフトの出品がラインナップされた。アイデア対決全国高等専門学校ロボットコンテストという高等専門学校のロボットの性能技術を競うコンクールでは1991年の第4回大会（テーマ「ホットタワー」）以後毎年全国コンクールの会場として使われており地方コンクール（全国8地区）を勝ち抜いた高専生の憧れの場「高専生の甲子園」とまで言われている。蔵前国技館時代から日本民謡協会主催の民謡民舞全国大会が4日間当会場で開催されていたが2017年から品川区立総合区民会館に会場を移動して継続開催されている。また、年に数回程度、コンサート・ライブの会場として使われることがある。ライヴ会場としてのこけら落としは1985年3月31日に開催された、ロックバンド甲斐バンドの が開催され、石野卓球、大沢伸一らが出演した。2018年11月にはポール・マッカートニーが日本ツアーの追加公演を、本人の希望で国技館を会場として開催した。アニメゲーム関係では2007年12月24日には堀江由衣が声優としては初めて単独コンサートを行い2015年11月28日29日にはAQUAPLUS作品のファンイベント『大アクアプラス祭』を行い2018年10月6日7日には『それいけ!アンパンマン』テレビアニメ放送30周年＆劇場版30作記念イベント東京公演を行った。また両国国技館傍に本社を置くライオンや芸能プロダクションアミューズの株主総会も当地で開催される。年末年始は通常大相撲初場所の準備のため会場貸しは行われないが2009年の大晦日から2010年の元旦にかけてさだまさしが国技館初のカウントダウンコンサートを行い幟のほかに角界関係者をはじめとする企業個人などから150枚を超える懸賞幕が出された。2010年には演芸コンテストの準決勝会場としても使用されたほか、2019年には日本テレビで毎年8月に放送されるチャリティー番組のメイン会場として使用された。満点☆青空レストラン・行列のできる法律相談所の生放送でも使われた。うち2020年/2021年は、新型コロナウイルス感染症の流行の影響により無観客で開催される。2015年6月2日、ミュージシャンの星野源がリーダーを務めるインストバンド、SAKEROCKの解散ライブが開催された。相撲協会は国技館を蔵前国技館時代は土俵の上にリングを組む女子プロレスや女子格闘技の大会、興行、イベントには当初は貸していたが女人禁制により貸さなくなっていた。男子のものでも花束嬢などの女性はリングには上がらせないようにしていた。両国国技館になって土俵はエレベーター式の昇降型となり地下に沈めることができるようになったために貸すようになり、リング上に花束嬢などの女性が中央に立つことも可能となった。しかし、のちに他会場を含め花束嬢の登壇は減少している。リングでの女人禁制は解禁されたものの土俵への女人禁制は両国国技館になっても続いた。アマチュアの国際相撲連盟主催世界相撲選手権大会は女子が参加してなかった第9回大会までは大半が国技館で実施されていたが世界女子相撲選手権大会が同時開催となった2001年第10回大会から2018年第22回大会は一度も国技館で開催されていない。わんぱく相撲全国大会については男女混合で行われることもある地区大会優勝者が女性だった場合に出場権がないことが問題となっていた。この問題についてはわんぱく相撲全国大会主催の東京青年会議所が2019年にわんぱく相撲女子全国大会を開設することによって解決を図っている。2005年ヒップホップのイベント『B BOY PARK』のMCバトルは国技館の土俵上で行われた。出場者に女性ラッパーのCOMA-CHIがいた。ハイヒールは脱ぐことになったが土俵には上がることができ準優勝を果たした。平成期以前にハプニング以外で国技館の土俵に女性が上がったのは唯一か非常に珍しいことである。2007年9月19日には観客の40歳前後の女性が国技館の土俵にハプニングで乱入する事件が発生している。これに関して日刊スポーツはとしている。日本相撲協会側ではこれについて、この女性が土俵の勝負俵内には入っていないため伝統は破られていないとしている。女人禁制のため断髪式でも女性は鋏を入れる役をさせてもらえなかったが2010年10月2日最高位大関だった千代大海の国技館で行われた断髪式で彼は母美恵に鋏を入れてもらうことにした。しかし美恵は土俵下で彼の髪を切ることとなった。これを機に女性も鋏を入れる例が増えたが土俵には上がらないことが続いた。 +薬学（やくがく、）とは、薬物を専門とする学問である。医療をサポートする学問領域の医療薬学と薬の発見と製造に関する領域の医薬品化学に大別される。1940年代以前は前者は医学における一大分野であり後者は有機化学の主たるテーマの1つであった。20世紀に入り有機化学生物学および医学の著しい発展とともにを軸とする学問分野も展開し1950年代になるとそれらを統合した薬学を専攻する機関として薬学部が設置され医学や化学などとの領域分担が明確になっていった。日本では、大学で6年制の薬学科を修了すると薬剤師国家試験の受験資格が与えられる。したがって薬剤師は必ず学士以外の学位を持つ場合も見受けられる。薬学の基礎領域科学には次に挙げるものが知られている。有機化学 - 物理化学 - 分析化学 - 放射化学 - 医薬品化学 - 天然物化学 - 生物有機化学 - 生薬学 - 栄養学 - 農薬学 - 火薬学 - 創薬学 - 工業薬学 - 解剖学 - 組織学 - 生理学 - 細胞生物学 - 微生物学 - 寄生虫学 - 分子生物学 - 免疫学 - 生化学薬学の応用としての医学との学際的分野であるが大きく二つに分けると次のようになる。薬剤学臨床薬学関連分野.医薬の使用をテーマとした医療サポートに関連が深い薬剤学臨床薬学に関する学問分野として次に挙げるものが知られている。薬理学 - 物理薬剤学 - 化学薬剤学 - 生物薬剤学 - 薬物動態学 - 調剤学 - 製剤学 - 医療薬剤学 - 病理学 - 内科学 - 外科学 - 看護学 - 予防医学 - 病態生理学 - 薬物治療学 - 医薬品情報学 - 日本薬局方 - 薬物学 - 生薬学-漢方薬学 - 歯科薬理学 - 家畜薬理学 - 臨床化学 - 神経化学 - 粉体工学- 薬局薬学- 病院薬学衛生上の知識に関連する学問分野として次に挙げるものが知られている。衛生化学 - 栄養化学 - 環境科学 - 疫学 - 公衆衛生学 - 口腔衛生学 - 家畜衛生学 - 病態生化学 - 毒性学 - 生態学社会薬学は薬がもつ社会的使命や価値に関する学問分野として次に挙げるものが知られている。薬と社会 - 薬をめぐる行動とその関係および相互作用 - 薬害の社会学 - 社会薬学 - 薬剤経済学 - 薬史学 － レギュラトリーサイエンス - 薬物乱用- ファーマシューティカルコミュニケーション日本薬局方収載医薬品は治療薬一覧に詳しい +身体装飾として区別する場合もある。人類の歴史上身体の装飾行為がいつ始まったのかは定かではない。しかし人類が社会を形成するようになって以降の遺構からはさまざまな身体装飾の痕跡が見出されている。例えば日本列島では縄文時代の土偶などに入れ墨が表現されており男女ともに身体装飾に使用されていた。身体の装飾は美意識だけによるものではなく個人ないし集団を同定し得るシンボル（目印）ともなり通過儀礼や魔除け等のためにも行われた。自然崇拝や精霊崇拝の盛んな地域では動物と同じ能力や精霊の力を手に入れるためにその対象物の一部を模した模様や紋章などを入れ墨や瘢痕文身として身体に入れることも見られる。また身分差別や犯罪者の識別等のための懲罰的な身体装飾もみられる。現代的な人権意識では纏足等身体への侵襲を伴う身体装飾を強要したり自意識が発達する以前に恒久的な身体装飾を施すものは問題視される傾向も見られる。宝石とは、希少性が高く美しい外観を有する固形物のこと。一般的に外観が美しくアクセサリーなどに使用される鉱物を言う。主に天然鉱物としての無機物結晶を指すがラピスラズリガーネットのような数種の無機物の固溶体オパール黒曜石モルダバイトのような非晶質珊瑚や真珠琥珀のような生物に起源するものキュービックジルコニアのような人工合成物質など様々である。古の中華文明圏では価値のある石をであり玉ではない。一方で西欧を含む非中華文明圏ではダイヤモンドに代表される透明な鉱物が宝石として特に珍重された。宝石としての必須条件は何よりその外観が美しいこと次に希にしか産しないことによる摩擦風化劣化のために表面が傷ついたりファセットの稜が丸みを帯びたりして観賞価値が失われてしまうためである。例としてダイヤモンドはモース硬度10ルビーサファイアはモース硬度9である。石英のモース硬度は7でありこれらの宝石の硬度は石英のそれより高いことに注意されたい。例外的に硬度が7以下であってもオパール真珠サンゴなどはその美しさと希少性から宝石として扱われる。硬度以外の耐久性の条件としては、衝撃により破壊されないこと（じん性）、ある程度の耐火耐熱性があること、酸、アルカリといった化学薬品に侵されないこと、経年変化により変色、退色しないことなどが挙げられる。その他、大きさ、色彩、透明度などの鑑賞的価値、知名度などの財産的価値といった所有の欲求を満たす性質が重要である。ただし宝石と云う扱いを受けても知名度があまり高くない石は収集家やマニア向けの珍品逸品いわゆるコレクターズアイテムの位置に留まり見た目の美しさと希少性だけが取り上げられその他の条件についてはかなり緩くなっている場合が多い。この手の石にはモース硬度2～5などといった傷つき易い石空気中の湿気を吸い取ったり酸化が進んで変質する石紫外線を吸収して自然と退色する石1カラットに満たない小さなそれしか取れない石はてはお湯をかけるだけで溶けてしまう石などがあり当然取り扱いには注意を要する。知名度が高い石であっても取り扱いに注意を要する石もある。例を挙げるとオパールやトルコ石は石内部に水を含んでいるため乾燥により割れたり、オパールの場合その一大特徴である遊色効果が消失することもある。サンゴや真珠は酸には極端に弱く、レモン汁や食酢が付着しただけで変色する。コハクは高温に弱くすぐ溶ける。エメラルドは内部に無数の傷を抱えているので、とりわけ衝撃には弱くたいへん割れ易い。鉱物の中で金属にあたり希少性が高く化学反応や風化などによる経年変化が著しく低い鉱物を貴金属といい金プラチナなどが該当する。したがって材質のみから資産価値を定めた場合換金性実用用途に関しては貴金属の方が宝石よりおおよその場合優れている。貴金属とりわけ金は価格算定の根拠となる世界的に通用する評価基準が決められており相場や市場が整備されさらに金本位制という経済制度によって各国通貨の貨幣価値を超国家規模で並列化している事に対し宝石はダイヤモンドこそ国際的な評価基準ルールや市場相場が定められているもののそれ以外はどの宝石もその評価基準は厳密ではなく国や民族によっても大きく異なっている。具体的には翡翠は東アジアの国々では高く評価されるが欧米での評価はそれほどでもない。逆に真珠のように日本国内よりも海外の方が高額で取引される宝石も存在する。誕生石が国によって異なるのもその辺の事情を物語っている。一見貴金属並みの資産価値が確立されているように思えるダイヤモンドも材質上の理由から火災などの高温環境にさらされると損傷を受け資産価値が損なわれる可能性があるため純資産として永続的に保有し続けるには難がある。<br>ただし、特定の宝石はホープダイヤモンドやコ・イ・ヌール、インドの星のように、その歴史的経緯や由来により動産や美術・博物収集品として品質以上の価値をもつことがままある。上記のように資産性においては宝石は貴金属より安定しないものの、貴金属が宝飾向け以外にも、金属特有の優れた電気電導性、箔に代表されるように著しい展延性を活かした加工、耐酸化・還元性を生かした工業用途で多々用いられるように、宝石もまた人工生産により安定供給されるものを含め、工業用製品の材料として用いられている。例えばダイアモンドは研磨材、ボーリングマシンのロッド、切削加工工具などに使用され、サファイアはレコード針や高級腕時計の風防、クロマトグラフのプランジャー・精密機器基板、ルビーは機械式時計の軸受けやレーザー発振媒質、ガーネットはルビー同様のレーザー発振媒質および紙やすりの砥粒、水晶は水晶振動子や各種石英製品、真珠は漢方薬と個々の性質を生かして多様に用いられている。宝石の名称は地名やギリシャ語から名付けられることが多い。特に古くから宝石として扱われてきたものには、ルビーとサファイア、エメラルドとアクアマリンのように無機物としての組成は同一だが、微量に混入する不純物、ジャスパー、カーネリアン、クリソプレーズ、アベンチュリンなど様々な名称で呼ばれている。また近年宝石として評価されるようになった新発見の鉱物に関しては、ゾイサイトやスギライトなど発見者や研究者の名に由来するものが多い。と記述される。刊行後に発見された物も含め、Wikipedia日本語版では110種余の試料を宝石として取り扱っている。 +液晶は液体のような流動性と結晶のような異方性を兼ね備えた物質である。一部の液晶は電圧を印加すると分子の向きが変化しそれによって光学特性が変化する性質を持つものがある。この性質を応用した液晶ディスプレイなどの製品が広く普及している。液晶は、液体と結晶の間に出現する中間相の一種で、細長い分子や円盤状の分子が、分子の方向はある規則に従って並んでいるが、重心位置には結晶のような3次元秩序を持たない状態の総称である。液晶には様々な種類があり、それらの命名は液晶研究者により非系統的に行われていたが、2001年にIUPACが国際液晶学会の協力の下に液晶関連の名称定義に関する勧告を公表している。本稿での液晶の分類はそれに準じたものである。中間相には液晶の他に、結晶と同様の3次元的な重心秩序は存在するが、分子の方向はランダムである柔粘性結晶（Plastic Crystal)がある。液晶は分子の重心の規則性の程度において重心位置の秩序が普通の液体と同様に存在しないネマチック液晶1次元の重心位置秩序を持つスメクチック液晶2次元の重心位置秩序を持つカラムナー液晶に分類される。歴史的にはネマチック液晶スメクチック液晶にコレステリック液晶を加えた3分類が流布しており現在でも用いられているが後述するようにコレステリック液晶はネマチック液晶に含まれるもので重心秩序に基づく分類により科学的な根拠がある。すべての物質が液晶状態となるわけではなく多くの物質は結晶から液体へと直接変化する。液晶相を発現する物質の中で温度変化により結晶と液体の間に液晶状態をとるものをサーモトロピック液晶溶媒へ溶解するとある濃度範囲で液晶となるものをリオトロピック液晶と呼ぶ。また細長い分子からなる液晶をカラミチック液晶円盤状分子からなる液晶をディスコチック液晶と呼ぶ。重心の位置がランダムな液晶.ネマチック液晶は棒状分子の向きが平均して同一方向に揃っており分子の重心秩序はまったくランダムな中間相である。ネマチック液晶は普通の液体と同様の流動性がある。通常のネマチック相では分子の頭尾の向きには規則性はなくまた分子の配向方向に垂直な面内では分子の向きはランダムである。N液晶となる分子には極性を持つ物も多いが一般的なN液晶は非極性である。に由来しネマチック液晶を顕微鏡で観察すると糸状の構造が見られることからフリーデルが命名した。分子の平均配向方向は文字nで表記され配向ベクトルと呼ばれている。非極性であるので物理的にn=-nであることからベクトル表記はされない。棒状分子が方向に並んでいるので配向ベクトル方向とそれと垂直方向では、屈折率や誘電率が異なっている。液晶は光学的軸性物質で、棒状分子の液晶は正の軸性である。誘電率については、分子構造により、正の異方性のものも、負の異方性のものも存在する。ネマチック液晶には流動性があり液体と同様に形態変化しても元の形には戻らない。しかし配向ベクトルの空間分布に関しては全体で一様である方がエネルギー的に有利であるため与えられた条件下で変形のエネルギーが最小となるような空間分布となる。ただし局所的な配向変化を安定状態に引き戻す復元力は小さいため外部電場の印加により容易に配向ベクトル方向を変化できる。電場印加後は復元力により自動的に電場印加前の状態へと復帰する。これを利用したのが液晶ディスプレイである。ディスコチックネマチック相.円盤状分子からなるネマチック相である。配向ベクトルは円盤面に垂直な方向となる。このため棒状分子からなるネマチック相とは逆に負の光学軸性を示すことがふつうである。カイラルネマチック相.カイラルネマチック相は歴史的にはコレステリック液晶と呼ばれていた状態で、外観がネマチック相と大きく異なるために、別の液晶状態として命名された。コレステリック液晶という名称はコレステロール誘導体で発見されたことに由来する。ふつうの液晶は不斉炭素のない分子かラセミ体混合物など掌性を持たない分子により構成されるのに対してカイラルネマチック相は掌性のある分子かネマチック液晶に掌性のある分子を加えた時に発現する状態で配向ベクトルの方向が配向ベクトルに垂直な一つの軸方向で螺旋状の変化していく構造をしている。カイラルネマチック液晶のように不斉構造を持つ液晶相はその元である相に*マークをつけて不斉構造の存在を示す。カイラルネマチック相はこの規約に従いN相に*をつけてN*相と表記する。ただし歴史的経緯によりCh相と表記される場合もある。N*相は螺旋周期に平均屈折率をかけた波長の光を反射する。左巻きのN*相は左円偏光のみを反射し右円偏光は反射せずに透過する。右巻きのN*相は逆に右円偏光のみを反射する。この現象は選択反射と呼ばれている。選択反射が可視領域にあるとN*相は色づいて見える。この現象を利用したのが液晶温度計である。N*相と等方相との間にN*相ではない中間相が出現することがある。この状態も配向ベクトル方向のねじれ構造を持つが、N*相とは異なり、複数の方向にねじれるダブルシリンダー構造となっている。この相の研究初期に見いだされた状態が青色を示したことからブルー相と呼ばれるようになったが、全てのブルー相がブルーに発色するわけではない。種類のブルー相の存在が知られている。重心位置に1次元周期構造を持つ液晶相.重心位置に1次元の周期構造を持つ液晶群はスメクチック液晶と呼ばれている。Sm相は1次元的な重心の周期構造を持ち結晶的な側面を持ち液体やネマチック相のような流動性はない。シャボン膜も両親媒性分子が層をなす構造となっておりSm相の一種として考えることが出来る。スメクチック液晶の語源は石けんを意味するギリシャ語に由来する。Sm相は層内の分子の配置によりSmASmBSmC...とさらに複数の状態に分類されている。命名は発見順になされており液晶の状態を反映したものではない。かつてSm液晶とされていたものの中には現在は別の名称が使われている物もある。1次元的な周期構造を持つが層内には重心の秩序はない2次元液体状態の相である。SmA相では分子長軸は層法線方向を向いているがSmC相では層法線に対して有限の傾き角を持っている。傾き方向は層をまたいで同方向であるが中には層毎に逆方向に傾くものもありSmCA相と呼ばれている。SmB、SmF、SmI相.1次元的な周期構造に加え、層内で分子は六方対称の配置をしている。六方対称の格子方位は長距離秩序を持つが、分子の重心位置については、短距離の秩序しか存在しない。このような構造は、六角形の格子の中に、5角形と角形の格子が組合わさった欠陥が存在することにより作り出されている。これらの相はヘキサチック相とよばれSmBHEXのように記述されることもある。SmB相では分子長軸は層法線に平行SmF相とI相は有限の傾きがある。SmF相では個々の分子は第2隣接分子方向に傾くのに対しSmI相では隣接分子方向に傾いている。CryB,CryG,CryH相.層内でも六方格子を組んでおり分子の重心位置にも3次元的な秩序がある。これらの相は液晶研究者が研究対称としていたためSm相として分類されていたが2001年のIUPACの勧告以来Cry相と呼ばれるようになっている。完全な結晶との違いは分子長軸回りの回転が止っていないことである。直鎖アルカンでは液体と結晶の間にローテーター相と呼ばれる状態が存在するがこれらのCry相は直鎖アルカンのローテーター相に相当するものである。CryB相は分子は層法線ほうこうを向いているのに対してCryG相とCryH相では分子は相法線から傾いている。CryBとSmBHEXは顕微鏡観察での区別が困難であるため古い文献に記載されているSmBはSmBHEXの場合もCryBの場合も存在する。CryE,CryJ,CryK相.これらの相では層内の配置が矩形格子となっている。また、分子の配置は矢筈型構造となっている。CryEでは分子は層に対して垂直で、CryJとCryKは傾いている。これらの相は光学的に軸性を示す。層構造がねじれて3次元構造を形成したもので、かつてはSmD相と称されていたが、3次元構造であることより、液晶からは外されている。SmA*相およびTGB相.不斉炭素を含む分子からなるSmA相では通常の場合は不斉構造によるねじれはSm相の層構造により抑制され掌性のないSmA相と区別の付かない状態となる。特に不斉炭素を含んだ状態であることを示す場合にはSmA*相と表記することがある。高温側の相との転移点近傍で層構造が柔らかくまた分子のねじれ力が強い場合には層構造に周期的に螺旋転位が発生し層が捻れていく構造となる。この状態はツイストグレインバウンダリー（TGBA*）相と呼ばれている。同様にSmC相の層が捻れたTGBC*相も存在する。SmC*相および副次相.多くの化合物ではSmC相に不斉構造を導入した場合に、層のねじれが生じることなく、分子の傾き方向が層ごとに回転していく状態となる。この状態はSmC*相と呼ばれている。SmC*相の螺旋周期は物質により数百nmから数程度である。N*相と同様に、螺旋周期が可視光領域にある場合には選択反射が起こり発色する。SmC*相はその対称性から強誘電性を示しうることが知られている。典型的なSmC*強誘電性液晶では分極は層内で分子の傾きと垂直な方向に発生する。螺旋構造があるため巨視的には分極方向は打ち消しているが螺旋構造と分極は直接はリンクしておらず適当な化合物では螺旋が発散した状態で極性を保った状態を実現できる。いくつかのSmC*相副次相の存在が知られている。SmC*相はSmC*相の高温側に出現することのある相で、数分子程度の短い螺旋構造をとっている。SmCA*相は傾き方向が層ごとに反転し、数百程度の螺旋周期も有する相で、分極は隣接層で相殺するが、強い外部電場により傾き方向がそろった状態に転移するので、反強誘電性相として知られている。そのほか、層周期、層周期、さらに多層周期の構造が見いだされている。層構造により反強誘電性かフェリ誘電性を示す。重心位置に次元周期構造を持つ液晶相.多くの場合は円盤状分子または会合により円盤状になる分子がカラムを構成してカラムが次元配列した構造をとっている。カラム内の分子の重心位置には規則性がなくこの点で完全な結晶と異なっている。格子により以下のような分類がなされている。ヘキサチックカラムナー相(Colh).カラムが次元的には六方格子を組んだ液晶相である。レクタンギュラーカラムナー相(Colr).カラムが形成する格子が長方形となったものである。カラムナーオブリーク相.カラムが形成する格子が平行四辺形となったものである。液晶はオーストリアの植物生理学者 によって1888年に発見された。ライニッツァーの論文以前に現在の目からみると液晶を扱った論文もあるが結晶と液体の中間状態としてきちんと認識されてはいなかった。ライニッツァーの研究の主題はコレステロールの分子構造の解明であり精製のために合成した誘導体において二重の融点を見いだしこれが液晶の発見となった。その後1920年代にはジョージズフリーデルによってネマチックスメクチックコレステリックという3分類が提唱された。液晶はその後物理化学生物との関係などの観点から研究が続けられていたが1960年代になってコレステリック液晶を用いた温度分布の可視化といった応用研究が始り1968年のRCAのジョージHハイルマイヤーらによる液晶ディスプレイの発表以来応用面での研究が一気に開花した。液晶に関する国際会議は1965年にKent State Universityで開催され、2回目は1968年に同じ場所で開催された後は、2年ごとに開催地を変えておこなわれている。日本では1980年に京都、2000年に仙台、そして、2018年に再び京都で開催されている。国際液晶学会は液晶の国際会議に遅れて1990年に組織された。国際液晶会議は、液晶全般について扱っているが、よりテーマを絞った内容の会議も行われている。日本への液晶に関する知識の伝来は明治後期から大正初期に遡る。大幸勇吉のには液晶が紹介されている。この他第二次世界大戦前の応用物理学会誌における山本健磨の解説やいくつかの書籍で液晶が取上げられている。日本語のというものが使われたというが学会誌などに掲載された解説記事類にはその用例は見当らない。RCAの発表以前には液晶の研究は日本では殆ど行われていない。僅かに玉虫による論文や界面活性剤からみの論文が検索出来る程度である。この点は物理化学研究の伝統を持つ欧米とは大きく異なった状況にある。RCAの発表以後は国内で液晶研究が行われるようになるが当初から多くの企業研究者が参加していることに一つの特徴がある。これらの研究者の中には有機半導体の研究から移ったものもいる。液晶に関する学術講演は、様々な学会で行われていたが、1975年に日本化学会第33秋季年会連合討論会合同大会で応用物理学会と日本化学会の共催により液晶討論会が開催され、液晶に関する発表が分野横断で行われる場となった。その後、連合討論会から離れた単独開催になり、1997年の日本液晶学会の設立にともない、1998年以降は日本液晶学会討論会として継続している。液晶に関わる都市伝説.という話が一部に出回っているがこれらは両方とも日本国内に限定されたもので正しくない情報である。1980年代に函館にあった日本化学飼料がイカの肝を原料としたダーク油からコレステリック液晶を製造販売していたのは事実である。またこの液晶をアクセサリーとして販売していた会社も存在する。液晶ディスプレイにイカが使われているという話には2つの系統があり一つはコレステリック液晶を使ったカラーテレビというまったく実現されなかった話でもう一つはTN型液晶ディスプレイにイカ由来の原料が使われているという話である。後者に関してはTN型液晶ディスプレイでコレステロール誘導体が使用されていたのは事実であるがイカ由来のコレステロール誘導体の使用は確認されていない。またイカ墨が天然の液晶物質であるという話も流布しているがこれも事実ではない。液晶ディスプレイが新人の失敗から生れたという話はNHKのプロジェクトXが発祥と考えられる。当事者の記したものを調べると、プロジェクトX直後は、の1年前には公表されており、液晶を開発していたグループも目にする時間は十分にある。新人の失敗というストーリーは放送のための演出と考えるのが妥当である。液晶の専門書として以下のものが良く知られている。 +ネマティック液晶と呼ばれる単位ベクトル n によって表される事が多い。実験的に、巨視的なネマティック液晶の対称性はformula_1である事が知られているので、構成分子は n を軸に自由回転をしており、また向きに関しては上向きと下向きを50%ずつ含むことが結論される。構成分子が全て n の方向を向いているのが理想的であるが、実際のネマティック液晶の構成分子は n の方向からある程度熱揺らぎをしている。この熱揺らぎの度合いは秩序因子すなわち巨視的な系の物性値異方性 formula_2 と絶対温度"T"→0における巨視的な系の物性値異方性 formula_3により評価することができる今分子の n からの揺らぎ角を は微視的な分子の揺らぎ角を用いて文学（ぶんがく）とは、言語表現による芸術作品のこと。文芸ともいう。詩・小説・戯曲・随筆・文芸評論などを典型的な文学の例とする。それらを研究する学問も文学と称されるが、これについては文芸学で扱う。原初的な文学は口承文芸であったが、写本による書物の流通を経て、やがて印刷技術が普及するにつれて活字印刷による文学作品の出版が主流になった。現在ではインターネットを利用した電子メディア上で表現されるものもある。西洋でのに相当する語を語源とし現在では主に以下の意味を持つ。中国・日本でのが当てられた明治時代からである。文学は、言葉（口頭または文字）によるコミュニケーションのうち、言語のあらゆる力を活用して受け手への効果を増大させようとするものとして定義される。個人的な判断によって境界が曖昧でまちまちとなる文学は、その媒体や分野ではなく審美的な機能によって特徴づけられる: メッセージの表現方法が内容より優位であり、（複雑なものも含む）情報の伝達に限られた実用的なコミュニケーションからもはみ出すものである。今日では、文学はそれによって作者が歳月を隔てて我々に語り掛けるところの書物文化に結び付けられ、しかしながらまた同時に我々の歌謡がその遠縁であるところの文字を持たぬ人々の伝統的な詩歌のようなさまざまな形の口承による表現や、役者の声と身体を通して受容される演劇などにも関係する。最も普通の意味での文学は、それ自身が歴とした芸術である。しかしながら、哲学書や、舞台芸術の戯曲や脚本などに接近すると、この芸術の境界を定めるのは時として困難である。一般的には、文学は特に審美的な目的ないしは形式を持つ作品と再定義される。この審美的な側面が文学の志向性であり、ジャーナリズムや政治などの何らかの特定の制約に従う各種の作品と識別する基準である。一見すると、この定義は純粋に哲学的・政治的・歴史的な作品を排除するように思える。だが、作品の各分野やジャンルが文学に属するか否かの分類にはとくに慎重であるべきである。あるテクストは作者がそう望まなかったにもかかわらず、またそれがその分野としての目的ではなかったにもかかわらず一定の文学的側面を持ってしまい得る。作品の文学性の基準は学者の間の数々の論争の的となってきた。ある者は分野の間にヒエラルキーを設け、またある者はある作品がその分野によく一致していることや、文学的テクストに期待される役割に専念していることで満足する。またある者にとっては、文学の傑作は何よりもまず時の試練に耐えるものであり、それこそが全世界的な射程を保証する資格なのである。実際のところ文学とはまず第一に自分自身と自分を取り巻く世界について自分の言葉で語る者とその発見を受容し分かち合う者との出会いなのでありその形式の果てしのない多様性と絶え間なく新たに生まれる主題は人間存在の条件そのものを物語っているのである。「文学」という概念の歴史的発達.審美的な志向性を持つ作品の集合という文学の定義はかなり近代になってからのものである。事実、それまではむしろ、相応に厳密な形式的基準に適合する作品が文学として認められる傾向にあった。アリストテレスはにおいて、悲劇と叙事詩に的を絞りそれらの話法を支配する形式的な規則を導入した。さらに、古代ギリシア人にとっては、歴史は純然たる芸術であり、詩神クレイオーに霊感を与えられるものであった。随筆もまた文学に属すると考えられていた。今日のもはや文学作品とは考えられなくなったような随筆に比べ、当時の随筆では主題は重要なものではなかった。哲学もまた劣らず両義的なものである。プラトンの対話篇やローマ皇帝マルクス・アウレリウス・アントニヌスのの文学性は今日誰も疑問に思わないであろう。他方で、文学の審美性が厳格な単純性をもって表される詩がしばしば最も純粋な文学形式であると考えられてきた。作品の文学性は移ろいやすいものであり、世紀を経ると共に文学は領域を拡大し、多様で通俗的な諸形式を次々と取り込んで行ったものと思われる。文学の定義に基づくと「作者」と「作家」の間には区別がある。作家は文学作品を書く者を指すが作者は政治歴史科学文学などの別を問わず何らかの書物を著した全ての者を指す。芸術と文学―芸術家か職人か.文学作品の芸術性の拠り所は文芸評論家たちを頻繁に分断してきた問題である。古代より2つの異なった概念が存在し来たるべき様々な文学や芸術の潮流に影響を及ぼしてきた。アリストテレスは『詩学』において表現的な側面は重要でないと考えそれよりも作品の形式的な特性に固執していた。作家の仕事は厳密な規則や理論に従うという面で建物を建てる大工の仕事と類似したものであるということになる。それに反して偽ロンギヌス()は『崇高論』において感情の表現を前面に押し出した。崇高は読者を興奮させ恍惚とさせるものでありそれは話法の完成と一致するものとされた。ここには審美的な題材に細工を施し受け手に反応を引き起こそうと働く職人と公衆に移入させるような感情を表し作り出す霊感に恵まれた芸術家の対比が見出される。この論争は文芸評論史で幾度となく再出現しまた古典主義とロマン主義自然主義と耽美主義のような互いに相容れない潮流を数多く生み出した。文学的な著述は正書法や文法だけでなく修辞学や詩学の規範にも従う。作家は文体を作り上げることを可能にする言語的な諸手段を利用し話法を支え散文を美的なものにするために詩学的な破格脱線造語などもまた拠り所とする。作者に固有の文体的要素と修辞技法のような修辞学的効果の双方が駆使されそのようにして作家は他と一線を画す芸術家となるのである。原初的な文学は口伝（口承文芸）である。それが文字で書きとめられるようになり写本の形で流布するようになったが、15世紀以降印刷技術が普及し、やがて活版印刷による文学作品の出版が盛んになった。現在ではインターネットに代表される電子メディア上で表現されるものもある。メディアの変遷に応じ最初は音声で受容される叙事詩抒情詩などの詩や演劇が中心的な役割を果たしたが近代に至り文字の形での受容が容易になるにつれて詩から小説への大規模な移行が起こった。言語に依存する芸術であるため他言語の作品を鑑賞解釈するためには翻訳が大変重要であり翻訳家の存在が大きな意味を持つ。翻訳された作品を翻訳文学と呼ぶ。文学作品を研究・分析・批評することを文芸評論という。広義には研究論文から雑誌のコラムまで全て評論と言える。文学だけではなく、あらゆる作品が評論の対象になる。評論には様々な手法があり、それは研究対象や時代、評論家自身などに依存する。優れた評論文は、それ自体が文学作品として評価される。作家や思想家が文芸評論家として活動することもしばしばある。詳細はそれぞれの項目を参照。多数の文学作品を編集したものを文学全集と呼ぶことが多い。代表的なものとして世界文学全集、日本文学全集がある。他に個人の全集、特定の国の全集、特定のジャンルの全集などがある。 +ポピュラー音楽のジャンル一覧も参照。このページはトランスロックEDMレゲエなどのジャンルのほかにJ-POP洋楽アニメソングゲームソングなどの出典ジャンルやラブソング卒業ソングなどの歌詞ジャンルが含まれている。ミュージシャンは音楽を作ったり演奏したりする人のこと。作曲家は著作権を有し、編曲家は二次的著作権を有する。これらを総称して音楽作家と呼ぶ。また、複数の役職を兼ねている制作者も多い。指揮者、演奏者、歌手に分類される。現代の日本において実演家はその実演に対して著作隣接権を有する。音楽に関係する他の職業については、を参照。音楽に関係する具体的ジェイオーク人物についてはを参照。アイシャ・ラドワーン、アーイシャ・ラドワーン（、Aicha Redouane, Acha Redouane, 1962年 - ）は、モロッコ出身の女性歌手。主にアラブ古典音楽の歌い手として知られる。現在フランスで活動。言語学は人間の言語の特性構造機能獲得系統変化などを研究する学問。下位分野として音声学音韻論形態論統語論 意味論語用論などの様々な分野がある。これらの下位分野は 音 音素語と形態素句と文意味 言語使用に概ねそれぞれが対応している。言語学は言語そのものの解明を目的とする科学である。実用を目的とする語学とは別物である。よく誤解している人がいるが、言語学は古い時代の言語とか語源だけを扱うわけではない。言語学は過去・現在をともに対象としており、さらに言うと、直接に観察できる現代の言語を対象とする研究のほうがむしろ有利であり、言語の本質に迫りやすいので、言語学ではより重要である。言語学の目的は、人間の言語を客観的に記述・説明することである。とは、その規則・制約がなぜ発生するのかを明らかにすることである。言語学は言語の優劣には言及しない。むしろ現代の言語学においてはあらゆる言語に優劣が存在しないことが前提となっている。そのためすべての言語は同等に扱われる。しかしながら言語の史的変化を言語の進化ととらえ社会文明の成熟度と言語体系の複雑さを相関させるような視点が過去に一部存在していた。その後いかなる言語も複雑さを有していることが明らかとなりそうした見解は否定された。すなわち「幼稚な言語や高度な言語といったものは存在せずすべての言語はそれぞれの言語社会と密接に関連しながらそれぞれのコミュニティに適応して用いられている」というのが現代の言語学の基本的見解である。英語における名称"の語源は "linguistique"である。linguisticsという語は1850年代から使われ始めた。古代の言語学者に、インドのパーニニがいる。西洋における言語研究の始まりは紀元前にギリシアの哲学者たちに大きな影響を与えた。言語学が大きく飛躍する節目となったのは、1786年のことである。イングランドの法学者ウィリアム・ジョーンズは、インドのカルカッタに在任中に独学していたサンスクリット語の文法が、以前に学んだギリシア語やラテン語などの文法と類似していることに気づき、による歴史的比較言語学がドイツのライプツィヒで興り。20世紀に入ると言語学は大きな変動期を迎えることになる。20世紀初頭にスイスの言語学者、フェルディナン・ド・ソシュールの言語学は、通時的な。20世紀以降の言語学を指して、近代言語学と呼ばれることもある。アメリカの言語学は、人類学者のフランツ・ボアズ のアメリカ州の先住民族の言語研究やエドワード・サピアがさきがけとなった。そこから発展したアメリカ構造主義言語学の枠組みは、レナード・ブルームフィールドによって確立された。20世紀後半、ノーム・チョムスキーの生成文法は、以上で延べたような近代言語学からさらに一変するような変革をもたらし、現代言語学と言われることもある。後述する認知言語学からは批判もあるなど、が全てではないが、現代の言語学においてその影響は大きい。また20世紀後半には他にも、マイケル・ハリデーや、ジョージ・レイコフらの認知言語学など、異なったアプローチも考案された。音声学が発音時の筋肉の動きや音声の音響学的特性など物理的な対象を研究するのに対して、音韻論ではその言語で可能な音節の範囲（音素配列論）など言語が音声を利用するしくみを研究する。語の成り立ちは形態論で研究し、語が他の語と結合して作る構造は統語論で研究する。統語論が研究対象とするのは文までで、それ以上のテクストや会話などは談話分析で扱う。意味論が研究対象とするとは伝統的に話者や文脈状況を捨象した普遍的な語の意味や文の意味に限られてきた。話者の意図は意味論の研究対象ではないと見る場合これの研究は語用論で行う。主要な切り口主要な学説や仮説.人間の言語学の基本原則は、言語は人々によって作成された発明であるということです。 言語研究の記号論的伝統は、言語を意味と形式の相互作用から生じる記号のシステムと見なしています。言語構造の編成は計算と見なされます。 言語学は本質的に社会的および文化的科学に関連していると見なされています。なぜなら、言語コミュニティによる社会的相互作用ではさまざまな言語が形成されているからです。 言語の人間性の見方を表すフレームワークには、とりわけ構造言語学が含まれます。構造分析とは音声形態構文談話などの各層を最小単位で分析することを意味します。 これらはインベントリに収集され構造およびレイヤー階層内での相互作用を調査します。 機能分析は構造分析に各ユニットが持つ可能性のあるセマンティックおよびその他の機能的役割の割り当てを追加します。 たとえば名詞句は文の文法的な主語または目的語としてあるいは意味論的なエージェントまたは患者として機能することができます。機能言語学または機能文法は構造言語学の一分野です。 人間性の文脈では構造主義と機能主義という用語は他の人間科学におけるそれらの意味に関連しています。 形式的構造主義と機能的構造主義の違いはなぜ言語が持つ特性を持っているのかという質問への答えにあります。 機能的な説明は言語がコミュニケーションのためのツールであるまたはコミュニケーションが言語の主要な機能であるという考えを伴います。 したがって言語形式はその機能的価値または有用性に関して説明されます。 他の構造主義的アプローチは形式が二国間および多層言語システムの内部メカニズムから続くという視点を取ります。言語の生物学的基礎を明らかにすることを目的とした認知言語学や生成文法研究言語認識などのアプローチ。 生成文法はこれらの基礎が生来の文法知識から生じると主張しています。 したがってこのアプローチの中心的な関心事の1つは言語知識のどの側面が遺伝的であるかを発見することです。 一例をあげるとノームチョムスキーらは生成文法という仮説を唱えという仮説を提起した。（なお、チョムスキーの仮説は、現在ではそれほど広く支持されているわけではない。対照的に認知言語学は生来の文法の概念を拒否し人間の精神がイベントスキーマから言語構造を作成する方法を研究します。 認知的制約とバイアスが人間の言語に及ぼす影響も研究されています。 神経言語プログラミングと同様に言語は感覚を介してアプローチされます。 認知言語学者は感覚運動スキーマに関連する表現を探すことによって知識の化r身を研究します。密接に関連するアプローチは進化言語学であり、文化的複製者としての言語単位の研究が含まれます。 言語がどのように複製され、個人または言語コミュニティの精神に適応するかを研究することが可能です。 文法の構築は、ミームの概念を構文の研究に適用するフレームワークです。生成的アプローチと進化的アプローチは形式主義と機能主義と呼ばれることもあります。 ただしこの概念は人間科学での用語の使用とは異なります。言語学が明らかにした言語の特徴の例.以下に言語学が明らかにしてきた言語の特徴をいくつか記す。ソシュールは という2つの概念を用いて言語記号の音声形態とその意味との間には必然的な関係性はないという言語記号の恣意性を説いた。これとはほぼ反対の立場として音象徴という見解がある。これは、音素そのものに何らかの意味や感覚、印象といったものがあり、言語記号はその組み合わせによって合理的に作られているとするものである。しかし、実際にはどの言語にも普遍的な音象徴というものは存在しないため、現在そのような立場の言語研究はあまり行われていない。アンドレ・マルティネは言語が単なる音声の羅列ではなく、二重構造を有していることを指摘した。すなわち、文を最小単位に分割しようとした場合、まずは意味を持つ最小単位である形態素のレベルに分割される。そして、形態素はさらに音素に分割される。例えば、日本語の という語は語としてはこれ以上分解できないが、音素としては /a/、/m/、/e/ の三つに分解される。言語の持つこのような二重構造は二重分節と呼ばれる。動物の発する声にはこうした性質が見られないため、二重分節はヒトの言語を特徴づける性質とされる。ノーム・チョムスキーは言語の規則には、例えば「前から3番目の語」というような表層の順序に言及するようなものは存在しない、言語の規則はむしろ表層にあらわれない範疇・階層・構成素などの構造から生まれると考え、これを「構造依存性」と呼んだ。ノーム・チョムスキーはgenerative capacityという概念により、「(ある言語の)文法は、その言語の文ら（「表層」）をweakly generateし、それら文らのstructural descriptors（「深層」）をstrongly generateする」（ここで「文ら」としているのは、原文sentencesの複数形に意味があるため）と述べた。『（科学をおこなう前に）』とか『』と言った人がおり、『』と言った人がいる。"関連文献のリストを見るには右の［表示］をクリック" +著作権は、作品を創作した者が有する権利である。また、作品がどう使われるか決めることができる権利である。作者の思想や感情が表現された文芸・学術・美術・音楽などを著作物といい、創作した者を著作者という。知的財産権の一種。このうち著作者の権利は、著作物を活用して収益や名声などを得ることができる財産的権利も、著作権の概念に含めることがある。知的財産権には著作権のほか特許権や商標権などの産業財産権があるが保護の対象や権利の強さが違う。産業財産権は産業の発達を目的とする技術的思想を保護の対象とし権利者に強い独占性を与える性質のため所管官庁による厳しい審査を経て登録されなければ権利が発生しない。一方の著作権は創造的な文化の発展を目的とする表現を保護の対象としていることから産業財産権と比べて独占性は低く日本を含む多くの国地域では登録しなくても創作した時点で権利が発生する。著作物の定義・範囲、著作物の保護期間、著作物の管理手続や著作侵害の罰則規定などは、時代や国・地域によって異なるものの、国際条約を通じて著作権の基本的な考え方は共通化する方向にある。しかし、著作物のデジタル化やインターネットの社会普及に伴い、著作権侵害やフェアユース（無断利用が著作権侵害にあたらないケース）をめぐる事案が複雑化している時代趨勢もある。著作権は人権という側面もある。著作権は狭義には著作財産権のみを指し広義には著作財産権と著作者人格権最広義には著作者の有する実定法上の権利の総体をいう。広義の著作権概念は概して大陸法の諸国で用いられる著作権概念である。一方狭義の著作権概念は英米法の諸国で用いられる著作権概念である。日本の著作権法はをおく二元的構成をとっている。著作権は狭義には著作財産権のことをいう。著作者に対して付与される財産権であり著作物を独占的排他的に利用する権利である。著者は著作権（財産権）を他人に干渉されることなく利用する権利を持つ。たとえば小説の著作者（作者）は他人に干渉されることなく出版映画化翻訳することができる。したがって、著作権に充当できる。これにより、アマチュアからプロへと進む際のハードルも低くなる。また、各分野での世代交代が活発化する。しかし、著作者の合意（許諾）を得ていない他人が、その著作物を広く世間に発表（公表）すると、著作者は生活するために必要な収入を失い、「執筆」「作曲」「映画製作」などの仕事（創作事業）も継続できなくなる。この他人による著作者の財産を盗み取る行為が、著作権の侵害である。著作者が著作権を財産として扱える範囲を明確に限定するために、支分権を用いて細目を列挙しており、著作者以外の者にとっては、細目の把握が困難である。これによりと表示し、細目のすべてを含めた「すべての権利を著作者が自ら保持するといったことも法的には可能である。一方で著作物を収めた記録媒体が自由に利用できるようにする方法もある。このような契約をという。著作権は相対的独占権あるいは排他権である。特許権や意匠権のような絶対的独占権ではない。すなわち既存の著作物Aと同一の著作物Bが作成された場合であっても著作物Bが既存の著作物Aに依拠することなく独立して創作されたものであれば両著作物の創作や公表の先後にかかわらず著作物Aの著作権の効力は著作物Bの利用行為に及ばない。同様の性質は回路配置利用権にもみられる。狭義の著作権（著作財産権）は財産権の一種であるが著作者に認められる権利（著作者の権利）としてはそのほかに著作者の人格的利益を保護するものとして人格権の一種である著作者人格権がある。両者の関係については考え方および立法例が分かれる。まず、著作権法により著作者に対して保障する権利を純粋に財産権としての著作権として把握する考え方がある。この考え方を徹底しているのがアメリカ合衆国著作権法であり、著作者の人格的権利はコモン・ロー上の人格権の範疇に含まれる。もっとも、ベルヌ条約が加盟国に対して著作者人格権の保護を要求していることもあり、1990年の法改正により、視覚芸術著作物について限定された形で著作者人格権を保護する旨の規定を設けた。第2に、著作者に対して、財産的権利と人格的権利の双方を著作権法上保障する考え方がある。大陸法の著作権法は基本的にこのような考え方に立脚している。フランス著作権法がこの考え方に立脚しており、著作者の権利について、人格的な性質と財産的な性質を包含するものとして規定し区別している点にこのような考え方が現れている。第3に、著作者に対して、財産的権利と人格的権利の双方を著作権法上保障するが、両者は一体となっており分離できないものとして把握する考え方がある。ドイツの1965年9月9日の著作権および著作隣接権に関する法律がこの考え方に立脚しており、著作者の権利の内容を構成するものとして著作者人格権に関する規定を置いているが点にこのような考え方が現れている。日本法の法制は、著作権法上、著作者の権利として財産権たる著作権と人格権たる著作者人格権を保障しつつ、前者は譲渡可能なものとして理解し、後者は譲渡不可能なものとして理解している点でフランス法に近い。著作者によって制作された楽曲（著作物）は、著作者である作詞家・作曲家が著作権を有している。しかし、楽曲を演奏する実演家や、それを録音するレコード製作者、楽曲を放送する放送事業者・有線放送事業者も、著作者ではないものの著作物に密接に関わる活動を業としており、1970年の現行著作権法制定に伴い、これらの利用者による実演、レコード、放送または有線放送にも著作権に準じた一定の権利（著作隣接権、）が認められることになった。著作隣接権は実演家の権利（著作権法90条 - 95条）、レコード製作者の権利（同96条 - 97条）、放送事業者の権利（同98条 - 100条）、有線放送事業者の権利（同100条）からなり、人格権と財産権が含まれる。保護期間は実演日（実演）または最初の固定日（レコード）から70年間（放送、有線放送は放送等から50年間）。著作権と異なり楽曲（著作物）そのものの権利ではないため、演奏権や翻案権（編曲権）は認められていない。また映画の著作物においては、二次利用の際の著作隣接権の適用が制限される（映画の著作物#著作隣接権との関係も参照）。著作権が本格的に考慮されるようになったのは15世紀にグーテンベルクによる印刷術が確立するとともに出版物の大量の模倣品が問題化するようになってからである。記録に残る最初の本の著作権は1486年に人文主義者のマルカントニオサベリーコのヴェネツィア史に与えられ芸術家の最初の著作権は1567年にヴェネツィアの元老院からティツィアーノに与えられた。18世紀初頭、イギリスではアン法や、その後のパブリック・ドメインの概念も制定されている。フランスではフランス革命時の1791年に大陸法系の国の中では初めて著作権法が制定された。その後18世紀から19世紀にかけて各国で著作権を保護する法律が成立した。19世紀に入ると著作権の対象は印刷物以外に拡大されていく。ところが19世紀半ばになっても著作権の保護の法律を持たない国がありイギリスやフランスなどの作家の書いた作品が複製による被害を受けていた。そのため1886年採択1887年発効のベルヌ条約で国際的な著作権の取り決めができ1952年採択発効の万国著作権条約によってベルヌ条約未締結国との橋渡しがなされた。さらには世界貿易機関 主管のTRIPS協定が1994年に採択1995年発効し国際的な著作権侵害の際にはWTOに提訴できる仕組みが導入された。また国際条約と国内法の中間的な位置づけとして欧州連合（EU）の各種指令がある。EU加盟国は指令を遵守して国内法を整備する義務を負うことからEU加盟国間の著作権法のばらつきを平準化する役割を担っている。しかし著作権法および著作権についての考え方は著作者著作権者利用者など利害関係者のさまざまな要請を受け専門家だけでなく広く世論の間でも議論が起きたり立法の場で話し合われたり行政の場で検討されたり司法の場で争われたりするなど絶えず変更を受け続けている。21世紀に入りテクノロジーの著しい進歩および権利ビジネスの伸張など経済社会の変化を受けた産業保護の観点からの要請と著作物の自由な利用の要請との衝突が顕著な争点のひとつになっている。これを受けデジタル著作物の保護規定を強化したWIPO著作権条約が1996年に採択され2002年に発効している。新しいテクノロジーに関連する個別の判例や法制には、1984年に判決が出た米国のベータマックス事件（ソニー勝訴）、1992年に生まれた日本の私的録音録画補償金制度、1997年に創設されたインタラクティブ送信に係る公衆送信権・送信可能化権（日本）、1999年に起こされたソニー・ボノ法への違憲訴訟（米国、2003年に合憲判決）、2001年のナップスター敗訴（米国）などがある。本節では著作権のうちおもに狭義の著作権の保護の対象と要件について述べる。著作権は著作者の精神的労力によって生まれた製作物を保護しまた自由市場における市場価格を著作者に支払うことを保証して著作者の創作業務を維持し収入を安定させることで間接的に著作者本人を保護する効果もある。日本の現行著作権法では具体的にが表れていればよく、新規性や独創性は求められず、区別できる程度であればよいとされる。また、表現されている必要があり、文字・言語・形象・音響などによって表現されることで著作物となる。著作権の対象として想定されるのは典型的には美術音楽文芸学術に属する作品である。絵画彫刻建築楽曲詩小説戯曲エッセイ研究書などがその代表的な例である。ほかにインターネット掲示板の書き込み写真映画テレビゲームなど新しい技術によって出現した著作物についても保護の対象として追加されてきた。美術的分野では、著作権のほか、意匠権が工業デザインの権利を保護するが、著作権は原則として美術鑑賞のための作品などに適用され、実用品には適用されないとする。ただし、この境界線は必ずしも明解ではなく、美術工芸品は双方の権利が及ぶとする説もある。また、国によっては意匠法と著作権法をまとめて扱っている場合もある。入学試験の問題は数学の問題における数式そのもの社会科の問題における歴史的事実そのものといった場合を除き問題を作成した学校等に著作権が生じるとされる。国によって保護の対象が異なる場合があり、たとえば、フランスの著作権法では著作物本体のほかにそのタイトルも創作性があれば保護する旨を規定している。同じく、一部の衣服のデザインが保護されることが特に定められている。米国の著作権法では船舶の船体デザインを保護するために特に設けられた規定がある。ほかに、明文規定によるものではないが、活字の書体は日本法では原則として保護されないが、保護する国もある。アプリケーションプログラミングインタフェースについても日本法では明示的に保護対象外としているが、米国ではという最高裁判決が出ている。著作権が生じないもの.権利が生じず、保護の対象にならない製作物がある。おもなものは以下の通り。そのほか、キャラクター設定や感情そのもの、創作の加わっていない模倣品、範囲外の工業製品・選択の幅が狭い表現などは創作性が認められない傾向にある。方式主義と無方式主義.特許権意匠権商標権などは登録が権利発生の要件であるが著作権の発生要件について登録などを権利発生の要件とするか否かについては立法例が分かれる。著作権の発生要件について、登録、納入、著作権表示など一定の方式を備えることを要件とする立法例を方式主義という。これに対して著作物が創作された時点で何ら方式を必要とせず著作権の発生を認める立法例を無方式主義という。ベルヌ条約は加盟国に無方式主義の採用を義務づけている。なお、北朝鮮もベルヌ条約加盟国であるが、日本は北朝鮮を国家として承認していないことを理由に、2011年12月、北朝鮮の著作物に関しては日本国内で保護義務がないとの司法判断が最高裁によってなされた。ベルヌ条約に加盟し無方式主義をとる国においては著作物を創作した時点で著作権が発生するため著作物に特定の表示を行う義務は課されていない。一方ベルヌ条約締結後も同条約に加盟せず方式主義をとる国々があった。そのため自国が無方式主義を義務づけるベルヌ条約を締結していても方式主義をとる国々では著作権発生の要件を満たさずそのままでは著作権保護を得ることができず不都合を生じていた。そこで万国著作権条約は無方式主義をとる国における著作物が方式主義をとる国でも著作権保護を得ることができるよう氏名と最初の発行年©のマークの3つを著作権表示として明示すれば自動的に著作権の保護を受けることができるとした。著作権マークは著作権の発生要件として著作物への一定の表示を求める方式主義国において要件を満たす著作権表示を行うために用いられるマークである。先述のように、ベルヌ条約と万国著作権条約の双方に加盟している場合には、無方式主義を定めるベルヌ条約が優先する。したがって、このような問題が生じるのはベルヌ条約を締結しておらず万国著作権条約のみを締結している方式主義をとっている国においてである。かつては米国が方式主義国の代表的存在で、長い間、万国著作権条約のみを締結しベルヌ条約を締結していなかった。しかし、米国は1989年にベルヌ条約を締結して無方式主義を採用した。ほかの国においても無方式主義の採用が進んだ結果、2017年現在、万国著作権条約のみを締結し方式主義を採用している国はカンボジアだけとなっている。そのカンボジアもベルヌ条約自体は締結していないものの、2004年のWTO加盟によりTRIPS協定9条1項の適用を受けることとなり、ベルヌ条約の1条から21条の条項および附属書の遵守義務を負ったため、実質的に無方式主義に転換した。なお著作権表示は条約上の著作権の発生要件とは別に国内法上一定の効果を生じることがありたとえばアメリカの著作権法では著作権の存在を知らずパブリックドメインと信じた者を保護する善意の侵害者の法理があるが©マーク等の著作権表示が著作物に明確に表示されていれば原則として善意の侵害にはあたらないとされている。有形物への固定の要否.著作物が有形の媒体に固定されている必要があるか否かについても立法例が分かれる。ベルヌ条約では固定を要件とするか否かに関しては加盟国の立法に委ねている。著作権侵害は、民事では差止請求権、損害賠償、名誉回復等の対象となる。また、刑事事件として罰金刑や懲役刑などの刑事罰が科される場合もある。米DMCAに基づいて、自称著作権者およびその代理人による著作権侵害告発で、正規の著作権者や合法な著作権利用が妨げられるケース、果ては言論弾圧に利用するケースすら多発している。著作権の保護についてはなどの条約が保護の最低要件などを定めておりこれらの条約の締約国が条約上の要件を満たす形で国内の著作権保護法令を定めている。18世紀から19世紀にかけて各国の民間交流は増大したが、それとともに剽窃も国際的な問題となった。多くの国では著作権法が制定されていたが、効力範囲は自国民などに限られていた。そこで各国は、相互主義のもと互いに相手方国民の著作権を保護する二国間条約を締結して解決を図ろうとした。しかし、二国間条約では締約国以外には効力が及ばず、各国は法律で登録などの著作権保護要件を定めていたため現実に著作権を取得することは難しく実効性に乏しいものだった。そこで国際文芸家協会などが国際的な著作権保護の運動を展開しスイス政府などの主導のもと1886年にベルヌ条約が締結された。ベルヌ条約に関しては1908年のベルリンでの改正条約によって無方式主義が採用された。ベルヌ条約は内国民待遇、遡及効、無方式主義の採用などを柱とする。ベルヌ条約は1908年のベルリンでの改正条約によって無方式主義が採用されたがアメリカ合衆国や中南米諸国など方式主義を採用している諸国との間に制度的な差異を生じ問題化した。そこで方式主義を採用しているアメリカ合衆国や中南米諸国などとベルヌ条約に加盟して無方式主義を採用している国々との間の架橋となる条約として1952年に万国著作権条約が成立した。万国著作権条約は内国民待遇、不遡及効、方式主義の採用などを柱とする。ただし、ベルヌ条約と万国著作権条約の双方に加盟している場合には万国著作権条約17条によりベルヌ条約が優先する。1979年にアメリカ合衆国がベルヌ条約に加盟したのちグアテマラなどの中南米諸国も次々とベルヌ条約に加盟するなど各国で無方式主義への転換が進んだ。先述のように万国著作権条約のみを締結して方式主義を採用している国は2017年現在カンボジアだけとなっておりそのカンボジアもWTO加盟によりTRIPS協定9条1項の適用を受けベルヌ条約の1条から21条の条項および附属書の遵守義務を負ったため実質的に無方式主義に転換している。日本の著作権法は著作物によって生じる著作者の財産権の範囲を定めている。日本では創作した時点で自動的に帰属される。日本の著作権法はを著作者の財産的利益を保護する権利とする。著作権法は以下で条数のみ記載する。日本では近代以前においては版木の所有者である版元が出版物に関する権利者と考えられ著作権に相当する概念が存在しなかったとされている。明治初期に福沢諭吉らの紹介と政府への働きかけによりとして著作権の一部が保護を受けることになった。19世紀末に日本がベルヌ条約への加盟をするにあたり、国内法の整備の一環として初めて著作権法が制定された。この著作権法はとも呼ばれるもので、1970年に旧法を全部改正して制定された新著作権法とは通常区別される。20世紀半ば以降企業により著作物が製作されるようになると便宜的に架空の人物を著作者とした事例が出てくるようになった。権利の内容と譲渡可能性.日本の著作権法の下では、原則として、著作権は創作の時点で自動的に創作者（著作者）に帰属する（無方式主義 cf.方式主義）。たとえ創作活動を職業としない一般人であっても、創作された時点で自動的に帰属される。つまり、原始的には著作者たる地位と著作権者たる地位が同一人に帰属する。もっとも、著作権は財産権の一種であり、譲渡することが可能であり、さらには、以下のような支分権ごとにも譲渡可能と理解されている。したがって、創作を行った者と現時点の著作権者とは一致しないことや、支分権ごとに権利者が異なることもありうる。ただし、譲渡を受けた者が第三者に対抗するためには、文化庁に著作権を登録しておく必要がある。また、映画の著作物については、著作権の原始的帰属について特例が設けられている、著作権者であるといえども無断で著作物を公表・改変したり、氏名表示を書き換えたりすることはできない。なお著作者と著作権者の用語の使い分けが分かりづらいためか2005年1月に文化審議会著作権分科会から発表されたの中では用語の整理の検討が必要であると言及されている。著作権者は、他人に対し、その著作物の利用を許諾することができる。共同著作物とはの事案においてはストーリー作者により事前に原稿用紙に執筆されたストーリーに基づいて作画者が作画をするという方式がとられており二次的著作物に該当するものと判断された。次に間違いやすいのは結合著作物である。これは、各人の創作的表現を分離して利用可能なものであり、たとえば、などがこれに該当する。この場合は、共同著作物ではなく、それぞれが著作物であり著作権を有すると解される。著作権の対象とならないもの.2項はと規定している。10条3項は本法律による保護はと規定している。これによりプログラミング言語APIアルゴリズムは少なくとも日本法においては保護対象とならない。は、次の著作物がと規定している。これらの著作物の内容は、国民の権利や義務を形成するものであり、一般国民に対して広く周知されるべきものであるため、著作権による保護対象とすることは妥当でないと考えられるためである。また北朝鮮の著作物については日本は保護する義務を負わないとする最高裁判所の判決が2011年12月8日に出ている。→無断放映#日本における北朝鮮著作物放映基準の最高裁判例を参照著作物の利用や使用についてその便宜上必要とされる範囲または著作権者の利権を害しない範囲において著作権が制限されることがある。これは著作権というものが公共性の高い財産権であることに由来する。おもなものは以下の通り。著作権に明るくない一般人においては、しばしば、著作物を表象した有体物の所有権を取得したことにより、著作権に類する権限も取得できると誤解する場合がある。しかし、所有権を取得したからといって著作権にかかる諸権利まで取得できるわけではない。このことは美術の著作物についての判例「顔真卿自書建中告身帖事件」で明らかになっている。ただし美術の著作物についての原作品の所有者による著作物の展示や展示に伴う複製などの行為には著作権の効力が及ばないとする規定がある（）。所有権者による当該行為にまで著作権の効力が及ぶものとすると美術品の所有権を得た者の利益が著しく損なわれるため著作権と所有権の調整を図ったものである。保護期間を永久と定める国も存在するが一般に一定の保護期間の下においてのみ保護される。保護期間の満了を迎えると著作権は消滅パブリックドメインとされる。著作権者が他人に対して著作物の利用を認める契約には著作物利用許諾契約や出版権設定契約がある。著作物利用許諾契約は契約を結んだものに対して著作物の利用を認める契約である。著作物利用許諾契約の相手方は複数の者でもよい。出版権設定契約は特定の者に対し出版権を設定するもので、出版権の設定を受けた出版権者は設定行為に従って著作物を複製して頒布することができる。出版行為には紙媒体やDVD、CD-ROMなどへの複製のほか、インターネットによる公衆送信行為や電子出版なども含まれる。出版権は排他的・独占的な権利であり、出版権を侵害する者に対しては差止請求や損害賠償請求が認められる。日本では出版権は複製権の一形態として著作権法第三章。80条2項 原作のまま前条第一項に規定する方式により記録媒体に記録された当該著作物の複製物を用いて公衆送信を行う権利 +映画に連続投影することで形や動きを再現するもの。活動写真キネマシネマとも。なお、本来の語義からははずれるものの、フィルムではなくビデオテープなどに磁気記録撮影されたものや映画館で上映される動画作品全般についても、慣例的に「映画」と呼ばれている。映画館が普及して以降一般的に映画というと専用施設（映画館等）の中でスクリーンに投影して公開する作品を指すことが多い。20世紀に大きな発展を遂げた表現手段であり映画は今や芸術と呼ぶべき水準に達している。また古くからの芸術である絵画彫刻音楽文学舞踊建築演劇に比肩する新たな芸術として「第八芸術」ないし舞踊と演劇を区別せずに「第七芸術」とも呼ばれる。また映像やストーリー音楽など様々な芸術の分野を織り交ぜてひとつの作品を創造することから「総合芸術」の一種としても扱われる。「映画」という語の本来の意味は「画を映すこと」あるいはそうして「映された画」ということである。そのため近世末期においては写真と同義に用いられていた。そこから転じて「（スクリーンなどに）画像を映し出すこと」や「映し出される画像」さらに長いフィルムに撮影された「動きのある画像」に対しても用いられるようになっていった。なお、におけるの項目には、以下のように記載されている。「活動写真」は英語「motion pictureモーションピクチャー）」の直訳語で元来は幻灯機のことを指すが後に意味が変じて映画を指すようになった。「シネマ」は、フランス語の「cinma」のカタカナ表記である。フランス語のcinmaは、「cinmatographe（シネマトグラフ」の短縮形であり、1.シネマトグラフのフィルムを制作し、レアリゼ（＝上映、上演）する技術、2.スクリーン上にあたかも現実が動いているかのように（フィルムを使って）投影すること（＝日本語で言う「映画の上映」）、3.上映を行う場所（＝映画館）、4.フィルムの配給を行う産業（映画の配給会社）、を意味する。フランスでは同国の伝統をふまえて、フランスのリュミエール兄弟が開発したシネマトグラフという概念やその技術（の延長上）というとらえかたで「cinemaシネマ」という言葉や概念が使われているわけである。語源はギリシア語の「（「動く」という意味）」。なお、フランス語でも「film フィルム」という用語もあり、シネマトグラフを実現するための、薄くて細長い物体も当然フィルムと呼ぶが、個々の「映画作品」という意味でもフィルムという。アメリカでは、アート作品をフランス風に「シネマ」と呼び、娯楽作品は英語風に「ムービー」と区別して呼ぶ傾向がある。戦前の日本では、映画はとも呼ばれた。当時から続く映画雑誌にこの名前が残っている他、懐古的な情緒が好まれる時にも用いられる。19世紀後半に写真技術が発展すると、やがてそれを利用して動く写真の開発が始まり、1893年にトーマス・エジソンが1人でのぞき込んで楽しむキネトスコープを発明するなど、1890年代にはいくつかの映画の原型が考案されていた。そうした中、1895年にフランスのリュミエール兄弟がスクリーンに動く写真を投影して公開した。これが現代にまでつながる映画の起源とされている。スクリーンに上映する映画は登場と同時に世界中で反響を呼び、開発の翌年には各国で上映されるようになった。草創期の映画は単に事実を記録した映像に過ぎなかったが、それでも新奇さから各地の見世物で大当たりを取り、映画館が相次いで各地に設立された。20世紀に入るとストーリーを持つ映画の制作が始まり、盛んに映画作品が作られるようになった。映画表現において大きな画期となったのは、1920年代の「トーキー」の登場、それに続いて行われたいわゆる「総天然色」映画の登場が数えられよう。これらはそれぞれ、それまでの映画の形式を最終的には駆逐するにいたった。例えば、今では「トーキー」以前の形式である「サイレント」が新たに発表されることはほぼない。また、今「モノクローム」で撮影された映画が発表されることは極めてまれである。20世紀前半に行われたこれらの映画技術の進展とは異なり20世紀後半の映画技術の発展は映画表現の多様性を増す方向に作用した。戦後普及した映画の撮影技法には例えばが挙げられる。これらの新たな撮影技法はそれ以前の方法を駆逐することによって普及したのではなくそれが登場する以前の撮影技法と共存しつつ独自の分野を成す形でそれぞれの発展を遂げている。1970年代からはVTRが普及したが、フィルムとビデオとの基本的な表示方式の違いから映画は35mmフィルムによる撮影が一般的であった。21世紀に入った頃から商業作品もデジタルビデオカメラで撮影され、フィルムを使わずコンピュータ上で編集される例が増加している。詳しくはデジタルシネマを参照。映画には技術的な側面に着目した分類観客に映画作品を届ける経路やビジネスモデルによる分類コンテンツによる分類などさまざまな分類法がある。映画はもともと映画館など専用の上映施設で上映されるものとして発達してきた。ビジネスモデルとしては映画作品を制作する会社やそれを配給する会社は映画館に対して映画作品のフィルムを一定期間貸し出し貸すことに対する料金を得るというしくみであり映画館のほうは配給会社に料金を支払う形の契約で限られた日数だけフィルムを借り多数の観客が入場に必要なチケットを購入してくれることで収入を得る配給会社に支払うお金と観客から得るお金の差額がなどと呼ぶことも行われている。その後各国で1940年代や1950年代になってテレビの放送が始まるようになりテレビ所有者が増大する中ですでに劇場公開が行われた映画作品を後からテレビの電波に乗せるということも行われるようになった。この場合ビジネスのしくみとしては当該の映画作品の諸権利を有する映画会社とテレビ局の間で交渉契約が行われテレビ局のほうから映画会社のほうに対して放送にまつわる対価は生じない。テレビ番組を充実させるためにテレビ局が行った策であり1960年代のアメリカのテレビ番組の中では一種のの映画が多く製作された。1970年代後半～1980年代以降に、ベータマックスやVHSなどといった規格の比較的安価な家庭用のビデオ装置が先進国の家庭から次第に普及してゆくと、やがてビデオ装置を所有している比較的裕福な家庭をターゲットに、数千円～1万円超という価格設定で映画作品がビデオテープの形でも販売されるようになった。これによって映画と分類される。その後 映画作品は、DVDやブルーレイでも販売・レンタルされるようになり、さらに近年、ブロードバンドが一般家庭にも普及すると、テレビ放送以外にネット配信からも映画会社が相応の権利料を得るようになった。2010年代以降、Netflixが、最初からNetflixのコンテンツとして提供するために、"オリジナル映画"を多数製作し日本を含む世界各国で配信するようになった。こうして観客に映画作品が届けられる経路が多様化するにしたがい境界域が曖昧になりどこで線引きするか決定的な線というは一律に定めることは次第に難しくなってきている。たとえばアメリカでは以前からを対象とする賞が別枠で設けられるという状況になっている。映画の歴史を踏まえると、もともとは映画というのは写真フィルムで撮影されるものである。やがてそうしたフィルムを磁気フィルムにとりこむということも行われるようになったがもともと劇場で大型スクリーンに投影することを前提としている映画の世界では基本的に35mmフィルムでの撮影が標準でありつづけた。1990年代あたりから、国ごとに状況が異なるようになってゆき、資金面で余裕のあるハリウッドメージャーの場合、映画は未だ35mmフィルム撮影の方が圧倒的に主流でありつづけ、日本などではむしろデジタル化が進む、という現象も起きた。一部の国で写真フィルムで撮影した素材を一旦デジタル化し、デジタル技術ならではの加工や編集を行う、という手法も用いられるようになった。2000年代に入ってからは最初から写真フィルムを用いずHD24p等のデジタル機器で撮影編集されその後フィルムに変換されたうえで劇場に納品されるという映画も登場し徐々に増えていった。音声情報も映画館の多チャンネルサラウンド化に伴いフィルムに焼き付けずにCD-ROMなどで納品される場合が増えてきた。最近の映画館され、それが、デジタルデータを直接的に映像として投影する装置によって、スクリーン上に投影されるようになっている。技術的にいえば、データセンター内に映画会社側のサーバがあり、各映画館は映画作品のデータをダウンロードし、映画会社のほうはのやりとりをすることで、各映画館で各作品を上映を可能にしたり反対に不可能にするような操作・管理を行い、ビジネスを行っている。世界各国に映画産業は存在しているがそのなかでも最大規模のものはアメリカ合衆国の西海岸ロサンゼルスのハリウッドである。金額規模で見るとハリウッドがまぎれもなく世界最大である。ただし年間の映画製作本数が最も多いのはアメリカではなくインドであり2009年には1288本が製作されてアメリカの2倍弱の数字となっている。インドの映画製作の中心はムンバイ（旧名ボンベイ）でありこの地の映画業界はボリウッドと呼ばれるがインド映画界は各言語別に映画業界が成立しているためムンバイ以外にも映画製作地は多数存在している。日本では京都の太秦が時代劇映画の集積地となっているほか他のジャンルはおおむね東京に多く大泉（東映撮影所）や調布市（日活撮影所角川大映スタジオ）や砧（東宝スタジオ）などである。最近経済成長が著しい中国は青島東方影都を出現させた。映画産業は、アメリカでは「不況に強い」産業となっている。なお、といった考えはを用いるべきだという指摘もある。以下のデータは、特に明記されていない限りユネスコ統計研究所による、上映された長編映画の上位15か国のリストである。ユネスコ統計研究所によると、チケット販売数で上位の国々は以下のようになっている映画作品の制作にかかわる人々.映画制作の最高責任者は映画プロデューサーである。プロデューサーが、企画の選択、資金調達、予算規模の決定や配分の大枠の設定、配給先候補（映画館系列）との交渉、宣伝戦略の検討や決定、監督の人選、俳優の人選、ファイナルカットの判断、等々を行う。プロデューサーの権限は最大である。監督よりも強く監督の仕事ぶりの善し悪しを判断し場合によっては撮影の途中で監督を解雇し別の監督にすげかえるということすら行う。ある程度以上の規模の映画となると制作するには巨額な費用がかかるものでまずは制作のための費用を調達しなければならない。資金調達が最大のそして根本的な土台として必要でそれができなければ予算を組むことができず資金の配分割合も決められず撮影計画の立案も映画スタッフの手配も機材の手配も何もできない。映画は非常に多数多種類の専門職的なスタッフたちによって制作される。映画はたとえば脚本家プロダクションマネージャーも膨大なものとなる。現在、個人ないし少人数のアマチュアグループでの映画撮影は、カメラ一体型VTRで行われるのが普通である。2000年代前半からDVDやメモリー素子に記録することで、磁気テープを使用しないデジタルビデオが普及しているが、DVビデオも現役である。安価な機材は個人制作の映画の必須条件ではなく、ジョージ・ルーカスの個人制作である新三部作などは当時の商業映画と同じ機材を使用している。アナログ式のビデオテープレコーダが普及する以前は8ミリフィルムで撮影するのが主流であった。業務用の35ミリフィルムは個人では機材の調達が困難でありまたフィルムも高価であった。よって個人向けに小さなフィルムを使うことでフィルム代や現像代といった感材費をおさえた。一方1980年代にベータカムが普及するまではテレビ局での野外撮影や上述のテレビ映画には16ミリフィルムが用いられることが多かった。16ミリであれば35ミリに比較すれば安価な制作が可能であり個人でもとみなされてきた時代が長く続いた。更に安価で手軽になった8ミリフィルムでの映画制作については、8ミリ映画の項も参照のこと。デジタル式ビデオカメラとPCベースのノンリニア編集機材の低価格化によりアルビントフラーのに登場する生産消費者が台頭しつつある。またプロユースでもノンリニア編集システムと連動した映像管理ソフトなどが利用されている。YouTubeなど動画サイトを用いた、誰でも簡単に表現する場ができて、映像の個人製作をめぐる状況が大きく変化してきている。上映する場所もプロジェクションマッピングなどの発達とともに、「映画」と「映像作品」の距離が縮まっている。日本では明治時代から個人撮影の映画が制作され始めた。戦前から一部でカラーフィルムで撮影が行われNHKで2003年に 前編後編と計3本で取り上げられた。「日本映画の父」と言われた牧野省三によると、映画には三要素があるとのことで、『スジ・ヌケ・ドウサ』の順である、とした。スジは脚本、ヌケは映像美、ドウサは役者の演技を指す。一方、ブリタニカ国際大百科事典小項目事典のと、4つの要素を挙げている。原作との関係文字による芸術との関係.映画はもともと映画のためだけにプロット日本やアメリカなど漫画やコミックがさかんな一部の国では漫画やコミックを原作として映画がつくられることがある。小説のような文字による芸術と、映画という映像文字を用いた芸術と映像を用いた芸術は いわばなので、古典文学を原作として映画化を行うことは、さまざまな困難がともなう。たとえばジュリアン・デュヴィヴィエ監督のでは冒頭のに相当する部分は、映像では表現することはあきらめ、結局、文字で示さざるを得なかった。沼野充義はということ。例えば、ワレーリイ・フォーキン監督 などは3時間あるが、絢爛豪華な歴史世界を映画で見ることができるし、いつか原作を読もうという気持にさせる。一般的には原作をできるだけ忠実に映像化しようと試みた映画作品は映画作品としては評価が低くなりがちでその反対になど原作とは異なる内容の映画作品や短編小説を原作とした映画作品のほうがとされることが多い。 +メーリングリストする仕組み。MLと略される。用途としては、特定の話題に関心を持つグループなどで情報交換をする場合に利用されることが多い。メーリングリストの原理は登録メンバーの電子メールアドレスのリストとメーリングリスト宛ての代表電子メールアドレスを用意しておき代表アドレスへ送信されたメールをリストに登録されたメンバー全員のアドレスへ転送するものである。元は郵便を利用したものがあったが、今日では専ら電子メールを用いたものを指す場合が多い。メーリングリスト用のサーバソフトウェアにはfmlLISTSERVmajordomoMailmanなどがある。ネット上の他のサービスとの相互乗り入れも多くかつてはネットニュースのニュースグループとの相互乗り入れも多く行われた。しかし1990年代よりネットニュース上のEMP/ECPの増加や帯域の増強に伴いニュースグループを介さずに個々のメンバーがメールを受け取ることに支障がなくなってきたことよりニュースグループとの相互乗り入れによるメーリングリスト側のメリットが薄れ相互乗り入れは減少する傾向にある。代わってワールドワイドウェブの普及に伴いWWWと相互乗り入れないしウェブページ上にアーカイブを公開するメーリングリストが増加している。メーリングリストサーバを運営するにはメールサーバについてのある程度の技術的知識が必要だが、近年はWWW上で、無料で使用できるメーリングリストサーバも提供されている。代表的な無料サービスには、freeml（2019年12月2日終了）やYahoo!グループ（2014年5月28日終了）などがある。このようなことやADSLやFTTHといったいわゆるブロードバンドインターネット接続の普及からグループなどでの情報交換手段としては新規のメーリングリスト開設は下火になっており代わりに（登録制の）電子掲示板（BBS）が多用される傾向にある。メーリングリストの運用方針は管理者の志向話題の性質や構成メンバーなどによって大きく異なる。ある組織の構成員に限る場合や専門家対象の場合で有資格者に限る場合紹介が必要なもの誰でも自由に入れるものなど様々である。ロムを認めず一定期間投稿がないとリストから削除される場合もある。また画像を添付するとサーバに負担がかかるため禁止しているところも多い。アーカイブをWEBで公開していることもあるし会員外への転送を禁止している場合もある。こうした運用方針については管理者が定めることで通常は入会時のお知らせなどに記載されている。マイクロソフト製電子メールクライアントとの相性.Outlook Expressなどのマイクロソフト製電子メールクライアントでは初期設定でhtml形式で送信したり添付ファイルが自動的に開くようになっているなどメーリングリストでの利用に問題が発生することが多い。そのためメーリングリストを利用する際は適切な設定を行うよう促されたり運用上問題があるとして利用禁止にしているケースもある。セキュリティ上の問題点.メーリングリストは古くから存在する仕組みであるが、セキュリティ上の問題点も存在する。参加を検討する際には、セキュリティ問題に関する運営者の知識レベル等を見極め、参加することのリスクを考慮する必要がある。 +画像とは事象を視覚的に媒体に定着させたものでそこから発展した文字は含まない。定着される媒体は主に2次元平面の紙であるが金属石木竹布樹脂やモニタープロジェクター等の出力装置がある。また3次元の貼り絵ホログラフィー等も含まれる。現存する古い画像は後期旧石器時代の洞窟壁画(スペインの(全文：La Cueva de Altamiraや、フランス(書影：三浦定俊)。)等)である。これらの画像すなわち、岩面画から抽象化が行われ、画像に属するピクトグラム、さらに文字に属する象形文字が生まれた。コンピュータで扱う画像データの最少単位を画素という。物理的な点情報をドットといい、1インチあたりのドット密度をdpiという。ピアノは、弦をハンマーで叩くことで発音する鍵盤楽器の一種である。鍵を押すと、鍵に連動したハンマーが対応する弦を叩き、音が出る。また、内部機構の面からは打楽器と弦楽器の特徴も併せ持った打弦楽器に分類される。一般に据え付けて用いる大型の楽器で、現代の標準的なピアノは88鍵を備え、音域が非常に広く、オーケストラの全音域よりも広い。汎用性の高い楽器であることから、演奏目的として使われるのはもちろんのこと、音楽教育、作品研究、作曲などにも広く用いられている。そのためピアニストに限らず、作曲家、指揮者、他楽器奏者、声楽家、音楽教育者などにも演奏技術の習得を求められることが多い。保育士試験、小学校教員採用試験などでも必要とされている。の名は17-18世紀の楽器製作家バルトロメオクリストフォリが製作したピアノの原型であるクラヴィチェンバロコルピアノエフォルテに由来しこれが短縮されたものとされる。歴史的にはと呼ばれ、現代でも略称としては という表記が用いられている。現代ではイタリア語英語フランス語では “piano” と呼ばれるやアップライトピアノを意味する “” が用いられることが多い。その他ハンガリー語では “Zongora” と呼ぶ。20世紀後半以降あえてなどと呼ぶ。日本では戦前の文献では「ピヤノ」と書かれたものが見受けられる。一例として尋常小学校の国語の教科書に「月光の曲」と題されたベートーヴェンの逸話が読み物として掲載されていたことがあるがこのときの文章は「ピヤノ」表記であった。モダンピアノは主に2つのタイプに分かれる。すなわち、グランドピアノとアップライトピアノである。モダンピアノはフォルテピアノと同様にアコースティック楽器だが、それ以外にエレクトリックピアノ、デジタルピアノなども存在する。グランドピアノは地面と水平にフレームと弦を配し弦は奏者の正面方向に張られる。そのためグランドピアノはきわめて大型の楽器となり充分に共鳴の得られる天井の高い広い部屋に設置することが理想的である。グランドピアノは大きさによっていくつかに分類される。製造者やモデルによって違いはあるが大まかに言ってに分けられる。ベビーグランドはゾーマー社が1884年に特許を取得している。他の条件がすべて同じであれば、長い弦を張った長いピアノの方が響きがよく、弦のインハーモニシティが小さい。インハーモニシティとは、倍音の周波数の、基本周波数の整数倍からの遠さである。短いピアノは、弦が短く、太く、固いため、弦の両端が振動しにくい。この影響は高い倍音に顕著であるため、第2倍音は理論値よりも若干高くなり、第3倍音はもっと高くなる。このようにして、短いピアノではインハーモニシティが大きい。短いピアノではダンパーペダルを踏んだときに共鳴する弦が少ないので、音色が貧弱である。一方、コンサート・グランドでは弦長があるため短いピアノよりも自由に振動でき、倍音が理想に近くなる。一般的にはフルサイズのコンサートグランドは大型なだけでなく高価でもあるため専用ホールなどでの演奏会で用いられより小型のグランドピアノは学校の体育館講堂や教室などで用いられる。アップライトピアノはフレームや弦響板を鉛直方向に配し上下に延びるように作られている。グランドピアノよりも場所を取らないためグランドピアノを設置するスペースの取れない家庭や学校の教室小規模の演奏会場などに広く設置されている。グランドピアノでは、ハンマーが反動と重力によって自然な動きで下に落ちるのに対し、アップライトで一般的な前後に動くハンマーでは、反応のよいピアノ・アクションを製造することは難しい。これはハンマーの戻りをばねに依存せざるをえず、経年劣化するためである。またレペティションレバーという、ジャックをハンマーの下に引き戻す機構が、ほとんどのアップライトピアノには備わっていないため、連打性能に関しては決定的に劣る。エレクトリックピアノ.20世紀の中頃より音響部分を電気回路に置き換えたエレクトリックピアノが登場した。音色が独特であるためアコースティックピアノの代用品として使用されるケースは稀でありしばしば同じ楽曲作品内でアコースティックピアノとエレクトリックピアノの両方を使用し共存する楽曲も多い。発音原理はアコースティックピアノと同じく、ハンマーで音源部を叩くことで音を得ているが、音響増幅をボディ部分の反響から得ているアコースティックピアノと異なり、音源部で鳴らした音を磁気やピエゾピックアップなどで拾い、アンプで電気的に増幅してスピーカーから出力している。アコースティックピアノとエレクトリックピアノは物理的な発音構造が基本的には同じであるので、他の楽器で例えるならアコースティック・ギターとエレクトリック・ギターの関係に近い。合成音ではなく実際に物理的な音源部を振動で鳴らしているため、電源を入れずとも演奏すれば小音量ながら生音は聞こえる。音源部の素材や反響・共鳴方法はメーカーや機種によってまちまちであり、最もよく知られるエレクトリックピアノの一つであるローズ・ピアノは、各鍵盤ごとの音程を発音する金属片を弦の代わりに叩くことで原音を鳴らし、またその振動を別の金属板で共鳴させている。ヤマハの製品のようにアコースティックピアノと同じく弦を使用するものもある。当然ながら音源部が同じため弦以外の音源を使用する機種よりもアコースティックピアノに音は近くこの構造を持つCP-70やCP-80などはエレクトリックグランドピアノとも呼ばれる。また、アコースティックピアノにピックアップを搭載したエレクトリックアコースティックピアノとも呼べるハイブリッドモデルも存在するが、後述の電子ピアノにおけるハイブリッド機とは構造が異なり消音機能がある訳ではない。構造としては同じ音を電気的に出力するかしないかだけであるため、仮に消音処理を行なえばエレクトリックピアノとしての音も発音されなくなる。電源を通した場合も当然アコースティックピアノとしての生鳴りは残り、住宅事情や夜間演奏の対策になるものではない。エレクトリックピアノは発声原理がアコースティックピアノと基本的には同じか、もしくは似通っているため、電子回路で音を生成・合成するエレクトロニックピアノや、デジタルピアノといった電子ピアノ類とは明確に区別される。物理的な音源を用いずに、電子回路によって音を生成及び合成しているものは電子ピアノと呼ばれる。上位モデルではペダルや、実際のピアノの感触を再現した鍵盤、多様な音色、およびMIDI端子を備えている。とりわけ、コンサートなどで用いられることを想定した脚部分のない本体部分だけのものはステージピアノとも呼ばれる。電子ピアノの音色生成や合成方法はアナログデジタルなど様々であるが古くは1970年代にアナログシンセサイザーの技術を転用してピアノの音色再現を試みたエレクトロニックピアノが1980年代にはデジタルシンセサイザーの技術を用いたFM音源による合成やサンプリング技術を利用して打鍵にあわせて音を再生するデジタルピアノが登場した。FM音源式はローズピアノなどの音色の再現がしやすくサンプリング式は本物のエレクトリックピアノの音色をそのまま録音して収録できるためメンテナンスや搬入に難の多い本物のエレクトリックピアノが駆逐される原因ともなった。特に90年代以降アコースティックピアノやエレクトリックピアノの代用として用いられているものはサンプリングタイプが多く一般に単にデジタルピアノや電子ピアノと呼ぶ場合はこのタイプを指す。近年では通常のピアノを切り替えによって電子ピアノとしても使用できるサイレントピアノも登場している。サイレントピアノ類は前述のアコースティックピアノとエレクトリックピアノのハイブリッド機とはまったく異なり電子ピアノとして使用する場合は生音が消音されデジタル音源によるサンプリング音が出力される。電子ピアノは内部構造や発音原理がシンセサイザー類と同じであるため、ピアノの音色や打鍵感覚に重きを置いたシンセサイザーと見ることもできる。エレクトロニックピアノはアナログシンセサイザー、デジタルピアノはデジタルシンセサイザーとそれぞれ相同である。実際のところ、と銘打っていてもデジタルピアノには一般的なシンセサイザーのようにピアノ以外の多彩な音色を備えている機種が多く、そういった機種ではピアノ的な打鍵の重さや細かいコントローラ類が省かれているのを気にしないのであれば、シンセサイザーとしても使用可能である。多くのデジタルピアノでアップライトやグランドなどのアコースティックピアノ音色の他に、エレクトリックピアノの音色や、古い時代のシンセサイザーに搭載されていたピアノ音色うち、人気の高いものなども搭載されている。しかし、現在の技術水準ではアコースティックピアノの要である打弦されていない弦の共鳴による響きを完全に再現することは困難であり、物理モデル音源技術などを用いた開発が続けられている。上に分類されないピアノの形態としてはかつて長方形をしたスクエアピアノがあったが19世紀中頃から次第に姿を消し現在は製造されていない。トイピアノは19世紀に製造が始まった、元来は玩具用のピアノである。1863年、アンリ・フルノーがピアノ・ロールを用いて自動演奏する自動ピアノを開発した。自動ピアノでは紙製のパンチ・ロールを使って演奏を記録し、気圧装置を使ってこれを再生する。現代の自動ピアノとしてはヤマハのディスクラヴィーアがあり、これはソレノイドとMIDIを使用したものである。アーヴィングバーリンは1801年にエドワードライリーが開発した移調ピアノという特殊なピアノを使用した。これは鍵盤の下に備えられたレバーによって望みの調に移調できるというものであった。バーリン所蔵ピアノのうちの1台はスミソニアン博物館に収められている。20世紀現代音楽の楽器としてプリペアドピアノがある。プリペアドピアノは標準的なグランドピアノに演奏前にさまざまな物体を取り付けて音色を変えたり機構を改造したものである。プリペアドピアノのための曲の楽譜には奏者に対してゴム片や金属片を弦の間に挿入する指示が書かれていたりする。以下では基本的にモダンピアノの構造を解説する。モダンピアノの基本的な構造は、鍵盤、アクションから響板に伝わり拡大される。またペダルによって全てのダンパーがあげられていると、打弦されていない他の弦も共鳴し、ピアノ独特の響きを作り出す。鍵から手を離すとダンパーがおり、振動が止められる。フレームおよびそれを支える木製の胴体足弦アクション機構などによりピアノの重量はパイプオルガンを除くほかの楽器に比べて桁違いに重くアップライトピアノで200 kg〜300 kgグランドピアノでは300 kg以上コンサートグランドでは500 kgを超えることも珍しくない。このためごく少数のこだわりを持つ演奏家を除いてコンサートに自分のピアノを持参することはなく会場にある楽器を使う。標準的モダンピアノは黒鍵36白鍵52の計88鍵を備える（A0からC8に及ぶ7オクターヴと短3度）。この音域のものは19世紀後半頃から作られ始め第一次世界大戦後に標準となったものである。88鍵が標準的になったのはこの音域が楽音として人間が認識できる限度であるためだといわれている。鍵そのものはほとんどの場合木でできており表面にかつては白鍵は象牙を黒鍵は黒檀を貼っていることが多かったが現在では合成樹脂製つき板を使ったものが多い。また近年では象牙や黒檀の質感を人工的に再現した新素材（人工象牙人工黒檀）などが採用されたものもある。古いピアノには85鍵の楽器を作っており、この108鍵のピアノは2018年9月に初めて作られたもので、2021年現在世界一広い音域を持つピアノとなっている。また102鍵 の楽器はフランスのステファン・ポレロ社でも作られている。これらのスチュアート・アンド・サンズ社やステファン・ポレロ社などのモデルでは、拡張音域の鍵盤の見た目は他と変わらない。拡張音域は、主により豊かな共鳴を得るために追加されたもので、これらの音を使うように作曲されている楽曲は僅かである。逆に流しのピアニストたちが使う65鍵の小さなスタジオアップライトもある。ピアノと呼ばれるこのタイプのピアノは相対的に重量が軽く2人で持ち運び可能であるが響板部分はスピネットピアノやコンソールピアノよりも大きく力強い低音部の響きを有する。鍵を押し下げるとハンマーが連動して弦を叩く仕組みをアクションという。アクション機構は伝統的に木材で作られてきたが近年はごく一部のメーカーで炭素繊維を含ませたABS樹脂なども使われる。鍵を押し下げた時に、ハンマーが弦の手前 2〜3ミリメートルの位置にくると、ハンマーが鍵の動きから解放される。この動きをといい、このような機構をエスケープメントと呼ぶ。打撃による発音では発音体との接触時間を短くすることが重要な要素であるが、これを鍵盤の動きにかかわらず一定の条件で行うための仕組みであり、このエスケープメント・アクションを発明したことが今日のピアノの地位を築く出発点であった。弦とハンマーの間の距離は2〜3 ミリの範囲内のいずれでも良いわけではなく、全鍵において可能な限り揃えられる必要があり、これをレット・オフ調整という。一部のメーカでは最高音部のレット・オフを 1ミリまで近づける方が充分な音色を得られることがある。この機構のため、鍵を押し下げるときに指に感じられる重さは、押し下げきる直前で軽くなる。鍵が軽くなってから鍵が深く沈むと、鍵が重く感じられる。アクションで次に重要な課題となったのはエスケープした部品を如何に素早くハンマーの下に戻して次の打弦に備えるかであり様々な方式のアクションが発明改良されることになった。歴史的には大きく分けてウィーン式アクションとイギリス式アクションが存在した。モダンピアノのアクションは基本的にイギリス式アクションの系列である。モダンピアノでは、アップライト・ピアノはジャックのみがエスケープするシングル・エスケープメント・アクションを用いているが、グランド・ピアノはジャックとレペティションレバーがエスケープするダブル・エスケープメント・アクションを用いている。ダブルエスケープメントアクションにはレペティションレバーという部品がありこれによって素早い連打を可能としている。これは打弦後鍵を押し下げる力をわずかに緩めた瞬間にレットオフの時にジャックとともに外れていたレペティションレバーがハンマーを持ち上げて維持しジャックの戻りをたやすくする機構である。これにより鍵の深さの半分まで戻すことで次の打弦が可能になる。一方ハンマーが弦を横から叩くアップライトピアノではシングルエスケープメントアクションのために鍵が完全に戻らなければ次の打鍵はできない。ハンマーが戻るのを助けるバットスプリングと呼ばれるスプリングが付いているためにこの力によってハンマーが戻りやすくなっているようにとらえられがちであるがスプリングを外しても連打の性能には大きな変化はない。正しくアクション調整が行われたグランドピアノのアクションでは毎秒14回程度のアップライトピアノでは7回程度の連打が可能である。レペティションレバーの有無という構造の違いがグランドピアノとアップライトピアノのタッチ表現力の差に大きく影響を及ぼしている。グランドピアノのダブルエスケープメントアクションはシュワンダー式アクションが主流だったが1970年代以降スタインウェイ式アクションを採用するメーカが多くなった。アクションにおいてハンマーとともに重要なのがダンパーと呼ばれる消音装置である。打鍵時以外はこれが弦に密着しその振動を常に抑えている。鍵を叩くとハンマーがハンマーと弦の間の1/3 ないし 1/2 進んだときにこのダンパーが弦から離れ始めるように調整される。これにより弦の自由な振動を可能とする。鍵を抑えている間中ダンパーは離れているが鍵を離すと同時にダンパーが弦に戻り弦の振動を止め音が消える。ただしピアノの最高音部は弦の鳴る時間が短いためダンパーを備えない。弦に直接触れるハンマーヘッドは一時樹脂製のものが用いられたこともあったが今ではほぼ例外なく羊毛のフェルトでできている。ハンマーヘッドは長時間演奏されれば変形するが音色に大きく影響するものなので音程の調律ほど頻繁ではないが定期的に調整することが必要となる。具体的には調律師など専門の技術者がと呼ばれる表面にサンドペーパーを行う。技術が進歩した近年では、電気ピアノのように同じような発音原理を持ちながら電気的に増幅するものや、電子的に発音するピアノに類する楽器も登場している。ピアノは鍵盤と同じ数弦の総数は200本を超える。各音の弦は複数弦でも単一のハンマーで同時に叩かれるがグランドピアノの弱音ペダルを踏むとハンマーを含めた鍵盤の機構すべてが物理的に横方向にずれ中音域以上では叩かれる弦の数が3本から2本に減り低音域では2本の場合はそのうち片方の弦のみが1本の場合もその弦の端の方のみがハンマーで叩かれるので音量が低下する。弦はミュージックワイヤーと呼ばれる特殊な鋼線で、低音域では質量を増すために銅線を巻きつけてある。音域ごとの弦の仕様に関しては、具体的には次のようなものがある。弦長は一般に長いほうが豊かな音色になるが使われるようになってからである。現在のピアノではオーバー・ストリンギングのために、音が濁るという欠点が存在する。ドイツのDavid Klavinsは、この問題を解決するために1987年にKlavins Piano Model 370を発表した。このピアノは弦を平行に配置するために高さは3.7m、総重量20トン以上にも上る巨大なもので、共鳴板はグランドピアノの二倍以上あり、階段の上にアップライト型の鍵盤が配置されている。Model 370は2012年現在も世界最大のピアノである。ちなみにこの楽器はオルガン同様据え付けとなっているためコンサートなどには使用できず、ほとんど映画などの音源収録のみに使われている。2012年には、Native InstrumentsからModel 370から収録したKONTAKT 5用のソフト音源が発売されている。響板響棒は弦の下に位置しブリッジを通じて伝えられた弦の振動を空気に効率良く伝える。響板は柾目に木取りされておりその方向はブリッジの長さ方向に一致させるのが一般的である。響棒は響板のブリッジに対して反対面に位置しやはり柾目に木取りされている。響棒は響板木目方向に対してつまりブリッジの長さ方向に対しても交差する方向に配置される。響板を支える骨組みの役目を果たすが響板響棒材を伝わる音は木目方向と木目横断方向ではおよそ41となるために響板の柾目横断方向への振動の伝播を助け響板全体に振動が均質に伝わるように工夫されてもいる。グランドピアノでは弦を覆う上蓋がついており、これを持ち上げることによってより豊かな音量を出すことが出来る。これは支え棒によって斜め約45度に固定される。これにより音が指向性を帯びる。演奏者から見て右側が開くため、演奏会場では客席に向かって音を発するように、客席から向かって左側に鍵盤が置かれる。大屋根を半開にすることもでき、伴奏ではこの状態が好まれる。アップライトピアノも上部の蓋を開けることができこれによって若干の音量調節は可能になるもののグランドピアノほど効果的ではない。むしろほこりが入るので開ける事はあまり好まれない。21世紀現在の一般モダンピアノは、3本のペダルを備える。20世紀以前は2本のペダルのメーカーも存在した。第1のペダルは一番右の長音ペダルでありダンパーペダルと呼ばれる。このペダルを踏むとすべてのダンパーが離れ打鍵した音が延びる。また演奏した弦だけでなくそれらの部分音成分に近い振動数を持つ弦が共鳴することでペダルを踏まずに鍵を押下したまま音を延ばした場合よりも音が豊かに聴こえる。ペダルを放すとダンパーが戻り延びていた音は止まる。またペダルの踏み込み具合を半分などに調節することで音の延び具合を調節することも出来これをハーフペダルと呼ぶ。さらに熟練した奏者はこのハーフペダルと完全に踏み込んだ状態とを往復する操作によって延び具合を周期的に変化させヴィブラートに似た演奏効果を得ることも可能である。武満徹のではトランペット奏者がピアノの内部に向かってトランペットを吹きその共鳴を聞き取る場面がある。第2のペダルは一番左の弱音ペダルでありソフトペダルもしくはシフトペダルと呼ばれる。グランドピアノではこのペダルを踏むと鍵盤全体がフレームに対して少し右にずれ中高音域ではハンマーが叩く弦の本数低音域では弦に当たるハンマーの部位が中央から端に変わり音量が減少するされ自由運動で打弦するがきわめて弱い音を速いテンポで繰り返す場合にはハンマーが弦を打たないミスタッチとなる。そこでソフトペダルを使用して打弦距離を幾らか短くすることで弱く弾いた場合でもミスタッチを起こしにくくする効果がある。つまりアップライトピアノのソフトペダルは他のペダルのようにペダルを踏むことによって何かしらの効果を得るものではなく演奏の補助的な役割を果たすペダルといえる。第3のペダルは中央のペダルである。かつてはエラールなど多くのメーカーによって省略されていた。グランドピアノではソステヌートペダルと呼ばれこのペダルを踏んだ時点で押していた鍵のダンパーが鍵から手を放してもペダルを踏んでいる間は弦に降りないようになっている。主に低音の弦を延ばしたまま高音部を両手でスタッカートで弾いたりあるいは高音部のみダンパーペダルを複数回踏み変える奏法に際して用いられる。前者はシェーンベルクの「3つのピアノ曲」（作曲者自身はこの指定をしていないがピアニストによってこの奏法を採るものが多い）サミュエルバーバーの『ピアノソナタ』終楽章のフーガなど後者はドビュッシーのピアノ曲集「映像」第2曲「ラモーを讃えて」や武満徹の「閉じた眼」「雨の樹素描」などの作品で効果的に使われる。また低音の鍵を無音で押さえたままソステヌートペダルを踏んで「鍵を押しっぱなし」と同じ状態にし高音部の鍵をダンパーペダルなしで（多くの場合スタッカートで）弾く事により低音で押された音の部分音の振動数に対応する音が部分音の共鳴によって若干の残響を伴って聞こえる。多くの現代音楽で使われている奏法である。アップライトピアノの中央のペダルは、マフラーペダルとも呼ばれ、夜間練習などのために、弦とハンマーの間にフェルトを挟んで、音を弱くする。踏み込んだペダルを左右いずれかにずらすことでロックされ、踏みっぱなしにしておくことができる。もともとのこのペダル効果はハンマークラヴィーアなどでハンマーと弦の間に薄い皮や羊皮紙などを挟み音色の変化を愉しんだことによる。歴史的楽器では4つないし5つのペダルを持つものもありこのうちのいくつかはシンバルや太鼓といった打楽器に連動されていた。シューベルトの一部の作品ではこれらの打楽器に連動するペダル構造を用いた曲もある。現代でもファツィオリ社のグランドピアノでは第4のペダルを備えるものがある。このペダルを踏むことにより鍵盤の前面が下がり鍵盤の沈む深さが浅くなる。現代のピアノが沈む深さは平均して約1cmであるがモーツァルトが活躍した時代の鍵盤が沈む深さは約6mmであり操作は現代よりも遥かに軽やかであった。この時代のような鍵盤の軽やかさを現代のピアノに持たせるために第4のペダルが備えられたものである。現在第5ペダルと呼べるはどのメーカーのグランドピアノにも接続することができる。すでに新製品に組み込んだメーカーも出現している。近年はアップライトピアノであってもグランドピアノと同等のペダル能力を持つピアノが出現している。またオルガンと同様に足鍵盤を備えた楽器（ペダルピアノ）も存在した。シューマンシャルル＝ヴァランタンアルカンらにペダルピアノのための作品がいくつかある。ロベルトプロッセダが現代テクノロジーを用いて復刻された楽器を用いているほかメーカーが市販した例がある。各弦の張力を調整する調律は、今日のほとんどのピアノが十二平均律で調律される。他の弦楽器に比べて張力が大きく、またピンの保持力も高いため音程の精度はかなり高く誤差は1セント。また、ジェラール・グリゼーの後期作品は、ピアノの特定の数音を四分音下げて調律することが要求される。調律の狂ったような音に聴こえるが、これは合成された倍音に基づく調律である。特に激しい跳躍のある第1部のカデンツァにおいて効果的に響く。いずれの場合もコンサートに用いる際はピアノ調律師の特殊な技能が要求され、また日本のコンサートホールではこのような特殊調律を断られる場合があるので、それでもあえて演奏する場合にはピアノのレンタルが必要になる。19世紀にはヴィルトゥオーゾのピアニストらにより、リストの半音階、3本の手などの技巧が開発された。クラスター奏法とは、ヘンリー・カウエルらによって提唱されたもので、鍵盤を手・腕・ひじを使って打楽器のように演奏する。トーン・クラスターも参照のこと。内部奏法とは、ピアノを鍵盤によってではなく、内部の弦をギターのプレクトラムなどで直接はじいたり、弦の縁や真ん中を指で押さえながら対応する鍵盤を弾いたり、松脂を塗ったガラス繊維あるいは弦楽器の弓の毛を、ピアノ内部の特定の弦に通して擦弦したりすることにより、本来のピアノにはない音色を得るための奏法。ピアノの作音楽器に劣後する特性を何とか克服しようとするものである。現代音楽では当たり前のように多用されるが日本の多くのコンサートホールは新しい楽器1台しか用意してないことが多く楽器が傷むという理由からこの内部奏法を非常に嫌悪し禁止している。それに対して外国とくにヨーロッパでは古い楽器や破壊用の楽器も万遍無く用意してあることが多いのでこのような規制はほとんど見受けられない。とはいえ楽器に傷をつけやすい金属製器具での演奏は控えたり指の汗が弦につくことを考慮し演奏後にはサビ防止のためにきちんと布でふき取るなどの配慮は必要である。ピアノは1人だけでなく2人以上が一台の楽器を同時に演奏することも可能である。これを連弾という。19世紀のヨーロッパではサロンの愛好家やアマチュアの子女のたしなみとして連弾のための音楽がもてはやされた。ヨハネスブラームスはこのような状況を受けてを書くことを勧めた。どちらも連弾のレパートリーとして欠かせない楽曲でありまたオーケストラ編曲としても親しまれている。カミーユ・サン＝サーンスの「交響曲第3番『オルガン付き』」では、第4楽章においてオーケストラ内のピアノが連弾で用いられる（しかし主役はオルガンであり、そちらの方がずっと目立つ）。また一般的な2人で演奏して高音部と低音部を弾き分ける4手連弾のほかに、3人で演奏する6手連弾もラフマニノフなどの楽曲に作例が見られる。ピアノを2台並べて演奏する方法。連弾よりも音量において勝り、また奏者が2人とも音域に制限されずに演奏できる利点がある。その反面、音が混ざり易く、雑多に聞こえ易いという短所もある。2台のピアノは1台ずつそれぞれに調律するのだが、インハーモニシティはそれぞれのピアノに固有のものなので、調律は他のピアノとは完全には一致しない。そのため、微妙なずれによって賑やかな音になる。多くの場合は2台のピアノを向かい合わせに置くため双方のピアノは反響板が互いに反対方向に開いてしまう。このため大抵の場合は聴衆とは逆に開くピアノ側の反響板を取り外して演奏する。2台ピアノのために書かれたオリジナル曲のほか、オーケストラ曲やピアノ協奏曲を試演する際にも用いられる。この試演とは、主に19世紀において限られた音楽関係者の聴衆を前にオーケストラ曲の新作を披露する際、または現在においても音楽学校などでピアノ科の生徒が協奏曲を試験などに際して弾く際に用いられる演奏手段である。2台目のピアノを連弾にし、合計3人の奏者が演奏する場合もある。ダリウス・ミヨーとスティーヴ・ライヒの作品には、それぞれ6台のピアノを同時演奏するものがある。また1993年から毎年開催されているヴェルビエ音楽祭で2003年の10周年記念として行われたガラコンサートでは著名なピアニスト8名がスタインウェイのピアノ8台をの字に並べ同時演奏した。弦を叩くことで発音する鍵盤楽器を作ろうという試みは早くより存在しており、中でも鍵盤付きのダルシマー系の楽器をピアノの先祖とみる向きもあるが、一般的には、現在のピアノはトスカーナ大公子フェルディナンド・デ・メディチの楽器管理人であったイタリア・パドヴァ出身のバルトロメオ・クリストフォリが発明したとみなされている。クリストフォリがいつ最初にピアノを製作したのかは明らかでないが、メディチ家の目録から、1700年にはピアノがすでに存在していたことが知られる。現存する3台のクリストフォリ製作のピアノは、いずれも1720年代に製作されたものである。多くの発明がそうであるように、ピアノもそれまでにあった技術の上に成立している。ピアノに先行する弦を張った鍵盤楽器としてはクラヴィコードとチェンバロが特に普及していた。クラヴィコードは弦をタンジェントと呼ばれる金属片で突き上げるもので、鍵盤で音の強弱のニュアンスを細かくコントロールできる当時唯一の鍵盤楽器であったが、音量が得られず、狭い室内での演奏を除き、ある程度以上の広さの空間で演奏するには耐えなかった。一方のチェンバロは弦を羽軸製のプレクトラムで弾くものであり、十分な音量が得られたものの、ストップの切り替えで何段階かの強弱を出せる他は自由に強弱をつけて演奏することは困難であった。これらの鍵盤楽器は数世紀にわたる歴史を通じて、ケース、響板、ブリッジ、鍵盤のもっとも効果的な設計が追求されていた。クリストフォリ自身、すぐれたチェンバロ製作家であったため、この技術体系に熟練していた。クリストフォリの重要な功績は、ハンマーが弦を叩くが、その後弦と接触し続けない、というピアノの基本機構を独自に開発した点にある。クラヴィコードでは鍵を押している限りタンジェントが弦に触り続けるが、ハンマーが弦に触れ続ければ響きを止めてしまう。更に、ハンマーは激しく弾むことなく元の位置に戻らなければならず、同音の連打にも堪えなければならない。クリストフォリのピアノアクションは、後代のさまざまな方式のアクションの原型となった。クリストフォリのピアノは細い弦を用いており、モダンピアノより音量はずっと小さいが、クラヴィコードと比較するとその音量は相当に大きく、響きの持続性も高かった。クリストフォリの新しい楽器は、1711年にイタリアの文筆家がピアノを称賛する記事をヴェネツィアの新聞に掲載するまでは、あまり広く知られていなかった。この記事には構造の図解も掲載されており、広く流通して、次世代のピアノ製作家たちにピアノ製作のきっかけを与えることとなった。オルガン製作家としてよく知られるゴットフリート・ジルバーマンもその一人である。ジルバーマンのピアノは、1点の追加を除いては、ほぼクリストフォリ・ピアノの直接のコピーであった。ジルバーマンが開発したのは、全ての弦のダンパーを一度に取り外す、現代のダンパー・ペダルの原型であった。ジルバーマンは彼の初期製作楽器の1台を1730年代にヨハン・ゼバスティアン・バッハに見せているが、バッハはダイナミックレンジを充分に得るためには高音部が弱すぎると指摘した。その後、ジルバーマンの楽器は改良を加え、1747年5月7日にフリードリヒ大王の宮廷を訪ねた際にジルバーマンの新しい楽器に触れた際にはバッハもこれを評価し、ジルバーマン・ピアノの売り込みにも協力したという。ピアノ製作は18世紀後半にウィーンを中心に盛んとなり、ドイツ・アウクスブルクのヨハン・アンドレアス・シュタイン、その娘でウィーンのナネッテ・シュトライヒャー、同じくウィーンのアントン・ワルターなどが活躍した。ウィーン式のピアノは、木のフレームに1音2弦の弦を張り、革で覆ったハンマーをもつ。また現代のピアノとは黒鍵と白鍵の色が逆のものもある。ヴォルフガング・アマデウス・モーツァルトがそのピアノ協奏曲やピアノソナタを作曲したのは、こういった楽器によってであった。J. S. バッハの末子、ヨハン・クリスティアン・バッハはロンドンに在住中、演奏旅行で訪ねて来た少年時代のモーツァルトを膝の上に乗せて、ピアノを連弾したという。モーツァルトの時代のピアノは、イギリス式のピアノや、現代の一般的なピアノよりも軽快な響きを持ち、減衰が早かった。20世紀後半より当時の楽器の復元がなされ、19世紀初頭以前の初期ピアノはフォルテピアノとしてモダンピアノと区別することも多い。1790年から1860年頃にかけての時期に、ピアノはモーツァルトの時代の楽器から、いわゆるモダンピアノに至る劇的な変化を遂げる。この革新は、作曲家や演奏家からのより力強く、持続性の高い響きの尽きぬ要求への反応であり、また、高品質の弦を用いることができ、正確な鋳造技術により鉄製フレームを作ることができるようになるといった、同時代の産業革命によって可能となったことであった。時代を追って、ピアノの音域も拡大し、モーツァルトの時代には5オクターヴであったものが、モダンピアノでは7オクターヴか時にはそれ以上の音域を持っている。初期の技術革新の多くは、イギリスのブロードウッド社の工房でなされた。ブロードウッド社は、華やかで力強い響きのチェンバロですでに有名であったが、開発を重ねて次第に大型で、音量が大きく、より頑丈な楽器を製作し、初めて5オクターヴを越える音域のピアノを製作した。1790年代には5オクターヴと5度、1810年には6オクターヴの楽器を作っている。フランツ・ヨーゼフ・ハイドンとルートヴィヒ・ヴァン・ベートーヴェンにも楽器を送っており、ベートーヴェンはその後期の作品で、拡大した音域を利用して作曲している。ウィーンスクールの製作家たちもこの音域拡大の流れを追ったが、イギリスとウィーンではアクションの構造が違っていた。ブロードウッドのものはより頑丈で、ウィーンのものはより打鍵への反応がよかった。1820年代になると、開発の中心はパリに移り、当地のエラール社の楽器はフレデリック・ショパンやフランツ・リストの愛用するところとなった。1821年、セバスチャン・エラールは、ダブル・エスケープメント・アクションを開発し、鍵が上がり切っていないところから連打できるようになる。この発明によって、素早いパッセージの演奏が容易となった。ダブル・エスケープメント・アクションの機構が公に明らかになると、アンリ・エルツの改良を経て、グランドピアノの標準的なアクションとなり、今日生産されているグランドピアノは基本的にこのアクションを採用している。日本にフィリップフランツフォンシーボルトによって初めてピアノがもたらされたのもこの時期である。山口県萩市の熊谷美術館には1823年にシーボルトより贈られた日本最古のピアノ（スクエアピアノ）が現存する。モダンピアノの響きを作り出した大きな技術革新の一つに、頑丈な鉄製フレームの導入があげられる。鉄製フレームはとも呼ばれ、響板の上に設置し、弦の張力を支える。フレームが次第に一体化した構造を獲得するのにあわせて、より太く、張力が高い弦を張ることが可能になり、また張る弦の本数を増やすことも可能となった。現代のモダンピアノでは弦の張力の総計は20トンにも上りうる。単一部品の鋳物フレームは、1825年にボストンにてオルフェウス・バブコックによって特許が取得されている。これは、金属製ヒッチピン・プレートを組み合わせたものであった。バブコックは後にチッカリング・アンド・マッカイ社で働き、チッカリング社は1843年にグランドピアノ用のフル・アイロン・フレームを初めて特許取得した。ヨーロッパの工房はその後も組合わせフレームを好むことが多く、アメリカ式の単一フレームが標準となるのは20世紀初頭である。その他の代表的発明として革の代わりにフェルトをハンマーヘッドに用いることがあげられる。フェルトハンマーは1826年にジャン＝アンリパップによって初めて導入された。素材がより均質である上にハンマーが重くなり弦の張力が増すとともにより大きなダイナミックレンジを得ることを可能とした。音色の幅を広げるソステヌートペダルは1844年にジャンルイボワスローによって発明され1874年にスタインウェイ社によって改良された。この時代の重要な技術的発明としてはほかに、弦の張り方もあげられる。低音部を除いて、1音2弦ではなく3弦が張られ、と呼ばれる、2つの高さのブリッジを用い、張る向きの変えて弦の並びを重ねる張り方が導入された。このことにより、ケースを長くすることなく、より大きな弦を張ることが可能になった。オーバー・ストリンギングは1820年代にジャン＝アンリ・パップによって発明され、アメリカ合衆国におけるグランドピアノでの使用の特許は1859年にヘンリー・スタインウェイによって取得された。テオドール・スタインウェイが1872年に特許を取得した、デュープレックス ・スケールは、同じく1872年にブリュートナー社で開発されたほか、コラード社は、よりはっきりとした振動を使って響きを調える技術を1821年に開発している。初期のピアノの中には、一般に見慣れない外形や設計を用いているものもある。スクエア・ピアノは地面と水平に弦を張ったケースが長方形の楽器で、ハンマーの上に対角線状に弦を張り、ケースの長辺側に鍵盤が設置されている。スクエア・ピアノの設計の原型はさまざまにジルバーマンおよびクリスチャン・エルンスト・フレデリチに帰されており、ギュイヨーム＝レブレヒト・ペツォルトとオルフェウス・バブコックによって改良された。18世紀後半にはツンペによりイギリスで人気を博し、1890年代には、アメリカ合衆国にてスタインウェイの鋳物フレーム、オーバー・ストリンギング・スクエア・ピアノが大量生産され、人気を博した。スタインウェイのスクエアは、木製フレームのツンペの楽器に較べて2.5倍以上大きかった。スクエア・ピアノは、製作コストが低く、安価なために大人気であったが、簡単な構造のアクションと、弦の間隔が狭いために、演奏のしやすさや響きの点からは難があった。アップライト・ピアノは弦を垂直方向に張った楽器で、響板とブリッジを鍵盤に対して垂直に設置する。開発初期のアップライト・ピアノでは、響板や弦は鍵盤よりも上に設置し、弦が床に届かないようにしている。この原理を応用し、鍵盤の上方に斜めに弦を張るジラフ・ピアノやピラミッド・ピアノ、リラ・ピアノは、造形的に目を引くケースを用いていた。非常に背の高いキャビネット・ピアノは、サウスウェルによって1806年に開発され、1840年代まで生産されていた。鍵盤の後にブリッジと連続的なフレームが設置され、弦はその上に垂直に張られ、床近くまで延び、巨大なを用いて必要な鍵盤の高さを確保している。日本では1900年に日本楽器製造株式会社が木目のピアノはデザインの都合上木目を合わせる必要があり木材の選定に限界があった。ピアノを漆黒の一色で塗装することは木材の選定に限界がなくなり最良の木材を利用することが出来るばかりか製造における労力が減るため大音量の楽器を大量生産することが可能になる。昭和40年代以降には耐久性に優れる不飽和ポリエステル樹脂とアニリンブラックを用いた鏡面仕上げ塗装が行われるようになった。1965年には日本の住宅事情に合わせてアップライトピアノにおける音量を大幅に低下させるマフラーペダルがヤマハにより開発された。 +医学の構造や機能、疾病について研究し、疾病を診断・治療・予防する方法を開発する学問である。医学は、病気の予防および治療によって健康を維持、および回復するために発展した様々な医療を包含する。仏教圏において、という言葉が用いられるようになったのである。また、「医学のひとつ、とする説もある。まず世界全体の医学を概観すると世界各国には様々な医学があり例えば中国伝統医学イスラーム医学西洋医学 等々がある。ギリシャ医学、ユナニ医学、チベット医学など、歴史が長い医学を、まとめて伝統医学と呼ぶことがある。なおこれらの伝統医学は各地で現在でも用いられており、現役の医学である。エジプトのパピルスの中にと記述されており、現代と変わらない診療手順を行ったことが明らかになっている。医学は歴史をふりかえると経験医療とされた。として機能や社会的な面についても見落とさないようにする立場に変わりつつある。現在日本でと呼ばれるものは、おおむね伝統中国医学に相当している西洋医学とは異なる理論・治療体系をもつ医学である。と言う以上、きちんとした論理の上に成立している。そしてそれは、日本人が持つ生命観や自然観に近いものである。中国伝統医学は民間療法とは区別されている。東洋医学は、民間療法とは異なった考え方に基づいて運用されている。一例として生姜の使い方を見るとどちらも風邪の時に使うことはあるものの民間療法では風邪の時に何の考えもなしにそれを機械的に与えるのに対し中国伝統医学では寒気が強い時のみに使用され反対に熱感が強い時には使用しないのである。なぜなら中国伝統医学では生姜は体を温める作用があると考えているからである。日本でも古代よりは巫女、陰陽師、僧侶によって中国から伝えられた呪術、医療が行われていた。室町時代以降は中国大陸との交易も盛んとなり、漢方が積極的に伝わっていった。江戸時代以降は、日本は独自の漢方医学を発展させ、薬学である本草学を中心に診療が行われていった。華岡青洲によって記録上世界最初となる麻酔による乳癌手術が行われたりした。また、幕末には国学の影響を受けて漢方伝来以前の医学を探求する動きも現れた。現在は中華人民共和国に中医学、朝鮮民主主義人民共和国では東医学、大韓民国では韓医学として実践されている。ヨーロッパ世界においてはの起源は古代ギリシアのヒポクラテスとされている。ヒポクラテスは学問としての医学を確立しその後古代ローマのガレノスがアリストテレスなどの自然学を踏まえそれまでの医療知識をまとめ古代医学を大成した。しかしこうした医学書の多くはギリシア語で書かれていたためローマ帝国の崩壊とともにヨーロッパではその知識の多くが失われ断片的なものが残るに過ぎなくなっていた。一方医学知識はローマの継承国家でありギリシア語圏である東ローマ帝国において保持され8世紀以降アッバース朝統治下においてヒポクラテスやガレノスをはじめとする医学文献がアラビア語に翻訳された。イスラム世界においてもガレノスは医学の権威とされその理論を基礎とするイスラム医学が発達した。11世紀初頭にはイブンスィーナーがを著わしたようにこの時期イスラム世界では百科全書的医学書が多く編まれイスラムおよびヨーロッパ世界に大きな影響を与えた。これらのアラビア語文献は12世紀に入るとシチリア王国の首都パレルモやカスティーリャ王国のトレドといったイスラム文化圏と接するキリスト教都市においてラテン語へと翻訳されるようになった。これによってヒポクラテスや特にガレノスの著作が西欧に再導入され権威とされたほかイブンスィーナーなどの新たな文献も流入した。ヨーロッパ中世においては内科学のみが医学とされ外科学の地位は低かった。外科医療は理容師を著わしガレノスの誤りを修正した。またパラケルススは医学への化学の導入を試み医化学を確立した。18世紀前半にはヘルマンブールハーフェが近代的な臨床の方法論を確立した。またこの時期ジョバンニモルガーニが医学と解剖学を結びつけ病理解剖の創始者となった。1796年にはエドワードジェンナーが種痘を成功させた。19世紀に入ると自然科学の発展に伴い医学も急速な発展を遂げた。特に19世紀後半にはロベルトコッホとルイパスツールによって細菌学が創始され人工的な弱毒化によるワクチンの生産や多くの病原菌の発見が起きさらにこれに関連して衛生学も進歩を遂げた。日本では安土桃山時代にキリスト教の伝来に伴ってわずかに西洋医学の流入があったとされるが、本格的な流入は江戸時代中期の1774年、オランダ語の解剖学書である『ターヘル・アナトミア』が杉田玄白や前野良沢らによって翻訳され、『解体新書』として出版されてからのことである。解体新書の出版は日本の医学界に衝撃を与え、以後医学を中心に蘭学が隆盛するきっかけとなった。通常医療と代替医療の状況.近年、伝統中国医学の本場であった中国では西洋医学の医師が増加中で現代西洋医学の利用される割合が増加しつつある。反対にアメリカ合衆国やヨーロッパ諸国では西洋医学の様々な問題点が取り沙汰され伝統医学などの代替医療のほうが高く評価され利用率が増えておりアメリカ合衆国では代替医療の利用率が西洋医学のそれを超えた。無保険者だけでなく富裕層の利用も増えている。日本では西洋的な思考様式に基づく医学をと呼ぶようなことも行われるようになったという。明治政府の方針により西洋医学が主流の医学と位置づけられるようになり東洋医学を行う医師も西洋医学を学ぶことになった。それ以来日本では西洋医学の利用者数が多くなったが現在でももっぱら東洋医学のほうを好み愛用する人々もおり両者は並存してきた。研究や教育のための知識体系としての医学は次のように分類されている。大学医学部の組織においても研究教育のための人員の配置がこの分類に沿って行われる場合が多い。最近は名称が多様化しているが実質は下記の分類とさほど変わりがない場合が多い。人体の構造機能疾患とその原因など医学研究の根拠となる知見を得るための学問分野である。これらの科目は医学部薬学部等医療系学部以外に一部の大学では理学部や理工学部等の生物学科でも開講している。診断や治療などに直接関連する応用的な研究分野である。社会医学とは社会的な環境と健康について研究する医学領域。医学に関連する分野には以下のようなものがある。歯学 - 薬学 - 看護学 - 心理学 - 健康心理学 - 臨床心理学 - 生体機能代行装置学 - 作業療法学 - 理学療法学 - 性科学 - 抗老化医学 - 熱帯医学 - 医用生体工学 - 医療機器 - 医学教育 - 医学史- 生命倫理学 - 医療人類学 - 病跡学 - 医療社会学 - 医療経済学 - 宇宙医学 - 臨床情報工学 - 柔道整復学 +FAQとはよくある（あるいはあると想定される）質問とその回答とを集めたもののことである。FAQの語は英語のFrequently Asked Questionsの略語で、となっていることが多い。主にコンピュータと呼ぶことが多い。といった状況が発生した結果、同じような質問が度々尋ねられることから、その都度答えを繰り返す代わりに、一連のQ&A集を参照するように促すことで、問い合わせに対する時間と手間を省くことを目的としたものである。通常、ウェブサイトやニュースグループなどで、よくある質問が、それに対する答えと共にひとつのファイルにまとめられ、定期的に配布されたり、自由に参照できるように公開されるという形をとる。元々はユーズネットニュースグループで始まったものだとされる。パブリックドメインとは、著作物や発明などの知的創作物について、知的財産権が発生していない状態または消滅した状態のことをいう。日本語訳として公有という語が使われることがある。パブリックドメインに帰した知的創作物については、その知的財産権を行使しうる者が存在しないことになるため、知的財産権の侵害を根拠として利用の差止めや損害賠償請求などを求められることはないことになる。その結果、知的創作物を誰でも自由に利用できると説かれることが多い。しかし、知的財産権を侵害しなくても、利用が所有権や人格権などの侵害を伴う場合は、その限りにおいて自由に利用できるわけではない。また、ある種の知的財産権が消滅したとしても、別の知的財産権が消滅しているとは限らない場合もある。また、各法域により法の内容が異なるため、一つの法域で権利が消滅しても、別の法域で権利が消滅しているとは限らない。したがって、特定の知的創作物がパブリックドメインであると言われる場合は、どの法域でどのような権利が不発生あるいは消滅したのかを、具体的に検討する必要がある。知的財産権の不発生または消滅の原因.そもそも創作性を欠くなどの理由により保護すべき知的創作物にならない場合（例えば著作権の場合は思想または感情の創作的表現でなければ著作物にならないので単なるアイデアにとどまる場合や境界線や海岸線などの記載しかない地図のように想定される表現が限られるようなものはそもそも創作性を欠くので知的財産権が発生するか否かという問題自体が生じないしライセンス付与も本来ありえない）もあるが著作物や発明の要件を満たしていながら知的財産権が発生しない場合または発生した権利が消滅する場合としては以下のようなものがある。権利が発生しない場合.権利取得に必要な手続方式の不履行.例えば特許権の取得において審査主義を採用している国においては発明を完成させたとしてもその発明の産業上利用可能性新規性進歩性といった特許要件について公的機関による審査を経なければ特許権を取得できない。また、著作権の取得について方式主義を採用している国（ベルヌ条約加盟前のアメリカ合衆国など）においては、著作物を創作したとしても、必要な方式（著作権の表示、登録など）を履行しなければ、著作権は発生しない。なお、日本の著作権法は無方式主義を採用しているので、何らの方式をも採らず著作権を取得できる。その他、法が権利付与を否定する場合.「著作物」、「発明」など、知的財産権の客体としての要件は満たすが、主に政策的な理由によって、法が権利の付与を否定している場合がある。例えば、国や地方公共団体が創作した著作物を、著作権の対象としない法制が多数みられる。例えば日本では、憲法その他の法令、国や地方公共団体が発する通達、裁判所の判決などは、著作権や著作者人格権の対象にならない。また、イタリアでは、イタリア及び外国または官公庁の公文書には著作権法の規定を適用しない旨の規定がある。その他、アメリカ合衆国の著作権法では、連邦政府の職員が職務上作成した著作物は、著作権の対象とならない。もっとも、連邦政府の職員ではない者の著作権を連邦政府が譲り受けた場合は連邦政府による著作権の保有を否定されないし、州政府の職員が職務上作成した著作物に対しては、法は著作権の付与を否定していない。また、外国人による権利の享有を認めない法制が存在する場合、当該外国人による創作物は。もっとも、パリ条約などにおいて、内国民待遇の原則が採られているため、これらの条約の加盟国間においては、外国人であるというだけの理由により知的財産権の享有が否定されることはない。つまり、これらの条約に加盟していない国との関係で問題になるに過ぎない。知的創作物を対象とする独占排他権は、法定の存続期間満了により消滅する。例えば、特許権は特許出願の日から20年をもって消滅し、著作権は著作者の死後50年または70年をもって消滅するものと規定する国が多い。創作活動は先人の成果の上に成り立っていることは否定できないため、創作後一定の期間が経過した場合は恩恵を受けた社会の発展のために公有の状態に置くべきとの価値判断によるものである。相続人なく知的財産権の権利者が死亡した場合において相続財産の清算のために相続財産管理人によって著作権が譲渡されなかった場合あるいは権利者である法人が解散した場合においてその著作権を帰属させるべき者が存在しない場合。民法などの原則をそのまま適用すれば、知的財産権はいずれの場合も国庫に帰属するはずである。しかし、著作権法など知的財産に関する法律では、知的所産であり広く国民一般に利用させるのが適切として、特別規定を置き権利を消滅させることとしている。相続人不存在の場合特許権などは相続人の捜索の公告の期間内に権利主張をする者が表れなかった場合に権利が消滅するのに対しという差異がある。原則として権利（ただし財産権）を放棄することは自由なので、権利者により権利が放棄されれば法による保護を認める必要性は消滅する。日本においては産業財産権法では産業財産権の放棄を認める規定が存在する立法担当者からは著作権放棄の効力を発生させるためには著作権者による新聞広告その他への明示的な放棄の意思表示が必要であると説明されている。しかしこのような説明に対してはそのような厳しい要件を課する理由が存在せず要は証明の問題に過ぎないとの批判もある。仮に権利者の意図に反して著作権放棄の効果が生じないと評価された場合その後著作権が消滅したことを信頼した者に対して著作権を行使することは権利濫用または信義誠実の原則に反し認められない場合もある。もっとも権利を放棄することにより他者の権利を害することはできないと解されているためそのような場合には権利放棄は認められない。例えば著作権者から著作物の独占的利用許諾を得ている者が存在する場合は著作権の放棄によって誰でも著作物を利用できることになるとすると被許諾者の財産的利益を損なう結果となるため放棄はできないと解される。特許権の専用実施権が設定されているような場合も同様である。なおある法域で成立した知的財産権の効力は当該法域でしか及ばないためは法域ごとに可能である。したがってある法域で知的財産権が放棄され知的財産権が消滅しても他の法域において消滅しているとは言い切れず専ら放棄当時の著作権者の意思に基づき判断せざるを得ないし同じ対象につき法域により権利者が異なる場合は放棄の効力は当然に他の法域に及ぶわけではない。以上、財産権としての知的財産権は放棄可能であるのが原則であるが、ドイツ著作権法の下では著作権の放棄はできないものと理解されている。ドイツにおける という概念（著作権と訳されることが多いが、実際には日本法の著作者の権利に相当する）は、財産的権利と人格的権利が一体をなす概念として理解されており、そのような権利を他人に譲渡することはできないためである（ドイツ著作権法29条1項）。そのため、著作権が放棄された場合は、不特定多数の者に対して著作物の利用権を設定した状態と理解されることになる。著作権法に特有の問題.著作者人格権との関係.財産権としての著作権のほか、ベルヌ条約や多くの国の著作権法により人格権としての著作者人格権が保護されている。そのため、著作物についてパブリックドメインと言えるためには著作者人格権が消滅していることも必要ではないかとの議論をする者もいる。アメリカ合衆国の著作権法には、一定の範囲の視覚芸術著作物を除き著作者人格権を保護する旨の規定が存在しない。これに対し、他の国ではベルヌ条約の要請もあり著作権とは別に著作者人格権の制度を著作権法に取り込んでいる。著作者人格権についてはその放棄を認めている国もあるが、日本においては、反対説もあるものの放棄はできないと伝統的に解されている（人格にかかわる権利であるため）。そのため、日本においては著作権を放棄しただけでは著作物は厳密にはパブリックドメインの状態になったとは言えないとの誤解に基づく。しかしアメリカにおいても著作者人格権は伝統的に著作権法に基づく権利とは理解されていなかっただけであり同一性保持権や氏名表示権は不正競争防止法の不正表示禁止に関する規定などにより実質的に保護されているなどコモンローにより人格権が保護されているという説明がされている。つまり著作者人格権という呼称が与えられている権利が著作権法制の枠内にあるか否かという問題に過ぎない。したがって著作者人格権の問題はパブリックドメインという概念を受け入れるか否かとは別問題である。ただしドイツでは著作権の放棄ができないがゆえにドイツ法では著作権放棄に基づくパブリックドメインの状態は成り立たないのは前述のとおりである。しかし、日本においては著作者人格権の相続は否定されるものの（民法896条但書）、法は一定範囲の遺族や遺言で指定された者に対して故人の人格的利益の請求権を有することを認めている（著作権法116条）。さらには、著作権の保護期間が経過しかつ遺族や遺言で指定した者が存在しなくなった場合でも、著作者が存しているとすればその著作者人格権の侵害となるべき行為をしてはならず（著作権法60条）、違反者に対する罰則もあるが（著作権法120条）、それをもって著作物がパブリックドメインの状態にはないという議論はされていない。しかし、日本法では著作者人格権の制度があるから著作権放棄に基づくパブリックドメインはあり得ないとの議論は、後述のパブリックドメインソフトウェアが日本で存在し得るかという問題に関連して、アメリカの法制度を理解していないプログラマーとその周辺で問題になったことがほとんどであり、知的財産権の専門家の間ではそのような問題自体議論されていない。パブリックドメインと区別されるべきもの.日本においては、1990年代以前のいわゆるパソコン通信において、ネットを通じて配布される無料のソフトウェアをPDS と呼んでいたことなどがあった。しかし、その実態としては、単に著作物の利用に関して著作権を行使しないことのみをもってパブリックドメインであると宣言したり、著作権表示を行いつつもパブリックドメインである旨の宣言をしている場合も多かった。この場合は、厳密には著作権自体は存続しており、単に著作権の行使を控える旨の宣言にとどまるので、権利放棄に伴う著作権の消滅があったことにはならない。また、日本の著作権法の下では、国の機関などが一般に周知させることを目的として作成した広報資料などは刊行物への転載が可能でありであるとは言えない。権利者として作品をパブリックドメインに置きたい著作者や、既にパブリックドメインとなっている作品にその旨標記したい場合がある。しかしながら前述のように解釈の問題が数多いため、実行の壁は高い。クリエイティブ・コモンズは万国共通のを提供して、この障壁の低減を図っている。著作権が切れパブリックドメイン化したにも関わらず元権利者が権利を主張したり利用者側が「許諾」を得たり支払う必要のない使用料を支払う例が存在するとして福井健策弁護士が問題提起している。著作権が消滅した著作物の活用事例として、電子図書館における著作物の収集活動が挙げられる。近年の情報技術の発達、インターネットの普及を受けて、著作物をデジタル化し、インターネットを介して誰でも閲覧することを可能とするものが多い。しかし、著作権の保護期間を延長する法改正が各国で相次いでいることから、その存続が危ぶまれているものも存在する。また、格安DVDソフトの製造販売のように、著作権が消滅しても依然として経済的価値を有する著作物（映画の著作物など）の流通によって、収益を図ろうとする事業も存在する。特許が切れた医薬品は複数の会社から後発医薬品として販売されることで価格が低下する。特許権消滅後に普及した工業技術としてフェネストロンなどがある。 +記録 (きろく）は安定した形で定着保存された状態にある情報である。会議の議事録が会議の終わった後にも残るように会議中の発言を文書などの形にして保存するのがこの例である。人類が意図的に残し現存する最古の記録と思われるのは洞窟に残された壁画と推察されている。もっとも、これらの壁画は何かの情報を保存する目的のものであったのかどうかは疑わしい。呪術などに用いられたものではないかとする説などもある。文字に近い記録に限った場合には、古代メソポタミア文明における楔形文字が最初の例とされる。紀元前8000年頃から、シュメール人は小さな粘土の板に記号化された絵のようなものを記し、物財の管理や分配をする際の助けにしていたとされる。表現の対象となったのは例えば、羊、一定量の油や穀物などである。ただしこの粘土板を用いた記録の初期形態は文字として今日我々が考えるものとはやや異なっている。この小さな板はちょうどコインのようなもので容器に入れて持ち運ばれ羊の量と羊を描いた板の数が比例するという形で用いられていた。時と共に平らな粘土板に複数の文字を並べる習慣が広まりまたそれらの文字とは独立して頭数や量を表す数字が発明された。さらに表意文字としての性格を帯びるようにもなった。ちなみにメソポタミアの文字文化はシュメール人の後に現れたアッカド人バビロニア人にも受け継がれ成文法の最初の例として知られるハンムラビ法典を生み出した。このバビロニアはエジプト文明に影響を与え、ヒエログリフの使用のきっかけとなった。そしてエジプト文明は古代ギリシア文明に影響を与えたとされる。文字による記録を行う社会と、口承によって物事を伝達する社会とでは人々の人間関係、物事の考え方、時間や世界に対する構えなどが異なる、という研究がある。正確な保存のために記録をとるという発想が文字の文化だ、という説も、そこからは導き出せる。また、記録の仕方によっても人や社会が影響を受けるとする考察もある。例えばハロルド・イニスは、エジプトのパピルスが粘土板に代わって記録に用いられるようになったことで人々の思考も軽くなった、と論じている。合理主義哲学大陸合理論とも呼ばれる。大陸合理主義の思想的内容は通常当時のイギリスにおいてロックヒュームらによって担われていたいわゆるイギリス経験論との対比でヨーロッパ大陸側の傾向として理解される。イギリス経験論において人間は経験を通じて様々な観念概念を獲得すると考えるのに対し大陸合理主義においては人間は生得的に理性を与えられ基本的な観念概念の一部をもつもしくはそれを獲得する能力をもつと考える。また理性の能力を用いた内省反省を通じて原理を捉えそこからあらゆる法則を演繹しようとする演繹法が真理の探求の方法とされた。17世紀、フランスのデカルトに始まり、オランダのスピノザ、ドイツのライプニッツやヴォルフ、フランスのマールブランシュなどによって継承・展開された。今日広く普及している西洋哲学史観では、18世紀にカントによって合理主義と経験論の総合が行われたという見方がなされている。大陸合理主義のルーツはスコラ学ひいてはアリストテレス（の『オルガノン』（論理学））や『ユークリッド原論』（数学幾何学）にある。アリストテレスは「蓋然的」な要素を排除した「真にして第一の前提」（第一原理）から演繹的に構築される厳密に形式化され自己完結した体系（恒真（apodictic）的な「論証」（demonstration））しか「学知」（エピステーメー）としては認めなかった。そうであればこそ「学知」は他の経験的な思い込みとは区別され信頼に足る普遍的汎通的な知の体系としての地位を保証されることになるという発想である。数学（幾何学）の基礎を築いた『ユークリッド原論』もまた絶対的な「公理」「公準」をまず設定し自己完結的に形式化された体系を導く構成になっている。これが西洋の「学知観」に決定的な影響を与えており大陸合理主義（やカント）もその延長線上にある。またもちろんこのような営みを可能たらしめるためには経験によらずに先天的（アプリオリ）にそれを進めていける能力すなわち「理性」が人間に付与されているはずだというある種の「信念」「信仰」を必要とする。したがってここで言う「合理主義」は「形式主義」とか「（自己）完結主義」あるいは「理性主義」などとも言い換えることができる類のものである。逆にフランシスベーコンイギリス経験論自然科学（実証主義）などはこのような拙速な「形式主義」「自己完結主義」「理性主義」から離れ着実にこの物理世界の「内実」「真相」に近づき解き明かしていける道を求めて踏み出して行った流れであると言える。等々我々が少し考えてもわかるようにこの大陸合理主義には多分に怪しさが孕まれているし自然科学が発達した現代においては経験主義実証主義の方が信頼に足るということは自明だと言える。とりわけこういった問題は形而上学分野において深刻かつ顕著に現れる。実際当時も独断論が乱立し収拾がつかない状態になっていた。そこでイマヌエルカントは大陸合理主義からが実在することを前提としつつその性質の批判 +ミュージシャン一覧 はミュージシャン音楽家のグループ名の50音順の一覧。なおを省いて紹介している。参照：音楽家、音楽家の一覧については、各々同項目を参照。（ポピュラー）（パゴーヂ）「イエスタデイ」 （）はビートルズの楽曲である。1965年8月6日に発売された5作目のイギリス盤公式オリジナルアルバム『ヘルプ!』に収録された。アメリカでは1965年9月13日にシングルで発売されたのち1966年6月20日に発売されたキャピトル編集盤『イエスタデイアンドトゥデイ』に収録された。レノン＝マッカートニー名義となっているがポールマッカートニーが単独で書いた楽曲で弦楽四重奏をバックにしたアコースティックバラードをビートルズ名義で初めて発売した楽曲となっている。世界中のミュージシャンに数多くカバーされておりビートルズ活動時点で既に1000を超えるカバー音源が存在し「世界で最も多くカバーされた曲」としてギネスワールドレコーズに認定されている。BMI調べによる「20世紀にアメリカのテレビやラジオで最もオンエアされた100曲」のランキングでは700万回以上のオンエアで3位にランクインされた。BBC4が2012年に放送したドキュメンタリー番組『ザリッチエストソングスインザワールド』にて音楽史上最も稼いだ10曲を選出し本作は第4位にランクインした。1999年のBBCラジオ2の世論調査においてにランクインし翌2000年にローリングストーンとMTV共同のグレイテストポップソング100において第1位を獲得。また、ローリング・ストーンの選ぶオールタイム・グレイテスト・ソング500では13位にランクインした。と共に主に日本の中学校・高等学校の音楽の教科書に採用され教材になっている。本作についてジョン・レノンはと語った。マッカートニー及びビートルズの伝記によれば当時のガールフレンドであるジェーンアッシャーと家族が暮らすウェンポールストリートにあるマッカートニーの部屋で家で睡眠中に夢の中で流れたメロディを基に作曲したという。マッカートニーは起床後メロディを忘れないようにするために急いでコードを探してスタジオで完成させた。この時のことをマッカートニーはと述べている。曲が書かれた時期はいくつか説があり、マッカートニーの友人や伝記作家のらはレコーディングの数週間前に書かれたものと主張し、ジョージ・マーティンはと語っている。歌詞の内容からと2001年に述べている。2010年に『レイトナイトウィズジミーファロン』にゲスト出演した際司会のジミーファロンと原曲の「Scrambled Egg」をデュエットで披露した。歌詞はマッカートニーがベジタリアンであることを反映したものに変更されている。その音源は2012年に発売されたファロンのアルバム『』に収録された。「イエスタデイ」のレコーディングは、マッカートニーの23歳の誕生日の4日前である1965年6月14日にEMIスタジオで開始された。マッカートニーは、ギターのチューニングを全弦1音下げでレコーディング。アコースティック・ギターとボーカルを担当したマッカートニー以外、他のビートルズのメンバー3人はレコーディングに参加していないが、スタジオには同席している。本作に対し、リンゴ・スターは「この曲にドラムを合せるのは難しい」と発言し、レノンとジョージ・ハリスンは「もう一本ギターを追加するのも無意味だと思う」と発言した。ここでジョージ・マーティンは仮でマッカートニーに弾き語りをさせることを提案。プレイバックを聴いたあとにマッカートニーが「僕のソロ曲になるの？」と訊いて、メンバーが「僕らが何かを足す必要はなさそうだ」と答えた。その後、もう一度録音されたのちテイク2が採用された。6月17日に弦楽四重奏がオーバーダビングされた。弦楽四重奏のアレンジはプロデューサーのジョージマーティンによるものである。マッカートニーは当初ストリングスのアレンジをと奏するアレンジと第3コーラスでヴァイオリンが高音域でラの持続音を奏するアレンジはマッカートニーのアイデアである。6月14日にレコーディングされたテイク1が1996年に発売されたに収録された。このテイク1ではリリース版におけると入れ替わっていた。2006年に上演されたシルクドゥソレイユのショーのポールのギターワークの一部をイントロに加えたが今聴くとこれで正解だったと思える。そのシンプルさは非常にダイレクトに胸に響く」と語っている。「イエスタデイ」は、イギリスで1965年8月6日に発売されたオリジナル・アルバム『ヘルプ!』のB面6曲目に収録された。発売当時、ビートルズは「バンドのイメージに合わない」という観点から、本作のシングル・カットを拒否していた。一方アメリカでは、9月13日に新曲扱いのシングル盤として発売され、B面は「アクト・ナチュラリー」が収録された。10月9日付のBillboard Hot 100より4週連続で1位を獲得し、11週にわたってチャートインし、5週間以内で100万枚以上の売り上げを記録。『キャッシュボックス』誌では、3週連続第1位を獲得。その後1966年6月にアメリカで発売されたキャピトル編集盤にも収録された。日本ではカップリングはアメリカ盤と同じながらA面に「アクトナチュラリー」B面に「イエスタデイ」が収録されたシングル盤として発売された。イギリスでは、シングル・カットされなかった代わりに、1966年3月4日に4曲入りのEP盤のシングル盤が製造されている。ビートルズ解散後の1976年3月8日にをB面にして、イギリス内販売用にもシングル・カットされた。このシングル盤は全英シングルチャートで最高8位を獲得した。なお日本ではこちらのシングル盤も1976年3月5日より販売されている。この曲がビートルズのライブで演奏に際して、2種類のアレンジが存在している。ウイングス時代は一人でエレクトリックアコースティックギターを演奏し、ストリングス部分はサポートのホーン隊が演奏した。ウイングス解散後のコンサートでもギターを一人で演奏しているがストリングスはキーボードで演奏されている。マッカートニーのソロコンサートでは主にアンコールで演奏されており1990年代のツアーではアルバレズヤイリやタカミネのエレアコを使用していたが2002年のツアーからはこの曲のレコーディングで実際に使用したエピフォンテキサンを使って演奏している。2013年の日本公演では「福島の被災者に捧げたい」と前置きし歌っている。ライブ音源は『ウイングスオーヴァーアメリカ』『ポールマッカートニーライブ!!』『ポールマッカートニーライブハイライツ!!』『バックインザU.S. -ライブ2002』『バックインザワールド』『グッドイヴニングニューヨークシティ〜ベストヒッツライヴ』などの作品に収録された。「イエスタデイ」はポップミュージック史上最も多くカバーされた楽曲の1つで1986年1月時点で1600以上のカバーバージョンが発表されていた。「イエスタデイ」は、1965年度のアイヴァー・ノヴェロ賞で最優秀ソング・コレクション部門を受賞し、最優秀ソング部門では「ミッシェル」に次ぐ2位に入った。2004年に『ローリング・ストーン』誌が発表した「ローリング・ストーンの選ぶオールタイム・グレイテスト・ソング500」では13位、2010年に同誌が発表した「100 Greatest Beatles Songs of All Time」で4位にランクインした。BMI調べによる「20世紀にアメリカのテレビやラジオで最もオンエアされた100曲」のランキングでは、700万回以上のオンエアで3位にランクインされた。1988年10月20日にはの500万枚達成を記念した昼食会がハイドパークホテルで開催されオノヨーコに記念賞が贈られた。本作は、1997年にを受賞した。チャックベリーは本作についてをカバーしたことがあるが未発表のままとなっている。レノンは、1980年の誌のインタビューでと歌っている。2012年にBBCが発表したは4位にランクインした。イギリスでは、によるカバー・バージョンが全英シングルチャートで最高位8位<ref name="UKchart/19651111"></ref>、マリアンヌ・フェイスフルによるカバー・バージョンが同チャートで最高位36位をそれぞれ獲得している。1967年には、レイ・チャールズのカバー・バージョンもシングル盤として発売され、Billboard Hot 100で最高位25位、全英シングルチャートで最高位44位をそれぞれ獲得している。作者であるマッカートニーもビートルズ解散後にセルフカバーしている。1984年に公開された主演映画『』で歌唱しその時の音源が同名のサウンドトラック盤に収録された。その他エルヴィスプレスリーやフランクシナトラスプリームスマーヴィンゲイマイケルボルトントムジョーンズヒメーシュパテルなど音楽ジャンルを問わず今でもカバーされ続けている。 +Peer to Peer同士が通信をすることを特徴とする通信方式、通信モデル、あるいは通信技術の一分野を指す。P2Pと略記することが多く、以下本項目においてもP2Pとする。P2Pに対置される用語としてクライアントサーバー方式がある。クライアントサーバー方式ではネットワークに接続されたコンピューターに対しクライアントとサーバーに立場機能を分離しており一般的には多数のクライアントに対してサーバーが一つである。クライアントはサーバーとだけ通信できあるクライアントが他のクライアントと通信するにはサーバーを介する必要がある。P2Pではネットワークに接続されたコンピューター同士が対等の立場機能で直接通信するものである。クライアントサーバー方式ではクライアント数が非常に多くなるとサーバーおよびその回線に負荷が集中するのに対してPeer to Peer方式はその構造上コンピューター機器数が膨大になっても特定機器へのアクセス集中が発生しにくいという特徴がある。P2P通信の一例としては、インターネットに接続した一般ユーザーの複数パソコン 同士が互いのIPアドレスを呼び合う直接通信が挙げられる。P2Pによるネットワークはオーバーレイ・ネットワークの一つに数えられる。実用化されたシステムとしてはP2Pデータ配信、P2P電話、P2P掲示板、P2P放送といった応用例が増えてきている。しかしこれらの応用技術は2000年代初頭から実用化され始めた技術であり歴史的にはまだ日が浅く成熟技術となるまでには解決しなければならない様々な問題がある。そのため現在でも学術的な研究が盛んな分野である。また無線通信で使われるモバイルアドホックネットワークもP2Pの一種であるが無線での通信可能距離を稼ぐという特殊な使い方であるので詳細な解説は別項に譲る。P2Pにおける通信端末はピア と呼ばれるがトポロジー理論グラフ理論などで用いるという呼称を用いることも多い。またクライアントの機能とサーバーの機能を併せ持つという意味でサーバントという呼び方をすることもある。端末装置の種類としてはPCやスマートフォンが使われることが多いがセットトップボックス やHDDレコーダーHDD内蔵ルーターといったものもピアになりうる。インターネットにおけるP2P.インターネットの基盤であるIPネットワークはIPアドレスさえ分かっていればどのコンピューター機器と見ることができる。例えば放送型サービスにP2Pを応用する場合はマルチキャスト型の通信形態となる。そのためこれをオーバーレイマルチキャスト あるいはアプリケーション層マルチキャスト と呼ぶことがある。後者の呼び方はIPマルチキャストがTCP/IPのレイヤーでのパケットの複製によりマルチキャストを行うのに対してアプリケーション層でデータのコピーをしてマルチキャストを行うという意味合いから来ている。インターネットにおけるP2P通信のメリットデメリット.インターネットにおけるP2P方式の通信には以下のようなメリットとデメリットがある。P2Pアプリケーションの分類.ピア間で何を行うかという観点で大きく以下の4つのタイプのアプリケーションに分けられる。複数の機能を併せ持ったアプリケーションも存在する。IP電話LINE電話やSkypeに代表されるようなコンピューター間で一対一のコミュニケーションを行う使い方である。相手のIPアドレスを電話番号やニックネームなどから見つけ出しが設けられている。このタイプのアプリケーションでは、データは通常、リアルタイムでのストリーミングでやりとりされる。P2P-SIPではSIP-URIからIPアドレスを知るためにP2P技術を利用しており従来からあるSIPサーバーを不要にできる。アドレス解決以外の接続切断のシグナリング音声データのストリーミングに関しては従来からのSIPやRTP/RTCPの技術をそのまま利用している。応用例IP電話SkypeLINEMSN メッセンジャーP2P-SIPP2Pグループウェア。ノード間接続を、カスケード状に多段階層化して、配信ツリーを形成することで、放送型のサービスが実現できる。ツリーの根元のノードが、放送局となり、上流ノードから下流ノードへ、データをバケツリレーさせることで、全参加ノードに、ほぼ同時に同じデータを配信することが出来る。これにより、リアルタイムのストリーミング中継が可能となる。多くのP2P型放送システムではアドレス解決にハイブリッドP2P方式ことも可能ではあるがそのような実装例はまだ発表されていない。上流ノードが脱退したときに、ストリームが途切れるが、内部にバッファを持つことで、一定時間は再生が途絶えないようにして、その間に、別の上流ノードを探し出して、再接続を行う。再接続の処理には時間がかかるため、通常、予備の上流ノードを用意しておく。再接続先候補のノードを、効率的に準備しておくために、様々な創意工夫が考案されている。応用例：P2P放送; 動画コンテンツの配信などでは、コンテンツを欲するノードが、当該コンテンツを持っているノードを探し出して、そこへデータを要求することで、保持ノードがそれに応じてデータを送信する、という一方向型の通信が行われる。言い換えると、持っている者から欲する者へ、という通信である。送信元は、使用しているコンピューターが複数ある場合、どれからでも良くて、不特定多数の中からアプリケーションまかせで選ばれる。送信元のIPアドレスは、コンテンツのタイトルなどを手がかりに、インデックスを検索して見つけ出し、コンテンツ保持ノードにデータ送信を要求することで、データ転送が開始される。オンデマンド型のP2Pアプリケーションでは配信効率を上げるためにコンテンツのコピーを作ることが良く行われる。一度取得したコンテンツのコピーを保持して他のノードに対して提供可能な状態にすることで他の誰かが再度同じコンテンツをリクエストしたときに負荷分散の効果が期待できるからである。これは特に人気のあるコンテンツに対してのアクセス集中の緩和に効果的である。レプリカを作るアプリケーションでは通常レプリカをキャッシュフォルダー内に作り古いレプリカから追い出すような実装になっていることが多い。オンデマンド型のP2Pアプリケーションではデータ全体を一旦リクエストした端末までは持ってきてから利用するの実装がほとんどである。応用例P2Pコンテンツ配信P2P掲示板P2PグループウェアP2P分散ファイルシステム無線のアドホックネットワークゲームソフトのアップデート[[ビットコイン]][[Ripple (支払いシステム)|Ripple]]などでは通貨の取引履歴情報を各ノードで分散して持つことによって通常はサーバーで管理する台帳データの不正な改竄を防ぐことができるのでP2Pを利用している。これにより自分のノードの台帳データを改ざんしたとしても他の多数のノードが正しいデータを保持していることにより比較した際に改竄を検知することができる。インデックス情報の持ち方での分類.という問いに答えるためには、データを検索するための属性キーとデータのありかの対応表を持っている必要があるが、これをサーバーに集中して持たせる場合と、各ノードに分散して持たせる場合と、特定の選ばれたノードに分散して持たせる場合、の3種類が存在する。 +ハイブリッドP2Pにおいては、インデックス情報を、中央のインデックスサーバーで一括して管理する。新しいデータを保持したノードは、自分が持っていることを、インデックスサーバーに申告しておく。データを欲するノードが、とインデックスサーバーに問い合わせると、対応する相手のIPアドレスを教えてくれる。インデックスが膨大になると、スケーラビリティが無くなる点が、後述のピュアP2Pと比べて劣るが、通常規模のシステムであれば、この方式で事足りるケースが多い。インデックスサーバーがダウンすると、システム全体が停止するため、耐障害性の面では、ピュアP2Pに劣る。、放送型P2P の多くは、この方式を採用している。インデックス情報は各ノードが少しずつ分散して持ち合う。自分の知っているノードにというメッセージを投げるとそのノードが知っていれば回答が返り知らなければ又聞きをしてくれる。 はこの方式を採用している。ピュアP2Pに参加する際には既に参加しているノードのIP情報を何らかの形で知っている必要がある。このためには常に活きているノードを用意しておいて参加時はいつもそこに接続するようにするかあるいは参加しているいくつかのノードの情報をサーバーに集めてここから知るように構成する。スーパーノード型P2P.インデックス情報は、特定の選ばれたノードが選ばれる。スーパーノードは、一般のエンドユーザーの端末から能力に応じて選ばれるが、サービス提供者側が用意した端末であることも多い。は、この方式を採用している。ピュアP2Pの構造による分類.ピュアP2Pにおいてはインデックス情報も分散されて持たれるため相手先IPアドレスの発見の仕組みは検索メッセージを転送することで行われる。転送方式で種類に分類ができる。P2Pノードの一般的な機能.P2Pに参加するノードには以下のような機能が必要となる。ソフトウェアでこれらの機能は実現できる。P2Pに対する誤解と技術的課題.P2Pの技術は、実用化されて間もないため、成熟した技術として使われるためには、いくつかの課題が残されている。また、これまでのP2P技術は、によって注目されてきた経緯があり、P2Pを使っていると聞くだけで有害なソフトウェアだと思うような誤解を与えてしまうことがある。しかし、以下に示すように、多くの誤解はアプリケーションやP2Pソフトの実装上の問題であり、解決策が見えてきている。つまり、P2P技術自体は、うまく使えば非常に有用な技術である。P2P関連情報サイト.[[Category:P2P|*]] +日本の漫画家では日本における漫画家について解説する。「漫画家」は、漫画作品を作る。脚本のみを作る者は「漫画原作者」。脚本と作画の両方を作る者も作画のみを作る者も「漫画家」である。ただしアマチュアが増加している事を考慮すると、漫画の作家全般と捉える事もできる。漫画風のイラストの需要が高いため、イラストレーターを兼ねている場合があり、明確な区別は難しい。画家でも脚本家でも小説家でも書道家でも、創作活動に対して対価を受け取る者はの敬称を付けられる。メディアへの露出に関しては、様々である。いしいひさいちのようにメディア露出を避ける漫画家がいる一方、江川達也、蛭子能収、やくみつるのように積極的にテレビ出演する漫画家もいる。さくらももこ、尾田栄一郎のようにメディアにしばしば登場し私生活を明らかにしながらも、素顔を出すことを拒む者もいる。また、雑誌や単行本での顔写真の公開・非公開についても、人により様々である。またCLAMPを始めとした共有筆名が含まれていてもの集団と見做される。アシスタントとスタジオ.漫画家の中にはアシスタントを雇う者も存在する。アシスタントが担う作業の内容や量は、雇用主となる漫画家によって大きく異なる。一般には、ストーリー構成・下書き・主要人物のペン入れまでは漫画家自身が担当し、群衆や背景の描写・ベタ塗り・消しゴムかけ・スクリーントーンを貼る、集中線などの画面効果を入れるといった、高度な作画技術を要しない作業や絵柄の個性が重視されない手間のかかる作業はアシスタントに任せる場合が多い。また雇用主となる漫画家によっては、アシスタントにストーリー構成やスケジュール管理、食事の用意など作画以外の作業に従事させる事例もある。漫画家がアシスタントを雇う背景には漫画の主な発表媒体が貸本から月刊雑誌そして週刊雑誌と幅広くなるに従い主に週刊誌などで漫画を一人で完成させることが時間的に難しくなったことがある。漫画家とアシスタントは雇用関係にあるためまた絵柄を安定させるため専属化している事例が多いが専属のアシスタントを雇わず知人や駆け出しの漫画家にアシスタントを依頼する者も少なくない。アシスタントの給料は雇っている漫画家が支払うため人件費を捻出できない漫画家は自然と全てを一人で製作せざるを得ず収入に乏しい漫画家の中にはアシスタントへの給料を支払うために原稿料の前借や借金個人資産の売却などを行う者もいる。なお最近ではパソコンを使用した漫画制作のデジタル化の影響から全ての作画を一人でこなす漫画家の比率が増えてきている。これはアシスタントに任せる手間のかかる作業がデジタル化により短時間で容易にできるようになったためである。またアシスタントを雇う費用の削減にもなる。アシスタントの中にはデジタル作業を主体とする者もおり彼らは特にと呼ばれる。漫画家の多くはプロデビュー前に専属アシスタントを経験しておりアシスタントからプロデビューした際にも作風技法について従事していた作家の影響を受けていることが多く基本的には師弟関係が成り立っている。アメリカや香港などでは、漫画の制作は全てを分担して作業していて役職名も細かく表示される。日本でも、単行本になった際になどといった表記で紹介されることがある。スタジオとして漫画を制作していることを公にしている漫画家にさいとう・たかを、本宮ひろ志などがいる。売れっ子となった際に所得税対策。共同筆名とスタジオは明確に区別されるが両者を区別する基準は特に存在しない。ただし多くの場合共同筆名は「漫画製作の主体者」として互いが対等な関係でありプロデビュー前から共同で漫画製作を行っているスタジオは「漫画製作を補助する集団」として主体者と主従関係にありプロデビュー後に漫画製作に加わると言った傾向が見られる。また作品の内容によっては、共同筆名でもアシスタントでもスタジオでもない、作画や設定、考証等のが外部から付く場合もある。これは主体者となる漫画家が、作品に必要な全ての知識を網羅・検証できず、それを補完する必要があるためであり、漫画製作の主体者に準ずる存在として位置づけられる。連載作品の場合、連載途中から協力者が付く事例も見られる。売れなければ収入にならないと思われがちだが出版物は基本的に刷られた時点で印税（価格の5% - 15%）が発生する。逆に言えば､在庫が少しずつ売れていても増刷がかからなければ全く作家の収入にはならない。収入の差が極めて大きい。稼ぎの少ない漫画家ではアシスタント代を払うことすら困難な場合もあり、借金生活を余儀なくされている者もいる。その一方で、作品が大ヒットした漫画家は、作品のアニメ化やキャラクターグッズ化などのメディアミックス化も相俟って、年収十億円を超える事すらある。収入の多い漫画家のアシスタントが数千万円を超える年収を得ていることもあるが、これらは少ない。売れない作家の収入が低いのはあらゆる表現媒体に共通しているが、漫画家においては、売れっ子の収入が極めて高くメディア等で取り上げられる機会も多いため、売れない者の収入の低さがより際立つようである。人気の浮き沈みが激しくかつてヒットを飛ばした漫画家が廃業し別の業界に転職していたり、アシスタント専業として生計を立てていたりと安定した職業とは言いがたい現状にある。ただし、日本のは、作家の資質・関心が現在の時流にミスマッチである場合を除き､一定水準の才能を持つものが地道に努力すれば充分に生活が成り立つだけの裾野を持っていることも事実である。コンピュータゲーム・広告・一般書籍・情報誌などにおいて、漫画や漫画調のイラストレーションなどのコンテンツの需要は大きくなっており、こうした媒体がヒット作のない漫画家や漫画家志望者の収入源となっている側面が無視できない。近年は商業漫画誌に執筆しつつ同人作家を兼業している者も多く、作家によっては同人誌からの収入の方が商業誌からの収入より多い場合もある｡以前から一部の漫画家は慈善活動等を行って来たが、東日本大震災の発生を受けて大勢の被災者を支援する為に出版社の枠を超えて共同で東日本大震災チャリティ同人誌に多くの志ある漫画家が執筆した。赤い羽根共同募金に協力する漫画家もいる。 +LimeWire はかつてGNU General Public License下で公開されていたフリーソフトウェア及びオープンソースのGnutella P2Pクライアントソフトウェアである。米連邦地方裁判所の命令を受けて2010年10月にソフトウェアの配布を停止。LimeWireはGnutella P2Pプロトコルを利用したファイル共有をユーザー同士で行うことができる。これは2004年12月に公開された。バージョン4.2の特徴としてファイアウォール設置同士のファイル交換をサポートした最初のファイル共有ソフトである。開発元はLime Wire LLCである。LimeWireはJavaで書かれているためJava仮想マシンがインストールされたコンピュータで利用できる。普通のユーザー向けにインストールを簡単にするためデベロッパーは WindowsMac OS X及び deb/RPM 形式でLinux向けにインストールパッケージを公開していた。ソースコードを入手して使用する場合には Javaランタイムルーチンを別途用意する必要があった。オープンソースであったためLimeWireはペンシルベニア州立大学での実験的上のソフトウェア開発プロジェクトLionShare独特なインタフェースと共に人気のあるApple製Macintosh向けグヌーテラクライアントAcquisitionCabos FrostWireを含むいくつかの派生型が作成された。LimeWire PRO.LimeWireの有償版としてLimeWire PROが販売されており価格は21.95ドルであった。PRO版の特典期間を1年間延長するLimeWire PRO延長版も販売されており価格は34.95ドルであった。PROではBASICよりファイルのダウンロードが高速で行えることと、より多くのソースにアクセス可能となることが特徴であった。PROにすると電子メールサポートも可能になった。また、BASICでは起動時にPROにアップグレードを勧めるメッセージが出てくるが、PROでは出なかった。LimeWire PRO 5.5より、オランダのAVG Technologiesのウイルス対策SDKエンジンが組み込まれた。PROでダウンロードされた全ファイルは、ユーザーのPCで再生または実行される前にスキャンされ、ウイルスの感染拡大を防いでいた。米国時間2006年8月4日Sony BMGVirgin RecordsWarner Bros. Recordsなどが参加するレコード著作団体が著作権侵害の疑いがあるとしてLimeWireと経営陣を提訴した。内容としては1曲あたり約15万ドルの賠償金および今後楽曲を共有する際事業モデルをレコード会社と契約する形への変更を求めた。しかし約2ヵ月後LimeWireはレコード会社がLimeWireから利用者を減らそうと不当な商行為を行ったと反訴。またオンライン楽曲配信市場の取引抑制を共謀しシャーマン独占禁止法クレイトン独占禁止法の条項に反しているとも主張した。2010年5月11日ニューヨーク州南部地区連邦地裁はLimeWireの親会社Lime Groupとその設立者マークゴートンがLimeWireによって著作権侵害およびその幇助さらに不正競争に関与したことを認める略式判決を下した。2010年10月26日、米連邦地裁がLimeWireに恒久的なサービス停止を命じたことを受けて、ソフトウェアの配布とサポートを停止した。 +日本の漫画作品一覧は日本語版ウィキペディアに記事の存在する日本の漫画作品の五十音順の一覧である。日本以外の漫画作品については漫画作品一覧を参照。小学館漫画賞少年少女部門受賞作。とも。2019年4月時点で累計発行部数は3000万部を記録している。浮気者の高校生諸星あたると彼を愛する一途な宇宙人美少女ラムを中心に架空の町友引町や宇宙や異次元などを舞台にしたドタバタラブコメディ。その内容の斬新さと魅力的なキャラクターは1980年代のみならず以降の漫画界とアニメ界に衝撃を与え、当時の若者たちの圧倒的支持を受けて一大ブームを引き起こし、若者文化にも影響を与えた。高橋留美子の初期代表作であり、後年、本作とについて、と語っている。短期集中連載から週刊連載へ.1978年に短期集中連載作品として『少年サンデー』に初掲載され好評であったため1979年に月刊連載化不定期連載化された。当時高橋はまだ大学生であったため約20 - 30Pの作品を数カ月おきに連載していたが大学を卒業すると同時に週刊連載に移行。そして1980年に『少年サンデー』にて本格的週刊連載となり（第1回の本格連載は面堂終太郎登場話である原作第23話「トラブルは舞い降りた!!」）一週およそ16Pの連載が続けられた。定期連載以降最終話まで作者都合による休載はない。あだち充の史上最長巻数だった。不定期連載時は恋愛要素が皆無でドタバタやSFをメインにしたギャグ要素が非常に強かったが週刊連載になり話が進むにつれて恋愛をメインにギャグをサブにした雰囲気いわゆるラブコメの作風に変化させてゆく。後半にゆくに従って笑いの要素を抑えた非常にシリアスなストーリーも盛り込まれていく。そこに高橋留美子の持ち味の奇想天外なキャラクターなどを絡ませつつ恋愛学園モノからSF妖怪幽霊伝奇スポーツ冒険格闘歴史などある意味の世界観を打ち出し長期連載作品となっていった。定期連載時や読み切り作品のようなギャグ要素の強い作風は一部がのちのに引き継がれていった。当初は諸星あたるを中心として話が展開することが多かった。高橋は当初いろんな災いを呼び寄せる受身のキャラクターであるあたるでは毎回の話を作るのに行き詰まってきたため短期連載の後半から週連載への移行を境にあたるをもっと楽観的で積極的な浮気性のキャラクターに変化させていく。すると今度はラムがあたるを追いかけるストーリーばかりになり後半はラムの扱いに苦労したという。したがって藤波親子の登場前後の週連載の前期までは様々なキャラクターが登場してはあたるとラムの関係に絡みつつ話を展開していくパターンが多かった。藤波親子の登場あたりの中期 - 後期にかけては次第にそれまで登場したキャラクターたちの再登場や竜之介と弁天レイとクラマ姫等のサブキャラ同士を絡めたりそれまで登場したキャラの近親者や関係者などを登場させて話を展開させるなど群像劇に近いものとなる。回によってはあたるやラム以外のキャラクターを中心として話が進みそこにあたるやラムが登場はするものの傍観者に留まり重要な役割を果たさないエピソードも多くなる。物語のほとんどが一話完結型。登場人物は基本的に進学卒業などがなく週刊連載開始後はあたるやラムたちは友引高校2年生のままである。ただし正月節分七夕クリスマスなどのいわゆる年中行事は連載の掲載時期にあわせて毎年行われ最終回までこの設定は貫かれた。ただしあたるの浮気性の改善や面堂の暗所恐怖症の原因究明のため過去に行く話やや因幡くんのシリーズ連作などで未来に行くエピソードでは登場人物は相応に若かったり大人になったりしている。「うる星やつら」というタイトルは、高橋のデビュー作のタイトル『勝手なやつら』の名残を残し、かつ作品の宇宙的なイメージから当時の編集長田中が名付けた。連載開始当初のタイトルロゴはおどろおどろしい感じのデザインであった。またサブタイトルには「思い過ごしも恋のうち」（サザンオールスターズ）「酒と泪と男と女」（河島英五）「かけめぐる青春」（ビューティペア）「ないものねだりのI Want You」（C-C-B）「絶体絶命」等のヒットソング名を度々用いているほか本作と同時期に『少年サンデー』で連載されていた作品のタイトルから語句を拾ってサブタイトルにしたこともある（宮本武蔵編）。『週刊少年サンデー』（以下『少年サンデー』）で、1978年から1987年にかけ連載。単行本は少年サンデーコミックス版が全34巻、1989年から1990年にワイド版が全15巻、1998年から1999年にかけ文庫版が全18巻で刊行した。新装単行版が2006年11月から2008年3月にかけ毎月2巻ずつ刊行、2016年1月には『少年サンデー』連載時のカラーページを全集成した『うる星やつらパーフェクト★カラーエディション』（上下）が刊行した。他にコンビニコミック版が度々出されている。高橋はで、あたると幽霊の望がデート中に花火を見上げているシーンだという。中盤あたりでマンネリになってきたための乱馬と父のモチーフにもなった。この物話の主役についてはと語っている。宇宙人である鬼族が、地球侵略を仕掛ける。鬼族は圧倒的な技術力と軍事力を保有しており、武力で容易に地球を手に入れるのでは簡単過ぎて面白くない。そこで、鬼族代表と地球代表とが一騎討ちで戦い、地球代表が勝った場合、おとなしく帰り、地球代表が敗れた場合、地球を占領すると宣言した。その一騎討ちは、鬼族の伝統に従い『鬼ごっこ』で行われ、期限内に地球代表が鬼族代表の角を掴むと地球の勝ち、鬼族代表が逃げ切ると鬼族の勝ちというものである。地球の命運を賭けたの一言は、あたるが恋人で幼なじみのしのぶを想っての発言であったが、ラムは自分に求婚しているのだと勘違いし、それを受け入れてしまう。そのため、鬼ごっこには勝利、地球は侵略を免れるが、ラムは諸星家に住み着いてしまう。かくして、恋多き男・あたると宇宙から来た押しかけ女房・ラムの果てしなき鬼ごっこが始まる。そして、友引町はさまざまな災いや奇妙な出来事に巻き込まれていく。本作はアニメ化されたことにより4年半に渡るTVシリーズ6作の劇場版12作のOVAが製作され商品化においても100億円以上売り上げる大きな成功を収めた。LPは7作がオリコンLPチャートで10位以内にランクインしている。アニメ版ではチーフディレクターの押井守が1984年3月放映分をもってチーフディレクターを降板したため前半と後半で作風が大きく異なる。押井守による劇場映画第2作から降板し同時にスタジオぴえろを退社。その後、2度と高橋留美子作品を担当することはなかった。アニメ作品は原作の人気に加えてスタッフの暴走と揶揄される押井守や伊藤和典の先鋭的な演出や当時若手の実力派アニメーターによる作画からアニメファンからも注目されるようになった。本作はアニメ界の異才をあまた輩出した伝説的な存在となっている。また1980年代の国産アニメで盛んに行われていたアニメーターの的に登場しているほか本作と全く関係のない他の漫画映画アニメのキャラクターもしばしば登場している。3作共にツクダホビーより発売。芸能人では西村知美が熱狂的なファンの一人として知られている。西村は芸能界デビュー前、アニメ版のシナリオ公募に応募したこともあり、選考では残り20作品程度までの中に残っていたという。西村が芸能界デビュー後の1990年に出版したにはそのシナリオが収録され、SF翻訳家の大森望は、との感想を述べている。西村は高橋の短編集など他の作品も全て鑑賞している。1987年にテレビシリーズ全話を収録したレーザーディスクの50枚組のセットが33万円という高額で発売された際、作家の平井和正、友成純一、漫画家の野部利雄が購入した。単行本の新装版には巻末ににの安野モヨコなどが寄稿している。国外では、本作の作品名を自分たちのバンド名にしたロックバンドもいる。それがスコットランドで1993年に結成され、1995年にメジャーデビューしたロックバンドである。メンバーが日本好きで、本作にちなんで命名したものだが、高橋から「うる星やつらを結成している。アメリカ合衆国のミュージシャンマシュー・スウィートがプロモーションビデオにアニメうる星やつらの映像を使用し、肩にラムのタトゥーを彫ったことも知られている。 +士郎 正宗は、日本の漫画家・イラストレーター。兵庫県神戸市葺合区（現：中央区）出身。大阪芸術大学芸術学部美術学科（油画科）卒。大学では美術の教員免許を取得。子供の頃にジャンアンリファーブルやチャールズダーウィンの著書を読んでいてそういった様々な記憶からストーリーを考えており特にSF作品が好きなわけでもなく他のマンガ家の作品にも関心がないと語っている。大学時代に漫画研究団体に一般メンバーとして所属メンバーにぴゅあ製作アトラスから出版し仲間と出版社などに売り込みを始めての執筆を行っていたがのち退職して専業作家となっている。というサイバーパンク的世界観と宇宙論から量子力学など幅広いハードSF的アイデアを融合し一部にニューエイジ的意匠を取り込んだ独特の世界観を持つ作品を発表している。ヒット作がマニアックかつカルト的な人気に支えられ全国に流通するという快挙を成し遂げたという。カッティングやタッチなどは田中久仁彦山下いくとなど多くの作家に影響を与えた。作品の大半は完結しておらず非常に遅筆であることをしばしば自虐している。その一方で切自体を破ったことは無い。これをの形をしたモニュメントを背負う自画像で表現したこともある。絵柄については大友克洋の影響が指摘される。商業誌での連載終了以降では漫画作品をほとんど発表せず、イラストレーターとしての活動が目に付く。傾向としてはMacintoshによるデジタルペイントや3DCGを構成要素に用い、女性キャラクターやメカニックを描くことが多い。をリリース中。本人は未完結の漫画作品もいつかは完成させたいと話している。において、1995年の阪神大震災被災後から倉庫の整理もままならないまま4回に渡る引っ越しを重ね、2013年まで父親の介護などで創作活動がままならなかった事実について触れている。メディアには顔を出さないので、本人を知っている人は少ない。一度会ったことのある押井守はいい男だったと話しているが、神山健治とは会って大喧嘩したという。代表作と言える『攻殻機動隊』は、『GHOST IN THE SHELL / 攻殻機動隊』（監督：押井守）として1995年にアニメ化された。この作品は漫画家かつ映画監督として活躍している 大友克洋氏が制作した が発表された時代に作られた。作風としてという傾向に時代は動き始めていた。このような傾向はのちに正宗氏ら 多くの制作者に徹底的に追究されていくことになる。その後自身の代表作となる」という グローバルな評価を押し上げた大作となった。国内国外でしばしばという宣伝文句が付されている。本人は映像化作品についての感想は控えているがが好きだと語っている。2004年の『イノセンス』はその続編でありながら原作のエピソードを独自の解釈によって演出したオリジナリティの強い内容となっている。TVアニメ作品『攻殻機動隊 STAND ALONE COMPLEX』シリーズは漫画を原案として再構成されたオリジナル作品。1987年のOVA作品では詳細なプロット等を提示し、本人とは関係の無いアニメ作品にもキャラ原案・設定を持ちかける時もある。一方で、制作側の混乱で未完成のまま公開されたでと記している。コンピュータゲームのキャラクターデザインメカニックデザイン等も数多く手掛けている。また市販の光学式マウスのデザインも手がけた。 +は士郎正宗のメジャーデビュー作となったSF漫画。雑誌連載を経ずに単行本の形でリリースされている。物語は未完であるが作者が凍結宣言している。タイトルはアメリカの開拓時代のリンゴ農園民話より。キャラクターや設定の各所にギリシア神話由来の名前が使われている。OVA版が1988年4月21日に発売され映画版が2004年4月17日劇場公開された。2011年6月全13話からなる新シリーズがスタート。ネット配信の他Blu-ray DiscDVDで発売され劇場リミックス版が2011年6月13日より公開された。2014年7月には3作目となる長編アニメが欧米を中心にビデオスルー公開日本では2015年1月に劇場公開された。物語は化学兵器生物兵器も使用された第5次非核大戦を生き抜いたデュナンナッツと全身をサイボーグ化したデュナンの恋人であるブリアレオスの活躍を描いた近未来サイエンスフィクション作品。22世紀。世界は2125年に勃発した第5次世界大戦を経て荒廃し第4次世界大戦後から北大西洋のアゾレス諸島とカナリア諸島の間に密かに建設が進められていた人工島オリュンポスに設置された総合管理局が台頭世界をその影響下に置いている。2127年第5次世界大戦の終戦を知らずに逃亡生活を続けていたデュナンと戦闘サイボーグであるブリアレオスはヒトミと名乗る少女から終戦の知らせと“オリュンポス”への招待を受け総合管理局の内務省部隊ESWATに所属して対テロ作戦などに加わる。その中で巨大な計画旧大国の策謀が明らかになっていく。によるとと同じ時間軸上の話であり日本の近海に存在する人工島を本社とした企業国家ポセイドンが両作に登場する。第五次大戦後、国家や情報網は破壊され尽くし、デュナンとブリアレオスは廃墟となった無人都市を転々としながら流浪の日々を送っていた。他にどれぐらいの人間が生き残っているのかも分からない状況の中、突然来訪した若い女性・ヒトミによってオリュンポスへの移住を持ちかけられ、デュナンとブリアレオスは疑うが、警察官 として復職できる望みから受諾する。やがてオリュンポスに着いたデュナンとブリアレオスを待っていたのは、戦後世界とは信じられないほど、清潔かつ高度で豊かな都市だった。オリュンポスは人類がついに建設した理想郷とされているうえ人口の半分を占める人為的にコントロールされて生まれた人間バイオロイドが人間同士の無用な衝突を避ける緩衝剤として機能しており人間とバイオロイドの関係性が精妙に描かれている。デュナンとブリアレオスはする。しかし、当初は理想郷に見えたオリュンポスも人の業を脱することはまだできておらず、さまざまな問題を抱えていた。戦争の後遺症とも言えるテロリズム、オリュンポス行政院と立法院の対立、他国との駆け引き、ライフサイエンス解禁によって科学技術が人間や社会の在り様にまで干渉する。デュナンとブリアレオスは、オリュンポスを巡るさまざまな思惑や陰謀に巻き込まれていく。独特の生物的なフォルムや動作原理や素材内部構造などの詳細な描写が本作の特徴の一つでもある。この作品は雑誌連載を経ずに直接単行本として刊行された経緯から、一部の巻において雑誌原稿では用いることの出来ない薄墨を用いて、単色ではなくグレースケールで印刷する試みがなされている。なお、現在入手容易な文庫版では通常の単色印刷となっている。上記のISBNコードは青心社の新装版の物だが、他に同社より原稿原寸版、メディアファクトリーより文庫版が刊行されている。また4巻刊行後青心社から設定解説資料や短編を収録したISBN 4-87892-219-2 として再版されている。なお第5巻はタイトルとして中断された。現状ではソ連崩壊に伴う作品中の世界観と現実における世界情勢の乖離および自身のスタンスの変化により続きを描くのは困難と語っている。1988年にガイナックス制作（実制作はAICとセンテスタジオ）でアニメ化された。多脚砲台が暴走したエピソードをベースにOVA向けにストーリーを手直しして作品を理解しやすいように配慮がなされており、ブリアレオスの20ミリライフルなどを除いてはデュナンの愛銃、コルト・ガバメントや当時最新鋭のモデルであったオーストリア製のグロック17などと現存する銃器を登場させたりと銃器描写はリアルであった。OVAのプロモーション映像用に実写版が製作されデュナンナッツには白人女性を起用している。プレリュードフィルム.DVDに映像特典として短縮版が収録されている。タイトルは『アップルシード 近未来的音楽学習専科』。1988年5月5日にキングレコードから発売されたイメージアルバム。(K32X-7122)。事実上OVA版のサウンドトラック的な内容だがドラマパートのキャストはOVA版とは異なる。世界で初めてフル3Dライブアニメという表現手法によって映像化された作品。3Dライブアニメとは3DCGをセルアニメのような画風に変換するトゥーンシェーダーと登場人物のリアルな動きを可能とするモーションキャプチャ技術を融合させた手法を示す造語である。セルアニメに近い画風でありながら従来のアニメーションと比べ自由なカメラワークやよりリアルな動きが表現できる。2004年4月17日の劇場公開を待つことなく続編の制作が発表された。原作者の士郎はノータッチである。監督の荒牧伸志は士郎の世界観を壊さずに一般の客層へのアピールを行うことを留意したという。主人公デュナンは声優が顔のモーションキャプチャー（フェイシャルキャプチャー）を行いそれ以外のシーンでは2名がアクションシーンと演技シーンを分担してモーションキャプチャーを行っている。声と顔の演技を務めるのは小林愛全身の演技を三輪明日美が担当。アクションシーンをアクション女優の秋本つばさが担当している。多脚砲台の登場シーンでは怪獣映画の要素を取り入れてられている。荒牧は「夜の街で多脚砲台が送電線を横切る」というカットについてスタッフからの「未来都市に送電線があるのか」「夜景で黒い多脚砲台は見えづらい」という指摘を押しのけて強引に入れ込んだと述べている。DVDは続編公開時点までに全世界で42万枚以上を売り上げるなど好調なセールスを記録した。EX MACHINA.2007年10月20日に続編『EX MACHINA -エクスマキナ-』が公開された。プロデューサーは『フェイス/オフ』や『』等を監督したジョン・ウーが担当。衣装デザインはファッションブランド、PRADAのミウッチャ・プラダ。音楽監修を細野晴臣が担当。元YMOの三人がHASYMO名義でメインテーマを書き下ろしている。その他、テイ・トウワ、コーネリアス、m-flo、rei harakamiなどが名を連ねている。キャストについてはデュナン役は前作から引き続いて小林愛が担当するが、それ以外のキャラクターについては大幅なキャストの変更が加えられている。映像も前作よりリアル調のシェーディング・テクスチャが施されている。副題の転じてご都合主義的な話の展開などを表すネガティブな言葉である。Appleseed Alpha.原作第一巻をベースとしたリブート作。荒牧伸志による長編アニメ三作目で、過去の二作品よりも更に実写的なCGスタイルで制作された。APPLESEED GENESIS.2008年3月東京国際アニメフェアにてのタイトルで全編3DCG製作のテレビアニメの予定として製作発表された。オリュンポスが完成する以前理想郷の完成を阻止しようとするテロリストたちとデュナンナッツらESWATとの戦いが描かれるオリジナルストーリー。監督はロマのフ比嘉キャラクターデザインは美樹本晴彦。当初2009年春より各話30分全26話が放送される予定であった。その後アニメ制作会社が製作元に対して制作代金の未支払いを理由に提訴を行い制作がストップしていると報じられた。その後2011年にミコットエンドバサラが倒産したため実質的に製作は中止となった。APPLESEED XIII.アップルシード XIIIからなる完全新作アニメシリーズ。2011年6月より、劇場での期間限定上映、ネット配信、Blu-ray Disc・DVD発売を同時展開。2011年6月13日より劇場リミックス版が公開。宮川輝により漫画化され2011年12月号より2013年6月号まで連載された。ストーリーはアニメ本編のシナリオをほぼなぞる形になっているが、ラストシーンなど一部はオリジナルの展開で再構築されている。また、原作や過去のアニメ化作品のオマージュと思われるシーンが多く、アニメ本編には登場しない立法院の七賢老、大佐、アルゲス、吉野、A-10が登場したり、デュナンとブリアレオスの恋愛関係が強く押し出されたラブコメ的な場面もたびたび登場する。細密なメカニック描写やアクションシーンが高く評価される一方で、独特の画風やキャラクターのデフォルメ、関西弁を多用したセリフ回しは賛否両論となっている。余談であるが作者の宮川輝は今回のコミカライズの依頼があるまで漫画のアップルシードを読んだことがなく担当者を驚かせたという。スーパーファミコンおよびPlayStation 2用としてとしても展開されている。アップルシード EX.『アップルシード EX』（アップルシード エクス）は、2007年2月15日にセガが発売した ガン&ファイティングアクションゲーム。製作はドリームファクトリー。漫画を題材に2004年に劇場公開された映画『APPLESEED』を元にしている。ゲーム中に流れるムービーなどは監督である荒牧伸志と同映画でCGを担当したデジタル・フロンティアが製作するなど、映画との連動を強く打ち出しているものの、ゲームの内容についてはファミ通レビューにおいて過去の最低点より一つだけ上（40点満点中13点）という評価がなされている。アップルシード XIII.アップルシード XIIIのマルチプラットフォーム対応ブラウザ型ソーシャルゲーム。 +高橋 留美子は、日本の女性漫画家。有限会社るーみっくプロダクション代表取締役。新潟県新潟市出身。血液型A型。1978年など。特にラブコメディを得意としておりそのキャラクター造形はの原型の一つとも言われている。少年漫画の分野における女性漫画家の草分け的存在で代表作はいずれもTVアニメ化されヒットを記録長期シリーズ化され単行本の世界累計発行部数は1995年に1億部2017年には2億部を突破した。その独特の世界観はしばしばと称され作品集のタイトルにも用いられている。新潟市中央区古町で産婦人科医院を開業していた高橋家の末っ子教育に貢献している。幼少期から兄の持ち物であった少年漫画を愛読し、中学の頃からに投稿するも落選、一時は漫画家になるのを諦めたという。高校卒業後はと声をかけられすぐに特別研修生となる。在学中の1978年投稿作と感動しの掲載号を3冊も買ったという。1978年サンデー39号よりSFコメディの連載を開始。約1年半の不定期連載の後大学卒業を機に同人作家から本格的に漫画家に転身することとなり1980年春から同作品の週刊連載を開始。さらに1980年秋から並行して、青年誌にてを、連載開始。デビュー直後は画力が低かったものの、この頃から画力が安定し現在の絵柄を確立した。1987年まで2つの人気作品の連載をこなし、少年誌＆青年誌という作風の広さから知名度を高めた。1987年冬にの連載を開始し不定期連載となる。1996年冬に『らんま1/2』を終了し同年秋から『犬夜叉』の連載を開始。かねてから興味のあった伝奇ものの本格連載でこの作品ではギャグ要素を減らしたシリアスな路線を取った。2008年夏にの連載を開始している。自身をと評し、デビュー。大学の漫画研究会出身で、初の連載でヒットという極めて稀な例であった。影響を受けた漫画家として。2018年現在は小学館新人コミック大賞の審査員も務めている。作詞家の岩里祐穂は高校時代の同級生。インターネットなどに疎いと自負しており長らくSNSも活用していなかったが2021年6月に担当編集者の手を借りてTwitterに公式アカウントを開設した。自身のツイッターで向けられた質問への回答をしている。その中の一つにと語った。というキャッチコピーだった。これをきっかけに、作品集のタイトルおよび世界観を総括した言葉としても用いられるようになった。ギャグやコメディ作品でみられる中指と薬指を曲げたポーズが主流。これは、ドタバタシーンでぶん殴られて吹っ飛ばされた時など、痛そうに見えないようにと呼ばれる。読み切り・短期連載作品.※は単行本未収録作品。週刊少年サンデー創刊50周年記念としてが2008年7月から2010年3月まで全国各地で開催された。会場では主にに収録されている。さらに同年10月20日にこれら3作品が単巻Blu-rayDVDで発売された。アシスタントは山本貴嗣を除いて全て女性である。 +ゲームと混同され、国内では和製英語としてにも重点を置いた解説をする。以下はよく使われるゲームの定義である。ウィトゲンシュタイン.哲学者のウィトゲンシュタインは、著書のなかで、カテゴリ化に関する議論のなかでゲームの定義を議論した。おそらくゲームを定義づけようとした最初の議論と考えられている。ゲームと呼ばれているものは、ルールや競争を共通の要素として持っている。しかし、彼は、どのようにゲームを定義づけようとしても、必ずその定義から外れてしまうような「ゲームによってゆるやかにまとまっていると主張した。フランス人社会学者のロジェカイヨワは著書のなかで以下のようにゲームを定義した。すなわち楽しみのために行なわれること時間と場所が区切られていること勝敗が不確定であること何かを生産するものではないことルールに支配されること現実の活動から意識的に切り離されていることをゲームの参加者が知っていることである。また彼はplayに対応するパイディアPaideaを提案した。ゲームデザイナーのグレッグ・コスティキャンは雑誌Interactive Fantasyの記事 において、例えばの作者ウィル・ライトが自分の作品を」であるとしている言葉などを引きつつ、ゲームとはものであるとした。ゲームデザイナーのクリス・クロフォードは二分法の一連を使ってゲームという用語を定義することを試みた。:したがってクロフォードの定義は次のようにされるかもしれない遊ぶアクティブなエージェントとの互いに干渉できるインタラクティブでゴール指向の活動。エニックス元社員のJUNZOは著書を導入することによりそのあるものをゲーム化できるというゲーム化理論を考案した。ゲームのルールあるいはゲームのプレイに必要な情報はプレイヤーの間でよく知られたものと仮定される。ゲーム理論そのものはゲーム理論において状況の分析などに使う分類はゲーム研究でも有用なためしばしば流用される。まず前述のように一般にここで扱っているようなゲームでは完備情報ゲーム or 不完備情報ゲーム という分類では完備である。一般によく使われる表現になどである。以下の節のうちのいくつかはこの分類法中に含まれるような話題を扱っている。ゲームはしばしば、必要とされるコンポーネントによって分類される（ミニチュアゲーム、球技、カードゲーム、ボードゲーム、コンピュータゲームなど）。よく皮革が使用される場所で、ボールは歴史を通じてポピュラーな試合の部品であり、結果としてラグビーフットボール、バスケットボール、フットボール、クリケット、テニス、バレーボールなどの球技は世界的に人気になった。他のツールは一定の地域に特有である。たとえば、ヨーロッパの多くの国ではユニークなトランプの標準的なデッキを持っている。チェスなどのほかのゲームは主にそのゲームのピースの開発と発展を通じて追跡されるかもしれない。多くのゲームのツールはトークンであり他のものを表すことを意図される。トークンはボードプレイマネーまたは得点などの無形のアイテムの質入であることがある。かくれんぼまたは鬼ごっこなどのゲームはどのような明白なツールも使用しない。むしろそれらのインタラクティブ性は環境によって定義される。環境が変更されるならば同じまたは同様な規則を持つゲームは違うゲームプレイを持つかもしれない。たとえば学校の建物でのかくれんぼは公園の同じゲームと異なる。オートレーシングは同じ車によってもレーストラックまたはストリートレースのコースに依存して根本的に違うことがある。ランダム性の有無による分類.ランダム性の有無という視点である。確定ゲーム と不確定ゲーム といった用語がある。probabilistic gameの例として、各種トランプゲーム、まわり双六、バックギャモンなどがある。トランプゲームにおいてはカードをシャフルする事がランダムさの源で、まわり双六やバックギャモンにおいてはサイコロの目に従うことがランダムさの源である。deterministic gameの例としては囲碁、将棋、チェス、チェッカー、ダイヤモンドゲームなどがある。これらのゲームでは偶然の要素はない。参加する人数による分類.ゲームがもしだとしても、競う相手は一人からでも楽しむ事のできるゲームも数多く存在する。一人で楽しむ事のできるゲームはソリテール（ソリティア）もしくはペーシェンスと呼ばれる。ソリテールの多くは事前目標に到達できたことを「勝ち」そうでないことを「負け」とも考えられる。ソリテールにはボードカードなどを使うものも昔から多様な種類が存在することも知られている。一人で遊ぶ事を主眼としたコンピュータゲームなどはソリテールに分類する事もできる。ソリテール以外のゲームに参加する人数が固定しているもの＝例えばの話だが囲碁将棋コントラクトブリッジなどとそうでないもの＝例えばの話だがポーカー7並べババ抜きなどがある。固定しなくても上下限があるものも数多く存在している。シングルプレイヤーゲーム.ほとんどのゲームは複数のプレイヤーを必要とする。しかしシングルプレイヤーゲームはプレイヤーが直面している挑戦のタイプとしてユニークである。ゲームのゴールに到着するために互いに張り合っているマルチプレイヤーゲームと違ってシングルプレイヤーゲームは環境（人工的な相手）の要素に対する自分のスキルに対する時間に対するまたはチャンスに対するのみの戦いである。ヨーヨーで遊び壁を背景としてテニスをすることは一般的に手ごわい相手の欠如のため試合と認められない。コンピュータが相手を提供する場合コンピュータゲームをシングルプレイヤービデオゲームと評することは有効ではない。コンピュータが記録するのみであるならばゲームは正当にシングルプレイヤーとされることがある。と評された多くのゲームは実際にはパズルまたはレクリエーションと名づけられるかもしれない。隠された情報の有無による分類.囲碁将棋オセロなどは現在の相手の手がすべて分かるという意味で隠された情報がないゲームである。これに対し、ポーカー、麻雀などは、相手の手など、プレイヤーから隠された情報を推測するという要素の加わるゲームといえる（不完全情報ゲーム）。必勝法を探索する問題の困難性による分類.ゲームの必勝法探索問題それ自身の困難性は、今のところ定義されておらず、ゲームのクラスに対する必勝法探索問題の困難性が定義されている。ハミルトンゲームはNP完全問題である。（先手後手あわせて）n手で終了するゲームの必勝法を探索する問題はしりとりはPSPACE完全問題である。尚、二人零和有限確定完全情報ゲームには必勝法があることが知られている。ゲームがしばしばそれらのツールによって特徴付けられまた規則によって定義される。規則がハウスルールに左右され規則の十分な変化は結果として通常ゲームを生じさせる。たとえば野球は野球によってまたはウィッフルボールによって行われる。しかしプレーヤーが3つだけのベースによって遊ぶと決めるならば彼らは間違いなく違うゲームをしている。いくつかのゲームが意図的に自身の規則の変更に関係していることを例外としてそのときでさえしばしば不変のメタ規則が存在する。ルールは一般にターンオーバーとプレイヤーおよび各プレイヤーのゴールの権利と責任を決定する。プレイヤーの権利は資源を使用することやトークンを動かすことを含む。よくある勝利条件は最初にポイントまたはトークンの一定の割合を貯蔵することである。ゲームのツールと規則は結果としてスキル、戦略、運またはそれらの組み合わせの必要性を生み出すであろうし、それに応じて分類される。スキルのゲームはレスリング綱引き石蹴りライフル射撃スケートなどの物質的なスキルのゲームとイングリッシュドラフトとチェスなどのメンタルスキルのゲームを含む。戦略ゲームはイングリッシュドラフトチェス囲碁アリマア三目並べを含みしばしば特別な道具を必要とする。運のゲームはギャンブルゲームおよび蛇と梯子やじゃんけんを含む。多くはカードやサイコロなどの機器を必要とする。しかしほとんどのゲームはこれらのうち2つまたは3つの要素を含む。たとえばアメリカンフットボールや野球は物質的なスキルと戦略の両方に関係しティドリーウィンクポーカーモノポリーは戦略と運を結合する。多くのカードゲームとボードゲームは3つすべてを結合する。ほとんどのトリックテイキングゲームやリスクカタンの開拓者たちカルカソンヌなどの多くの戦略的なボードゲームはメンタルスキル戦略および運の要素に関係している。ローンゲームは、一般にとしてマーケティングされる。メジャーなローンゲームはホースシュー、ショルフ、クロッケー、ボッチェ、ローンボウルズ、およびスケートを含む。卓上ゲームは一般に遊びの要素が小さい領域に制限され通常ゲームのピースを置き回復し動かすことのみで構成され激しい運動を必要としないゲームを指す。したがってこれらのゲームんほとんどはプレイヤーが座りゲームの要素が存在するテーブルで行われる。さまざまな主要なゲームの型は一般に卓上ゲームのうちに入る。このカテゴリー特にパーティーゲームに分類される多くのゲームが遊びにおいてもっと自由な形式でたとえ基本的な前提がゲームが広い領域大量の力やスタミナ箱に入らない専門的な機器を必要としていないことであってもパントマイムなどの身体活動に関係することを行うことが可能であることには注目する価値がある。器用さとコーディネーションのゲーム.ゲームのこの分類は、関係しているスキルの要素が手先の器用さまたは手と目の統合と関連しており、コンピュータゲームを除くあらゆるゲームを含む。ジャックス、ペーパーフットボール、ジェンガなどのゲームは、非常にポータブルな、または即席で作られた機器のみを必要とし、あらゆる平面で行われる一方、ピンボール、ビリヤード、エアホッケー、テーブル・フットボール、テーブルホッケーは専門的なテーブルまたは試合用のその他の内蔵モジュールを必要とする。テーブルホッケー、ビリヤード、ピンボール、テーブル・フットボールは私的および公的なゲームルームで人気のある備え付け品であり続けるが、ホームビデオゲームシステムの出現は主としてテーブルホッケーなどのこれらのいくつかを取り替えた。これらのゲームは、反射とコーディネーションを必要としているので、一般に酔った人によってより不十分に実行されるが、結果として怪我を受けることがありそうにない。このようなゲームはドリンキングゲームとして人気がある。さらに、クォーターズなどの専門のドリンキングゲームもまた身体的な調整力に関係し、同様な理由のために人気がある。ボードゲームはプレイヤーのステータス資源進歩が物質的なトークンを使用して追跡されるボードを中心的なツールとして使用する。多くはサイコロやカードを使用する。戦争のシミュレーションをするほとんどのゲームはボードゲームでありボードはプレイヤーのトークンが移動するマップであることである。事実上全てのボードゲームは遊びに反する。チェス囲碁将棋オセロなどのいくつかのゲームは完全な決定論であり興味は戦略要素のみである。一方では子どものゲームは非常に幸運ベースである傾向がある。たとえばキャンディランドは作成される決定の要素を事実上全く持っていない。他のボードゲームは戦略と幸運の要素を結合する。バックギャモンは2つのサイコロのロールに基づいた最もよい戦略的な動きを決定することをプレイヤーに要求する。トリビアゲームは人が得る問題に基づいたたくさんの無作為性を持っている。ユーロゲームは多くのボードゲームより幸運のファクターがやや少ないことがしばしば存在することについて有名である。ボードゲームのグループは、上で述べられているトリヴィアゲーム、ユーロスタイルボードゲームのほかにレースゲーム、ロール・アンド・ムーブ・ボードゲーム、アブストラクトゲーム、言葉遊び、ウォー・シミュレーションゲームを含む。いくつかのボードゲームは複数のグループに属し、他のジャンルの要素を含んでいる。たとえば、クラニアムはひとつの人気のある例であり、プレイヤーは4つの主要なスキルのそれぞれに成功しなければならない:芸術性、ライブパフォーマンス、トリヴィア、語学力。カードゲームは中心的なツールとしてカード一組を使用する。これらのカードは標準的な52枚の英米式トランプデッキであることがある。UNOとロークは元来標準のデッキとされたがその後カスタマイズされたデッキが商品化された例である。などのいくつかのトレーディングカードゲームは大きな入手可能なセットから個々に収集されるか購入されるカードの小さなセットによって行われる。いくつかのボードゲームはゲームプレイの要素として、通常ランダム化のために、またはゲームへの注意を継続させるためにカード一組を含む。逆に、スコアを維持するために、クリベッジなどのいくつかのカードゲームはムーバーとボードを使用する。そのような場合の2つのジャンルの間の区別は、ゲームのどの要素が真っ先に作動しているかに依存する。ランダムな行動のためにカードを使用しているボードゲームは通常ランダム化のほかの方法を使用でき、一方クリヘッジはちょうど同じぐらい容易に紙に得点を記述することができる。使用されるこれらの要素は、単に目的を達成する伝統的でもっとも容易な方法である。ダイスゲームは中心的な要素として多くのサイコロを用いる。ボードゲームはしばしばランダム化要素のためにサイコロを用い、サイコロの各ロールはゲームの結果への深い影響を持っているが、サイコロがゲームのほかの要素の成功か失敗かを判断しないので区別される。代わりにこれらがゲームをする人の中心的な指示者である。有名なものにはヤッツィー、ファルクレ、ブンコ、ブラフ、デュド、ポーカーダイスなど。サイコロが、ごく自然に、見たところ乱数の生成を行うようにデザインされるので、これらのゲームは通常運の占める程度が高い。プレイの戦略的な要素を通じて、そして確率論の教義を通じてある程度プレイヤーが指示することができる。このゲームはギャンブルゲームとして人気がある。ブラフやポーカーダイスは本来ギャンブルゲームとして考えられたが、現在おそらくもっとも有名な例はクラップスである。ドミノとタイルのゲーム.ドミノゲームは多くの点でカードゲームと同様であるが、代わりの一般的な機器は、2つの終わりを持ち、それぞれにいくつかの数のドット（あるいは「目」）が置かれ、上で現れる2つの可能な終端の値がセットの中にユニークであるような、ドミノと呼ばれるタイルのセットである。ドミノゲームは、主にマッチしている他のドミノの終端にプレイヤーの「手」からドミノをプレイしている中心に置くことによってプレイされる。このとき全体のオブジェクトは、すべてのオープンな終端を与えられた数に達せさせるため、あるいは単にボードの上に人の手からすべてのドミノをプレイするために、常にプレイを作ることができるかもしれない。セットは一つの終端の可能なドットの数の中で、およびピースの組み合わせの数によってさまざまである。歴史的に最も一般的なセットはダブル・シックスであるが、最近はダブル・ナインのようなより「拡張」されたセットが導入されている。これはゲームにおいてより大きな手と多くのプレイヤーの参加を許す。マギンズ、メキシカントレイン、チキンフットは非常に人気のあるドミノゲームである。42はカードゲームに非常に類似しているドミノゲームである。伝統的なドミノのバリエーションは以下の通りであるトリオミノは理論において同様であるが三角であり1つのタイルあたり3つの値を持っている。同様にクアッドオミノスとして知られているゲームは4角形のタイルを使用する。いくつかの他のゲームはカードの代わりにタイルを使用する。ラミーキューブはアングロアメリカン式トランプに非常に類似している4色の間でランクを上げていくことを数えるタイルを使用するカードゲームラミーの同種である。麻雀はカード風の値と絵によるタイルのセットを使うラミーに非常に類似している別のゲームである。最初に、プレイするゲームのほかの要素の上で、ボードのレイアウトを形成するために、いくつかのゲームはグラフィカルなタイルを使用する。カタンの開拓者たちとカルカソンヌがその例である。それぞれの中で、「ボード」は一連のタイルからなる。カタンの開拓者たちの中で、最初のレイアウトはランダムであるが静的であり、カルカソンヌではゲームはタイルごとのボードである「建物」によってプレイされる。ボードを全く持っていないが、ピースを動かすためにタイルを使用する抽象的な戦略ゲームハイブはチェスに類似しているメカニカルで戦略的な要素を持っている。ピース自身がレイアウトを形成し、また動くことができる。鉛筆と紙によるゲーム.この種類のゲームは文房具以外の専門的な機器をほとんどまたは全く必要としない。ただしボードゲームとして商品化される。これらのゲームは多様でありピクショナリーのような描かれたデザインに注目しているゲームやスプロウツのような"点と点を結ぶ"ゲームボッグルやスカッテルゴリエスなどの文字と言葉のゲーム数独やクロスワードパズルなどのソリテールとロジックのパズルゲームがある。推理ゲームは1人のプレイヤーが知っている情報をコアとして所持しオブジェクトはテキストまたは話された言葉の中で事実上それを漏らさない情報の断片を推理することを他人に強いることである。ジェスチャーはおそらくこのタイプのもっとも有名なゲームでありキャッチフェイズタブーピクショナリーなどの通信のタイプの異なる規則に関係しているたくさんの商業用のバリエーションを生み出した。このジャンルはまたウィンルーズオアドローパスワードおよび25000ドルのピラミッドなどの多くのゲームショーを含む。球技などのスポーツの試合というゲームがあるがそういうゲームとのかかわりかたは試合に参加する方法と見て楽しむという方法がある。スタンリー・フィッシュは、社会的なとりきめによる規則の操作の明白な例として、野球のボールとストライクを挙げた。ストライクゾーンというのは人々がそれがあるとみなすことに互いに合意した場合だけ存在している。物理的な実体はまったく無い。人々の心の中の決めごとによって生み出されているのである。そして、どの投球も、権限を与えられた審判員の判定によってなどと声でラベルを付けて分類されるまで、ボールでもストライクでもない。なお、すべてのスポーツがゲームというわけではない。たとえば競走や体操などは、近代オリンピックにおいてどう扱われていようが、クロフォードなどの定義によるゲームにはあたらない。彼らは間接的な方法で互いに挑むのみである。直接的に相手に干渉したりはしない。1950年代や1960年代から大型計算機ではしるゲームソフトを書いて遊ぶ人たちがいた。1970年代後半にパーソナルコンピュータが登場してからは、パーソナルコンピュータを買える年齢の大学生や大人たちの間でゲームソフトがさかんに制作された。また1983年に任天堂からファミリーコンピュータというゲーム専用コンピュータが発売されてからは価格の安さと専用機の扱いやすさのおかげで爆発的に普及し子供たちがコンピュータゲームをするようになった。それぞれの属する世代や各人の経済力によりコンピュータ関連のと言えばスマホのゲームアプリのことだと思っている。コンピュータゲームはコンピュータをゲームルールの情報処理に深く利用している。コンピュータはカードまたはサイコロなどの人あるいは人工知能との間でのゲームで使用されるバーチャルなツールを作成することができるかゲームプレーをとおじて処理できる現世のもしくはファンタスティックなものよりずっと精巧な世界をシミュレーションすることができる。ビデオゲームでは1つ以上の入力デバイスを使用する。アーケードゲームでは一般的に押しボタンとジョイスティックの組み合わせである。パーソナルコンピュータ用ゲームではキーボードマウストラックボールである。ゲーム機ではゲームコントローラまたはモーションセンシティブツールである。パドルコントローラなどのより難解な機器も入力のために用いられる。コンピュータゲームにおいて単純なキーボードからマウスジョイスティックジョイパッドにいたるまでのユーザーインタフェイスの発展はゲームの開発の性質を大きく変更した。多くのジャンルのビデオゲームが存在する。最初の商業用ビデオゲームポンは卓球の簡単なシミュレーションであった。処理パワーの増大に伴いアドベンチャーやアクションゲームなどの新しいジャンルが開発された。これが障害の一連を通じて第三者の眺望からキャラクターを誘導しているプレイヤーに関係した。この戦略に制限されるボードゲームによって容易に再現されない。この有利さはビデオゲームがより現実的に戦闘などの状況をシミュレーションすることを可能にする。さらにコンピュータゲームの遊びは実世界の表現と同じ物質的なスキル力危険を必要とせず空想的な自然物質的な暴力を伴っているゲームまたはスポーツのシミュレーションの要素を許し非常にリアルだが誇張されるか不可能な物理学を提供できる。最後にシングルプレイヤーのよってプレイすることができるシミュレーションを引き起こしコンピュータは成功のさまざまな程度によってチェスなどの伝統的なテーブルゲームにおいて1人以上の人の相手をシミュレーションすることができる。サンドボックススタイルゲームとして知られるより無制限のコンピュータシミュレーションにおいて、ゲームは、プレイヤーが自由にこの宇宙の限界の中で好きな何かをすることができるかもしれないバーチャルな環境を提供する。時々、ゴールの不足または欠如があり、これは、これらがのどちらと考えられるべきであるかについてのいくらの討論を起こしたタイムシェアリング方式の電話回線でつないだコンピュータの時代からオンラインゲームは一応行われていた。PLATOなどの初期の商用システムは厳密に教育的な分野と少なくとも同じくらいゲームによって有名であった。1958年Tennis for Twoは訪問者の日を支配しブルックヘブン国立研究所のオシロスコープに注意を引きつけた。1980年代パロアルト研究所は主にメイズウォーによって知られていた。それは訪問者に実地のデモとして提供された。パソコンで遊べるゲームはフラッシュゲームなどもある。とはいえこれはアメリカの研究所の研究員の話であり世界中の一般人はこんなことはできなかった。一般の人々にとっては、1980年代後半のパソコン通信の時代でもオンラインゲームはあまり一般的ではなかった。1990年からすこしづつインターネットが普及したが、最初は従量制で時間あたりの料金が高すぎて、おまけに回線速度もとても遅かったので、オンラインゲームは普及しなかった。普及したのは、プロバイダー同士の競合が激化して、安い定額料金が設定され安心して遊べるようになり、回線の高速化つまりブロードバンドや光回線が一般的になってからである。現在のオンラインゲームはインターネット接続を使用して行われる。いくつかがクライアントプログラムを献呈した一方ブラウザゲームはウェブブラウザのみを必要とする。いくつかのより簡単なブラウザゲームはビデオゲームをほとんどしない人口統計のグループにアピールする。コンピュータゲームは出現したニューメディアのランドスケープの全てのセクタでよく設立される。メディアは、1つだけの方法を循環する伝統的な方法からインタラクティブな方法へ変換する。これはビデオゲームの世界中で広がっている現象である。これは、オンラインとオフラインの空間が別れずにと考えられることができる方法の明白な例である。）社会的変化と開発の結果としてメディアの客の特徴が変化する。彼らはアクティブになりこれまでよりもっと対話する。この現象においてゲームのプレイヤーは私たちの社会の中での構成に似ている。彼らは両方とも自動調節であり彼ら自身の社会規範を作成していてゲームのコードを通してそして時々それを実行する人々によるゲームの取締りを通じて規則と強制に縛られる。取り締まられる価値はゲームによって変わる。ゲーム文化の中にエンコードされた価値の多くはオフラインで文化的な価値を反映するがゲームはまたチャンスを強調の選択肢に提供したりファンタジーと遊びの名において価値を鎮圧する。新しい世紀のゲームのプレイヤーは現在見たところゲームを通じて深い自身を表現している。彼らが匿名のステータスによって遊ぶことができるときに急ぎまた一度も外出したことがないポジションから外に進むことを発見できる。それらはコンピュータ技術のインタラクティブで浸水の可能性に基づいた新しい体験と楽しみを提供する。対戦ゲームeスポーツ.コンピュータゲームで対戦を行うことは、1983年発売のファミリーコンピュータでも、1994年発売の初代プレイステーションでも行われていた。コントローラーが2つ付属しており、2人が同時にプレイでき、2人で対戦するためのゲームソフトも販売されていたからである。ネットワークにつながなくても対戦を楽しむことができた。PS2のグランツーリスモ3 A-specでのプレーヤ2人での対戦は、ただコンピュータゲームというだけでなく、プレーヤたちは互いの車をぶつけあって干渉しあうので、クロフォードの定義のにも該当する。近年、PCゲームで対戦を行うことがさかんになり、対決試合の大会まで行われるようになり、最初はスポーツ系・肉体系の動作を表現したゲームから始まり、その直接的な競い合いぶり、そのぶつかりあいの激しさに、これはもうスポーツだ、ということでeスポーツと呼ばれるようになった。たとえばの対戦など、自分のキャラは相手のキャラに激しく干渉しており相互作用が起きており、クロフォードの定義のにも該当する。ロールプレイングゲーム.RPGとしばしば省略されて呼ばれるロールプレイングゲームは通常参加者が虚構の設定上で活動するキャラクターの役割を受け持つタイプのゲームである。本来のロールプレイングゲームという用語が指すテーブルトークロールプレイングゲーム(TRPG)とも呼ばれるこれらのゲームは通常テーブルに向かい合った複数人の参加者によってプレイされ筆記具と紙を用いたフィクションの展開に終始傾注する。プレイヤーたちは協力して、彼らのキャラクターに関連した設定を作り、その設定を発展させ、探求し、また他人になりきって日常生活の枠を飛び越えた冒険を経験することになる。今日のテーブルトークロールプレイングゲームは、伝統的なジャンルの境界を越えて、様々な作品が作られており、戦闘重視なものから、よりストーリー重視なものまで、数百種類のゲームが存在している。ロールプレイングゲームという用語は今日ではコンピュータRPGを指すためにも使われる。あらかじめプログラムされた状況とストーリーを単独のプレイヤーが遊ぶゲームであることが多いがインターネットの発達によりMORPGMMORPGと呼称される小規模大規模の複数プレイヤーが参加するコンピュータRPGも存在する。また一人でコンピュータを用いずにプレイできるテーブルトークロールプレイングゲームとしてゲームブックなども存在する。ビジネスゲームはインタラクティブなボードゲームから違う支柱と活動のさまざまな種類に関係しているインタラクティブゲームまでのさまざまな形式を取ることができる。これらのゲームの目的は組織的な性能のいくつかの面にリンクしビジネスの発展についての議論を生成することである。多くのビジネスゲームは組織的な行動に注目する。これらのいくつかがコンピュータシミュレーションである一方他方はプレイと情報の聞き出しによるシンプルなデザインである。チームビルディングはそのような活動の共通のフォーカスである。用語で使うことができる。有名な例は軍事演習と役割演技である。この意味の根は、先史時代に端を発するかもしれないことが、原始文明を観察することから人類学によって推論された。それにおいて、子どものゲームは重要なほどに狩猟、戦争、看護、などの大人の活動を真似する。これらの種類のゲームは現代に保存される。デザインゲームとはまちづくりにおけるシミュレーションの一種で具体的な空間計画等を行う際に空間イメージをシミュレーションし目標のイメージを関係者で共有するための手法。ワークショップのような集会において参加者が意見やアイデアをだし合い実際に設計やデザインに参加する。ワークショップ形式での新しい公園やまちを計画する際など住民参加型の計画に用いられる。種類として将来の町の姿をシミュレーションするなど各種ある。 +コンピュータゲームとはコンピュータの機能を使って動作するゲームの日本語における総称。あるいはコンピュータ上で動作しコンピュータと人間の間で行なうゲームのこと。もしくはコンピュータを利用したゲームおよびそのプログラム。名称については節で詳説する。日本語は、使用する機器とディスプレイ装置およびゲームソフトの供給媒体の違いから、以下の5種類に分類される。また、という語は、広義ではコンピュータゲームと LSIゲームの総称であるが、狭義では LSIゲームの別名である。日本語では、コンピュータ化したものという意味合いでコンピュータゲームを「デジタルゲーム」と呼び、コンピュータゲーム以外のゲーム（非電源ゲーム）をこれと対比して「アナログゲーム」と呼ぶ向きもある。ここでの「デジタル」および「アナログ」という用語は、本義からは離れた日本語独自の俗用である。デジタルゲームという言葉は1975年頃には使用され、テレビを介する場合のテレビゲームの語も使われたが、1980年代初頭の段階ではテレビを使わない小規模な電子回路のゲーム機をデジタルゲームと呼び、両者は部品に一部共通点があるが別の意味の言葉だった。1980年代末には既存のボードゲームなどを意味するアナログゲームの言葉が使われ始め、同時期にはの発売でコンピュータゲームの音楽がファミコン音楽と呼ばれていたのがゲームミュージック/ゲーム音楽と呼ばれるようになり、ゲームという単語でコンピュータゲームを意味するようになっていた。1996年頃には新聞でもデジタルゲームとの見出しの記事があるが流行の1つともいえたため時が立つにつれて使用頻度が減っていったが、日本デジタルゲーム学会の設立もあり、学術用語やマニア向けに語が広まっていった。英語（※事実上の国際共通語）ではコンピュータの信号をビデオモニターに出力して表示していた時代が長かったことから"video game" という語を用いるのが通例。英語と日本語の対応については英語の"video game"と日本語の「コンピュータゲーム」の語義が近く"computer game" や "PC game" に語義が近いのは「パソコンゲーム」や「PCゲーム」である。また英語の "electronic game" は日本語の広義の「電子ゲーム」と同義である。日本語では漢字表記しないが日本語と同じ漢字文化圏の中国語では。史上初のコンピュータゲームとされるものは、1947年にコーネル大学卒業生のアメリカ人およびエストル・レイ・マン によって開発された陰極線管娯楽装置 である。次いで、1952年にEDSAC上でプログラムされたを開発し、これが世界初のコンピュータ式アーケードゲームとなったことで、産業化が始まった。翌1972年にはラルフ・ベアによって世界初の家庭用ゲーム機であるが開発された。日本においては1970年代末より広まったアーケードゲームにおけるLSIゲームがコンピュータゲームの産業化のはしりと言え1978年にが登場することで一大ブームを巻き起こした。家庭用ゲーム機も1980年代に入るといくつか登場したがなかでも1983年に発売されたファミリーコンピュータは社会現象となるほどの爆発的な売れ行きを記録しほかのハードを圧倒して家庭用ゲーム機の代名詞となった。その後もコンシューマーゲームの成長は続きプレイステーションやセガサターンNINTENDO64といった新ハードの発売も進んで1996年に日本国内の家庭用ゲーム市場規模は最大となった。しかしその後は家庭用ゲーム販売は減少傾向となり2006年には携帯用ゲームソフトの販売が据え置き用のそれを上回った。しかしこのころにはすでにモバイルゲームの急速な躍進が始まっており2009年から2011年にかけてはフィーチャーフォン向けのソーシャルゲームが急成長を遂げその後2011年以降はスマートフォン向けのゲームに切り替わった。日本においては国立国会図書館法の一部を改正する法律が2000年10月1日に施行され、コンピュータゲームソフトを含むパッケージ系の電子出版物に納本義務が課せられた。日本標準産業分類においては、コンピュータゲームのソフトウェア産業は情報通信業に分類され、なかでも情報サービス業に区分される。ゲーム産業は、テクノロジー/ビジネスモデル/コンテンツデザインによってといわれる。コンピュータゲームの市場は成立以降急速に拡大を続け一大産業へと成長した。2018年のコンピュータゲームの総売上は13兆1774億円と推定されておりそのうち90％以上がデジタル配信ゲームでありパッケージゲームの売り上げは1割以下となっている。また売り上げはアジア北アメリカヨーロッパの順に多くこの3地域の売り上げは95%近くにのぼる。日本国内のコンピュータゲーム売上は2018年に1兆6704億円となっておりこのうちスマホゲームが1兆1660億円家庭用ゲームが4343億円を占めた。ゲーム企業の売り上げは年較差が激しいが2017年のゲーム事業売り上げデータでは中国のテンセントが1位であり以下ソニーAppleマイクロソフトアクティビジョンブリザードの順となっている。またこの年任天堂は9位バンダイナムコは10位となっている。またコンピュータゲームをスポーツや競技として捉えるエレクトロニックスポーツも盛んとなってきている。ゲーム一般としての分類.一般のゲームと全く同様に、コンピュータゲームに関しても、理論的なというような分類が応用できる。コンピュータゲームの特殊性としては、割とありえる、といった点がある。以下はよりコンピュータゲーム固有の事情や観点からの分類である。ここではビデオゲームやデジタルゲームの特徴として、非電源ゲームであるボードゲーム、テーブルゲーム、カードゲームなどとの対比を述べる。プラットフォームによる分類.コンピュータゲームはそのプラットフォームによっていくつかに分類される。ゲーム専用機によってプレイされるゲームはアーケードゲームとコンシューマーゲームの2つの区分がある。アーケードゲームは業務用ゲーム機によって提供されるゲームで個人向けでなく企業向けのプラットフォームでありゲームセンターや遊園地などに設置されることが多く大型の専用筐体を用いた大型筐体ゲームも存在する。コンシューマーゲームは家庭用ゲーム専用機によって提供されるものを指し据え置き型ゲーム機によるテレビゲームと小型で持ち運びしやすい携帯型ゲームの2種類が存在する。またコンシューマーゲームは任天堂やソニーのようなゲーム機（ハード）を製造する企業とゲームソフトのみを製造しハードをプラットフォームとしてのみ使用する企業の2種類が存在しこうしたソフト専業企業をゲーム業界ではサードパーティーと呼ぶ。ゲーム専用機以外のハードウェアによってプレイされるゲームはパーソナルコンピュータを利用してプレイするパソコンゲームと携帯電話やスマートフォンスマートデバイスなどを使用するモバイルゲームとに分かれる。またDVDなどの再生機能つきゲーム機でプレイすることのできるDVDプレイヤーズゲーム/UMDプレイヤーズゲーム/BDプレイヤーズゲームといったものも存在する。古くはVHDゲームやLDゲームといったものがあり特に後者はLD-ROM2やMEGA-LDといったハードもあった。という用語もプラットフォームによる分類の一種である。プラットフォーム発展史.アーケードゲームビジネスはコンピュータゲーム以前から存在しておりそれらのゲーム機特にビデオゲームのコンピュータ化が1970年代のコンピュータゲームビジネスのルーツの一つである。1970年代のコンピュータゲームとしては、メインフレームやミニコンピュータ上で作られ遊ばれたものもあるが、前者はデモンストレーション用といった位置付けが強い。後者は『スペースウォー!』のようにアーケードゲームに発展したものもある。しかし最も多いのは『スタートレック』のように、次に述べるマイコンゲームになったパターンであろう。1970年代後半から急速に発展したパソコン（当時の呼称はマイコン）では、当初は自作や、公開されたプログラムリストによって自由に流通するプログラムの中の1ジャンルとしてゲームは人気のある分野であったが、ビル・ゲイツの努力（を参照（1976））などもありパソコン向けプログラム製品を商品とした市場ができると、パソコンゲームも商品となるようになった。続いて、家庭用のテレビゲームがあらわれた。前述のアーケードやこれらのゲーム専用機は、1970年代のものは1機種につき1種類のゲーム、ないし多くても十数種類程度の最初から内蔵されたゲームが遊べるというものであった。1980年代にあらわれたアタリや任天堂のテレビゲーム機は、プログラム（ソフトウェア）をカートリッジに搭載のROMで供給するという形態により、ゲーム機本体をプラットフォーム化し、ゲームソフト市場を作った。後にはより小型化されディスプレイを内蔵した携帯型ゲーム機も発売された。以上の類型をまとめて「コンシューマーゲーム」（コンシューマー＝民生市場向け→「家庭用」）とも呼ぶこともある。家庭用ゲーム機はその生産台数の多さから、任天堂ファミコンの場合ではリコーの各IC、セガサターンのSH2、セガドリームキャストのSH4など、集積回路産業に影響を与える存在にもなった。アーケードのビデオゲームも高度化によりコストが高騰したこともあり基本的な設計の流用から始まり1990年代以降は多くの製品が何らかのプラットフォームをベースに設計されることがほとんどとなっておりカートリッジでソフトが供給されるようなプラットフォームもある。LSIの高性能化などにより1980年代から1990年代にあらわれた電子手帳や携帯情報端末でもゲームを遊べるものがあった。近年は携帯電話やスマートフォン/スマートデバイスで遊べるゲームという形態となっている。コンピュータの処理能力の進歩により映像表現や演出が高機能かつ多彩となっている。CGやシェーダ、アニメーション、バーチャルリアリティなど、機械学習/深層学習は特に話題を集めた。コンピュータゲームが特にゲームソフトがどのような経路でプレーヤーに届けられているかで分類する方法である。パッケージソフトウェア / ダウンロードゲーム（配信ゲーム） などと分類する。なお、同人ゲームという同好の士たちが交換したり小規模に販売するゲームというものもある。ゲームシステムによる分類.以下に示すのは既存のゲームジャンルを便宜的に区分して列挙したものである。既存のゲームジャンル幾つかに跨るものも存在しそれが新しいジャンルに発展したものもあるためジャンル分けも絶対的なものではない。テイルズ オブ シリーズのように独特のジャンル名が付けられる場合がある。操作技能要求系はいわゆる反射神経や動体視力がものを言うゲームであるがその幾つかでは要素の出現パターンが決まっておりそれらの暗記が求められるものもある。またコントローラーの性質で遊び易かったり遊びにくかったりするという要素も強い傾向がある。操作技能不要系は即決的な判断よりも、熟考して判断することが重視されるゲームである。より複雑なゲームルールである傾向が強く、また、遊ぶ時間も他のジャンルに比べ、長くなる傾向がある。セーブで中断に対応するものも多い。ゲームのジャンルとしては、ロールプレイングゲームやウォー・シミュレーションゲームのように、コンピュータゲームが生まれる以前から遊ばれていたものや、ボードゲーム/カードゲームといった卓上ゲームをコンピュータで遊べるようにしたものも多い。統合系は幾つかのゲームジャンルの要素を組み合わせたりまたはゲーム以外の概念を既存ゲームに組み込んだものである。登場当初は確定したジャンルが存在しなかったものも多い。RPGにアクションゲームの要素が加えられたアクションロールプレイングゲームやパズルゲームにリアルタイム性を持たせたアクションパズルがある。リアルタイムストラテジーもある。他には、脳トレ・学習ゲームという分類もある。オンライン機能の有無による分類.オンラインゲームはコンピュータネットワークを利用して機能するゲームのジャンルである。古くはパソコン通信などであったが2000年代に於いてその多くではインターネットへの対応を見せる。スタンドアローンなゲームに対して用い狭義では常にネットワークに接続した状態で行うものを表す。インターネットの普及に伴って遠隔地にいるユーザ同士がプレイを共有するゲームソフトが登場している。ネットの多人数参加型コンピュータRPGとしてMORPG/MMORPGがある。他のプレイヤーとの関係による分類.プレイ人数による分類よりも他のプレイヤーとの関係による分類が有意と言える。2人対戦を基本とするゲームでも、アルゴリズム（人工知能）を対戦相手とした1人プレイのモードが存在する。これはコンピュータが対戦相手役を兼ねるものであり、プレイヤーが1人であってもゲーム内容は2人プレイと同質のものとなる。複数人が同時にプレイするコンシューマーゲームにおいては家庭内でゲーム機を介して他人とコミュニケーションするという意味合いもあって協力関係であるものと競争関係にあるものが主流となっている。複数のプレイヤーが相互に一人プレイを行う形態もレトロゲームやボードゲームやといったパーティーゲームをコンピュータゲーム化したものに見られる。携帯型ゲーム機ではセーブデータを複数保持することで同じロムカートリッジで複数プレイヤーに対応するものもある。2000年代より急速に進歩を見せたオンラインゲームのようにコンピュータネットワーク経由で他のプレイヤーと協力ないし競争するタイプのゲームも増えこちらでは特定人数による対戦形態からMMORPGのようにほぼ無制限なプレイヤー人数と同じ仮想世界を共有する形態も一般化の傾向が見られる。プレイヤー条件による分類.おもに極端な特性を持つという理由からプレイヤー層が限定されたり条件が示されたりする分類である。販売店で購入者の適格チェックが行われる場合もある。このような作品はいわゆる全年齢対象のような万人受けは最初から切り捨てて特定のプレイヤー層に特化しているため老若男女に受け入れられるように配慮されていない。そのため対象プレイヤー層以外には与えるべきではなくまた場合によっては内容に関する注意免責事項が必要であると考えられる。ゲームの分類というのはメーカーの意図どおりに行われるとは限らない。ゲームを販売する販売店側通販側でも分類名を用意して行われることもあるしプレーヤー側でも独特の分類が行われることがある。プレーヤーの特定の趣味嗜好に合うか合わないかで分類する場合もある。 +ゲームのタイトル一覧ではゲームのタイトルに関する一覧を列記する。ゲーム会社一覧では主に を一覧にまとめる。吸収合併や事業譲渡などにより解散した会社.2つ以上の会社による吸収合併・事業譲渡.「コナミデジタルエンタテインメント」発足以降「セガ」の開発子会社（本社から分社された後再統合）「バンダイナムコゲームス」を経て「バンダイナムコスタジオ」へ移行「B.B.スタジオ」へ移行民族音楽が固有に伝承してきた音楽」の意味。国語辞典には昭和50年代から載るようになった比較的新しい言葉だが、この語はさまざまな用いられ方をしており、注意を要する。この節の出典は、学館のの項西洋の古典音楽と大衆音楽以外の伝統的な音楽.もともとethnicにはというニュアンスがあった。歴史的にこの語は欧米で内外の異民族、特に異教徒や少数民族の音楽の特異な響きを指して用いられることが多く、ヨーロッパ人が自民族の音楽を指す言葉としては使わなかった。西洋と日本の古典音楽と大衆音楽以外の伝統的な音楽.日本に移入されたこの語は(1)の意味から自国である日本を除外して「日本以外の非欧米の伝統的な音楽」の意味でつかわれた。近年は当たり前になったが以前は例えば「フランスの民族音楽」などのような言い方はしなかった。伝統的な音楽への志向はまだ残っており例えば「中国の民族音楽」と言った場合京劇や民謡がすぐ思い浮かぶが女子十二楽坊やランランは通常含む。特定の民族・地域・国で行われている音楽全て.に含まれる西欧中心主義や自民族中心主義および伝統的な音楽とそれ以外のジャンルを峻別する考え方への批判から例えばと言えばよいことになる。(4)「○○の音楽」と言った場合に見落とされやすい音楽を特に示す.基本的にはの立場に立つがと言われれば民謡や民族舞踊の存在を意識する。自民族の伝統的な音楽およびそれに基づいて新たに創作された音楽.ロシア・中国・朝鮮などでは民族音楽という語をそのような意味で使っている。中国の用法では女子十二楽坊は立派に民族音楽である。中国・朝鮮ではもほぼこれに準じる。エキゾチックな感じを与える音楽.と呼ぶ場合が多い。民族衣装や民族料理を楽しむような気軽さで異民族の音楽のエキゾチックさを楽しむ際にこの用法が使われる場合があるがエキゾチックさを強調することはの用法に近い部分があり注意を要する。ここでは世界で行われている音楽全てを除いた音楽つまりの意味での民族音楽について世界各地域の概観を示す。地域の区分は平凡社に準拠するが、旧ソ連地域はヨーロッパ、西アジア、中央アジア、チベット・モンゴル、極東シベリアに分割し、さらに極東シベリアをエスキモーと統合した。また地域名称は適宜現代的なものとし、それぞれに例を示した。当然ながら、地域の分割は様々な文明論・文化論で示されている区分とかなり似てくる。古代中国では三分損益法・十二律・五声が生まれている。なお、14世紀ころには胡弓や三弦が中央アジアから中国に伝わり、そこから朝鮮や日本にも伝わった。日本では三弦は三味線のもととなった。こうした歴史から楽器は共通のものが多い。また五音音階をどの国でも好んで使っているが含まれている音は若干違いがある。朝鮮の音楽には三拍子系統のものが見られる。東アジアの民族音楽の例.モンゴルは五音音階を使うことは中国朝鮮日本と共通している。音楽の主流は声によるものでモリンホールで伴奏され強烈な声量と細かい節回しを特徴とする。五音音階に含まれる音はドレミソラであり中国とも共通する明るいもので親しみやすい。ホーミーと呼ばれる1人の演奏者が同時に2種類の声を発声する倍音唱法も見られる。 喉の奥で発せられる一定した持続低音 その低音に含まれる倍音を口腔の形を調整して発する高音の共鳴音で旋律をつくるというもの。どちらも広大な草原で声を届かせるためのものである。チベットは、ラマ教音楽の誕生した地であり、同じくラマ教を信奉したモンゴルの音楽に影響を与えた。ただチベット文化は弾圧されており、充分に調査されているとは言い難い。チベットモンゴルの民族音楽の例.オルティン・ドー、ホーミーなど非常に多様な地域であるが、大まかには北部と南部に分けることができる。パキスタンとバングラデシュは北部、スリランカは南部の音楽と共通性が高い。インドの音楽は基本的には単旋律の音楽で、旋律楽器を担当する。旋律は22律による7音音階とラーガに基づく。1オクターブを22の音に不均等分割する音律から7音を選び出して音階にするが、現実にはこれは4分音を含むと言うことである。ラーガは旋律を演奏するルールのようなもので、使う音や音の順番、強調すべき音、終わりの音などを決めており、北インドでは72種類、南インドでは10種類あるとされる。リズムはターラに基づく。ターラは基本的なリズムパターンで、2拍や3拍の組み合わせでパターン化されており、一つの曲の中では一つのターラが使われ続ける。どちらもインドの音楽の基本であり、蛇使いの吹く笛もこの理論にきちんと当てはまる。南アジアの民族音楽の例.カタックバラタナーティヤムなどインドと中国両方の影響を受けた地域だがインドの文化の方が基層にありヴェトナムフィリピンを除いてはインド文化圏の辺境と言えそうである。始めインドからヒンドゥー教と仏教が13世紀以後はイスラム教が流入し半島部では仏教が島嶼部ではイスラム教とヒンドゥー教がそれぞれ優勢である。このような歴史からかインドで3～4世紀に成立した「ラーマーヤナ」（ラーマ王子の物語。インドの叙事詩）を題材とする舞踊劇や影絵芝居が方々で見られ音楽とともに上演されて人気を博している。東南アジア独自の要素としては、青銅のゴング。そのような伝統に基づくものと考えられる。音楽は基本的に5音音階の地域が多いが、調律は1オクターブをほぼ5等分や7等分するなど、中国ともヨーロッパとも大幅に違い、わざと濁った響きになるように作られている。調律が合わない時に発生するが超自然的な力を持つと考えられたため。リズムは2拍子系だが、複数の声や楽器がからみ合い、非常に複雑なリズムを作り出す。東南アジアの民族音楽の例.サハラ砂漠以北のアフリカをマグリブも有力な言語である。イスラム教の中では音楽を認める考えと邪悪なものとして退ける考えの対立が長くキリスト教のように宗教儀式で公式に音楽を使うことはないが聖典コーランの朗唱キラーアや1日5回の祈りを呼びかけるアザーンなどは大変音楽的に聞こえる。とくにコーラン朗唱には地域などにより何種類かあり優秀者をたたえるコンクールもおこなわれる。伝統音楽では単旋律即興的メリスマ的（音が長く伸びながら上下に動く）微分音（半音の半分の音程）の使用非常に複雑な拍子（48拍子まである）ウードサントゥール（カーヌーン）ネイ（尺八のような笛）ダラブッカ（太鼓の一種）ラバーブスルナーイ（チャルメラのようなダブルリード楽器）の使用など共通する特徴が見られる。なおウードは琵琶リュートギターのサントゥールはダルシマーやピアノのカーヌーンはプサルテリウムやツィターやハープシコードのラバーブはバイオリン二胡のスルナーイはオーボエの祖先であり長く先進地帯だったこの地域は楽器の宝庫である。またオスマントルコ以来トルコはアラブ世界の音楽的中心地となったほか古くから軍楽が見られその中で使われているシンバルやトライアングルナッカーラとともにヨーロッパの音楽に多大な影響を与えた。西アジアマグリブの民族音楽の例.サントゥールによる古典音楽などカザフスタン・ウズベキスタン・トルクメニスタン・タジキスタン・キルギスと中国の新疆ウイグル自治区を指す。北のステップ地帯（シャーマニズムの影響が残る）と南のオアシス地帯（トルキスタン＝トルコ族の地とも呼ばれる。西アジアの影響をいち早く取り入れた）に分かれる。どちらもトルコ系言語が主流であり、アナトリア半島に進出したセルジューク・トルコも中央アジアからイランを経てである。遊牧民の末裔が多く住み、イスラム教信仰やトルコ語・ペルシャ語（に近い言語）使用など、西アジア地域との歴史的・文化的な関係が深く、楽器は西アジアと共通するものが多く、明らかに西アジアの音楽用語が使われていたりする（シャシマコームとは「6つのマカーム」の意味で、マカームとはアラブ音楽の音階・旋法・旋律の意味である）。ただしカルナイ（長いトランペットのような楽器）はウズベキスタン・タジキスタンの楽器である。西アジアの音楽を主導したトルコの音楽の土台は中央アジア共通の民俗音楽であり、太鼓による軍楽の要素はトルコの軍楽のルーツである。中央アジアの民族音楽の例.キュイ（カザフスタン） シャシュマコーム（ウズベキスタン・タジキスタン）などサハラ砂漠より南の地域は黒人の数が圧倒的に多い社会である。言語はスワヒリ語やズールー語などで、声調を持つことを特徴としている。2000を超すといわれる多数の部族の中で伝承されている音楽は、きわめて多様であるが、いくつかの共通する特色をもっている。（1）さまざまな宗教儀礼や祭りなどと深く結びつき、部族社会の生活との深い関係があること（2）音楽や歌の旋律が声調に対応していること。話し太鼓として知られるトーキング･ドラムは、その典型の一つ。（3）きわめて複雑で高度なリズム。同時にいくつかのリズム型を奏するポリリズム、複数のリズムが交錯するクロスリズムなど（4）即興性。踊りと太鼓、あるいは歌詩と旋律、楽器と楽器などの場合、伝統的な旋律やリズムの型をもちながら、状況や場所、演奏者の感情によって自由に組み替えられる。楽器でアフリカにおいて最も注目されるのはマリンババランキティンピラバラフォンなど多くの呼称をもつ旋律楽器の木琴類である。ヒョウタンの共鳴器をつける場合が多い。この木琴類と同じく広範に分布するのが指ピアノとして知られるサンザである。使用される楽器は打楽器系が圧倒的に多いがナイジェリアなどイスラム文化の影響下にある地域では弦楽器を多く使用する。サブサハラアフリカの民族音楽の例.バラフォンの演奏、トーキングドラムの演奏、グリオなどほとんどの国がキリスト教を信仰している。教会で聖歌を歌う習慣がどの国にもありそれぞれの民族音楽に影響を与えている。上流階級的な音楽はどの国も舞踏会だったりオーケストラの演奏会だったりオペラやバレエだったりであまり差はないがお祭りや結婚式や酒場での歌楽器の演奏踊りなどの中に特徴的な民族音楽が見られる。ヨーロッパの民族音楽に共通する特徴は以下の通り。ただ、イスラム勢力に支配されていたことのあるイベリア半島諸国やバルカン半島諸国は、ドイツ・イタリアを中心とするヨーロッパ中央部の音楽とは音階やリズムにかなり違った特徴も見られる。特にバルカン半島諸国では奇数拍子や変拍子が良く見られる。また、東欧諸国では明らかに西欧諸国と違う地声による発声、輪舞を主とする舞踊など、共通性が見られる。ピレネー山脈、鉄のカーテン、カトリックと正教の境界線など、よくヨーロッパの潜在的な境界線とされるものは、民俗音楽の特徴の違いにも表れている。さらに、東欧諸国やイベリア半島にはジプシーがかなりの数いる。ジプシーはさまざまな町を移動しながら、音楽を演奏したり、金属を加工した馬具を販売したりして生活していた人たちで、インド北西部が発祥の地と言われている。ジプシーは職業音楽家としてこれらの国で人気を博し、これらの国の民族音楽に影響を与えたとされている。ヨーロッパの民族音楽の例.極東シベリア・エスキモー.極東シベリアにはロシア人が進出する前から遊牧民・狩猟民・漁労民が生活しており、それぞれ固有の文化を今でも残している。極東シベリアでは口琴や団扇太鼓が広く使われているが、衣装がモンゴル・中国・アイヌ・日本のはっぴに少しずつ似ていたり、祭りの雰囲気が日本の東北地方を思わせたりするのが興味深い。エスキモーの文化はロシア・アメリカ・カナダからグリーンランドまで広がっているが、死霊を慰め狩猟の成功を祈願する儀礼、歓迎や娯楽のために、踊りや太鼓をともなう歌をうたう。歌は個人の所有財産で、贈答も可能である。喉を緊張させ声門と横隔膜を震わせる発声法が用いられ、舌打ちや叫び声などが装飾的に使われる。やはり団扇太鼓の使用が見られる。極東シベリア・エスキモーの民族音楽の例.ジャンル名は明確なものはないが歌民族楽器アンサンブル民族舞踊などネイティブ・アメリカンについて書く。宗教や儀礼に関する踊りを伴い、太鼓やラットルで伴奏する歌が多い。歌は、夢や幻覚を通して超自然的存在から授けられるとし、演奏には呪術師が関わった。喉を緊張させた発声や裏声に特徴があり、エスキモーやシベリア原住民、南米のインディオとの共通性が感じられる。北アメリカの民族音楽の例.ジャンル名は明確なものはないがそれぞれの部族に儀式の歌祭りの歌戦いの歌や踊りが見られる。白人と黒人が長く反目を続けた北アメリカと違って人種間の混血が多かったのが南アメリカの特徴であり音楽もそのような歴史を反映している。どちらにせよ、踊りを伴う活発な音楽が特徴で、ラテンなどと呼ばれ世界的に人気がある。ルンバ、ハバネラ、マンボなど、この地域はリズムの宝庫である。南アメリカの民族音楽の例.カンシオン・ランチェーラ、メキシカン・ハット・ダンスなどニューギニア島、オーストラリア、ニュージーランド、及び太平洋の島々が広い地域で見られる。オセアニアの民族音楽の例.フラ（ハワイ）、ヒメネ・ターラバ、オテア（タヒチ）、ティティトレア（ニュージーランド・マオリ族）など音楽は一般的な意味においての音楽を排除する傾向にあることからという信念に反対する者もいる。 +村上 もとかは、日本の漫画家。東京都世田谷区出身、練馬区在住。男性。父親が映画会社の美術部に勤務していたこともあり幼い頃から絵に親しみ少年時代にはプラモデルの箱絵の戦車や飛行機を描く日々を送った。また近所の女の子の家にあった少女漫画雑誌でを読み満州への憧れを持つなど後の作風に繋がる影響を受ける。当初は小説の挿絵画家を目指すも1960年代の漫画の隆盛を機に漫画に興味が移り高校時代に手塚治虫が創刊した漫画雑誌の影響を受け本格的に漫画家を目指すようになった。神奈川県立大和高等学校卒業後は建築製図の職業訓練校に進むも中退し、近くに住んでいた漫画家の望月あきらのもとに押しかけ無理やりアシスタントにしてもらったが、半年後事情があってアシスタントチームが解散になり、そこから雑誌に漫画を投稿する日々を過ごした。その後は中島徳博の下でアシスタントを務める。1972年、投稿した作品が編集者の目に留まり、などスポーツを題材にした作品を発表、繊細な描写を含んだ力強い作風で注目を浴びた。1981年には、が大ヒットを記録した。テレビアニメ、ゲーム化に加えて、読者層である小学生の間で、剣道が部活動の人気になるほどの剣道ブームが起きたほか、迫力のある試合シーンや個性豊かな登場人物とその成長の過程を丹念に描き出したドラマ性は、子供ならず大人層からも注目を浴びた。12年間のを連載開始する。昭和初期の日本を舞台に財閥の一人息子として生まれた青年を軸に彼の周囲の様々な人々が織り成す群像劇を中心にサスペンスやSF的な要素を交え高い人気を確立した。15年にわたる長期連載となり小学館漫画賞青年一般部門受賞などの栄誉に輝いたこの作品は村上の代表作となっただけでなく漫画家としての活動にも大きな転機をもたらすこととなった。では、幕末にタイムスリップした医師の目を通して人間の尊厳を描くなど、熟練したドラマ性から高い評判を呼び、テレビドラマ化されると高視聴率を記録するなど、話題を集めている。青木 光恵の母。夫は小形克宏。1988年頃に写真誌にてデビュー。以降一般情報誌女性誌4コマ誌青年誌などに作品を発表する。1993年当時雑誌編集者として活動していた小形克宏と結婚。2000年代前半から慢性的な腱鞘炎などの持病などにより時折連載を休載するなど仕事をセーブしていたが近年は主に太田出版のなどに作品を発表していた。2009年竹書房の4コマ漫画雑誌『まんがくらぶオリジナル』3月号から10月号に永森裕二原作の『幼獣マメシバ』を連載していたほか一迅社『コミック百合姫』7月発売号にて『プリンセス♥プリンセス』のゲスト掲載を経て10月号より新連載化された。また芳文社『まんがタイムラブリー』にて10月号から12月号にかけて『青木くんの彼女』がゲスト掲載されていた。また『まんがくらぶオリジナル』にて『はなむら酒店』が2回のゲスト掲載を経て2010年5月発売分の7月号より新連載化された。短編のギャグ漫画や4コマ作品、エッセイを多く執筆。近年はストーリー性のある軽妙なコメディ作品も多く執筆している。デビュー当時から「可愛い女の子」を描くのが得意な漫画家として知られ、特に『女の子が好き♥』の主人公などに代表されるようなグラマーな女性を多く描く。太く柔らかい線で描かれたシンプルな絵柄が特徴。とのこと。そのため百合を苦手とする者からの抗議もあり対応に困っていると自身のHPの日記などで漏らしている。デビュー当時の短編集において既に現在の画風をほぼ完成させていた。代表作にで主人公が上京してからも常に大阪人としてのアイデンティティが強調される。西原理恵子と親しかったことがあり、西原の無頼派エッセイ漫画に登場したことがある。他に内田春菊や寺島令子とも交友があったことが複数の単行本への帯部分へのコメントやゲスト寄稿などがあることから見て取れる。また自身同人活動用ブログでは金澤尚子とも仲が良い旨が公表されている。 +赤塚 不二夫。満州国熱河省出身。小学六年生の時、手塚治虫ので1956年にデビュー。その後赤塚よりも3歳年下の石森章太郎を慕いトキワ荘に入居。以後作品発表の舞台を漫画雑誌に移し1962年にといった一連のヒット作や長期連載作品等により と謳われ戦後ギャグ漫画史の礎を築いた。1935年に赤塚藤七と妻リヨの6人兄弟の長男として生まれる。古北口は中国内地である河北省と満州熱河省との境界であった万里の長城において山海関と居庸関の中間地点に設けられた要害関門の町で古来より北京との国境地帯であった。父親である赤塚藤七活動を行う特務機関員をしていた。父・藤七は非常に厳格でなおかつ権威的であり、田河水泡の といった漫画を読むことを禁じられたり、箸の持ち方等で厳しくしつけられ、幼い頃の赤塚は恐怖感から父親が大の苦手であり畏怖を感じさせる存在だったという。しかし宣撫官という職務柄もあって普段から現地に住む中国人とも平等に接することに努め、補給された物資を現地の村人達に分けてあげたり、子供たちにも中国人を蔑視しないよう教えるなど正義感の強い人物でもあった。そのため彼には抗日ゲリラ側から当時の金額で2000円もの懸賞金がかけられていたにも関わらず現地の村人から密告されることもなく、また終戦直後の奉天で赤塚家の隣に住む日本人一家が報復として中国人に惨殺される中で普段から中国人と親密にしていた赤塚の家族は難を逃れている。母親であるリヨに藤七が結核に罹患した際にリヨはと自らの意思で刺青を除去したという。なお、リヨは子供の頃に目を傘で突かれたことが原因で右目を失明しており、少年時代の赤塚はタンスの引き出しから見つけた母の義眼であるガラス製の目玉をそうとは知らずに妹たちに見せて驚かせていたところ、母からこっぴどく怒られたと回想している。現地での掃討作戦及び華北分離工作の進展により古北口地域の治安情勢が安定したとして1937年が青龍県にて生まれている。1944年、父・藤七は特務警察官の職を辞し奉天で鉄西消防分署長となった。1945年8月15日小学4年生の赤塚は奉天で終戦を迎えた。しかし翌16日中国人の群衆が鉄西の工場内にある軍需物資を狙って大挙して押し寄せ暴徒化凄惨な殺戮に発展した。この時、馬小屋に潜んでいた一家は父の部下だった中国人の手助けもあり、全員中国服を着せられて消防車に乗り、鉄西から無事脱出して事なきを得た。後に赤塚はと語っている。しかし父親は侵攻してきた赤軍によってソビエト連邦へ連行され、軍事裁判にかけられて4年間シベリアに抑留されることになる。奉天に残された家族は赤塚が11歳だった1946年（昭和21年）に奉天を後にして海岸（渤海沿岸）の引揚船を目指して徒歩で引き揚げを始め、途中でソ連兵からの襲撃を受けてソ連軍憲兵（内務人民委員部政治将校）に助けられながらも葫芦島在留日本人大送還によって葫芦島から大発動艇に乗船し4日間かけて6月15日、（赤塚にとって初めて見る日本・内地である）佐世保港に到着、厚生省佐世保引揚援護局（現在の浦頭引揚記念平和公園）から国鉄大村線南風崎駅を経由し汽車で母の実家がある奈良県大和郡山市矢田口に移った。引き揚げまでに妹更には死んだ次女である綾子の名を授けられた生後6か月の末妹も母の実家に辿りついた直後に栄養失調のため夭折し日本に帰還する頃には兄弟は藤雄と弟と妹の三人と半数となってしまった。その時の母親には泣く気力もなく赤塚はという。父を除いた一家が奈良へと引き揚げてから母親は大日本紡績郡山工場の工員寄宿舎で寮母として働くようになり赤塚は地元の郡山町立郡山小学校に編入して小学5年生となった。一家が満州帰りとして差別を受け学校でもいじめの対象となる中2学期の頃から貸本屋で5円で漫画を借りて読むようになりこのとき手塚治虫のに出会ったことで漫画家になることを決意。見よう見まねで手塚風の漫画の執筆に没頭する。この漫画がきっかけで学校で番長を張っていた奥村という同級生と仲良くなり学校生活が一転柿畑から柿を盗んで売り警察の厄介になるなど数々の悪行に手を染めることになったが赤塚のみならずかつて父が現地の中国人に対して親切に接したように周囲から差別される立場の人間に対して優しい態度をとる一面もあったという。その後も赤塚は漫画を描き続け、小学6年生になった12歳の時には『ダイヤモンド島』という128ページのSF長編漫画を描き、母親と一緒に大阪の三春書房という出版社へ最初の持ち込みを行ったが失敗した。中学生となった13歳の時の1949年秋母親のわずかな稼ぎでは残った3人の子供を養っていくことが困難であったため兄弟は父の郷里である新潟の親類縁者にそれぞれ預けられることになり中学1年生になっていた赤塚は新潟県に住む父親の姉一家である大連帰りの母子家庭に預けられて母親からのわずかな仕送りで暮らした。赤塚が14歳になったその年の暮れに父親が舞鶴港に帰国するが過酷なシベリアでの抑留生活や日本の敗戦などで権威を失い、栄養失調による水疱でかつての面影もなくし、動作がのろくなって食欲が異常に強くなり台所を度々荒らしてしまうなど以前とは全く違うような人物になっていたという。母親を除いた父親と3人兄弟の4人一家は父の出身地であり赤塚の本籍地であった新潟県西蒲原郡四ツ合村井随へ転入し、父親は農業協同組合職員の職を得て彼の実家近くにあった 法讃寺に月100円で納屋を間借りをして生活を始めたが、やはり赤塚一家はという。1952年に赤塚は中学校を卒業したが家庭の金銭的な事情から高校進学を断念し映画の看板を制作する新潟市内の看板屋小熊塗装店に就職した。ドラム缶を塗る仕事の他映画看板の制作に携わっていた由縁から花月劇場という映画館の管理人と仲良くなったおかげで映画を無料で鑑賞できる事となりこのときバスターキートンや駅馬車チャーリーチャップリンの喜劇に感銘を受けたという。またこの看板屋の経験は赤塚に大きな影響を与えておりと語っている。この時期にへの投稿も始めた。手塚治虫が投稿作品を審査するコーナーがありこの頃から自分の絵柄を模索し始めるようになる。初採用は新潟の看板屋時代をテーマにした作品であり1954年5月号に掲載された。18歳だった1954年の目に留まり、石森が主宰するの同人に参加。この同人の東京支部に長谷邦夫やよこたとくおがいた。また既にプロの漫画家だったつげ義春が同じく赤塚の漫画に興味を持ち、しばしば遊びに来るようになった。まで曙出版とは40年以上に渡る付き合いとなる。この長期間に渡る契約は曙出版の社長が同郷の新潟であったことが大きく関係しており赤塚はと語っている。同年、上京した石森を手伝う形でトキワ荘に移り、第二次新漫画党の結成に参加する。のちに赤塚の母も上京し、しばらくの間同居した。赤塚の母は向かいの部屋に住んでいた水野英子を非常に気に入り、事あるごとに結婚を勧めたという。当時、赤塚はトキワ荘一の美青年として認識されていた。後年のイメージとは異なる、シャイで穏やかな赤塚青年の姿は、トキワ荘を描いた様々な作品で一致している。当時の赤塚は少女漫画の単行本を3、4ヶ月に一冊描く貸本漫画家であり、原稿料の前借をして漫画を描く自転車操業状態にあった。将来を悲観して漫画家廃業を考え、新宿のキャバレーの住み込み店員になろうと思った時期もあったが、安孫子素雄にと現金5万円を渡される。またこの時期、石森のおごりで映画を浴びるほど観て、その経験が後の作品に活かされることになった。1958年作家不足に陥った増刊号で1作家1作品の原則を守りながら既存の作家で補うために編集者が石森との合作を企画。合作ペンネーム 名義で作品を発表した。合作の楽しさから、続いて石森と水野英子との合作ペンネーム でを合作し発表。同年、ちばてつやの代原にトキワ荘の石森は赤塚を推薦し、秋田書店の名物編集者として知られる壁村耐三は赤塚に読切漫画を依頼。、当時21歳だったアシスタントの稲生登茂子との結婚のためにトキワ荘を退去。その間に横山光輝の出張アシスタントをつとめたこともある。1962年系でテレビアニメ化され赤塚が監修として関わっている他主題歌2本の作詞も手掛けている。1967年にと代表作が相次いでテレビアニメ化された。1970年（昭和45年）3月、母親が不慮のガス爆発事故で入院。一命は取り留め一時退院するものの、ショックからクモ膜下出血を発症して再入院となる。その後容態が急変するも赤塚の懸命の呼びかけで再び息を吹き返すが、脳死状態となり8月20日に59歳で死去した。この年に妻と別居状態となり、12月にはスタジオ・ゼロが事実上の解散となった。1970年11月22日-23日にかけて10年余振りに新潟へ帰郷。サイン会では約300枚の色紙1枚1枚に丁寧にイラストを描き、クラス会にも参加した。と語り、以後、晩年に至るまで、新潟には幾度となく訪れ、同級生との交流、ファンサービスを行っている。1971年（昭和46年）9月25日『天才バカボン』が日本テレビ系列で放映開始。1972年にの連載がスタートし10年を超えるロングランとなる。また同年、フジオ・プロに財政的な余裕が生まれたためと題した雑誌を創刊。多忙を極める赤塚が編集作業に携わることが不可能だったため、実質的な編集長は長谷が務め、赤塚の荒唐無稽なイメージを伝える事に腐心した。しかし1号につき250万円程の赤字を出し、1973年に6号で休刊。1973年11月5日に3年の別居生活を経て妻登茂子と正式離婚。1974年掲載のを含む連載中の作品新連載作品読み切り作品等の全てのタイトルを名義で執筆するも広告サイドから苦情があり3か月で元に戻した。一方でこの年の税務署の調査で税金の支払いが長期に渡り滞納していることが発覚。延滞金だけで6,000万円ともされた。原因はフジオプロの経理担当者の横領によるもので被害額は二億円とも言われ、実印まで預け信頼していた人物による裏切りであった。失踪したこの人物は後日逮捕されるが、赤塚はこの人物の将来を考え告訴することはなかった。しかし、横領された二億円の中には古谷三敏や芳谷圭児といったフジオプロ所属の漫画家らのプール金もあり、このトラブルにより古谷、芳谷はフジオプロを退社。それぞれのスタッフを引き連れ、自身らの制作プロダクション・ファミリー企画を設立した。なお、この年にはこれまでのギャグ漫画家としての功績が讃えられ、が設立された。ステージへの傾倒と長いスランプ.1975年10月6日が日本テレビ系列で放映開始。この時期には漫画家としては最も多忙を極め週刊誌5本月刊誌7本の同時連載をこなす一方で長谷邦夫の紹介によりタモリと出会う。タモリを中枢とする芸能関係者との交流を深める中1977年（昭和52年）を境にステージパフォーマンスに強い関心を示し傾倒していく。後述の面白グループでの活動を筆頭に数多くのイベントを企画出演するようになったがその10年後には「漫画に費やしていたエネルギーをステージで発散してしまった」といった趣旨の発言があり長いスランプに陥っている事を公言。1978年、長らく主力作家として執筆していた12月号でも、が終了し、以降、執筆活動は縮小傾向をむかえる。1979年、3月31日、にっかつ配給による赤塚原案、面白グループ脚本によるロマンポルノが公開。どちらも監督は山本晋也が務め、一部ファンからカルト的な人気を博する。そうした陰で5月17日にフジオプロで赤塚のマネージャーとなっていた父親の赤塚藤七がすい臓ガンの転移により71歳で死去している。1982年（昭和57年）『ギャグゲリラ』の連載が終了。この頃より酒量が激増する。1985年での連載が開始。いずれも大ヒットとまではいかなかったもののこれらが赤塚の漫画家“復帰作”となった。1987年アルコール依存症に陥った赤塚のサポートを行っていた写真家の国玉照雄の元アシスタントでスタイリストの鈴木眞知子と結婚。結婚にあたっては先妻登茂子が後押しし保証人になっている。結婚記者会見には登茂子とりえ子も同席した。この年テレビ東京のが21年ぶりにリメイクされ高視聴率をマークする。その後も頃より更に酒量が増え始める。以後も治療のため入退院を繰り返すものの回復の兆しはなく、1992年には長年赤塚のアイデアブレーンとして支えてきた長谷がフジオプロを退社。1993年、NHKのドラマ新銀河枠で連続ドラマ化される。1997年（平成9年）第26回日本漫画家協会賞文部大臣賞を受賞。1998年（平成10年）紫綬褒章を受章。1997年6月1日より、静岡県伊東市の池田20世紀美術館で、とタイトルを変え、上野の森美術館や新潟市美術館、横浜ランドマークプラザ、箱根彫刻の森美術館、京都美術館えき、増田町まんが美術館など、全国を巡業し、いずれも大入りを記録。特に、上野の森美術館では、期間中65,000人を集客し、ピカソ展やゴッホ展の記録を塗り替え、同美術館の動員新記録を樹立した。また赤塚の故郷である新潟市美術館では「郷土作家シリーズ」と題し新潟の各施設に寄贈した直筆画のほか四ツ合中学校（現潟東中学校）の同級生小林利明氏が保管していた処女作『ダイヤモンド島』の原画20枚が初公開された。初日には赤塚本人も出席しサイン会やトークイベントに参加。「若い頃漫画家を目指していたこの新潟で漫画家となって作品を見てもらえることがものすごく嬉しい。」「新潟時代は漫画家になりたくて一生懸命勉強していたところ。本屋で漫画雑誌を探したりパーマ屋や映画館の看板を描いたり思い出深い。きょうは感無量です」「新潟で個展を開けることはとても嬉しい。なんとも幸せです」と喜んだ。当時赤塚の側にいたスポーツニッポン記者の山口孝によれば「赤塚は珍しくスーツ姿で登場した。何度となく会っているがスーツを着た赤塚を見たのは初めてだった。いつもなら襟の付いたシャツなら良いほうでほとんどTシャツで通すのだが……」赤塚本人は「ここは特別だからね」と語っていたという。同年12月12日吐血し緊急入院。精密検査の結果食道がんと診断され22日に告知を受ける。医師からのため入院を繰り返した。1998年四作目に当たるがそれぞれフジテレビ系テレビ東京系で放映開始されるが1980年代後期 - 1990年代初頭の赤塚アニメのリバイバルラッシュの時とは異なり放送期間に合わせる形で赤塚の手によるリメイク漫画が描かれることはなかった。1999年に収録された。2000年を辞退している。2001年2月8日、快気祝いを兼ねた新年会に発展。相変わらず水割りを手離さずに新作の構想を語る様子が報道された。2003年3月27日を持って閉館された。2006年7月12日、赤塚を看病してきた妻の眞知子がクモ膜下出血のため56歳で急死。2年後の2008年。また赤塚の死去の3日前の7月30日前妻でりえ子の母である登茂子が死去していた事が後に報じられた。赤塚不二夫の訃報はスポーツ新聞各紙が一面で大きく取り上げた他、一般紙も一面で大きく掲載した。また民放各局ばかりでなくNHKでもトップニュースで取り上げるなど、その一連の報道は赤塚その人が昭和・平成を通して日本の漫画史に一時代を築いた大漫画家であったことを改めて世間大衆に印象付けることとなった。また赤塚が才能を見出し、芸能界へデビューさせたタモリはの関係であることに変わりはなく、りえ子に対しても励ましやアドバイスがあったとのこと。赤塚の葬儀では藤子不二雄Ⓐ」。生前の最後の言葉は倒れた時に偶然女性の胸に手が触れて放った。最後の仕事は倒れる前日18年間欠かさず続けてきた東京アニメーター学院の入学式スピーチとなった。2009年ヒットアニメの原作提供という観点から東京国際アニメフェア2009で第5回功労賞を受賞。同年8月より東京銀座の松屋百貨店でを開催、これを皮切りに全国巡業で開催される。2011年が全国松竹系で、それぞれ劇場公開される。2013年新潟市にゆかりのある漫画家の作品などを展示するがオープン。赤塚作品や赤塚キャラを用いたアトラクションが常設展示される。2015年が全国東映系で劇場公開される。同年9月にはBSプレミアムにおいて過去の赤塚不二夫特集番組の再放送が行われたほか新作ドキュメンタリー番組の『赤塚不二夫 最後のこれでいいのだ』が制作放映されこれまで陽の目を見なかった未完成の遺作『ヤジキタ バカ道中』の一部分が初めて一般に公開された。ちなみに番組中によるとこの原稿は何故か自宅のキッチンに無造作に保管されていたという。また、大人になったも10月からテレビ東京系列にて放映開始し、以後全国で順次放映。イベント開催、記念切手、関連書籍の多数発売など単なる人気作品に留まらず、社会現象を引き起こすほどの人気を博す。赤塚人気としては、二次媒体との連動も含め、近年にない盛り上がりと発展を見せ、2017年に第3期が放映される。2016年が、ポレポレ東中野、下北沢トリウッド、新潟・市民映画館シネ・ウインドほか、全国にてロードショー公開される。2021年の存在が明らかになった。晩年はアルコール依存症に苦しめられるが酒に溺れた原因は極度の恥ずかしがり屋であるため酒なくして人と向き合う事が出来なかった事と自己分析している。また自分よりお酒を飲む人としてたこ八郎壁村耐三滝田ゆうを挙げている。なおアシスタントだった古谷三敏によると若い頃は一滴も飲めなかったという。愛猫家。1979年に菊千代は他界、赤塚自身のみならず周辺のファンをも悲しませた。自宅のライブラリーには大画面モニターと、数千本の映画のビデオがあったという。また、少年時代の夢は喜劇王チャーリー・チャップリンの弟子になることだったという。バカボンのパパが一番気に入っているキャラクターで、その理由はとのこと。またバカボンのパパが赤塚の実父・赤塚藤七をモデルにしていることもあり、晩年は赤塚本人がパパのコスプレをする事が多かった。同じくの母親・松野松代のモデルは赤塚の実母・リヨとされ、自身の少年時代を回顧する作品での実母が松代の顔で描かれる。のトト子が似ていることについて1989年に発行されたコミック本のあとがきで指摘された際赤塚自身はという趣旨の発言を残していたらしいとも伝えられている。山下洋輔らジャズメンとの交流からジャズ好きかと思われがちだが赤塚はジャズを一切聴かず歌謡曲好き美空ひばり好きだった。水木しげるの娘赤塚不二夫の娘手塚治虫の娘による対談集内でイヤミがジャズを使ったギャグを言っているコマを見たジャズ評論家の相倉久人。1968年で放映されている。2010年、誕生日である9月14日、Googleのロゴマークに赤塚作品のキャラクターが描かれた。名和広著『赤塚不二夫大先生を読む 「本気ふざけ」的解釈 Book1』によると、一個人による漫画家の単行本の発行部数が初めて1000万部を突破したのは赤塚だと言われており、曙出版・講談社より刊行された『天才バカボン』の単行本だけで1000万部を売り上げたとされている。またデビュー以来付き合いがあった曙出版の社長は赤塚と同じく新潟県出身でのちに売れっ子になった赤塚は貸本時代にお世話になった恩から曙出版で単行本を出すことを了承。曙出版はその後『おそ松くん全集』の初版だけで文京区に7階建てのビルを建てるまでに成長し他に出た赤塚単行本も含めると1500万部以上を売り上げる大ヒットを記録する。しかし連載元の出版社がこれを問題視し今後赤塚の新刊を出す場合は著作権使用料を支払うよう曙出版に命じたため1977年の『天才バカボン』31巻を最後に新刊を出せなくなり以降は再版のみになる。その後曙出版の社長が死去した際赤塚は真っ先に葬儀に駆けつけ荼毘にふされた社長に泣きながら何度もお礼を言っていたという。しかしその帰り際赤塚は靴を履き間違えて帰っていき弔問客の笑いを誘った。これは湿っぽい雰囲気を変えようとした赤塚流の粋な計らいだったという。1967年、テレビ番組で当時は漫画家としては異例のテレビの司会を、黒柳徹子と共に担当。これを機に、赤塚の交流は各界に広がった。後に受章する紫綬褒章は荒木経惟に贈っている。1973年にはロックミュージシャンの内田裕也との交友から日本ロックンロール振興会会長なる役職に就きその流れで矢沢永吉率いる人気ロックバンドキャロルの私設応援団団長を赤塚自ら名乗り上げ務めた。1970年代半ばには山下洋輔等を介して素人芸人時代のタモリと出会う。タモリの芸を認めた赤塚は大分県日田市のボウリング場の支配人であったタモリを上京させ、自らは事務所に仮住まいしながらタモリを自宅に居候させ、のちの芸能界入りに大きな貢献をした。またタモリや高平哲郎、滝大作らとを結成した。高平からは由利徹を紹介され、赤塚は終生、由利徹を敬愛し、由利の弟子だったたこ八郎が赤塚家の居候となっている。1982年（昭和57年）写真家荒木経惟との交友から『写真時代』（白夜書房）9月号の巻頭グラビアで漫画家としては初となるハードコア男優を務めファックシーンを披露した（荒木撮り下ろしの写真集『別冊噂の真相 荒木経惟の真相』所載）。テレビアニメやドラマ、映画などの音響効果や選曲を手掛けていた音響技師の“赤塚不二夫”は赤塚のペンネーム、および本名とも同姓同名の別人だが、2人の間には親交があった。全日本満足問題研究会.1976年からを発表。伊東市のホテルハトヤのステージでライブコンサートをやったらどうなるかという設定で作られた。赤塚もという二曲の歌唱を務めた。タモリや高平、滝らと結成したグループ。上記のもの以外に赤塚がプロデュースしたイベントまた赤塚をフィーチャーしたイベントには次のようなものがある。共に強い立場にありながら弱い者を守り決して差別しない態度をとった父親と奈良での小学生時代の同級生の奥村の二人と接した少年時代の経験がきっかけとなって後の赤塚作品ではと評している。 +一条 ゆかりは、日本の漫画家。岡山県玉野市出身。玉野市立玉野商業高等学校卒業。少女漫画の技法に貢献した。代表作に等。1960年代終わりから70年代の半ばごろ、少女漫画の華麗な画風の進展をリードした作家。平面的・装飾的とも言えるイラスト的な線によるドラマチックな表現を進めた。当時の発表の場であるは当時の少女漫画の前衛的な場の一つともなっていた。その後も総じて安定した長期の作家活動をしている。コメディは長くシリーズ化されたヒット作となっている。幼少期は野菜全般が嫌いであり、今もネギや漬物の類は嫌っており、野菜のキムチは嫌悪している。りぼんマスコットコミックス.※ りぼんマスコットコミックスから発行されるの表記を用いる。2006年7月キリスト教系の新興宗教摂理が警察の捜査を受けた際同団体との関連が各種メディアで報道されるなど注目を集めた。騒動に対して一条はの執筆準備で取材に応じた聖職者に摂理の関係者がおり、同人物から摂理の集会をとして関係者各位に謝罪した。うすた 京介（うすた きょうすけ1974年5月25日 - ）は日本の漫画家。愛知県生まれ熊本県合志市育ち。熊本県立大津高等学校美術コース卒。妻は漫画家の榊健滋。1995年から1997年まで、でという噂があったが、後にうすた本人はこれを否定し、実際は意図して落としたのではなく最後までやったが落ちた、と述べている。1999年、『週刊少年ジャンプ』18号より同年40号まで「武士沢レシーブ」を連載する。2000年をで連載開始。2010年第38号まで10年の長期に渡って連載した。2015年を連載していたので夫婦そろっての連載となった。2016年にて自身の名前を冠した新人賞が創設される。2021年アイドルグループの漫画キャラクターデザイン担当として運営陣に参加する。台所にあったウスターソースから名前をとってということで現在のペンネームになったという。独特のセンスと描写で描くシュールギャグを得意とする。叶恭弘によると。かた焼きそばが大好物。喫煙者。学生時代は剣道部と美術部に入っていた。には節々で顔出しをしている。またジャンプリミックス版ではお笑いコンビさまぁ〜ずの三村マサカズと対談している。アニメ監督の大地丙太郎はのアニメ化の際原作の作者のセリフの適当さに親近感を抱いていたが実際に会ったら非常に真面目な性格で演出内容の細かい訂正を要求され困惑したと後述している。パチンコが嫌いである。2016年12月29日、第一子となる男児が誕生。2018年7月3日、第二子となる女児が誕生。2018年12月より北海道札幌市に在住。 +浦沢 直樹は日本の漫画家。東京都府中市出身。1983年デビュー。漫画賞の受賞が多く手塚治虫文化賞大賞を2度受賞している唯一の漫画家である。2021年4月時点でコミックスの国内累計発行部数は1億2800万部を突破している。府中市立府中第四中学校東京都立富士森高等学校明星大学人文学部経済学科卒業。1960 - 1970年代のロックのファンでを開催するなどしている。1960年、東京都府中市に次男として生まれる。幼稚園には通わず、昼間は祖父母と3人きりの幽閉状態であった。このころ、手塚治虫の『鉄腕アトム』と『ジャングル大帝』を買い与えられ、自分でも漫画を描くようになる。地元の小学校に入学、3年生から学級委員を務め、学級新聞に4コマ漫画を連載した。一時期いじめられかけたこともあったが、クラスのガキ大将に漫画を描いたことがきっかけでいじめはピタリと止まったという。このころ、初めて長編漫画を描き上げる。当時テレビでも放映していたフィルム・ノワールの影響を受けた暗い内容のもので、当時は4つ上の兄がもっぱらの読者であった。中学では当初陸上部に入るも、先輩の偉そうな態度が嫌になり、軽音楽部へ転入。吉田拓郎にのめり込み、拓郎が影響を受けたと公言するボブ・ディランの研究を始める。中学生時代の経験は後にを流した放送部には小室が部長として所属していた。高校、大学も軽音楽部に所属していた。一方で漫画の制作も続けており、高校では国語の教科書に載っていた芥川龍之介の『羅生門』を漫画化している。もっとも当時の梶原一騎ブームに乗れず、一時期漫画に興味を失いかけていたこともあった。しかし大学の時に登場した大友克洋をはじめとするニューウェーブの作品群に感化され、漫画に対する情熱を取り戻した。と思われるのが嫌で、大学では漫研には近寄らなかったが、漫研の人よりもたくさん漫画を描いていたという。なお大学の軽音部では1年上にTHE STREET SLIDERSのHARRYが所属しており、プロの演奏を目の当たりにして、自身のバンドをきっぱりと断念。下手にバンドで食べていこうと思わなかったのは、彼のパフォーマンスを見たからかもしれないと語っている。もともと漫画家になるつもりはなかったが就職活動時に小学館に編集者としての面接を受けた際ついでに持って行った原稿で初連載する。長崎尚志担当のもと、『ビッグコミックオリジナル』で外国を舞台にした『パイナップルARMY』『MASTERキートン』を連載する一方、『ビッグコミックスピリッツ』で『YAWARA!』『Happy!』と女子スポーツを題材にした作品を発表し人気を得る。1986年開始の『YAWARA!』以降は2誌掛け持ちで、毎月100枚を越える連載を10年以上続けた。スリラー作品『MONSTER』手塚治虫の『鉄腕アトム』をリメイクした『PLUTO』により2度の手塚治虫文化賞マンガ大賞を受賞。2004年には『20世紀少年』によりフランスアングレーム国際漫画祭で最優秀長編賞を受賞している。2008年より長崎尚志とともに名古屋造形大学の客員教授も務めている。2014年からはがNHK Eテレにおいてスタートした。2020年に開催される東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック競技大会の公式アートポスター、を手掛ける。浦沢の作品は登場人物の表情が印象的でその微妙さ浦沢漫画の特徴の一つとも言われている。浦沢は原稿にペン入れをする時に最も気を付けているのは人物の表情であると語っている。浦沢はわかりやすく単純な表情を嫌っており「絵文字のようにシンプルにニコッと笑っている人などいません」と述べている。元アシスタントも含む。 +車田 正美は日本の漫画家作詞家。男性。東京都中央区月島出身。血液型はA型。東京都中央区月島のとび職の家に生まれる。若い頃は下町の不良少年で喧嘩に明け暮れ本宮ひろ志の漫画『男一匹ガキ大将』に感銘を受けて漫画家を志す。漫画を本格的に描き始めた当初は画材を知らず青インクでペン入れをしたという。高校3年生の時初作品を『週刊少年ジャンプ』の「ヤングジャンプ賞」に投稿したが落選。週刊少年ジャンプ編集部に落選理由を尋ねに行ったのがきっかけで当時『侍ジャイアンツ』を連載していた井上コオのアシスタントとなる（一時的に本宮ひろ志のアシスタントも兼ねた）。20歳の時、を同誌で連載し、荒唐無稽ながらも独特の作風で黄金期ジャンプの看板漫画家の一人として活躍する。は、人気作品となりアニメ化された。現在は秋田書店の雑誌を中心に活動中。誌上で連載した。根性や友情兄弟愛仁義をキャラクターに語らせる熱血漫画を得意とする。本宮ひろ志に影響されたと語る大ゴマや大胆な見開きなどを多用しダイナミックな必殺技の応酬を描くのが特徴。その一方で作中に古人の名言を引用したり物理学の知識を応用した展開を見せる。『リングにかけろ』の中盤あたりから「リングを切り裂く窓をぶち破る建造物を破壊する」などの荒唐無稽なパワーを宿すボクサーまた神々の力を宿す奇跡のボクサーなどが登場し始め「SFボクシング」とでもいうべき新しいジャンルを開拓。同作のトーナメント式団体戦は後の『週刊少年ジャンプ』の格闘漫画の先駆けとなった。島本和彦は『アオイホノオ』において『リングにかけろ』の一場面を引用し「これは車田正美が長い年月をかけて作り上げた様式美。本人だけが許されるオリジナリティー」と評価している。描線は一見太く力強いがかぶらペンで引いた細い線を重ねて太く見せている。などのアルファベットの擬音や墨を飛び散らせたような黒い吹き出しなどは車田独特の様式として頻繁に使われる。連載中は激しい生存競争の中と語っている。それが故に物語が途中のまま最終ページにとコメントしている。太字の作品はメディアミックスされた作品他作家によるスピンオフ作品リスト.車田正美自身の手に拠らない、車田正美を原作者とするスピンオフ作品など。高橋 しんは、日本の漫画家。北海道士別市出身。北海道士別高等学校、山梨学院大学法学部法学科卒業。大学1年生の時に第63回箱根駅伝。在学中からチームのTシャツのデザインを担当し、その洒落たデザインは他大学は元より高校生にとっても羨望の的であったという。1990年でデビュー。その後、新人漫画家に5話程度の短期連載を競わせる企画が18号からの連載を始める。高橋にとっての、各エピソード毎に主人公が変わるという実験的作品は登場人物の後日談集を発表している。はそれまでの一般庶民の生活に密着した作風から一変したSF色の強い作品である。この作品は大ヒットしアニメ化もされ2006年2月には前田亜季主演の実写映画も公開された。2005年に完結した。2016年にかけてはで駅伝を主題にしたを連載。最終兵器彼女に関連した作品.これらの作品は2006年7月発売の外伝に収録された。SHIN Presents!高橋しんの個人事務所。及び高橋しん作品におけるアシスタントスタッフの総称。通称。を新連載するにあたって高橋しんの読切時代のアシスタントさかもとたけしと新人漫画家同士の仲間いけだたかしと共に結成し事務所を設立。後ちに両者は退所し独立する。 +高屋 奈月は、日本の漫画家。東京都出身。血液型はA型。1992年、で活動。代表作は、2001年にで第25回講談社漫画賞少女部門を受賞。1991年にでプロデビューし以降白泉社を中心に活動する。1998年から2006年までににより頭蓋骨に穴をあけた手術を行ったことをツイートしており、その部分だけ未だにハゲがあるとのこと。のキャラクター原案を手がけている。2013年11月病気療養のための長期休載を発表。12月にはブログを更新し以前患った職業性ジストニアの再発ではないことを明かした。2015年9月花とゆめONLINEでを連載を開始。2021年11月東京都の西武池袋本店別館2階の西武ギャラリーにて画業30周年に向けた展示イベントが開催予定。を軸とした高屋の作品が展示される。竹本 泉は日本の漫画家。埼玉県出身。男性。血液型はB型。日本大学経済学部卒業。配偶者はマンガ家の矢野礼子。少女漫画は妹の影響で読み始めた。和田慎二の影響を受けて少女漫画を描き始め、に2年間投稿。大学4年次の教育実習時に第21回なかよし・少女フレンド新人漫画賞佳作となった本誌での初連載作品は。短編または短編連作型のシチュエーションコメディを得意としておりほのぼのとしているがどこか変な話というのが基本的な作風でこれはデビュー当初から掲載誌のジャンルの変遷を経ても一貫している。その作風を端的に表現したものとしてという評もある。エドガーライスバローズをはじめとしたSFファンで作品中に著名SF作品を下敷きにしたネタが散見される。またいくつかのSF作品は宇宙人コピーされた地球など設定が同じである。各作品世界が同一のものであるかは不明。また無類の猫好きとして知られ猫をテーマとした漫画をしばしば描く。猫以外にも犬イルカ宇宙人恐竜などもよく作品に登場する。2003年まで飼っていた飼い猫のエピソードを漫画化した作品としてなどもある。飼い猫や作中に登場する猫にツヴァイどら菜ふゅあ菜ふゅん菜じーく菜などが頻出する。の専属契約を離れフリーランスの漫画家となって以降は、ゲーム誌やマニアックな雑誌での作品が増え、現在はほぼその方面で活動する作家である。しかし本人は少女誌の仕事がほとんどなくなった後も、少女漫画家を自称し続けている。趣味は海外SFを中心とした読書と、チェス、アニメ鑑賞、テレビゲーム。ポリシーとして原稿はいつも締め切り前に仕上げる。ただ、毎年11月は休載が慣例となっている。独特のポップな背景かわいらしい画風を持つ。この作風とペンネームゆえかつては女性と誤解されることが多かった。登場人物の台詞と名前作品タイトルも掛詞や言葉遊びを凝らした独特のものが多い。ヤシの木などの慣れている物であれば当たりをつけただけの下書きでペン入れしたりするなど作画のスピードは速くの作者である森薫と対談した際原稿を描くスピードについてと発言し森を驚愕させた。長年作画にはGペンを使用していたが2011年末に遂にモノクロ原稿のみデジタルを導入した。カラー原稿は少女誌で活動していた頃はカラーインクやエアスプレーを使用していたが後にコピックやアクリルガッシュに移行。2015年末ごろよりカラー原稿もデジタル化している。メディアミックス展開について.デビュー間もない頃からアニメに向いた絵柄という評価があり、フリーランスになってからの掲載誌についてはメディアミックスに注力している雑誌・出版社も少なくないため、作品のメディアミックス展開、とりわけテレビアニメ化については各方面で度々噂が上がった作家である。また、『アニメディア』などのアニメ雑誌が行うアニメ化希望作品についての読者アンケート調査でも、1980年代後半の一時期、『あおいちゃんパニック!』などが上位ランクインの常連作品の一つになっていた事がある。しかし、竹本の原作作品はもとより、竹本が関連する作品についても、テレビアニメ方面で作品展開されたケースは実質的に存在しない。わずかにメディアミックス絡みのものとして、1986年から1987年に掛けて倉金章介のでは竹本が同作のリメイク漫画作品を連載したことが挙げられるが、このテレビアニメは竹本版とはキャラクターデザイン もストーリーもまるで別物で、特徴的なことと言えば本来アニメ企画用に用意されたオリジナルキャラクターである隣国の若殿様“さくらもち太郎”が竹本版に登場していたという点くらいであった。1980年代には当時の講談社・東映動画の日曜朝の放映枠でで、同作に至ってはアニメ化を前提に立ち上げられた企画であったはずにもかかわらず、第2巻のあとがきで登場キャラクターにと言わせており、やはりアニメ化企画が頓挫していることを暗に示している。テレビゲームソフトについてはコンシューマ機用のものを中心に過去に数作発売されている。しかし企画段階で頓挫した作品制作中止になった作品も多い。また発売された作品もゲーム性の低いマルチメディア作品が大半である。上述の『あんみつ姫』ではセガマークIII用のテレビゲームソフトも制作されているがこちらのキャラクターもアニメ版に拠るものである。※巻数の記載の無い物は1巻完結。各単行本の出版社は刊行順。には品切重版未定を含む。※巻数の記載の無い物は1巻完結。ebookjapan などにて以下の作品が購入可能。 +寺沢 武一は日本の漫画家。北海道旭川市出身。1987年第39回小学館漫画賞少年部門受賞。を不定期連載中。血液型はA型。※ 各作品の詳細などについてはリンク先の各記事を参照。書誌情報の詳細などについてはリンク先の各記事を参照。鳥山 明。血液型はA型。妻は少女漫画家のみかみなち。1978年にと長期に渡り鳥山原作のアニメが放映されていた。漫画家としての活動の合間にデザイナーとしても活動しなどのゲームやマスコットのキャラクターデザインプラモデルや車などのデザインを多数手掛けている。漫画家デビュー以来地元で活動を行っておりDr.スランプ単行本の描きおろしページによると当時は名古屋飛行場から航空便で東京に原稿を送っていた。1980年から1990年代のジャンプの全盛期を支えた立役者であり当時編集長を務めた西村繁男はと評価している。『Dr.スランプ』と『ドラゴンボール』は2021年の現在でも、コマーシャルに起用されたり、グッズが作られるなど根強い人気を博している。初代担当編集者の鳥嶋和彦は、「家は貧しかったが両親共にのんびり屋の性格で、食べ物を買うお金がない代わりに、両親は二人でワルツを踊るような人だった」と述べている。鳥山自身は絵を描くことが好きで、腹を空かせながら漫画を描くのを唯一の楽しみにしていた。欲しい物があるとそれを手に入れるまで、あるいは興味がなくなるまで絵に描き続ける癖があり、その癖は漫画家になって以降も続いている。「当時通っていた絵画教室で描いた『101匹わんちゃん大行進』が表彰されたことで自信を持った」と言い、小学校の写生コンクールで数回入賞し、高校時代には美化キャンペーンのポスターで全国高校生の部で入賞している。妹がいる。よく悪戯をしていて、父親に怒られていた。尊敬していた漫画家は手塚治虫とウォルト・ディズニーで、にディフォルメの影響を受けて毎日模写をしていた。幼少時は漫画やアニメに熱中したが、小学校高学年以降は映画やテレビドラマに興味の対象が移り、漫画に触れる機会が無くなっていた。しかし、絵を描くことは変わらず好きで自信もあったため、愛知県立起工業高等学校（現在の愛知県立一宮起工科高等学校）のデザイン科に進学した。と言う。1974年に同校を卒業した。高校を卒業した1974年絵を描く仕事に就きたいと思い地元の広告関係のデザイン会社にデザイナーとして就職したが平然と遅刻を繰り返したりレタリング作業が主な仕事になり嫌気が差して約2年半ほど経った1977年1月に退職した。本人はと述べている。退職後1年間はアルバイトでイラストを手掛けていたがその後は遊ぶ金もなく途方に暮れていたある日喫茶店で偶然手に取ったを投稿する。投稿したのはギャグ漫画だがその理由はストーリー漫画と賞金が一緒なのにページ数は半分だったため。投稿した作品は入賞には及ばないもののすぐにまた描き上げた鳥山の投稿作品のパロディなどを描いており一部の作品は後にファンクラブの会報に掲載された。なおこの作品自体はパロディは賞の対象にならない規定により選外になった。鳥山は厳しくネームのボツを出す鳥嶋のもとで懸命に修行することになる。この間のボツ原稿の総量は、1年で500ページにも及んだ。デビュー前はだと言う。Dr.スランプの連載.1978年での掲載が決まった。1980年にとしてTVアニメ化され、最高視聴率36.9%を記録、歴代アニメ最高視聴率で3位になるなど大ヒットアニメとなった。鳥山の地元である東海3県の東海テレビでは関東以上に視聴率が高く視聴率40%超を記録している。ジャンプコミックス第5巻はの120万部を上回り第6巻は初版220万部を記録した。連載1年目は睡眠は3日に1回最高記録となる6日連続徹夜ペン入れの記憶がない回があるなどと多忙を極めた。ドラゴンボールの連載.アイディアの不足を理由にの連載を開始する。当初は西遊記にコメディや格闘漫画の要素を加えた孫悟空という少年の冒険譚でありアンケートで反響も無く人気は低迷していたがストーリーの調整を経て格闘大会天下一武道会で人気が出たのをきっかけに次々に登場する強敵難敵との戦闘をメインに据えたシリアスな物語となることで人気を獲得し1986年から1997年まで放送されたTVアニメシリーズは平均視聴率20%を維持した。から担当している。堀井雄二の描いたラフ絵を基にデザインしているものもあるがスライムに代表されるように自分のアレンジを加えておりキャラクターデザインに至ってはほとんど別物になっている。堀井のラフ絵では目も口もないドロっとしたスライムであり鳥山によりという理由で液体で雨粒様のデザインになった。なお専属契約上の問題で公式攻略本にはイラストが載せられず鳥山の絵が掲載されているのは集英社から出ているファミコン神拳奥義大全書やVジャンプブックスゲームシリーズに限られている。このため公式攻略本では鳥山明風の作画ができる村上ゆみ子などに委託している。鳥山は当時「コンピュータRPGをやったことがなかったため初めは苦労したがの漫画を描くのは絶対に嫌だという。鳥嶋の紹介により「あっ、いいですよ」という軽い気持ちで引き受けたが、30年以上続くシリーズになるとは想定しておらず、「そんなに続くなら断っていた」と心境を語っている。キャラクターデザインは楽しくもキツい仕事であるといい、最初はなんでもない雑魚キャラクターを自由にデザインをしていたが、回を重ねていく内に個人的にあまり興味のない健全なメインキャラクターのデザインが多くなり、ある程度の時代設定や細かく指定されるデザイン設定のため自由に書かせてもらえなくなり、今は騙し騙しで描いているという。ただし引き受けた仕事は目一杯やる主義であり、今後も一生懸命デザインすると語っている。のキャラクターデザインを初めて堀井雄二と中村光一に見せた際、全てがフルカラーのドット絵で手書きされており、2人とも困惑したという。は日本国外でも翻訳出版された。また、2003年には絵本『てんしのトッチオ』を発表。2009年にはNPO「田園社会プロジェクト」が発行する環境教育教材『最終戦略 バイオスフィア』に読み切り漫画『おいしい島のウーさま』を発表。集英社との専属契約上描けないことになっているのを特別に許可してもらったものである。2007年3月には、を執筆した。2013年7月から10月まで、において、ストーリー&キャラクター原案を担当する。2017年11月、租税回避に関する流出文書、パラダイス文書に鳥山の名が記載されており、投資組合に出資していたことがわかった。ただし本人によれば資産運用は完全に税理士任せで、報道を見て知ったという。この組合は12人の投資で組成されていたが赤字に陥り、本業の所得からの控除が認められず修正申告を行ったことで知られていたが、パラダイス文書の解析の結果、そのひとりが鳥山であったことが判明したにすぎない。この煽りを受ける形で11月8日に自宅前での突撃取材に遭い、元々露出を好まない本人の意思とは無関係に顔出しをすることになった。インクはパイロット製図用インクか証券用インク。ペンはゼブラGペン、たまにコピックペン、ピグマ。着色は昔はルマのカラーインク、現在はほとんどパソコンで、使用ソフトはAdobe Photoshop、たまにCorel Painterを使用。またと語っている。にエキストラで参加。本編中では大写しにならなかったが市販もされた一部ポスターにおける群衆の中に写っている。元々マスコミなどへの露出を好まなかったがの連載後期には顕著となり、小さな町に在住しているため顔がばれるのが嫌だからという理由で本人の写真が公表、掲載されることはなくなっている。スーパーマーケットなどを見て歩くのが好きだというが、新しくオープンしたスーパーマーケットに行った際に売場の女性たちからサイン攻めに遭い、なかなか出ることができなかったことがあり、それ以降はそれまで応じていたインタビューを断るようになり、顔のあからさまな露出も避けるようになった。自画像は連載時は普通の人間の顔だったが、のちに擬人化した鳥やマスク姿など変遷を繰り返し、最終的にガスマスクを着用をしたデフォルメキャラクターとなった。照れくさいという理由による。1978年から1990年代半ばまでの大半の作品は短編作品集シリーズに収録されている。アシスタントは歴代2人。連載初期はアシスタントを雇うこと自体知らなかったため1人で全部描いていた。アシスタントを呼ぶのは1週間に1日だった。 +永野 のりこは日本の女性漫画家。東京都多摩地区出身。通称の表記も使用していた。東京都多摩地区出身で、作品にときどき多摩地区の方言が現れる。法政大学文学部哲学科卒。同期にほりのぶゆきがいる。ほりは漫画研究会所属だったが永野は所属しておらず、当時面識は無かった。出産早々夫が失業し自分が漫画で家計を支えようと持ち込みを始める。子供を背負って持ち込みをし気の毒がられたというエピソードがある。彼女を最初に担当した編集者は徳間書店の大塚英志だった。1985年に。1992年末からで大きな人気を博した。同作品のドラマCDでは作者の歌唱によるオリジナルソングを聞くことができる。近年は作中でカトリックについての言及が見られる。一人娘はオタク系バンド。見やすい絵柄と破天荒なストーリー展開」と称されることが多い。いわゆるメガネ男子好きであるため、ほぼすべての作品に眼鏡をかけた少年が主要人物として登場する。また、おかっぱというパターンのものが多い。脇役キャラも、黒髪ロングの少女、茶髪の少女、ショートカットの少女、ウェーブのかかったロングヘアの少女、細身の少年、マッチョで角刈りの少年、お下げ髪でメガネの少女など、ある程度見た目と性格のパターンが固定化されている。漫画を描くことについては母から大反対された。そのため母との折り合いが悪くなり永野が漫画家としてヒットを飛ばしてからも決してその活躍を認めなかったという。そのため娘の希は「メガネくんはつらい現状から逃避しようとする母おかっぱ女性はそんな自分を許し癒そうとするもうひとりの母」であると語っている。当初はタッチの荒い少年漫画調の絵柄であったが1990年代前半からベタ塗りを多用したレディースコミック調に変化し現在はスクリーントーンを多用したアニメ調の絵柄となっている。SF・特撮ファンでもあり、作中どさくさにまぎれて、ウルトラ怪獣等が多く登場する。同嗜好の唐沢なをきによるとなっており、円谷プロダクションの協力により、文字通り多数のウルトラ怪獣が登場する。音楽ではニューウェイヴやテクノポップが好きであり作品中でもネタとして登場する。好みの男性はディーヴォのマークマザーズボーである（メガネが特徴の人物である）。非常にシャイな性格であり一度発表し雑誌等に掲載した作品をといってお蔵入りにすることもあるため連載作品でも単行本未収録が数話ある。2010年2月11日の発売に合わせサイン会Little Nonバレンタインスペシャルライヴイベントが六本木ヒルズにて開催された。父が福島県双葉町の帰還困難区域であることからやなせたかし等の協力を得て早くから東日本大震災に伴う原発事故被害地域への慈善活動に取り組んでおりその一つおきあがりこぼしプロジェクトでは一本木蛮とともにウクライナへも渡航した。 +聖 悠紀。シリーズなど多数。新潟県新発田市出身で、小学生時代は三条市や新潟市など新潟県内を転々としていた。中学3年生で愛知県名古屋市に引っ越し、高校進学後に石森章太郎のの名で呼ばれていた。1969年にでデビュー。少女漫画家として活動するようになり1973年には上京。そのような状況の中などが知られている。1977年に『超人ロック』の特集が「月刊OUT」で組まれ、同誌の別冊「ランデヴー」で「新世界戦隊」が連載された。これは初の『超人ロック』の商業連載で、その後は少年漫画誌などを主な活動の場としている。漫画家となるきっかけになった作画グループではその後も活動を続け、多数の会員が集まって一つの漫画を制作する「合作」にも参加していた（後述）。2017年11月に慢性副鼻腔炎の手術を受けた。術後の経過診断のための診察時に倒れて心停止となった。蘇生に成功するが昏睡状態となり、その後12月に心臓の外科手術を受けた。術後2ヵ月入院し、2月初頭の退院直後に旨とリハビリ中であることを自身のTwitterアカウントにて発表した。単行本と画集の発売も遅れたが、画集は同月中に刊行された。また、当時連載中のは5ヵ月間休載となった。2020年6月10日、パーキンソン病で闘病中であることを公表した。子供向けテレビ番組を幼年誌へ掲載するために漫画化したもの。主に登場キャラクターの一人を作画している。初期には主人公やヒロイン担当も多い。詳細は各記事を参照。日渡 早紀は日本の漫画家。神奈川県出身。血液型はB型。代表作になど。実家は書店。1981年（昭和56年）「魔法使いは知っている」で白泉社の第6回アテナ大賞第2席を受賞。この作品が1982年（昭和57年）『花とゆめ』（白泉社）第4号に掲載されデビュー。なお、この作品は早紀シリーズ第1話として位置付けられている。※ 発表年は掲載誌の号数に準拠。単行本は花とゆめコミックス、文庫版は白泉社文庫、愛蔵版はジェッツコミックスより刊行。藤島 康介は、日本の漫画家、イラストレーター。東京都生まれ、千葉県出身。千葉県立成東高等学校卒業。妻はコスプレイヤー・タレントの御伽ねこむ。江川達也のアシスタントを経て、1986年8号掲載のでデビュー。1986年よりをはじめとするゲーム、アニメ作品のキャラクターデザインやイラストなどでも人気が高い。2008年11月が開始した。2009年5月12日、で第33回講談社漫画賞一般部門を受賞。子供の頃読んだ松本零士の漫画に影響を受け漫画家を志すようになった。1980年代前半の一時期に漫画情報誌を南田 洋名義で連載していた。南田名義では同人活動もしており所属サークル名は「ワルキューレ」。同時期に千葉県内で初めて開催された同人誌即売会『ライブマガジンフェスティバル（LMF）』の案内カタログにスタッフ漫画を描いていたこともある。オートバイマニアで、作品中でもバイクに関わる話が頻繁に描かれる。車もフェラーリ・360モデナ、ケーターハム、アルファロメオ・156、ロータス・エランS3（漫画家の田中むねよしより購入）を所有。自転車やプラモデルにも造詣が深い。2014年に前妻と離婚。2016年6月29日コスプレイヤータレントの御伽ねこむと結婚したと報じられた。なお2016年7月21日発売のPlayStation 4用ロールプレイングゲーム『クロバラノワルキューレ Black Rose Valkyrie』は藤島がキャラクターデザインを務めており御伽が一之宮ルナ役で声優として初出演している。2016年7月7日、自身の誕生日であるこの日にTwitterで結婚を報告した。同年7月27日、前日26日に御伽との間に第一子が誕生したことを双方のTwitter及び御伽の公式ブログを通じて報告した。 +山下 和美（やました かずみ、1959年8月15日 - ）は、日本の漫画家。北海道小樽市出身。女性。神奈川県立希望ヶ丘高等学校卒業。横浜国立大学教育学部中退。1980年、講談社漫画賞一般部門を受賞。2011年時点、を掲載している。2021年3月より画業40周年を記念して開催。2021年4月 で第25回手塚治虫文化賞マンガ大賞を受賞。和田 慎二は日本の漫画家。広島県呉市出身。代表作などがある。漫画原作者挿絵画家としての仕事も手がけた。1971年東海大学在学時にでデビュー。大学卒業後の1974年に作品『キャベツ畑でつまずいて』の中で、日本で最初に「ロリータ・コンプレックス」という言葉を使ったといわれている。集英社『別冊マーガレット』白泉社『花とゆめ』などの少女誌で主に執筆していたが『少女鮫』の終了後少年誌やミステリーホラー誌などを中心に執筆。その後白泉社と決裂して版権を引き上げメディアファクトリーから新作や過去の代表作を新装出版した。2011年7月5日虚血性心疾患のため自宅で死去。61歳没。秋田書店の月刊少女漫画誌が遺作となった。ジャンルは少女漫画に分類されるが作風としては壮大なファンタジーに加えて大胆なアクションを取り入れたものが多い。の新作のオファーが来ても断っていた。しかし主役が大ファンだったならということで映画化を許諾しテレビシリーズ終了後の2006年には4代目となる主人公麻宮サキを松浦亜弥が主演深作健太監督作品として映画化された。和田の作品には一度出演したキャラクターが後の作品で再登場する例がたびたびある。例として、代表作のにも同様の役柄で登場する。和田自身もデビュー初期の兄貴シリーズから漫画家の「岩田慎二（いわた しんじ）」通称「岩（がん）さん」や「ヒゲクマ」の名で劇中に登場することが多く実写でもヨーヨー売りの男性役で映画『スケバン刑事』（1987年）にカメオ出演している。和田は手塚治虫のスター・システムを積極的に継承している漫画家のひとりである。しかも人間の顔に関する二通りの考え方も、一人の役者が異なる役を演じていると考えることができる。海堂美緒はでは夫婦であり敵という関係になっている。また、ではドン・キホーテのお供として活躍を見せた。また、当時のの漫画家たちとコラボレーションしていた事もある。タンゴのうちでとくに名高く重要なのはアルゼンチン･タンゴすなわちブエノス･アイレスに起こりそこを本場として発達したタンゴである。タンゴが生まれた経緯は不明だが、18世紀の後半にと記された手稿譜が見つかっており、盛んにイベリア半島で踊られていた。その後、スペイン帝国による植民地政策の結果としてラプラタ川の河口地域の人々にこのダンスパターンが伝わり、1880年にはすでに出版譜が見つかっており、1900年以降にバンドネオン、フルートなどの混合されたアンサンブルを伴ったダンススポットが強烈に流行した。ポピュラー音楽およびダンスの一形態で、カンドンベ、ミロンガ、ハバネラなど複数の音楽が混ざり合って19世紀半ばにブエノスアイレス、モンテビデオ近辺のラ・プラタ川流域で生まれた。ともいわれる。しかし、実際には記録はほとんど残っていないため、正しいことはわかっていない。ただ、リズムに関してはキューバのハバネラ、ヨーロッパ伝来のワルツ、アメリカ伝来のフォックストロット、アフリカ起源で南米のいくつもの国に広がったカンドンベ、アルゼンチンのパンパで生まれたミロンガなどが、初期のタンゴに影響を与えた。日本では、本場アルゼンチンのタンゴをの類であった。すなわち、競技ダンス・社交ダンスで用いられる1ジャンルのタンゴのための舞踊音楽であった。よって、長らくタンゴと言えばマランド、アルフレッド・ハウゼといったイメージで、多くの場合理解されていた。しかし1960年代からはオスヴァルド・プグリエーセ、フランシスコ・カナロなどの大御所たちもこぞって来日を果たしており、一部の聴衆から熱狂的な支持を生んだ。ただ、楽器の習得や様式の完成に非常に時間がかかり、専門的な教育機関も存在しない日本で学習するのは非常に困難なジャンルという認識もあった。いったん上記の競技ダンスや社交ダンスが一般的には下火になっていた1980年代後半米国で成功した公演が日本にも移入しこれ以降アルゼンチンタンゴが普及するようになった。現在は鬼怒無月のように調性を廃したタンゴアヴァンギャルドエレクトロニクスをフル活用したタンゴエレクトロニコなどの新たな可能性が日々探られている。インターネットラジオもアルゼンチンではない国からアルゼンチンタンゴが24時間流れ続ける例が存在するなど新しい聴取者層を獲得している。近年は日本のみならず韓国や台湾などもタンゴの音楽家が続々と増えており技術的に本場とほぼ変わらないレヴェルのテイクも珍しくない。弦楽器の騒音的奏法ヴァイオリン群による集団グリッサンドバンドネオン本体への打撃コントラバスのコルレーニョバトゥットピアノとバンドネオンのトーンクラスターが典型例だがピアノの内部奏法はタンゴアヴァンギャルドを除いて行われることがない。バンドネオンが用いられることが特徴である。また非常に鋭いスタカートでリズムを刻むにも関わらず打楽器を欠く。オルケスタティピカに始まりキンテートを通過し現在はこの枠ではくくれない編成も多い。またバンドネオンなしのピアノと弦のみの演奏もある。ギターの伴奏と歌によるタンゴもカルロスガルデルらが録音を残し高く評価されている。アストルピアソラの作品のようにクラシック音楽の演奏家によりクラシック音楽のスタイルで演奏されるものもある。特に1950年代後半頃からアコースティックギターなども使われるようになってきた。少しでも伝統を外すとという苦情が寄せられることも多くウルグアイとアルゼンチンですら激しい対立があることで有名だが多種多様な実験が多くの聴衆に受け入れられてきたことも事実なのである。楽器編成は通常のポピュラー音楽での管弦楽編成に近い。ムード音楽的演奏からマランドのように歯切れの良いリズムを重視したアルゼンチンスタイルに近い演奏までさまざまである。一般的にはアコーディオンが用いられるためバンドネオンの鋭いスタッカートではなくオーケストラの分厚いくぐもったスタッカートが多い。ヨーロッパのタンゴは日本ではと言い、ヨーロッパで大雑把にひとくくりにしたがる人がいても、実際には国ごとにそれなりに傾向は異なり、ジャーマン・タンゴ、ロシアン・タンゴ、フィニッシュ・タンゴ、フレンチ・タンゴ、チロリアン・タンゴ、ダッチ・タンゴ、デニッシュ・タンゴなど各国ごとのタンゴに細分化することも可能である。北欧フィンランドのタンゴはどうかと言うと、フィンランドでは1910年代からタンゴ演奏が始まったため、日本より伝統が長い。アコーディオンが使われる。ことが必須になっており、朗らかさは無く、その点で南欧のタンゴとは異なっている。現在はアストル・ピアソラ国際演奏コンクールの優勝者も輩出するなど、演奏の質の高さには定評がある。毎年必ず行われるTangomarkkinatが有名。小編成が圧倒的に多い。アルゼンチンタンゴの中になかった楽器も積極的に取り入れられておりなおかつコンチネンタルタンゴのような妥協を行わない点が特徴。かつてはオルケスタティピカ東京坂本政一とオルケスタティピカポルテニヤのようなオルケスタティピカを組織するのが一般的であったが1970年代の低迷期に入ってからは小編成が有力となった。アルフレッドハウゼ楽団のようなコンチネンタルタンゴの人気も日本ではかなりある。1990年代は日本でもアストルピアソラが人気を博したこともありピアソラスタイルを表面的に模倣した楽団も見られた。1970年から毎年必ず行われる民音タンゴシリーズが有名で同シリーズは2019年時点で50回を重ねている。1979年のジャパニーズ・タンゴとはといったステレオタイプなものを指していた。2010年代は、このようなスタイルを日本人がとることは最早ない。日本は1940年代に戦争の影響で音楽活動が制限されたために、とする現地民と意見が食い違うタンゴ・ファンは今もなお1910-30年代生まれの日本人に多い。日本人にとってのタンゴの黄金期は1920年代末期を完璧に演じきったオルケスタ・ティピカ・ヴィクトルで知られる1927年前後、日本のタンゴ楽団の活動と活発なAM放送による啓蒙で知られる1954年前後、そしてインターネットによる新たなファン獲得に成功した2010年代を印象に残る日本にとっての黄金期と捉える人物が多い。タンゴでは作曲者の作ったメロディーは大切にされるものの演奏する楽団の編曲により新たな旋律や副旋律がつけられたり変奏 variacin がつけられたりすることが当然のようになっている。たとえばはヘラルドマトスロドリゲスの作曲したメロディーの他にロベルトフィルポが付け加えた中間部が好評を呼び著名度が高いタンゴとなった。タンゴについては、やはり演奏する楽団の編曲の良し悪しが、聴いている聴衆の満足度につながるものとされる。これはバッハのコラール編曲と事情が似ており、コラール原曲より付された対旋律のほうが有名、といった古事を継承している。なお、楽譜からはずれる即興演奏は、避けられる方向であったが、アストル・ピアソラのように即興演奏を好むタンゴ演奏家もいる。ピアソラは徹底的にを売ることで顰蹙を買ったが、タンゴ楽団の譜面には自分たちの芸風を示したメモは一切書かないのが本当は主流で、伝統的にはすべて演奏様式は口承である。アストル・ピアソラやそれ以降の楽団のモダンタンゴの解釈については、古くからのタンゴ愛好家で違和感を覚えるような声が多くあった。これは、ジャズやジプシー楽団から引き抜かれた人物が独自の癖を披露したからである。その一方で、そのモダンタンゴに感銘を覚えるタイプのタンゴ愛好家も増えてきている。21世紀に入ると、古典またはアルカイックタンゴ専門の楽団も出現している。タンゴの歌詞のスペイン語.タンゴの曲の多くにはスペイン語の歌詞がついているが"La ltima curda" の "curda" のようにブエノスアイレス地方の俗語である ルンファルド がよく用いられる。日本の西和辞典で引きづらいこともしばしばである。また、vos およびそれに相当するという南米の言い回しボセオ が出てくることもある。ボセオについては、日本の西和辞典では、具体的な活用形ですらも取り上げられているとはいえない状態である。英語の や、その他のサイトで調べるしかない。ひとつのタンゴに違った複数の歌詞がつけられる.のように、ひとつのタンゴの曲に、違った複数の歌詞が付けられることがある。作詞者に敬意が示されている.タンゴの歌詞について の ガビノコリアペニャロサ や の オメロ・マンシ のように、作者に敬意が表される場合も少なくない。歌詞が文学的なタンゴは歌がつけられた演奏になる傾向にある。地名・招聘した人物への敬意が示されていることもある。またラファンダリエンソやコロールタンゴのような先人の発明を継承したが多いのもタンゴの特徴でメンバー紹介には誰から後継を行ったのかが丁寧に書かれていることがある。歌詞なし演奏も当たり前.歌詞なしで演奏されることもごく普通である。のように歌詞なし演奏がほとんどの曲もある。また『レスポンソ』や『とろ火で』のように歌詞がつけられていない場合もある。スペイン語以外の歌詞がつけられているタンゴ.原曲にスペイン語の歌詞がつけられているタンゴに別の言語の歌詞がつけられる場合もある。としてアメリカで歌われヒットした。日本では菅原洋一が第31回NHK紅白歌合戦で『ラクンパルシータ』を日本語の歌詞で歌った。冴木杏奈が着物姿で『カミニート』を歌っている映像が YouTube でアップロードされている。淡谷のり子も日本語の歌詞で『ラクンパルシータ』や『ジーラジーラ』を歌っていた。原語がスペイン語でない歌がタンゴとして演奏される場合もある。たとえばシャンソンのがタンゴとして演奏される場合もある。ファンダリエンソ楽団はサービスと称してスペイン語で原曲を歌わせそのまま日本語の訳詞で歌わせるということも行わせた。ファンサービスとしてファンダリエンソ楽団はと主張して翻訳された歌詞を専属歌手に歌わせその録音が残っている。複数の作品のサビを数曲ほど接合させる例もある。これは先人への敬意が込められる。このような形態では歌手は歌わない。ラテン音楽の規則と近代和声法の規則のせめぎあいや禁則の頻発.ラテン音楽は原則的にスリーコードのみで進む鉄則があるため、これを破ろうとする者はと呼ばれていた。四声和声法ではというのが鉄則だが、古典タンゴの代表作のように、最初からメロディーがアルペジョで動くことも普通に行われる。さらに、アルフレド・デ・アンジェリス楽団はベースや中声部のバンドネオンがアルペジョで動くこともある珍しい集団である。モダンタンゴの時代に入ると近代和声の影響を徐々に受けて減ったがそれでもバンドネオンセクションは依然として平行進行が好まれる。またファンダリエンソ楽団のに至ってはメロディーとベースがサビで有名な連続8度を行うなど西洋楽器を使いつつ西洋音楽の規則では説明のつかないことが頻発する。楽曲を編曲しなおす楽団も数多く、オスバルド・プグリエーセ楽団やエドゥアルド・ロビーラはバンドネオンの左手や弦楽セクションを用いて対位法的な趣味を前面に打ち出しており、近代和声や対位法の規則を意識したようである。タンゴ黎明期から黄金期にかけての作品が和声法と対位法を守っていないわけだが、一体どこまでがミスでどこからが意図的なのかについては明らかにされていない。タンゴは器楽では楽に演奏できても声楽では歌唱が厳しいメロディーラインが多く歌手は独特の修練を必要とする。他の種類の音楽との関連.タンゴは、始めはフォルクローレから出発した。初期のタンゴでは、ギター・ヴァイオリン・フルートのアンサンブルで演奏されて、バンドネオンは定着せず、ミロンガ・カンドンベと同種のラプラタ諸国の民俗音楽であった。バンドネオンの導入により、タンゴは差別化がなされるようになった。ミロンガについては、タンゴとして演奏されることもある。カルロスガルデルはフォルクローレ歌手として活動を始めてその後タンゴを歌いだした。ガルデルの歌にギター伴奏のタンゴにタンゴ愛好家の人気があり今でも頻繁に聴くことができる。またタンゴ楽団によるヴァルスすなわちアルゼンチン当地のワルツの演奏もよく聴かれフランシスコカナロ楽団のが有名である。ブエノスアイレスのタンゴ生演奏の店タンゲリア tanguera では、フォルクローレの演奏も行っているところもある。東京の六本木にありタンゴバプとして有名だった店 「六本木カンデラリア」 (閉店) の店主の高野太郎は、フォルクローレ歌手である。タンゴもフォルクローレも、どちらもレパートリーとしている歌手も、目立つ。エドガルド・ドナートがクラシック系統の音楽学校であるフランツリスト音楽院の優等生だったように、アルゼンチンでも日本もふくめ他地域でもクラシック音楽を専門的に学んだ人がタンゴ界で活躍することは、めずらしくない。タンゴも最初期の『エルエントレリアーノ』から半音階をとりいれたりしている。またカデンツァなどクラシック音楽の用法がタンゴに応用されている。スペインのクラシック音楽の作曲家イサークアルベニスも有名な『タンゴ ニ長調』（「アルベニスのタンゴ」）を作曲している。『ビクトリアホテル』の作曲者のフェリシアーノラタサはクラシック音楽の作曲家と伝えられている。クラシック音楽に対抗意識をもちつつ対話していたタンゴの権威にアストル・ピアソラがいて、アルゼンチンに来たアルトゥール・ルービンシュタインに自作の曲を見てもらったり、ナディア・ブーランジェから作曲を学んでいたというエピソードがある。また、クラシック音楽家でも、演奏にタンゴをあえて選ぶ人も出てきている。チェロ奏者のヨーヨー・マが、ピアソラ作曲のを演奏曲目に選んでいる。エドガルド・ドナートは、ウルグアイのジャズのカルロス・ウォーレン楽団に所属していたこともある。フランシスコ・ロムートは、ジャズピアニストとしても活躍していたこともあった。アストル・ピアソラは少年期はタンゴよりもジャズを好んでいたといわれている。タンゴも時代が下りモダンタンゴに近づくとジャズの影響が見られる曲も増えてくる。ちなみにピアソラはジャズタンゴを提唱しているしジャズの演奏家としている表現もみかける。タンゴもジャズもピアノとコントラバスとギターという楽器を使用するということでは共通している。アティリオスタンポーネ楽団やネストルマルコーニ楽団はジャズのリズムやピアノソロを全面に押し出すなどタンゴアヴァンギャルドではジャズのイディオムも解禁されている。ただジャズの曲をタンゴとして演奏されたりすることはなかなかありえない。がジャズ楽団でも演奏されている。それ以外の例でモダンタンゴ以外のタンゴがジャズとして演奏されることはあまりない。1940年代を過ぎるとフランチーニ＝ポンティエル楽団やサルガン楽団トロイロ楽団は近代和声を拡張したジャズに影響された大胆な和声を積極的に織り込むようになった。この展開を嫌い古典和声にこだわり続けたダリエンソやデアンジェリスのような硬派のタンゴ楽団もいる。近代和声を用いた名曲の第一号がマリアーノモーレスのという見解を示す識者は多い。この作品はジャズのようなナインスコードが偶発的に出現するがこのような艶のある表現はレトロタンゴの時代では決してみられなかった。『小雨降る径』と『恋心』については、タンゴとして演奏される場合がある。（なお、逆にタンゴの曲がシャンソンとして歌われる例はあまり見当たらない。）日本ではタンゴ歌手として出発した菅原洋一がシャンソンを歌った。シャンソン歌手の高英男が第12回NHK紅白歌合戦で同じくシャンソン歌手の芦野宏が第13回NHK紅白歌合戦でを歌った。シャンソン生演奏の店シャンソニエで月何回かタンゴの生演奏を行うところもある。スペインの歌手のフリオ・イグレシアスや、メキシコのトリオ・ロス・パンチョスのように、タンゴ歌手でないスペイン語圏の歌い手も、タンゴのレコード録音がヒットすることもある。DJバラーシュの選んだタンゴ十大楽団.このように多くのタンゴ楽団に接した者ほどアストルピアソラを避ける傾向にある。ラウルオウテーダも同様である。アルゼンチン・タンゴ起源－黎明期.ロセンド・メンディサーバル 作曲アンヘルビジョルド 作曲ドミンゴ・サンタ・クルス Domingo Santa Cruz 作曲フェリシアーノ・ラタサ Feliciano Latassa 作曲エンリケ・サボリド 作曲ホセ・ルイス・パドゥラ Jos Luis Padula 作曲ビセンテ・グレコ 作曲アルゼンチンタンゴ起源－黄金期.1910年頃〜1940年頃アグスティンバルディ 作曲ロベルト・フィルポ 作曲ヘラルドマトスロドリゲス 作曲ペレグリーノパウロス Peregrino Paulos 作曲フランシスコ・ロムート 作曲エドガルド・ドナート 作曲ヘススベントゥーラ Jess Vntura 作曲エドゥアルド・アローラス作曲エンリケデルフィノ Enrique Delfino 作曲サムエル・カストリオータ Samuel Castriota 作曲フアンデディオスフィリベルト 作曲マヌエルホベス Manuel Jovs 作曲カルロスガルデル 作曲セパスティアンピアナ Sebastin Piana 作曲カトゥロカスティージョ 作曲フアンデアンブロージョ Juan Deambroggio 作曲エンリケ・サントス・ディセポロ 作曲ペドロラウレンス Pedro Laurenz 作曲フリオセサルサンデルス Julio Ccar Sanders 作曲フランシスコカナロ 作曲アレハンドロ・スカルピーノ Alejandro Scarpino & ファン・カルダレーラ Juan Caldarella 作曲ファン・カルロス・コビアン 作曲アルゼンチン・タンゴ起源－過渡期.1940年頃〜1960年頃フランシスコ・カナロ & マリアーノ・モーレス 作曲マリアーノ・モーレス 作曲オスヴァルド・プグリエーセ 作曲アニバル・トロイロ作曲ファンカナロ Juan Canaro 作曲アルゼンチンタンゴ起源－復興期.コンチネンタル・タンゴ起源.ヨゼフリクスナー 作曲ハンスオットーボルグマン 作曲ジョルジュビゼー Geroge Bizet 作曲ヘンリー・ヒンメル Henry Himmel 作曲ルロイアンダーソン 作曲 +スカ は1950年代にジャマイカで発祥したポピュラー音楽のジャンル。24拍目を強調したリズムが特徴。メントやカリプソアメリカのR&Bなどの影響を受けている。有名グループにはザスカタライツがいる。スカの発祥については諸説ある。感度の悪いラジオで、ニューオーリンズなどアメリカ南部の都市のラジオ放送局からのジャズの2・4拍目が強調されて聞こえたため、誤ってコピーされたという説もある。直接的には、1950年代からのアメリカのリズム・アンド・ブルースと、ジャマイカの音楽文化には欠かせないサウンド・システムの影響が大きいが、それ以前にジャマイカにはジャズの下地があり、スカ以前のメント、ラスタファリアニズムの影響があった。イギリスの統治下の時代にジャマイカにもたらされたブラスバンドの形式は、キングストンでいくつかのジャズの楽団となって残っていたが、1950年代までは、労働者階級にはメントが一般的で、ジャズは中産階級に好まれていた。西キングストンにある感化院、アルファ・ボーイズ・カトリック・スクールの教師が、厳しく品行を正す教育と共に、特にジャズの音楽教育のプログラムが取り入れたのはこうした理由による。トミー・マクック、ドン・ドラモンド、リコ・ロドリゲスらはこの学校でジャズを学び卒業し、デューク・エリントンやカウント・ベイシーの影響を受けたジャマイカのビッグバンドで演奏を始めていた。1950年代には、ジャズの手解きを受けたアルファボーイズ出身者らが、ラスタファリアンのカウント・オジーを訪ね、ワレイカ・ヒルでナイヤビンギに合わせて管楽器を演奏するセッションが度々行われていたという。スカに特徴的な2・4拍目が強い裏打ちはこのナイヤビンギの影響もあり、アメリカ音楽に対するラスタ的な返答とも受け取れる。一方は、メントやカリプソなどカリブ圏の音楽は小節が3-3-2拍のリズムで、このリズムに対するバックビートとして2・4拍目を強調した結果であるとも言われている。第二次世界大戦後から、ジャマイカではラジオの購入者数が増加し、ニューオーリンズなどアメリカ南部の都市のラジオ局から、ファッツ・ドミノやルイ・ジョーダンなどのR&Bを聴くことができた。その上、戦後のアメリカ軍の駐留は、ジャマイカ人が軍事放送でアメリカ音楽を聞くことができたことを意味し、さらにアメリカからのレコードの一定の流入があった。そのような音楽の需要に応えるために、コクソン・ドッド、デューク・リードらはサウンド・システムを形成した。サウンド・システムはスピーカーシステムのパワーと、レコードの品質の両方によって良し悪しが判断されたため、サウンドマン達はマイアミやニューオーリンズからレコードを独自に入手した。R&Bが1960年代前半に人気があった時に、ジャマイカの音楽家たちは、R&Bのカバーを録音した。1960年代初め、スカは急激にジャマイカの音楽シーンを席巻しはじめた。アップテンポの裏打ちは1962年のジャマイカ独立を祝う気持ちと一致していた。デリック・モーガンのなどは、もっと後に生まれるロックステディとの橋渡しをする曲である。その一方で、スカのもっとも初期のリスナーたちは、地方からキングストンに仕事を求めて来たゲットーに住む若年貧困層であった。ルードボーイ達が踊ったスタイルによってスカにも影響を及ぼし、音楽はより脅迫的に激しく、ベースラインはよりシンプルに変化した。1966年までには多くの聴衆はスカのビートと速度に疲れるようになりビートはより遅くされてロックステディへと移行する。遅くなった理由としてジャマイカの暑い夏のためとする見方もあるがアメリカのR&Bからの影響が継続していたという点も挙げられる。1960年代半ばのモータウンやスタックスのソウルミュージックがより伸びやかで滑らかなスタイルに変化したことにジャマイカのミュージシャンも同調した。1970年代末には、パンク・ロックとスカを融合したサウンドの2トーン・スカが隆盛となった。主なバンドとしてザ・スペシャルズ、マッドネス、ザ・セレクター、ザ・ビートなどがいた。なお、2トーン・スカと区別するため、1960年代ジャマイカ産のスカをオリジナル・スカと呼ぶこともある。1980年代には、アメリカでフィッシュボーンがスカとパンク等を融合したロックを展開した。その後USネオスカバンドトースターズのボーカリストであるバケットがオーセンティックスカ～パンク系のスカレーベルムーンスカレコードを設立。アメリカにおいて「サードウェーブスカ」と呼ばれるムーブメントを引き起こした。さらに1980年代終わり頃から歪んだギターサウンドが特徴のスカコア/スカパンクが派生した。1990年代前半までにはスカと、スカ・パンクのバンドはアメリカだけでなく、そのほかの国々にも登場した。1997年、ランシドのティム・アームストロングとバッド・レリジョンのブレット・ガーヴィッツが、エピタフレコードのサブレーベルとして、ヘルキャットレコードを創設。ヘプキャット、ザ・スラッカーズなど、スカ、スカ・パンクのバンドを同レーベルから送り出した。スカという音楽ジャンルで日本で最初にヒットした曲は、『走れ正直者』（歌唱:西城秀樹／作詞:さくらももこ／作曲・編曲:織田哲郎）とされている。作曲と編曲を手がけた織田哲郎によると、この曲を制作した当時はスカやレゲエなどは日本では流行らないと言われていたそうである。国内の他のバンドは関連項目参照。 +六道 神士は日本の漫画家同人作家。男性。福岡県太宰府市出身。九州産業大学卒業。代表作はなど。1990年代から同人サークル「げんこつ団（18禁）」「下僕堂（18禁）」に参加、「六道館」を主宰する。1994年、の連載が始まる。この作品は全9話が連載されるが、同誌の休刊に伴い終了。その後1996年に掲載の短編に端を発している。同人活動においては男性向け作品をはじめ自身が描いた作品に登場するキャラクターについての解説本などを発行している。フォスターフォースター は英語圏の姓 またドイツ語圏の姓 。エルヴィス・アーロン・プレスリー （, 1935年1月8日 - 1977年8月16日）は、アメリカのミュージシャン、映画俳優。全世界のレコード・カセット・CD等の総売り上げは6億枚以上とされている、「」の第1位。「キング・オブ・ロックンロール」と称される。ミドルネームは公文書、サイン共にAronだが、墓石にはAaronと表記されている。1950年代にチャックベリーやファッツドミノリトルリチャードカールパーキンスジェリーリールイスビルヘイリーら と共にロックアンドロールの誕生と普及に大きく貢献したいわゆる創始者の一人であり後進のアーティストに多大なる影響を与えた。その功績からキングオブロックンロールまたはキングと称されギネスワールドレコーズではとして認定されている。1950年代にアメリカやイギリスをはじめとする多くの若者をロックンロールによって熱狂させそれは20世紀後半のポピュラー音楽の中で最初の大きなムーブメントを引き起こした。また極貧の幼少時代から一気にスーパースターにまで上り詰めたことからアメリカンドリームの象徴であるとされる。ザビートルズボブディランエルトンジョンボブシーガーロバートプラントフレディマーキュリーなど後に音楽業界で成功したロックミュージシャン特にボーカリストたちが憧れたことでも知られる。初期のプレスリーのスタイルは、黒人の音楽であるブルースやリズムアンドブルースと白人の音楽であるカントリー・アンド・ウェスタンを融合した音楽であるといわれている。それは深刻な人種問題を抱えていた当時のアメリカでは画期的なことであった。その後全国的な人気を得たが、保守層には「ロックンロールが青少年の非行の原因だ」と中傷され、PTAはテレビ放送の禁止要求を行うなど、様々な批判、中傷の的になった。KWKラジオではプレスリーのレコード（「ハウンドドッグ」）を叩き割り、「ロックンロールとは絶縁だ」と放送。さらにフロリダの演奏では、下半身を動かすなとPTAやYMCAに言われ小指を動かして歌った。この時には警官がショーを撮影し、下半身を動かすと逮捕されることになっていた。しかしプレスリーの音楽によって多くの人々が初めてロックンロールに触れロックンロールは一気にメジャーなものとなった。またいままで音楽を聞かなかった若年層が音楽を積極的に聞くようになりほぼ同時期に普及した安価なテレビジョンやレコードプレーヤーとともに音楽消費を増加させる原動力になった。さらに音楽だけでなくファッションや髪型などの流行も若者たちの間に芽生え若者文化が台頭した。晩年はその活動をショーやコンサート中心に移した。1977年8月16日自宅であるグレイスランドにて42歳の若さで死去した。プレスリーの記録は多数あり例えば最も成功したソロアーティスト最多ヒットシングル記録等がギネスによって認定されている。において第1位。プレスリーは1935年1月8日、ミシシッピ州テュペロの小さな家で生まれた。父ヴァーノン・エルヴィス・プレスリー、母グラディス・ラブ・プレスリーの3人家族であった。父ヴァーノンが不渡小切手で服役するなど非常に貧しい幼少時代であったが、両親はエルヴィスを大事に育てた。熱心なキリスト教プロテスタントの信者 であり9歳の時に洗礼を受けた。11歳の誕生日にはライフルを欲しがったが当然母親に却下され代わりに与えられたのがギターであった。これを機に自宅の地下洗濯部屋で練習し音楽に傾倒していった。1948年、プレスリーが13歳の時にテネシー州メンフィスへと引っ越した。下宿生活を経て、1949年に一家はメンフィスにあるロウダーデール・コート公営住宅に転居した。メンフィスは非常に貧しい黒人の労働者階級が多かったため、そのような環境の中で黒人の音楽を聴いて育った。エリス公会堂のゴスペルのショーも欠かさずに観に行っていた。ある日、毎回欠かさず観に来ていたエルヴィスだったが、入場料を払えないとの理由で1度欠席した。これに気を留めたのがJ.D.サムナーで「じゃあ次回からは楽屋口から入るといいよ」と告げ、エルヴィスは無料でショーを観ることができた（1970年代のコンサートではJ.D.サムナー＆ザ・スタンプス・カルテットをコーラス隊として迎えている）。このことが後のプレスリーの音楽性に大きな影響を与えたとされる。プレスリーは高校卒業後、精密金型会社で働いた後にクラウン・エレクトリック社に転職しトラック運転手として働いていた。1953年の夏にプレスリーはメンフィスのサン・スタジオで最初の両面デモ・アセテート盤を録音するため4ドルを支払った。収録曲は当時のポピュラーなバラード と であった。サン・レコードの創業者サム・フィリップスとアシスタントのマリオン・ケイスカーはその録音を聞きエルヴィスの才能を感じ、1954年6月に行方不明の歌手の代理としてプレスリーを呼んだ。セッションは実り多いものであったかは分からなかったが、サムは地元のミュージシャン、スコッティ・ムーア、ビル・ブラックと共にプレスリーを売り出すこととした。プレスリーは最初と呼ばれた。1954年7月5日のリハーサル休憩中にプレスリーは をいじくり始め、サムはプレスリーが適所を得たかもしれないと考えて録音ボタンを押した。即興での演奏でドラムスが不在であったため、ベースをかき鳴らしての演奏となった。B面に が収録されたシングルは、WHBQラジオが放送した二日後に、メンフィスでのローカル・ヒットとなった。ラジオを聴いた人たちは黒人歌手だと勘違いしていた。また公演旅行はプレスリーの評判をテネシー中に広げることとなった。しかしと言い張り向こうが謝罪し多額のお金を積んだが絶対に行かなかった。このエピソードの様に、公民権法が施行される前の1950年代のアメリカでは、音楽も人種隔離的な扱いを受けている部分が多く残っていた。当時のロックンロールのヒットソングも黒人の曲をパット・ブーンらの白人がカバーし、そのカバー版が白人向けの商品として宣伝され、チャートに掲載され、またラジオなどで流れる傾向にあった。たとえ同じ歌を同じ編曲で歌ったとしても、黒人が歌えばリズム・アンド・ブルースに、白人が歌えばカントリー・アンド・ウェスタンに分類されることが常識だった。プレスリーは、このような状況にあって黒人のように歌うことができる白人歌手として発掘された。サンとの契約下でプレスリーは5枚のシングルをリリースした。とクレジットされた。10曲の中で最短の曲は1分55秒、最長のもので2分38秒である。1955年8月18日にプレスリーの両親はプロデューサーのトムパーカー（通称パーカー大佐）との契約書に署名しサンスタジオとの関係は終了した。プレスリーは1955年11月21日にRCAビクターと契約した。1956年1月28日に「CBS-TVトミードーシーステージショウ」にてTVに初出演し黒人のR&Bを歌う。そこでプレスリーは白人らしからぬパフォーマンスを披露したがこれに対してPTAや宗教団体から激しい非難を浴びせられた。しかしその激しい非難にもかかわらずそれを見た若者たちはプレスリーのファンになっていった。1956年1月27日に第6弾シングル がリリースされた。これは1956年4月にチャートの1位に達した。 はその後数多く登場したミュージシャンに多大な影響を与えた。レコーディング場所について1950年代はニューヨークにあるRCAスタジオを利用したことがあったがプレスリーのキャリアにおいて主演映画の挿入歌以外のレコーディング場所で最も利用されたのはテネシー州ナッシュヴィルにあるRCAスタジオBである。しかし1972年以降はハリウッドにあるRCAスタジオや地元メンフィスのスタジオを利用した。更に1976年になるとRCAスタッフがプレスリーの自宅（グレイスランドジャングルルーム）に録音機材を持ち込みレコーディングを行った。後年レコーディング自体に関心を示さなくなったのは、RCAのミキシングやアレンジがプレスリーの意向にそぐわなかったことや良質な楽曲がなくなったこと、コーラスがプレスリーの要求にこたえられなかったこと、体調面など様々な理由があった。プレスリーは一発撮りと呼ばれる1テイク完成型のスタジオライブ形式のレコーディングスタイルにこだわった（いくつかのテイクをつなぎ合わせて一つの曲として発表する形式やパートごとの別録りといった選択肢もあったがプレスリーはそれを嫌い現在まで発表された曲数が700以上ある中でそのような形式で発表した曲は少ない）。そのためプレスリーの死去後現在まで様々な未発表テイクが発掘されておりその中には発表されたテイクと違った趣向のものもある。後年レコーディングに関心がなくなった頃は体調不良を訴え「歌のレコーディングは後で必ずするからミュージックだけ録音しておいてくれ」と言うこともあったがほとんどの場合それは実現しなかった。1956年12月4日、プレスリーはカール・パーキンス、ジェリー・リー・ルイスがレコーディングしているサン・レコードに立ち寄り、彼らとジャム・セッションを行なった。フィリップスにはもうプレスリーの演奏をリリースする権利はなかったが、このセッションを録音した。ジョニー・キャッシュも共に演奏していたと長い間考えられていたが、フィリップスが撮らせた写真でしか確認することができない。このセッションは伝説的な『ミリオン・ダラー・カルテット』と呼ばれるようになった。年末の『ウォール・ストリート・ジャーナル』一面で、プレスリー関連商品が2千2百万ドルを売り上げ、レコード売り上げがトップであることを報じられた。また『ビルボード』誌で100位以内にランクインした曲数が史上最高となった。音楽業界最大手の1つであるRCAでの最初の1年間、RCAのレコード売り上げの半数がプレスリーのレコードであった。エドサリヴァンショー.当時のアメリカの国民的バラエティー番組には1956年9月と10月1957年1月と短期間に3回出演した。なお広い視聴者層を持つ国民的番組への出演を意識してジャケットを着用し出演した上に当初保守的な視聴者の抗議を配慮した番組関係者が意図的にプレスリーの上半身だけを放送したというエピソードが伝えられている。そのようなやり取りがあったものの司会者のエドサリヴァンがと紹介したことからプレスリーへの批判は少なくなった上にアメリカ全土へのプロモーションに大きく役立ったと言われている。1958年1月20日にプレスリーはアメリカ陸軍への徴兵通知を受けた。当時のアメリカは徴兵制を施行しており陸軍の徴兵期間は2年間である。プレスリーは特例措置を受けることなく他と変わらぬ普通の一兵士として西ドイツにあるアメリカ陸軍基地で勤務し1960年3月5日に満期除隊した。徴兵命令が来た際プレスリーはと伝えた。翌日プレスリーは徴兵局へ出向き延期の申し入れを行った。1958年8月11日戦車兵としての専門教育を受けていたプレスリーはすでに体調を崩していた母グラディスが緊急入院したとの知らせを受けた。上官はプレスリーからの外出申請をいったんは却下したが8月12日の外出が許可された。グラディスは8月14日に亡くなり翌15日に葬儀が営まれた。再び帰営する際プレスリーはグラディスの部屋を生前の状態に保つよう言い残している。プレスリーは西ドイツに駐留する第32機甲連隊に配属され第1中戦車大隊の本部管理隊で勤務した。同地では松濤舘空手を学びまた軍曹まで昇進した。なお空手8段とされているがそれは誤りである。また在籍中病気にかかり軍の病院において扁桃腺炎だと診断された。その際医師はプレスリーの声が変調するのを恐れて扁桃腺の切除手術は行わなかったが回復し健康を取り戻した。1960年3月2日プレスリーは帰国の途に就いた。途中スコットランドを経由しているがこれが彼にとって唯一のイギリス滞在となった。プレスリーは3月3日の朝に帰国して大勢のファンに迎えられ5日に名誉除隊となった。歌手として有名になっていくにつれて、映画配給会社数社から出演の依頼がプレスリーのもとに届いた。プレスリーは大変喜んで、劇場に通いつめ、演技を独学で勉強した。初出演映画にはパーカー大佐がプレスリーを映画の主演にさせたかったので20世紀FOX配給「」に変更されて公開された。プレスリーは当時のガールフレンドに「映画会社がアホな曲を用意してきたんだよ。せっかくのいいストーリーが台無しになっちゃったよ」と不満を漏らしている。陸軍入隊前までの1958年までに4作の映画が製作されたがいずれも挿入歌ありの主演映画に終始しおまけに映画挿入歌を収めたアルバムが好評だったため当時のショウビジネスの世界に新たなビジネスの形態を作り出した。1960年に陸軍除隊するとパーカー大佐は配給会社数社と長期に渡り出演契約を結んだ為1969年まで1年に3本のペースで27本もの映画の製作が行われ活動の拠点をハリウッドに移さざるをえなかった。おおよその映画は制作費を抑えた挿入歌アルバム付きのものが多かったがなどコンサートをドキュメンタリー的に記録したものだけである。結局1956年から1969年まで計31本の映画が公開された中でプレスリーが望んだ（主題歌以外の）歌のない映画は1969年公開の「"（殺し屋の烙印）」のみであった。この映画が製作された頃のプレスリーは1960年代初期と違い映画への意欲が薄らいでいた時期ではあった（1968年のカムバックを経て残った契約の消化を急いでいた）が久しぶりに前向きに臨んだ西部劇で役作りの為にあごひげまではやし撮影された。しかしプレスリーの主演映画に対する世間の注目度が低かったこと脚本の出来もイマイチだったことなどが原因で映画の興行成績は振るわなかった。そういう状況の中ミュージカル映画の枠を超えていなかったこと台本の出来の悪さまたプレスリーが力を入れて撮影したシーンがカットされたことなどプレスリーの仕事への不満は募っていきそれが歌手としてコンサート活動を再開するきっかけになった。歌手活動の本格再開後も1970年8月のラスベガス公演やリハーサル風景を収めたドキュメンタリー映画が公開された。これらを合わせるとプレスリーが主演した映画は計34本となる。1974年8月19日にラスベガス公演中のプレスリーの楽屋をバーブラストライザンドが訪れた。バーブラは自らが主演する映画での共演をプレスリーに依頼しプレスリー自身も非常に乗り気だったと伝えられているが後日パーカー大佐が出演料を理由に断った。1970年代半ば、プレスリー自身が起案し出演する空手家が主人公の映画の撮影を行ったが、完成することはなかった。理由の一つとして、プレスリーの体調が悪くなることが多く空手を続けられる状況ではなくなり、空手自体をやめてしまったことが挙げられる。ちなみに、空手の後の太り始めた頃からの趣味はラケットボールで、医師からの勧めで始めた。プレスリーは自宅であるグレイスランドの敷地内に専用コートを建てた。亡くなる1977年8月16日の早朝も友人たちとプレーし、汗を流した。プレスリーとビートルズは直接的な接点はなかったが両者は1965年8月27日ロサンゼルスのプレスリーの邸宅で一度きりの会見を果たしたことがロック史に残る出来事として語られている。ビートルズのマネージャーであるブライアンエプスタインとパーカー大佐の間でのという名目だったがどこからか漏れてしまい案の定自宅周辺には野次馬が集まった。諸説あるがメンバーのジョンレノンポールマッカートニージョージハリスンリンゴスターは平静を装いながらも心を躍らせて招かれた部屋に入った。そこでエルヴィスはテレビを見ながらベースを練習してくつろいでいた。と声をかけた事から慌てて4人は挨拶し即興演奏が始まった。プレスリーはベースを演奏しレノンとハリスンはギターマッカートニーはピアノを演奏した。スターはドラムキットが無かったため演奏しておらずビリヤードやサッカーを楽しんでいたという。プレスリーは彼らの曲も歌い、そのあとでと発言したことからその場が凍りついた。これはレノンの若気の至りとも、過激なジョークだったとも言われるが、プレスリーはその発言に気分を害してしまった。そしてその会見に実際に立ち会ったという記者のクリス・ハッチンスによれば、レノンはさらに当時アメリカ軍による関与が拡大を続けていたベトナム戦争にプレスリーが賛同する姿勢と、プレスリーのマンネリ気味であった映画を痛烈に批判した。これらの事がきっかけでレノンを嫌うようになったプレスリーはマッカートニーやハリスンの曲はコンサートで頻繁に取り上げているが、レノンの曲は取り上げていない。この様にレノンの発言と態度が場の雰囲気を壊したことでこの会見はとても成功したとは言えないものであった。レノンはこの発言を反省したためか後日プレスリーの取り巻きにと手紙を出したとも言われている。1967年5月1日にはラスベガスのアラジンホテルでプリシラアンボーリューと結婚。プリシラはプレスリーの駐西独アメリカ軍での所属部隊長の継子であった。プレスリーは未成年であったプリシラを自分の父親とその妻の家に同居させ有名なカトリックの女子高に通わせてきちんと卒業させるということをプリシラの母親と継父に約束してプリシラをメンフィスで暮らせるようにした。しかし程なく2人はグレイスランドで一緒に暮らすようになっていく。8年後に結婚し1968年2月1日には娘リサマリープレスリーが生まれる。その4年後、結婚前から続いているプレスリーの生活習慣といつも一緒の生活、さらに年間何ヶ月にも及ぶコンサートツアーによる別居生活などのさまざまな理由から、プリシラは空手教師のもとに走り、2人の結婚生活は破綻してしまう。グレイスランドを出たプリシラはリサ・マリーを引き取り、ロサンゼルスに住居を移す。1973年10月9日に正式離婚。離婚後もプレスリーとプリシラは友人関係にあり以前よりも密に連絡を取り合うようになったという。プレスリーがツアーでロサンゼルスにいるときはプリシラの家を訪れたりなにか事あるごとにプリシラをグレイスランドに呼び寄せたりして精神的にプリシラを頼りにしていた。二人はリサマリーがまだ幼かったこともあって2人が離婚したことでリサが不幸にならないようにと願っていた。リサとプレスリーは頻繁に会っていたようだ。プレスリーが死んだその日もリサはグレイスランドにいた。60年代70年代の音楽活動.プレスリーの音楽活動は62年のを発売しカムバックした。1969年から過密スケジュールでキャリアを再開。しかしそれはプレスリーを完全なワーカホリック状態へと追い込むものであった。1969年以降行ったライヴは1000回以上であり平均すると1年におよそ125回のペースだった。1969年よりネバダ州のラスベガスを中心にショーを行うようになっていた。プレスリーのコンサートは時代を経て大規模なものになっていった。瞬間最高視聴率約72%を記録した1968年のNBC-TVスペシャル以後翌年にラスベガスのステージで歌手復帰してからはロックンロール以外にもレパートリーの幅を拡げゴスペルやスタンダードナンバー等を取り入れた。バックもコーラスグループやピアノ等が新たに加わりオーケストラまで揃えた多人数の団体に膨れ上がった。なお派手な衣装はリベラーチェからの影響と言われている。またラスベガスのステージ編成をそのまま地方公演に取り入れた。コンサート活動再開後最後にコンサートを行った1977年6月26日インディアナポリス公演までチケットは売り切れ状態が続いた。72年には「バーニングラヴ」が大ヒットとなった。70年代には他に「アメリカの祈り」「ロックンロール魂」などを発売した。1977年8月17日から始まる予定だったツアーも最終日の8月27日のメンフィス公演まで売り切れ翌28日に同地で追加公演を行う予定だった。リチャード・ニクソンとの面会.1970年12月21日には、わざわざアメリカン航空の民間機でワシントンD.C.にジェリー・シリングと2人で出向き、シークレット・サービスに手紙を手渡した。一市民であるプレスリーから大統領にあてた手紙である。ホワイトハウス内は大騒ぎとなり、その40分後補佐官からと電話があった。ホテルに到着したデル・ソニー・ウェストが合流し3人でホワイトハウスへ行き、リチャード・ニクソン大統領に会った。ツーショット写真はその際撮影されたものである。この時プレスリーは、自分はといい、麻薬取締官の資格を与えられた。翌週、プレスリーはそのバッジをみんなに見せびらかせて回った。なお、プレスリーは警察官等のバッジ・コレクションをしており、大変な収集家であった。この際のエピソードはあまりにも有名なものとなり後にこのエピソードだけでいくつかの映画になったほかプレスリーとニクソン大統領とのツーショット写真はホワイトハウスの公用写真の焼き増しサービスの中で最も人気が高いものとなった。プレスリーは世界的なスーパースターとなったが終生アメリカカナダ以外でコンサートを行っていない。海外での公演ができなかった理由は移民であるパーカー大佐がアメリカの永住権を所持しておらずカナダを例外としてアメリカ国外へいったん出国すると再入国を許されない事態を恐れた為だったと言われている。ちなみにパーカー大佐が出身国に残してきた家族が大佐がプレスリーに付き添う姿をテレビで見て仰天したという逸話が残されている。これに対して、パーカー大佐は世界の公演希望に応えるため、衛星中継という方法で、ナマのプレスリーを世界へ送った。来日公演の要請に対しては、日本のゴールデンタイムに衛星生中継で視聴してもらえるよう、1973年1月14日に、ハワイ時間深夜1時からコンサートを開催する形で応えた。これは日本のゴールデン・タイムにあわせたものである。放送は約2時間続いた。このコンサートはプレスリーの愛唱歌でもあったの作者クイリーの遺族らによって創設された“クイリー癌基金”のためのチャリティーコンサートとして開催された為収益は全てクイリー癌基金へ寄付された。この公演のチケットには値段が付いておらず客が献金したい分だけ払えば購入することが出来た。6000席の会場で7万5000ドル集まったので1人あたり12ドル50セント支払った計算になる。アメリカでは公開中だった『エルビスオンツアー』と競合することを回避するために4月4日に放送された。新たにハワイのビーチや挿入歌がインサートされた生放送とは別の編集版であった。既にこのコンサートのライヴアルバムが発売されていたにもかかわらずこの放送を視聴した世帯数は人類初の月面着陸の映像を視聴した世帯数より多かった。この様な理由以外にも、プレスリーはパーカー大佐に対する不満をメンバーたちに多く漏らしていた。しかし、プレスリーは生涯パーカー大佐をクビにすることはなかった。ネルソン・ジョージは、「マネージャーのトム・パーカー大佐がプレスリーをどんどん安物のクズにおとしめていった」と評している。1977年8月16日にテネシー州メンフィスの自宅グレイスランドで没した。ガールフレンドのジンジャーアルデンによって寝室のバスルームの床に倒れているところを発見されバプテスト記念病院へ搬送されたが医師は午後3時30分プレスリーの死亡を確認した。。検視後死因は処方薬の極端な誤用による不整脈と公式に発表された。晩年プレスリーはストレスからくるとグレンDハーディンなどのメンバーさらにデルソニーウェストなどのメンフィスマフィアのメンバーたちも語っている。グレンは詳しいことは死ぬまで語るつもりはないといっているが、ソニー・ウェストは暴露本を書いて中傷したとされた。このことについてソニーはと述べた。違法なドラッグは一切使用していないが、この処方ドラッグの影響で癇癪持ちになり、体調も維持できなくなってしまった。イギリスのテレビ局、チャンネル4はプレスリーのDNAに、肥満や心臓疾患を引き起こすものが発見されたと報道した。当初はメンフィスのフォレスト・ヒル墓地で母親の隣に埋葬されたが、遺体の盗掘未遂事件後に、母親と共にグレイスランドに再埋葬された。グレイスランドには、プレスリーの様々な遺品やピンクや緑に塗られたキャディラック、愛娘の名前をつけた自家用機、コンベア880型と感じ、式に出席しなかった。プレスリーの急死後、その肖像権は非常に危うい位置にあった。プレスリーはステージ以外の事は人任せで、肖像権は一応管理されていたが杜撰だったため、金儲けの道具とされ、プレスリーのイメージを損なうものであっても簡単に商品化できた。存命中にはプレスリーは多くのと考え膨大な予算をプレスリーに用意させようとした。死去後まもなくして遺族らが膨大なプレスリーの物的財産を管理する組織を結成肖像権も管理しようと訴訟を起こした。遺族らは勝訴し肖像権を手に入れ以後今日までしっかりと管理されている。肖像権が管理できるようになってという名を使い現在まで様々なプロジェクトを世界に向かって発信してきた。プレスリーのキャリアはサンレコードからデビューした1954年から死去する1977年である。本業の歌の部門では数多くの未発表テイクが発掘されている。最近の話題だと新編集された曲が2002年のFIFAワールドカップの公式テーマソングになったり、未発表映像も発掘され、1968年のTVスペシャルや1973年のアロハ・フロム・ハワイのアウトテイクを収録した完全版がリリースされ好評となった。その他、側近や友人、家族らが語るプレスリーの人物像に焦点をあてた物や、プレスリーのゴスペルに対する思いを映像化した物もある。それ以外にもプレスリーをモチーフにした映画の製作やプレスリーの曲が数多くの映画の挿入歌に使用される事も多い。プレスリーに因んだセリフも数多くの映画の中で聞くことが出来る。ブロードウェイのミュージカルにも取り上げられる等そのような話題はとどまる事を知らない。プレスリーの記録であるナンバー1ヒット曲数18曲が2019年マライアキャリーの19曲によって更新された。死後、ロニー・マクドウェルは「キング・イズ・ゴーン」を発表した。あまりにエルヴィスに似ていることと、歌のうまさはおおいに話題となった。プレスリーの物まね、または成りきる（演じる）事を生業とする人々が世界に存在し、その数は8万5000人と言われている。また、エルヴィスを尊敬するアーティストも多く、そのようなアーティスト達が一堂に会したトリビュート・コンサートが実現した。更に1997年には新たなる試みとして、プレスリーのコンサート映像を使用し、それにあわせて当時のバンド・メンバーが演奏する（現）のメンフィス公演が行われ、以後全米各地のほか、ほぼ年に1回のペースでアメリカ以外の地域でツアーを行っている。彼の死後プレスリーの生存説目撃情報などの滑稽な陰謀論やオカルト話がなどを中心に相次いで報告された。年をとったプレスリーを見たという証言がある一方若い頃そのままのプレスリーを見たという証言もある。プレスリーが生きているという確実な証拠には300万ドルが支払われる。32本の映画出演作全てが主役という驚異的な記録を残している。ヨーロッパにおいてロックンロールという新しい音楽への興味を生じさせた。ジョンレノンボブディランポールマッカートニーエルトンジョンボブシーガーフレディマーキュリールーリードクリフリチャードロバートプラントブルーススプリングスティーンなどをはじめとする多くのアーティストが大きな影響を受けた。ジョン・レノンとエリック・カルメンは、ヴォーカル・スタイルにおいても影響を受けている。ZZトップ、チープ・トリック、ジョン・シュナイダーらはエルヴィスの曲をカバーした。ロバート・ゴードン、タフ・ダーツ、ストレイ・キャッツ、ブラスターズらもエルヴィスの影響を受けていた。日本では湯川れい子、小林克也らがプレスリーのファンである。歌手では平尾昌晃、山下敬二郎、ミッキー・カーチス、坂本九、ささきいさお、西郷輝彦、本郷直樹等もプレスリー・ファンとして知られる。世界中のティーンエイジャーはプレスリーのと呼ばれる横髪を後ろへなで付けるヘアスタイルをこぞって真似し始めた。そして黒いズボンや緩い開襟シャツといったプレスリーのニュールックはファッションの新たな潮流を作りその大きな需要を生み出した。プレスリーの影響は経済大国における大量消費を行う最初のティーンエイジャー世代を生み出した。エルヴィスプレスリーを慕うミュージシャンにドイツのオペラ歌手ペーターホフマンらがいる。1977年にジミー・カーター大統領は「エルヴィス・プレスリーの死は、我が国から大事な一部分を奪いとったようなものだ。彼の音楽とその個性は白人のカントリー音楽と、黒人特有のリズム・アンド・ブルースのスタイルを融合させ、永久にアメリカの大衆文化の様相を変えてしまった。彼は、祖国アメリカの活力、自由、気質を世界の人々に植え付けるシンボルだった。」と語った。ジェームズ・ブラウンは「彼は白人のアメリカ人に目線を下げるということを教えた」という言葉を書き残している。アメリカ内務省のゲイルノートン長官は2006年3月27日プレスリーが約20年間を過ごしたテネシー州メンフィスの邸宅を国の国定史跡に認定した。認定の式典は一般公開で行われ娘であるリサマリープレスリーも出席した。1970年代のプレスリーは真っ白なジャンプスーツが思い出されるが、それ以外にも紺や青、水色、赤などのジャンプスーツも着ている。1970年初期のジャンプスーツは動きやすさを念頭に置いたシンプルな衣装であった。それがどんどん派手になっていき、ケープまで登場した。金やダイヤモンドやルビーなどを施したジャンプスーツは25kg以上にもなっていた。前述のように、これは敬愛していた著名なピアニストであるリベラーチェからの影響を受けたものであった。ただし、プレスリーは宝石類にはあまり興味がなく、ステージ上で華やかに見えるものなら安いイミテーションでも構わないという性格だった。酒も煙草もやらない。たまに葉巻を吸う程度である。「オン・ステージ」で観客から酒を渡された時も、口を付けるだけでほとんど飲んでいない。ステージ上で飲んでいるものは水かゲータレードである。コーヒーや炭酸飲料と呼ばれている。ただしこのサンドイッチは食べる前に多量のバターを溶かしたフライパンで揚げ焼きにしたもので当然ながら高カロリーなためプレスリーが30代以降体調を崩し肥満化していった一因になったのではないかという指摘もある。グレイスランドの前の通りはエルヴィスプレスリーブールバードという。世界中のプレスリーのファンファンクラブからの募金のみで運営しているセイントパウロエルヴィスプレスリー記念病院がある。プレスリーの記録には限りがないが代表的なものや興味深いものを挙げる。ディスコグラフィ:アルバム.公式リリース音源の数は800曲を超える。Follow That Dreamレーベル.プレスリーがそのキャリアにおいて発表した曲の未発表テイクが数多く存在するがプライベート録音を含めすべての残されたプレスリーの音源を聴きたいというファンの要望に応えるべく立ち上げられたのが主演映画のタイトルから引用したレーベルである。このレーベルのアルバムは限定生産され、世界中のファンクラブに優先的に流通させるので一般のCDショップ等に出回りにくい。1999年に第一弾 "がリリースされた。以後、定期的に貴重な音源が次々とリリースされている。わずかだが一つの曲のすべてのテイクを聴くことが出来たり、コンサートアルバムはプレスリーのコンサートを体験することが出来なかったファンにも追体験出来るような内容になっている。シングルディスコグラフィー.プレスリーが1977年に亡くなるまでの21年間に146曲が100位以内に112曲が40位以内に72曲が20位以内に38曲が10位以内にチャートインした。1962年4月21日から2週連続で1位を獲得した「グッドラックチャーム」を最後にプレスリーは1位から遠ざかったが1969年11月1日「サスピシャスマインド」が1位を獲得し「プレスリーの復活」と言われた。1972年10月28日には「バーニングラヴ」が2位まで上り詰めたがチャックベリーの「マイディンガリング」（1972年10月21日から2週連続1位）に阻止された。1970年代においてはプレスリーは一度も1位を取ることはなかったが2002年にリメイクされたは世界24カ国でナンバー1を取得した。アメリカにおいて1位を獲得したシングルの数は18作〈計79週間〉でビートルズの20作〈計59週間〉マライアキャリーの19作〈計82週間〉に次ぐ歴代3位の記録となっている。ロックン・ロール、カントリー、ゴスペル・ミュージックの3部門のいずれも殿堂入りした初のアーティストとなった。また、今のところ楽曲においては3回グラミー賞を受賞しているが、3回ともロック部門ではなくゴスペル部門においての受賞であり、プレスリーは終生この事を誇りにした。全米ナンバー1獲得曲.ナンバー1ヒットは全18曲合計79週間である。曲数はビートルズマライアキャリーに次ぐ歴代3位である。週間数に関してはマライアキャリーに次ぐ歴代2位である。 +[[Category:アメリカ合衆国のポップ歌手]][[Category:アイルランド系アメリカ人]][[Category:ギネス世界記録保持者]][[Category1935年生]]カーペンターズ は、アメリカ･カリフォルニア州ロサンゼルス出身の兄妹ポップ・ミュージック・デュオ。楽器を兄のリチャードが受け持ち、ヴォーカルを妹カレンが担当。ロック全盛の1970年代において独自の音楽スタイルを貫き、大きな成功を収めた。1983年のカレンの死により活動を終えた。1970年代を中心に、アメリカのラジオ番組やアダルト・コンテンポラリー・チャートでの記録を塗り替え、ソフトロックやイージーリスニング、アダルト・コンテンポラリー・ミュージックといったジャンルにおける主要なヒットメーカーとなった。Billboard Hot 100で1位となったシングルが3曲、アダルト・コンテンポラリー・シングル・チャートで1位が15曲ある。さらに、トップ10入りは12曲に及ぶ。アルバム・シングルの総売上枚数は1億枚を上回るとされている。14年間の活動で11枚のアルバム31枚のシングル5本のテレビスペシャル番組テレビシリーズ番組を1本制作した。アメリカ本国をはじめ英国日本オーストラリアオランダベルギーなど世界各国でツアーを行った。オリコンチャートブックの集計では1970年から1989年の日本での海外アーティスト別アルバム売上枚数はビートルズに次いで第2位である。シングル売上枚数は第1位。CD時代に入った後も、1995年発売のベスト盤が200万枚越えるセールスを記録する等、日本においても時代を超越して愛され続けているグループである。カレンが神経性無食欲症（いわゆる拒食症）の合併症による心停止のために死去してから摂食障害の危険性の認識が深まったといわれている。家族の歴史とダウニーまでの道のり.カーペンター兄妹は二人ともコネチカット州ニューヘイブンにある Grace–New Haven Hospital にて Harold Bertram とAgnes Reuwer の夫婦のもとに生まれた。ハロルドは父（兄妹の祖父イギリス人）が宣教師として赴任していた中国で生まれた。その後一家は1917年にイギリスにもどり1921年にはアメリカに渡り技術者として身を立てた。父方の祖母のネリーは美しく歌声はとても大きくてきれいだった。兄妹の母であるアグネステイタムカーペンターはボルチモア出身で小売店を営む家庭の4人姉妹として生まれた。アグネスの父は姉妹たちに一生懸命働くことの大切さと勤労道徳をしっかり教え込んだアグネスはとても意志が強くウエディングドレスも自作し子供を守り家事をきっちりこなす母親であった。二人は1935年4月9日に結婚第二次世界大戦が終わりアメリカ庶民が手頃な価格で家が買えるようになった頃カーペンター夫妻は1946年ニューヘイブンの郊外に家を購入した。ハロルドはNew Heaven pulp and board companyでカラープレス工として働いた。アグネスとハロルドは週末は車の洗車をして家庭が豊かになるように努めた。兄であるリチャードは1946年10月15日生まれでハロルドの兄弟の名をとりRichard Lynnと名付けられた。3年後の1950年3月2日妹Karen Anneが誕生した。夫妻は子供を非常にかわいがったが、リチャードによると、夫婦は表だった愛情表現をあまり好まなかった。この関係がカレンがのちに神経性食思不信になった時に周囲から母親からの愛情が足りないのが原因と指摘された由縁である。しかし、リチャードが後にテレビ番組で「うちの家族は他の家族の様にHugging（何かの折に愛情確認のために抱きしめる）はしないが、お互いのことをちゃんと思いやっているんだ」とコメントした。ハロルドは表立った愛情表現は下手であったが音楽に対する感情表現を表すのは子供たちの前でもためらわなかった。ハロルドが集めた音楽はハリージェイムスレッドニコルズスパイクジョーンズチャイコフスキーやラフマニノフと多様でこれはリチャードが多種多様な音楽に触れるきっかけとなった。リチャードはおとなしい子供で、ほとんどの時間をピアノを弾いたり音楽を聴いたりして家で過ごしていた。リチャードが3歳になるまでに興味を持ったのは、地下室でレコードプレーヤの前で何時間も音楽を聴くことであった。父は地下室の天井からブランコを吊るし、そこでカレンとリチャードはブランコに揺られながら音楽を聴いて育った。二人はいつも一緒でそれは生涯変わらなかった。リチャードは屋内で遊ぶのが好きであったが、カレンはかなりのおてんばで、よくソフトボールをして遊んでいた。リチャードは12歳の時にピアノを始め、16歳の時に近くのエール大学でピアノのレッスンを受けた。この頃になると、リチャードがミュージシャンとしての将来を目指していることは、近所の皆が感じていた。他の子供が外でローラー・スケートをしているころ、リチャードがピアノを練習している音が窓から聞こえたそうである。母のアグネスはこの頃までには、リチャードがクラシック音楽でなく、何か違う音楽で身を立てると予感していたようで、毎日彼が練習するのを聞いていたという。リチャードの音楽的才能に気づいた夫妻は息子の音楽活動のためにハリウッドのある南カリフォルニアに引っ越すことを決断友に別れを告げ1963年6月車に引っ越しの荷物を詰めてカリフォルニアを目指した。ハリウッドの中心ではなく少し離れたダウニーに移り住んだ。ダウニーはニューヘイブンと同じく郊外でミドルクラスといわれる家庭が住むのに適していた。彼が最初に住んだアパートは今もありリチャードはそこに1年以上いたといわれている。カーペンター家はニューヘイブンの家が売れず、経済的に苦しかった。そのため家族は最初にShoji Apartments (現在はThe Pinecrest Apts、12020 Downey Avenue, Downey, CA）に移り住んだ。最初はShojiアパートの22号室であったが、数か月後に向かいの大きな23号室に移り、約1年間過ごした。1965年の11月父であるハロルドはようやくダウニーのフィドラーアベニューに家族向けの一軒家を手に入れて移り住んだ。この家が建っていた場所はパラマウントとベルフラワーの境界に位置していたため高速105号線の建設でちょうどこの場所だけが取り壊され歴史的建造物であることを惜しむ声も上がった。カーペンター一家はこのフィドラーアベニューの家に1971年まで住み続けた。リチャードリンカーペンターは1946年10月15日妹カレンアンカーペンターは1950年3月2日生まれである。リチャードは父親の膨大なレコードコレクションを聴きピアノの練習に熱心だった。。一方カレンは親しみやすく外向的でスポーツを好んだが兄と一緒に音楽を聴くことも多かった。1963年6月、両親のハロルドとアグネスは家族を連れてカリフォルニア州ロサンゼルス郊外のダウニーに移り住んだ。リチャードを音楽業界へ近づけることと、カレンと父がニュー・イングランドの厳しい冬を嫌ったための移住であった。同年の秋からリチャードはダウニー高校へ通い、体育の代わりにバンドを選択科目とした。後にカレンも、これを参考にして選択を体育から音楽に変更した。音楽教師のブルース・ギフォードは、リチャードが「ラプソディ・イン・ブルー」を指示されて演奏するのを聴いて、リチャードのピアノ奏者としての才能を認めた。翌年度からリチャードはカリフォルニア州立大学ロングビーチ校へ通い、将来の作曲パートナーとなるジョン・ベティスと出会った。ベティスの協力のもとに、リチャードはやがてを共作するフランク・プーラーらと知り合ったのもこの学校でのことである。カレンは1964年にダウニー高校へ入学しドラム演奏の才能を見せはじめた。カレンは運動は好きだが体育の授業は嫌いだったと述べている。カレンは体育から逃れるためカリフォルニア州立大学学生であったリチャードにやはり同様に体育からマーチングバンドを選択できるように教師を紹介してもらい結果ダウニー高校マーチングバンドの一員となることを認められた。1963年リチャードを教えていた教師のブルースギフォードはカレンにグロッケンシュピールを担当させたがカレンは気に入らなかった。あるインタビューでカレンはと述べている。その後間もなくカレンは、友人でありバンド仲間のフランキー・チャベスからドラムの演奏を勧められ、チャベスのセットを借りてドラムを教わった。という。1965年まで1年間カレンはドラムの練習に励みリチャードは教師フランクプーラーの指導の下でピアノを練習した。兄妹はジャズトリオの結成を真剣に考えるようになり親しくなったウェスジェイコブズとバンドを結成。ドラムはカレンピアノはリチャードベース／チューバはジェイコブズという編成のジャズトリオで などといった曲を録音した。しかしRCAとの契約はすぐに打ち切られる。1966年ロサンゼルスのベース奏者ジョーオズボーンが所有していたガレージスタジオで深夜にセッションが行われることとなりそこでオーディションを受けるトランペット奏者の伴奏を務めるために参加することとなったリチャードにカレンも同行した。この時ためしに歌ってみるようオズボーンから頼まれたカレンの声のすばらしさが認められ1966年5月13日カレンはオズボーンが立ち上げたばかりのレーベルマジックランプレーベルとソロアーティストとしての短期レコード契約を結ぶこととなった。このレーベルからはリチャードが作曲した を収録したシングルが制作されたがレーベル自体がその後すぐに消滅。しかしオズボーンはカレンとリチャードがA&Mレコードからのオファーを受けることとなる1969年まで2人にデモテープの録音を続けさせた。1967年リチャードとカレンはカリフォルニア州立大学ロングビーチ校の学生ミュージシャン4人と共にの名に落ち着いた。グループはジョリーナイトステーキハウスやウィスキーアゴーゴーなどで頻繁に演奏するようになった。スペクトラムはレコード会社と契約を交わせなかったが同じバンドのメンバーであると同時にのち1983年のカレンの死まで多くの楽曲の共作者となるジョンベティスとリチャードは親交を深めた。1968年、スペクトラム解散。リチャード・カーペンター・トリオのウェス・ジェイコブズは、ベースとチューバを演奏していたが、デトロイト交響楽団へ加入するためグループを去った（1970年首席チューバ奏者となった）。リチャードとカレンは1968年の中ごろにテレビ番組 で参加することとしたが、バンドを去ったジェイコブズの代わりとなるベース奏者が必要となり、オーディションを行った。結局、そのテレビ出演だけの臨時参加という形でビル・シショフが選ばれた。一時的なメンバーを加えたリチャード・カーペンター・トリオは1969年6月22日にテレビデビューを飾った。この演奏が、リチャードとカレンにとって初めてのテレビ出演でもあった。この出演を最後にリチャード・カーペンター・トリオは最終的に解散し、レコード会社からのオファーを待つこととなる。当時はジミ・ヘンドリックスやビートルズ、ジャニス・ジョプリン、ローリング・ストーンズなどロックグループが主流だった。しかし、リチャードとカレンは自分たちの路線を貫き、二人は友人たちの手を借りながらさまざまなレコード・レーベルにデモ・テープを送り続けた。それがA&Mレコードの共同所有者でありトランペット奏者・ヴォーカリストでもあるハーブ・アルパートの関心を惹いた。このアルパートがリチャードとカレンを世に送り出すことになる。1969年4月22日リチャードとカレンは「カーペンターズ」名義でA&Mレコードとの契約を結んだ。当時の州法で19歳のカレンは未成年者だったため両親も署名した。兄妹はあえて定冠詞 "The" の付かない "Carpenters" を契約上の名義とすることに決めた（"The Carpenters" は「カーペンター兄妹」ないし「カーペンター家」を意味するが"Carpenters" だけでは「大工たち」の意味になる）。その理由についてリチャードは2004年に発売された "" のライナーノーツにおいてバッファロースプリングフィールドやジェファーソンエアプレインのように「ザ〜ズ」ではないバンド名のほうがかっこいいと思ったからだと述べている。A&Mレコードとの契約において、リチャードとカレンはスタジオ内での自由を与えられた。へと題名を変えて再発された。アルバム『涙の乗車券』のチャート・アクションは今一つ振るわなかったが、リチャードとカレンはバート・バカラック／ハル・デヴィッド作の「close to you」でついに成功を手にする。このシングルは1970年にリリースされて初登場56位となり、1970年7月22日にはチャート1位に昇りつめ、4週にわたって首位の座を守った。また1970年ビルボード誌年間ランキングでは第2位となっている。ベストセラーとなったアルバム『close to you』の収録曲からはこの曲と「愛のプレリュード」がRIAAによってゴールドディスクに認定され、同アルバムは『ローリング・ストーン』誌による『偉大なアルバム500選』 () の175位にも選ばれている。その年の最優秀新人部門をはじめとする2つのグラミー賞も受賞した。はウィリアムズとニコルズにとって初のヒット・シングルとなった。2人はその年の締めくくりとしてクリスマスソングをリリースした。この曲はカリフォルニア州立大学時代に2人の参加していた合唱団の監督を務めていたフランクプーラーとリチャードが共作した作品で1970年のビルボードのホリデイチャートで上位にランクインして翌年以降も同チャートにたびたび登場した。一連のヒット・シングルやアルバムによって、カーペンターズは1970年代を通じてヒット・チャートの常連となった。1971年のヒット曲は、元はサイ・ハワード監督による1970年の映画の結婚シーンのためにレコーディングされたものである。映画館でこの曲を聴いて気に入ったリチャードは、その後間もない1970年秋にこの曲を録音し、カーペンターズにとって3枚目のゴールド・シングルとなった。続いて送り出された だった。レオンラッセル／ボニーブラムレット作曲のシングルはカーペンターズの次の代表曲となりここで聴かれる痛切で心に残るカレンの歌声は高い評価を受けている。この曲もビルボードホット100で第2位となった。1971年には彼ら自身の名をタイトルとしたアルバムしている。この作品でカーペンターズはグラミー賞 を受賞し3部門でノミネートされた。1972年にリチャードはエレキギターによるソロを導入したバラードを考案した。後にこうした形態の曲をハードロックやヘヴィメタルのバンドが継承して と呼ばれる1ジャンルにまでなったことから、リチャードがこのジャンルの先駆者とみなされることもある。この曲はビング・クロスビー主演の映画 "" に着想を得たものである。この映画は1940年に制作され、作中にはベイジル・ラスボーンが演じる作曲家が登場する。この作曲家は歴史上最も美しい歌 "Goodbye to Love" の作者として有名という設定である。リチャードによれば、この曲は映画の中に言及があるだけで演奏されてはいなかったが、同名の曲を自分で書こうと思いつき、1972年にベティスと共作するまでそのアイディアを温めていたという。2人はリードギタリストとしてトニー・ペルーソを招き、A&Mのスタッフもペルーソの大胆なソロに満足した。これを機にペルーソは1983年までカーペンターズの伴奏者を務めることとなった。しかし、ファンの中にはカーペンターズのレコードにエレキギターのソロが入ることに不満を抱く者も少なくなく、嫌がらせの手紙を送りつける者さえいたという。1973年リリースのアルバムで挿入歌として使用された楽曲などのオールディーズのメドレーが続き聴き物となっている。カーペンターズにとって初となるベストアルバムは と題されアメリカとイギリスでアルバムチャートのトップに立っている。特にイギリスにおいては1974年7月13日にエルトンジョンの『カリブ』にトップを奪われるまでトータル17週も首位に立ち70年代に最も売れたアルバムのひとつとなっている。またこのアルバムはアメリカでも2008年までに700万枚以上を売り上げ7倍のマルチプラチナディスクを授与されている。このベスト・アルバム用に新たに作り直され、アルバムの先行シングルとしてリリースされたのがを1973年9月にシングルカットされ、同年12月にビルボードHOT100において2週連続で1位となり、カーペンターズにとって2枚目の全米1位シングルとなった。カーペンターズは1974年には新しいアルバムを発表しなかった。リチャードはこれについて「単に時間がなかったから。アルバムを作る気分にもなれなかったし」と語っている。その代わりに、2人はポール・ウィリアムズ／ロジャー・ニコルズ作曲のシングル「愛は夢の中に」をリリースしている。これはもともと1972年のアルバム『ア・ソング・フォー・ユー』に収録されていたものだが、カーペンターズはそのLPをリリースした2年後になって、この曲をシングル・カットすることを決定した。1974年3月、そのシングル・ヴァージョンはビルボード・トップ100チャートの11位に達し、アルバム『ア・ソング・フォー・ユー』からの5番目のトップ20ヒットとなった。一方同1974年にはに収録されたハンクウィリアムズのをシングルとしてリリースしている。1975年はまだ彼らにとって多作の年であった。マーヴェレッツが1961年にチャート1位を獲得したヒット曲でモータウンサウンドのクラシックであったをカヴァーしたシングルがヒット。これは1974年にリリースしたものだが75年の1月にビルボードトップ100で1位を獲得し彼らにとっての3度目の首位獲得作品となった。このシングルはまたカレンとリチャードにとっての12番目のアメリカでのミリオンセラーにもなった。日本ではこのシングルが最高の売上枚数を記録している。「プリーズ・ミスター・ポストマン」に続き、春にはリチャードとジョン・ベティスの共作「オンリー・イエスタデイ」がビルボードで4位まで上昇し、これは彼らにとって最後のアメリカでのトップ10ヒットとなった。リチャードとベティスはこの曲がヒット・シングルになるとは思っていなかったので、ロジャー・ヤングとの賭けでトップ5入りしない方に賭けており、2人はヤングに1000ドル支払うはめになったという。1975年の上半期に成功を収めたこの2曲はいずれも1975年のアルバムはプラチナム・アルバムに認定されたが、その後カーペンターズにとっては初めてマルチ・プラチナムに達することのなかったアルバムとなった。1976年6月11日に発売された次のアルバム『見つめあう恋』も、ゴールド・ディスクには認定されたものの、彼らにとってはファースト・アルバム『涙の乗車券』以来の7年間で初めてプラチナ獲得に至らなかったアルバムである。それでも1976年のシングル・リリースは成功を収めていたが、当時のヒット・ラジオ番組は音楽的スタイルを変化させており、ついにはカーペンターズのような「ソフト」なグループの多くを苦しめるようになった。カーペンターズのその年最大のポップ・シングルはハーマンズ・ハーミッツのカヴァー「見つめあう恋」で、最高12位であった。カレンの最も好きな曲といわれる「青春の輝き」はビルボード・ホット100では25位にとどまったが、アダルト・コンテンポラリー・チャートでは「見つめあう恋」に続き14枚目となる1位を獲得した。これは同チャートの歴史上他に類を見ない記録となった。彼らの功績の1つとして数えられることは少ないが、カーペンターズはアメリカでは最も早く自分たちのレコードの宣伝のためにミュージック・ビデオを制作したグループの1つである。1975年の初めに、彼らはディズニーランドでのビデオに出演した時には目に見えて違いが現れるようになっていた。1977年から1979年にかけてディスコブームの真只中でありカーペンターズやジョンデンヴァーら大人向けのはイギリスではヒットしたがアメリカのポップチャートでは32位止まりとなりカーペンターズとしては初めてゴールド認定となる50万枚の売り上げに達することのなかったアルバムとなった。リチャードは収録曲ののミュージック・ビデオがDVD " で観ることができる。国内チャートでの成績はやや振るわなくなってきたとはいえ、カーペンターズはまだ十分な人気を維持していた。1978年の初めには、アップテンポでフィドルを加味した「スウィート・スマイル」がカントリー・チャートで意外にもトップ10入りを果たした（ビルボード・ポップ・チャートではトップ40に若干及ばなかったが、アダルト・コンテンポラリーで7位、カントリー・チャートで8位を獲得した）。この曲は後年カントリーやポップのスターとなるジュース・ニュートンが作曲したものである。イギリスでは2作目のベスト・アルバム " が発売された。一方アメリカではカーペンターズ初のクリスマス・アルバム『クリスマス・ポートレイト』が発売されてその季節の人気作品となり、勢いの衰えはじめたこの時期にあっては意外な売れ行きを見せ、カレンとリチャードに再びプラチナムをもたらした。1979年、リチャードはカンザス州のリハビリ施設で薬物依存症からの回復を試みる。その間にカレンはニューヨークに渡って、プロデューサーにフィル・ラモーンを迎えた初のソロ・アルバムの制作を決意する。彼女はこのアルバムのためにより大人向けでディスコ調の作品を選び、これまでのイメージを払拭しようと努めた。だが、1980年の初頭に完成したソロ作品に対し、リチャードやA&Mは難色を示した。カレンにとっては不幸なことに、このアルバムは発表しないものとする決定が下され、この作品の制作費として印税から50万ドル以上の負債を請求されたのである。この決定に怒りを覚えつつも、ある面では慣れぬ仕事から解放されたカレンは、依存症から立ち直った兄と新しいアルバムの制作にとりかかる。お蔵入りになったカレンのソロ・アルバムは1996年10月にの中で陽の目を見た。その際にはシングルとしてリリースされ、アダルト・コンテンポラリー・チャートで20位以内にランクインした。カーペンターズは1980年にと題されたテレビの特番に出演しエラフィッツジェラルドやジョンデヴィッドソンをはじめとする著名なゲストと共演した。これはカレンがトムバリスと結婚したのと同じ年に撮影されたものでこの時期のカレンは比較的健康な体重を取り戻していた。。1981年6月16日にリリースされたカーペンターズのデュオとしての次なるLPは、商業的には失敗に終わった。この作品はアメリカでは、カレンが亡くなる1983年初頭までは20万枚ほどしか売れていなかった。しかしながら、アルバムからシングル・カットされたロマンティックなはHot100で16位まで上昇し、全米ポップ・チャートにおける彼らの最後のトップ20ヒットシングルとなった。この曲はビルボードのアダルト・コンテンポラリー・チャートでは彼らにとって15番目の首位記録作品でもある。カレンのトーマスジェイムズバリスとの結婚や彼女が患っていた拒食症などの個人的な問題はグループの復帰に暗い影を落とした。瞬く間に恋に落ちたあとカレンは不動産業者のバリスとの結婚式をビバリーヒルズホテルのクリスタルルームで盛大に行った。1980年の8月31日に挙げられたこのセレモニーの中でカレンは翌年にを披露している。だが、結婚してから1年ほどの間に、彼女の容姿は変わり果てていった。『メイド・イン・アメリカ』の販売促進用に制作されたビデオで窺えるその姿は、もはや彼女が重病人であったことを裏付けるのに十分な証拠といえるものであった。カレンとバリスの結婚生活は惨憺たるものであり、彼らは1981年の終わりには別居する。1982年、カレンは障害の診療を受けるためニューヨークの著名な心理セラピスト、スティーブン・レベンクロンを訪ね、この年の11月には仕事に復帰して離婚手続きを完了するためにカリフォルニアへ戻った。カレンの甲状腺は通常のものであったが、新陳代謝を加速するために甲状腺の薬を通常の10倍服用していることが分かった。これに加えて大量の下剤（日に90錠から100錠）を服用していたことが、彼女の心臓を弱める原因となった。ニューヨークの病院での2か月以上にわたる治療を経て、カレンは30ポンド（13.6キログラム）以上も体重を戻したが、急激な体重の増加は、長年の無理なダイエットですでに弱っていた彼女の心臓に、さらなる負担をかけてしまった。1983年の2月4日の朝、カレンはダウニーの両親の家で心肺停止状態に陥ってダウニー・コミュニティ病院に運ばれるが、それから20分後に死亡が確認された。彼女はその日、離婚届へ署名するつもりであったという。検死によるとカレンの死因は神経性無食欲症に起因するエメチンの心毒性であった。解剖学的な結論としては心臓麻痺が第1の原因で拒食症は第2の原因であった。第3に挙げられるのが悪液質でこれは負担や衰弱としては非常に軽いもので慢性的な疾患と関連した一般的な体の衰えというべきものであった。エメチンの心毒性が死因であったことはカレンが当時は簡単に入手できた薬である吐剤（誤って毒物を摂取してしまった人が即座に嘔吐できるようにするためのもの）を悪用していた可能性を示唆したが明確な証拠はない。彼女の告別式は1983年2月8日火曜日にダウニーの統一メソジスト教会で執り行われた。カレンは白い開いた棺にピンクのドレスを着せて横たえられ、およそ1,000人の会葬者が最後の別れを告げた。会葬者の中には、ドロシー・ハミル、オリビア・ニュートン＝ジョン、ペトゥラ・クラーク、クリスティナ・フェラー、ディオンヌ・ワーウィックといった彼女の友人たちがいた。別居中であったカレンの夫も葬儀に出席し、結婚指輪を外して棺の中に入れた。1983年10月12日、ハリウッド名声の歩道のコダック・シアターから2、3ヤードほどのところにカーペンターズの星型プレートが飾られた。多くのファンと並び、リチャード、ハロルド、アグネス・カーペンターが除幕式に出席した。カレンの死は拒食症だけでなく過食症に対してもメディアの注目を呼び寄せた。カレンの死によって有名人たちも自らの摂食障害を公表するようになったが、その中にはトレイシー・ゴールドやダイアナ妃といった人々がいた。医療センターや病院はこうした障害に悩む人々からの相談を受けることが多くなった。カレンの死が大きく報道されるまでは、一般大衆の間では拒食症や過食症についてあまり知られていなかったため、症状を正確に認識して対処することは困難だったのである。2003年12月、カレンと両親の遺骨がカリフォルニア州サイプレスのフォレスト・ローン記念公園から掘り起こされ、カリフォルニア州ウェストレイク・ビレッジのピアース・ブラザーズ・ヴァリー・オークス記念公園に改めて埋葬された。カレンの死後もリチャードは未発表音源集やコンピレーションアルバムなどデュオの作品のプロデュースを続けた。は1983年の終りにリリースされチャート46位に達してゴールド認定を受けた。このアルバムからは2枚のシングルがカットされた。はチャート入りしなかった。リチャードカーペンターは1984年5月19日にメアリルドルフと結婚した。1987年8月17日には長女クリスティが1989年7月25日には次女トレイシィが1992年7月25日には三女ミンディカレンが生まれその後もコリンとテイラーが生まれた。1984年リチャードはデュオの最初のクリスマスアルバム『クリスマスポートレイト』からのアウトテイクに新しい音源を加えた2枚目のクリスマスアルバム『オールドファッションドクリスマス』をカーペンターズの「新作」として制作した。また1987年にはリチャード初のソロアルバム『タイム』をリリースした。このアルバムからはダスティスプリングフィールドをゲストヴォーカルに迎えた「サムシングインユアアイズ」がヒットシングルとなった。カーペンターズのイメージを守りレコードの版権管理をしていこうと務めるリチャードに対しては批判が集中した。彼らを題材として扱うドキュメンタリーやドラマが制作されることになると、リチャードがそれらすべてに対して実質的な監督権を主張したためである。1987年には、トッド・ヘインズの自主制作短編映画 " はリチャードの協力下に制作され、好意的な評価と高い視聴率を獲得した。この映画の放映後数週間はレコード屋からカーペンターズの在庫がなくなったほどである。カレンのソロ・アルバム『遠い初恋』は1996年10月にリリースされた。CDにはA&Mが1980年にこのアルバムをお蔵入りにした経緯などを説明した、リチャードによるライナーノーツが付いている。ここに収録された楽曲は、ロック（ピーター・セテラをゲスト・ヴォーカルに迎えた「メイキング・ラヴ・イン・ジ・アフターヌーン」）からブルース（「ラスト・ワン・シンギン・ザ・ブルース」）まで、幅広いジャンルの音楽をカヴァーしている。なお、このアルバムのプロデューサーであるフィル・ラモーンはセテラがかつて所属していたバンド、シカゴの楽曲も数多く手がけている。カレンが1979年から1980年にかけて録音した未発表のソロ曲は他にも9曲ある。1997年にリチャードは自身のピアニスト・編曲家・作曲家としての才能のすべてを注ぎ込んだアルバムを録音して発表したが、そのタイトルはまさに "" というものであったがオリコンチャートのトップ10入りし、その他にも7曲がトップ40に入っている。1995年には日本市場向けにリチャードが編纂した がチャートトップを獲得し、2002年には出荷枚数300万枚を突破する。2003年には300万枚突破記念盤として再発、2005年には10周年記念盤として再々発された。リチャード・カーペンターは、妻のメアリ・ルドルフ・カーペンターおよび4人の娘と1人の息子らとともにカリフォルニア州サウザンド・オークスに住んでおり、夫妻は芸術家の後援活動をしている。2004年にリチャードと妻はカレンを記念したサウザンド・オークス市民芸術プラザ基金 に対し、300万ドルの寄付を行うことを公約した。これを受けて2006年9月20日には初年度となるとも提携している。彼はカーペンター・センターの資金繰りを目的とすることも含めて、コンサート活動を継続している。2001年にはヴァージニア州ノーフォークで行われたペトゥラ・クラークのを挙げた。2008年、アルバムのジャケットで有名になった、カリフォルニア州ダウニーのニューヴィル・アヴェニューにあるカーペンター家の家屋の取り壊しが間近に迫った際には、ファンによって抗議運動が展開された。2008年6月1日、ハリウッドにあるUniversal Studiosで火災があり、保管されていたUMGのものを含めた、50万を超える映画や音楽の原盤を焼失してしまった中にカーペンターズのものも含まれていたことが、40周年記念アルバム制作時にマスターテープが届かないことを不審に思ったリチャード・カーペンターの問合せによって判明した。音楽と歌詞のスタイル.カーペンターズの音楽を特徴的なものにした要素の1つは、カレンの用いた低い音域の声である。ジャズやカントリー・ミュージックの分野には見られたが、当時のポピュラー音楽の世界にアルト歌手はほとんど存在しなかった。しかし、カレンはおよそ3オクターヴにわたる広い声域をもっていたのである。リチャードの声もカレンの歌声と非常に相補的なものだと評価されていた。カレンは高い音域の声も出すことはできたが、低音ほど特質のあるものではなかった。リチャードはカーペンターズのオフィシャル・サイトのファンからの質問のページで、カレンと自分は彼女のに魔法のようなものを感じており、音の豊かさという点では比較にならなかったため、彼女の高音を強調するつもりはまったくなかったと述べている。カレンの「魔法」が低音域にあったためリチャードはカヴァー曲はもちろん自作曲もカレンにふさわしいキーで編曲しなおした。カーペンターズの曲の多くはD（「ユー」「見つめあう恋」）E（「イエスタデイワンスモア」）G（「恋よさようなら」「リーズントゥビリーヴ」「ふたりの誓い」「ユールラヴミー」）などのキーを用いている。カレンはこれらDからGまで場合によってはABCも用いているがこうした芸当のできる歌手は多くないことからカレンの声域の広さはよく知られている。歌手であると同時にドラマーでもあったカレンは、1974年まではしばしばドラムも演奏していた。リチャードによれば、カレンは自分をだと考えていた。5フィート4インチしかなかったカレンは、ライヴでドラムを演奏するとキットの陰に隠れてよく見えなかった。やむをえず2人は、バラードの時にはカレンが立ち上がって歌い、それ以外のあまり有名でない曲の時には座るという妥協案を見出した。年が経つにつれ、カレンがドラムを演奏している時にも彼女のヴォーカルを求める声が高まるようになり、カレンがドラムの前に座る時間は徐々に減っていった。1976年のアルバムのころには、カレンはまったくドラムを叩かなくなっていた。カーペンターズの音楽はそのアレンジの見事さによって高く評価されている。アレンジは大抵リチャードが担当しその手腕は広く賞賛された。アレンジの大半はクラシックのスタイルで多くの弦楽器やときには金管楽器や木管楽器も用いた。著名な音楽評論家のダニエルレビティンは "Electronic Musician" 誌においてと述べている。プロモーション活動とツアー.1969年の最初のアルバムに収録された。カーペンターズはコンサートツアーやテレビ出演などの過密なスケジュールをこなしていった。彼らが出演したテレビ番組にはではを演奏した。BBCのテレビ特番 では生演奏を披露している。彼らはまた夏の間だけのシリーズ番組 で主演を務めアメリカでは毎週火曜日の午後8時にNBCで放送された。1980年のラジオでのインタビューでカレンとリチャードのいずれもが1970年代初めのテレビとの関わりにおいて自分たちはつけ込まれ利用されていたことその後の作品を制作してゆく上での支配権を握られそうになっていたことなどを述べている。1973年5月には時のアメリカ大統領リチャードニクソンと訪米中の西ドイツ首相ウィリーブラントからの招待を受けホワイトハウスで演奏することになった。カーペンターズは1971年から1975年にかけて数多くのコンサートを行っている。以下の表はリチャードが保存していた旅行記録に基づいたものである。1970年代の中ごろには度重なるツアーや長期に及ぶレコーディングセッションが2人を蝕みはじめており2人の十数年にわたる活動の後半は仕事の上でも個人生活の上でも問題を抱えたものとなっていた。カレンは強迫観念的にダイエットをするようになりやがて神経性無食欲症になって症状も進行していった。この拒食症が最初に現われたのはラスヴェガスでのショーの途中でカレンが倒れた1975年のことである。カレンは消耗しきっておりフィリピンとイギリスおよび日本へのコンサートツアーはキャンセルするよう命じられた。リチャードはその時期の67日の過密スケジュールのことを後悔しており現在明らかになったことを当時すでに知っていたら絶対にそのような日程には同意しなかっただろうと語っている。カレンはシングルのミュージックビデオを撮影したころにはの中毒に陥っており1970年代後半には演奏に悪影響を及ぼしはじめこれらをきっかけとして1978年に2人はライヴコンサートへの出演を辞めることとなった。カーペンターズとして行った日本公演は、1972年、1974年、1976年の3回である。1974年の日本公演では、武道館ではひばり児童合唱団と、京都では地元の合唱団とを日本語で歌った。カーペンターズが司会を務めるテレビ特番も大変好評で、1976年から1980年にかけて計5本のレギュラー番組を持っていた。なかでも1976年12月8日放送の "" は人気を博し、アメリカの視聴率調査会社ニールセンのランキングで第6位となった。彼らのショーには大抵「shtick」（演出上の見せ場として、お決まりのギャグなどを演じる滑稽な場面）があり、リチャードはこれを大変嫌っていたものの、カレンは気に入っており、その個性をカメラの前で花開かせることとなった。カーペンターズ最後のテレビ特番 "" は1980年5月に放送された。この番組にははなく音楽だけで構成されていた。テレビ司会者のジョンデヴィッドソンや有名なスタンダード歌手のエラフィッツジェラルドらがゲスト出演しさまざまな歌を披露した。この番組で演奏された曲の多くは2004年にアルバムに収録された。カーペンターズのオフィシャルサイトでこのアルバムに収められた15曲のうち5曲が "Music Music Music!" から採られたものであると明記されている。しかしABCは彼らの純粋に音楽だけで番組を構成するという方針に不満を覚えていた。ドキュメンタリー でリチャードはABCのスタッフがこぼしたという言葉を引用している。皮肉にもこのドキュメンタリーは翌1998年にMPIホームビデオ社からDVDとして発売される前にPBSで放映された。音楽評論家からの酷評.カーペンターズの絶大な人気は音楽評論家たちの批判をはねのける勢いをもっていた。バラードやミドルテンポのポップスを中心とした2人の音楽性は批評家たちから退屈で甘ったるいと斬り捨てられていたのである。しかしレコード業界は2人にいくつもの賞を授与した。カーペンターズはそのキャリアにおいて3度のグラミー賞を受賞している。また1973年には投票によって第1回アメリカンミュージックアワードの最優秀ポップロックデュオにも選ばれた。多くの批評家たちからとまで言いながらそうした評価を払拭しようと努めている。レイ・コールマンの著書 においてもリチャードは、カーペンターズのイメージをひたすらにしておこうと務めるA&Mの経営陣や、彼らの音楽よりも彼らのイメージばかりを批評する評論家に対して、自分がいかに嫌悪感を抱いていたかを強調している。カーペンターズの再評価.カーペンターズの本格的な再評価は、1990年代から2000年代にかけて各国で制作された、 などさまざまなドキュメンタリーによってもたらされた。作品の技術的な質の高さや歌に奥底に秘められた悲しみ、カレンの歌声やその人生に刻まれた苦悩が多くのファンを惹きつけた。彼女の特徴的なヴォーカルが、その後のポップ・ミュージックにアン・マレーやリタ・クーリッジ、メリサ・マンチェスターといったアルト歌手を登場させる契機になったといわれている。1990年代のR&BグループボーイズIIメンさえもが自分たちに影響を与えたアーティストとしてカーペンターズの名を挙げている。1990年にオルタナティヴロックバンドのソニックユースは "Tunic " という曲を録音した。これはカレンが新しいと批判されていたにもかかわらずカーペンターズをロックの殿堂へ入れるべきだとする運動や嘆願書が数多く存在する。1994年のトリビュート・アルバムでは、ソニック・ユースやベティー・サーヴァート、少年ナイフ、グラント・リー・バッファロー、マシュー・スウィート、クランベリーズといったアーティストによって、カーペンターズのヒット曲のオルタナティブ・ロック的解釈が試みられた。カーペンターズの曲の多くはもはやポップスタンダードとなっている。特になどはカラオケで歌われることも多い。この曲はでこの曲を歌い若い世代にもこの曲を知らしめた。はその良質さと歴史的重要性からグラミーの殿堂入りを果している。アーティスト達からの評価.自分に大きな影響を与えた人物としてカレン・カーペンターの名を挙げている現代のアーティストには、クリスティーナ・アギレラ、グウェン・ステファニー、シャナイア・トゥエイン、アナスタシア、メアリー・J. ブライジ、アリシア・キーズ、リアン・ライムス、ケリー・ジョーンズ、マドンナなどがいる。クイーンはプロフィールにカーペンターズをとして挙げていた。リチャードと妻メアリ・ルドルフ・カーペンターは、2007年にベンチュラ郡のフィランソロピスト・オブ・ザ・イヤー賞を授与された。アメリカ合衆国のバンドカーペンターズのディスコグラフィは、14枚のスタジオ・アルバム、2枚のライブ・アルバム、11枚のコンピレーション・アルバム、3作の音楽ビデオ、1枚のトリビュート・アルバム、46枚のシングル、2枚のサウンドトラックにより構成される。その経歴を通じて、カーペンターズは解散までにリード・アーティストとして30枚のシングルをリリースした。この30枚のうち13枚がRIAAによってゴールドディスクに認定され、22枚がアダルト・コンテンポラリー・チャートのトップ10に到達した。またカーペンターズは1969年から1983年までに10枚のアルバムを発表した。そのうち6枚のアルバムがビルボード・ホット100のトップ20入りした曲を収録している。1970年代を通じてリチャードとカレンはグラミー賞に何度もノミネートされている。リチャードはインストゥルメンタル曲 によって個人でもノミネートされた。2人はグラミー賞を3度受賞し2曲が殿堂入りを果している。5月31日 日本武道館6月1日 静岡駿府会館6月4日 京都会館6月5日 広島県立体育館6月7日 大阪フェスティバルホール6月8日 横浜文化体育館6月10日 名古屋市民会館6月12日 日本武道館 +3月15日・16日 日本武道館、3月17日 静岡市駿府会館、3月18日 愛知県体育館、3月19日 神戸市立中央体育館、3月20日 京都体育館、3月21日 和歌山県立体育館、3月24日★・25日★、26日★ 大阪フェスティバルホール、3月28日 金沢大乗寺山・実践倫理記念会館、3月29日 岡山市立体育館、3月30日 山口県体育館、3月31日★ 福岡 九電記念体育館、4月1日 熊本市立体育館、4月2日 広島県立体育館、4月5日★ 仙台宮城県スポーツセンター、4月7日 札幌真駒内アイスアリーナ、4月9日 日本武道館、4月10日★ 神奈川県民ホール、4月11日 水戸笠松運動公園体育館1971年A&Mのグラフィック部門はクレイグブラウン&アソシエーツを雇いカーペンターズの最新作となる3枚目のアルバムにだけこのロゴが使用されていないのか」という質問が多く寄せられている。これに対しリチャードは裏ジャケットの下中央で使われているはずだと答えている。日本でも現在に至るまでその人気は確かなもので、広告・ドラマの主題歌などさまざまなメディアで耳にする機会は少なくない。また、彼ら自身が1970年代に森永製菓のハイクラウンチョコレートや、サントリーのソフトドリンク、ポップのCMに起用されていたことがある。スローテンポで聴きやすいスタンダードポップス音楽的にも優れた楽曲覚えやすく歌いやすいメロディーカレンの正確な発音正しい英文法基本的な単語で構成された歌詞スラングがないことヒット曲が多いこと……などからビートルズなどと共にとしても一般的に広く薦められている。スティーヴ・ライヒ。異父弟に作家のジョナサン・キャロル。ドイツ系ユダヤ人移民の父親と東欧系ユダヤ人の母親の子として生まれる。最小限に抑えた音型を反復させるミニマルミュージックの先駆者として｢現代における最も独創的な音楽思想家｣などの初期の作品を発表。1990年、『18人の音楽家のための音楽』（1974年-1976年）、ホロコーストを題材にした『ディファレント･トレインズ』（1988年）により2つのグラミー賞を受賞。1993年には、｢21世紀のオペラはこうあるべき｣（タイム誌）と評された『The Cave -洞窟-』を発表した。2006年第18回高松宮殿下記念世界文化賞の音楽部門を受賞。2009年『』でピューリッツァー賞 音楽部門を受賞。2008年度の「武満徹作曲賞」審査員を務め18人の音楽家のための音楽の自作自演を行った。なお、日本国内ではドイツ語式に「ライヒ」と表記されるが、本国アメリカ合衆国では一般的に「ライシュ」または「ライク」と発音される。種々のインタビューやコンサート・トークにおいて、本人は「ライシュ」と発音している。ただし最近のTV番組などでは、ナレーターなどによりあえて「ライヒ」と発音されるケースもある。初期・フェイズ・シフティング.ライヒは1957年にコーネル大学哲学科で学士号を取得した後、1958年から1961年までニューヨークのジュリアード音楽院に在籍し、ウィリアム･バーグスマらに師事。1961年から1963年までは、カリフォルニア州のオークランドにある、ミルズカレッジでルチアーノ・ベリオとダリウス・ミヨーの元で学び、修士号を取得した。ライヒの作品、特にでは、アフリカ音楽の影響が色濃く、ライヒは特にAM・ジョーンズによる、ガーナのエヴェ族に関するアフリカ音楽の研究から影響を受けていた。やがてライヒは、ドラミングの研究のためにガーナを訪れるようになり、1970年にはガーナ大学アフリカ研究所でドラミングを集中して学んだ。また、ライヒは1973年から1974年にかけてシアトルでバリ島のガムランの研究も行った。さらにユダヤ人としての自らのルーツを探るようにヘブライ語聖書の伝統的な詠唱法を学ぶことで、｢言葉が生む旋律｣を再発見していく。中期・オーグメンテーション.以降、ライヒは自分自身が先駆者であった"フェイズ・シフティング"の技法から離れ、より複雑な楽曲を書き始める。彼は他の音のオーグメンテーションのような作品を作曲したのはこの時期である。特にでも採用されている。その結果、4台のオルガンがそれぞれ特定の8部音符を強調しながら、11thの和音を奏で、マラカスがテンポの速い8部音符のリズムを刻む立体的な音の空間を持った曲が出来上がった。リズムが変化し、繰り返される手法が使われている。この曲は、初期のライヒの作品が循環的であるのに対し、直線的である点が異質で特徴的である。1974年には、ライヒはライヒを知る大多数の人々から重要であると位置づけられる作品、『18人の音楽家のための音楽』を書き始めた。初期の作品の持つ作風へ戻りつつも、この作品には多くの新しいアイディアが含まれている。曲は11のコードのサイクルを基本としており、それぞれのコードには短い曲がそれぞれ割り当てられ、曲の終わりには元のサイクルへと戻っていく。セクション（楽曲内の区切り）はと名づけられている。ライヒにとっては、大人数のアンサンブルのために書いた初の試みであり、演奏家が増えることによって音響心理学的な効果はより大きなものとなり、その効果に夢中になったライヒは「もっとこのアイディアを探求したい」と語っている。また、ライヒはこの作品は過去に書かれたどの作品よりも、最初の5分間に含まれるハーモニーが豊かであるとも語っている。同じ年にライヒは彼自身の哲学美学1963年から1974年の間に作曲した作品についてのエッセイが収録された本"Writings About Music"を出版した。2002年には"Writings On Music (1965-2000)"として新しいエッセイが収録された本も出版されている。後期囁かれだした民族主義.1976年から1977年にかけては、ライヒはドイツ系ユダヤ人である自らのルーツを探るように、ニューヨークとエルサレムにて、ヘブライ語聖書の伝統的な詠唱法を学んだ。1981年に作曲されたは、ヘブライ語で詩篇もしくは賛歌を意味するタイトルが示す通り、ヘブライ語のテキストを女声が歌い上げる、4部に分かれた曲である。1988年にはクロノスクァルテットのためにを書き下ろす。この作品においてライヒはインタビューで録音された古い肉声を使用しておりその肉声が奏でる音程に合わせて弦楽器のメロディーが反復され加速するといった新しい手法を用いている。曲は3部に分かれており第二次世界大戦前のアメリカ第二次大戦中のヨーロッパでのホロコースト戦後のアメリカにおける汽車の旅が汽笛の音を散りばめながら描かれている。1990年にライヒはこの作品においてグラミー賞最優秀現代音楽作品賞を受賞する。1993年にはライヒは妻で映像作家でもあるとオペラ『ザケイヴ』においてコラボレーションを行う。このオペラでは彼はユダヤ教キリスト教イスラム教のルーツを探っている。テクニックはチェコ人作曲家のヤナーチェクの発話旋律と全く変わらないが採譜された旋律を電子キーボードとマイク増幅されたボーカルで二度三度と繰り返すためにライヒ色は失われていない（イスラムの場面ではコーランは歌うことができないのでそのままの詠唱を行ってもらった）。ライヒとコロットは飛行船ヒンデンブルク号の惨劇ビキニ環礁での核実験そしてより現代的な出来事特にクローン羊ドリーを取り上げたオペラ『スリーテイルズ』（2002年）でも再度コラボレーションを行っている。テクノミュージックやエレクトロニカのアーティストたちにも多大な影響を与えておりライヒ自身もテクノに興味があることをインタビューの中で述べている。1999年にはライヒ公認のプロジェクトとしてライヒの楽曲を9人のテクノのアーティスト達がリミックスしたCDをリミックス）ケンイシイ（『カムアウト』をリミックス）が参加した。完成された楽曲は一旦ライヒの元へ送られ曲によっては作り直しを命じられたこともあり実質的にライヒが監修したCDであるといえる。 +ミニマルミュージックは音の動きを最小限に抑えパターン化された音型を反復させる音楽。現代音楽のムーブメントのひとつ。1960年代から盛んになった。単にミニマルと呼ばれることもある。ミニマルミュージックは1960年代のアメリカで生まれた。この時期テリーライリーの「」（1964年）やスティーヴライヒの「」（1965年）「」（1966年）などの作品が作られている。ラモンテヤングの「」（1958年）をミニマルミュージックの始まりとする説もある。同時期にヨーロッパではルチアーノベリオジェルジリゲティヘンリクグレツキらも単純反復による音楽語法を試みておりこれらの作風はアメリカのミニマルミュージックと類似している。1968年には当時音楽評論家として活躍していたマイケルナイマンがコーネリアスカーデューのの概念を持ち込んだ。ナイマンは1974年の著書“"Experimental Music Cage and Beyond"”のラモンテヤングに言及した節でヤングのヴェーベルン聴取を取り上げと解釈可能であると見たのである。エリックサティの後期作品の一部は執拗な反復によって曲が成り立っておりジョンケージの初期作品に影響を与えているという点でケージの後に続いたミニマルミュージックへと続く音楽史の脈絡に深く影響している。日本における潮流としてはヨシワダ近藤譲藤枝守らが欧州における潮流としてはトムジョンソンジェルジリゲティジョンマクガイヤーらがミニマルミュージックに類似する反復語法を自身の語法に取り入れている。作曲家の久石譲は自らのコンサートの一部においてミニマルミュージックの語法で書かれた作品を上演している。また反復を基本とするオスティナート語法での作曲を長年続けていた伊福部昭のもとへテリーライリーが表敬訪問した。シカゴ（、)）は、アメリカ合衆国のイリノイ州クック郡にある都市。同州最大にして北アメリカ屈指の世界都市。国内ではニューヨークとロサンゼルスに次ぐ人口を持つ。シカゴはクック郡内にあり、同郡の郡庁所在地である。同郡には他にアーリントンハイツなどが含まれる。2012年の人口は271万人である。19世紀後半から20世紀中盤までアメリカ国内における鉄道航空海運の拠点としてまた五大湖工業地帯の中心として発展しニューヨークに次ぐアメリカ第2の都市となっていた歴史を持つ。摩天楼がそびえ立つアメリカ型都市の発祥とされダウンタウンの高層建築はシカゴ派として知られ近代建築史における重要局面をなした。1973年に建てられたシアーズタワーは1998年まで世界一の高層建築であった。マコーミックプレイスコンプレックスは北アメリカ最大のコンベンションセンターでありオヘア空港は全米有数の過密な空港として知られる。2017年にアメリカのシンクタンクが発表した総合的な世界都市ランキングにおいて、世界12位の都市と評価された。アメリカの都市ではニューヨーク、ロサンゼルスに次ぐ3位である。2017年3月の調査によると、世界7位の金融センターである。2014年の都市の経済規模（GDP）では、世界9位となっている。日本語の漢字表記はと呼ばれている。シカゴはニューヨークが対西ヨーロッパから国際都市、ロサンゼルスが対中央アメリカ・アジアへの交易窓口として発展したのに対して古くから内陸交通の要衝として発展し、アメリカの産業・文化の発展と共に都市形成が行われてきた経緯がある。また、イリノイ川河口地点は古くからインディアン部族の交易の場として機能していた。一番古い記録では1673年にフランス人伝道師が訪れている。という意味で、おそらく河口付近にタマネギが自生していた地であったためだとされている。1779年にドミニカの毛皮商が入植し1803年には軍事拠点としてが作られるとともに開拓が進み1833年には人口200人程度だった。1836年に始まったミシガン湖とミシシッピー川を結ぶ運河建設を発端に土地投機家が大挙して押し寄せ一大開発都市に発展する基盤が築かれた。1837年に市に昇格すると人口は急増し翌年にはが開通以後交通の要衝として大発展を遂げる。その後1848年にはイリノイミシガン運河が開通1852年にはイリノイセントラル鉄道が開通し内陸交通の要としての地位を更に高めた。その頃の主要産業は農業でシカゴはとりわけ小麦を東部の都市に送り出す穀物の集散地として発展1848年には世界有数の先物商品取引所であるシカゴ商品取引所（Chicago Board of TradeCBOT）が作られた。また畜産業も発達し1855年には収容頭数が当時最大のが設けられた。一方で優秀な鉄鉱床が点在していたために鉱業も発展し1860年には人口6万人に増大しセントルイスやシンシナティを追い越し西部最大の都市になった。同年の大統領選挙ではシカゴを地盤とするリンカーン候補（共和党）が当選し初めて政治でも主導権を握ると翌年から南北戦争（1861年-1865年）を開始した。このころには30万都市となっていた。1871年にはシカゴ大火によって甚大な被害を受けた。一説によればオリアリー夫人が飼っていた牛がランプを倒して大火災になり、炎が燃え尽きるころには街は廃墟になり、ほとんどの公共建築が焼け落ちた。しかし、現在はギャラリーや公式観光案内所になっているシカゴ・ウォーター・タワーは唯一焼け落ちずに残った公共建築物である。被害額は当時にして約2億ドル、家を失った人は10万人に上ったという。しかし、この焼失はシカゴの計画都市化、新都市計画の幕開けになった。被災後に市は木造住宅を禁止し、煉瓦、石造、鉄製を推奨した。そのためシカゴは建築家たちの格好の市場となり、1885年にホーム・インシュアランス・ビル、1887年にタマコビルディングが竣工、建築におけるシカゴ派による摩天楼設立ラッシュの先駆となった。このダウンタウン形成時に、その観察に努めた社会学者が膨大な記述を行った。社会学におけるいわゆるシカゴ学派の始まりである。1873年に始まった大不況 (1873年-1896年)では、1886年5月に合衆国カナダ職能労働組合連盟が統一ストライキを行なったが、ヘイマーケット事件が起こり、1889年に第二インターナショナルが国際労働運動のためのメーデーをパリで制定すると、1890年にメーデーをシカゴで実行した。コロンブスの新大陸と呼ばれた壮大な万博会場を造り上げ国際的な地位を高めるとともに文化都市として脚光を浴び成功を収めた。それと同時にオーケストラホール図書館博物館公園などの文化施設の建設ラッシュとなった。1882年から1905年にかけて電力産業が乱立すると1912年にの提唱で公益事業の価格統制制度が導入され低料金の電気が普及した。人口は1900年に170万人に達しニューヨークに次ぐアメリカ第二の大都市になった。しかしそれらはいわゆる富裕層によって生み出された文化であり肥大する経済発展とは裏腹に新たな社会問題も生まれた。それが貧富の差の拡大で20世紀に入るとウェストサイドでスラム化が進行した。またかつて奴隷としてアメリカ建国時に農業などの労働を担っていたアフリカ系アメリカ人が1914年から1950年にかけてアメリカ南部から次々に移入した（アフリカ系アメリカ人の大移動）。彼らは法律上表面的には奴隷の身分を解かれてシカゴにやって来たが人種差別などから低賃金重労働以外に就くことはほぼ不可能であり新天地での生活も相変わらず苦しいものだった。暴動は日常茶飯事となりとりわけ1919年のは過去最悪となった。更に腐敗政治の蔓延などで市街は無法地帯となりその時多くの住人が市街地を去った。1927年の市長選挙でウィリアム・ヘイル・トンプソンが勝利すると、トンプソンはシセロにあるナイトクラブの常連となってギャング（シカゴ・アウトフィット）と癒着し、アル・カポネが裏社会を支配した。1929年の世界恐慌の影響で、市の財政も大幅な赤字となった。同年、聖バレンタインデーの虐殺を契機に、トニー・アッカルドやサム・ジアンカーナ等、1940年代から1960年代の次世代を担うギャングが台頭した。トンプソン政権は、1931年市長選で敗北するまで続いた。1920年にも建築ラッシュは続き、や、戦後には世界一の高さを誇っていたシアーズ・タワーを打ち立てたことで有名である。1958年頃に旧来の白人中心のギャングだけでなくブラックPストーンズやヴァイスローズ1968年にはギャングスターディサイプルズといった黒人によるストリートギャングが誕生し1960年代より1970年代にかけてギャング同士の抗争が発生し治安が悪化した。1950年から1970年にかけてその職にあった民主党の市長は、様々な有力者の支持を受け、市街地の再開発と治安の改善、賃金格差の是正などに努め、市政を建て直した。ニューヨークやボストンなどが経済発展に陰りが見え始めた頃に、シカゴは比較的堅調な経済情勢を維持できたのも、この市長の善政のおかげだったといわれている。シカゴの人口は、1950年に362万人となり最高を記録した。以後、周辺部を含めた都市圏の人口は現在まで増加傾向が続いているが、市域内の人口は伸び悩む傾向が続き、市域人口は1980年代前半にロサンゼルスに抜かれている。これは五大湖近辺の市街地老朽化と製造業の衰退によるものと見られており、また、西海岸諸都市の経済発展を受けて、アメリカ国内におけるシカゴ経済の地位は、20世紀半ばまでの時期に比べて相対的に低下した。ただし近郊では、半導体・電子機器・輸送機械などの産業が発展し、シカゴは現在もアメリカにおける商業・金融・流通の重要拠点の一つとしての地位を保っている。シカゴには高さ100m以上の超高層ビルが575棟ある。これは世界でもニューヨーク香港に次ぐ数である。シカゴはミシガン湖の南西部先端であるイリノイ州北東部に位置している。アメリカ合衆国統計局によると、シカゴは総面積606.1kmである。このうち588.3 kmは陸地で17.8 kmは水地域である。総面積の2.94%は水地域となっている。ケッペンの気候区分では亜寒帯湿潤気候に属する。冬季は厳しい寒さとなるがさほど降雪は多くない。一方夏季は温暖な南西風の影響でかなりの暑さとなり気温の年較差が大きい大陸性気候となっている。シカゴは英語でである。つまり上記の英文はシカゴおよびシカゴ市民を馬鹿にした発言である。このことが本来の由来を離れて使用されるに至った。なお1893年の万博は結局シカゴで開催されそれまでの万博で最大の規模となった。2010年現在の国勢調査で、シカゴ市内の人口は269万5,598人、104万5,560世帯が暮らしている。これはイリノイ州の全体的な人口の約5分の1及びアメリカの人口の1%になる。かつてはニューヨークに次ぐ大都市だったが、ロサンゼルスの台頭と五大湖近辺の地位低下、更に都市圏の拡大による郊外化、サブプライムローン金融危機に伴う抵当物件差押えの増加や、低所得者向け高層公共住宅の取り壊しとそれに伴う住民の立ち退き、全米平均を上回る高い失業率を背景に人口が急減している。この都市の人種的な構成は白人45.0%、アフリカン・アメリカン32.9%、インディアン0.5%、アジア5.5%、その他の人種13.4%、および混血2.7%であり、黒人の比率が全米平均の12.6%より20%以上も高いのが特徴である。この人口の28.9%はヒスパニックまたはラテン系である。2011年の国勢調査によると、シカゴの白人住民のうちもっとも多いのがアイルランド系であり、ドイツ系、ポーランド系がそれに続く。この都市内の住民は26.2%が18歳未満の未成年、18歳以上24歳以下が11.2%、25歳以上44歳以下が33.4%、45歳以上64歳以下が18.9%、及び65歳以上が10.3%にわたっている。中央値年齢は32歳である。女性100人ごとに対して男性は94.2人である。18歳以上の女性100人ごとに対して男性は91.1人である。この都市の世帯ごとの平均的な収入は38,625米ドルであり、家族ごとの平均的な収入は42,724米ドルである。男性は35,907米ドルに対して女性は30,536米ドルの平均的な収入がある。この都市の一人当たりの収入は20,175米ドルである。人口の19.6%および家族の16.6%は貧困線以下である。全人口のうち18歳未満の28.1%および65歳以上の15.5%は貧困線以下の生活を送っている。1970年代は犯罪発生率が高く970人が殺害され殺人発生率は10万人あたり29人であった。近年は人口減少と共に殺人も減少傾向にあったが2012年には前年よりも有意な増加が見られ発生率は10万人あたり18.5人で全米平均の4倍近くとなっており506人が殺害されている。そのため警官の増員や地元代表らとの連携がなされ2013年には殺人被害者数が415人まで下がったものの暴力行為は依然多く発砲事件だけでも2013年の負傷者の数は2185人にのぼった。ギャング(前述)による抗争などが発生しており2011年と2012年にはシカゴで殺害された年間死亡者数がイラクやアフガニスタンに派兵された米兵の同年の死亡者数を上まったことから「Chiraq」(シカゴの「Chi」とイラクの「raq」をかけあわせた語句)という不名誉なあだ名がついてしまった。19世紀末の連続殺人犯であるH・H・ホームズがと呼ばれた建物を建てたのもシカゴである。シカゴの文化は富裕層らが築いた文化に大別されるが、一般に象徴されるのは後者である。一方で前述の通り1920年代に蔓延したマフィアや暴力団（ギャング）も有名。時代を反映した映画「ブルースブラザース」「逃亡者」などの舞台にもなっている。またシカゴ風ピザ（アイスクリーム）サンデー発祥の地でもある。ピカソの彫像『無題」が行われ市民が集う。聖パトリックの祝日にはシカゴ川がシンボルカラーの緑に染められる事で知られる。クラシック音楽ではシカゴ交響楽団やシカゴリリックオペラがある。シカゴ交響楽団は全米の一つとされる のみならず世界最高のオーケストラのひとつとして知られている。同交響楽団は1891年に創設され1953年～1962年の音楽監督フリッツライナーの時代と1969年～1991年の音楽監督ゲオルクショルティの時代にそれぞれ大発展を遂げ世界的な名声を確立した。シカゴリリックオペラはニューヨークのメトロポリタンオペラサンフランシスコオペラと並ぶアメリカ3大オペラハウスの一つとされている。またシカゴはアフリカ系アメリカ人らが築き上げた音楽文化ブルースやジャズのメッカとして名高い。アメリカ南部のミシシッピ川流域で発生したアコースティックなデルタブルースにエレクトリックギターなどを導入してシカゴブルースと呼ばれる音楽に発展させた。ジャズの分野では1920年代にはルイアームストロング等多くのミュージシャンが活動の拠点をニューオーリンズからシカゴに移した。1965年にはアフリカ系アメリカ人のジャズミュージシャンたちがAACMを追求する者も多くいる。またギャング文化に伴ったヒップホップのメッカともいわれており近年ではトラップに影響を受けたトラックに乗せてシカゴの治安問題を暴力的な歌詞に乗せて歌うというジャンルが発生している。博物館及びギャラリー.1998年、シカゴは3つの主要な博物館に取り囲まれたレイクフロントパーク地域に、ミュージアム・キャンパスを公式に開設した。このミュージアム・キャンパスはグラント・パークの南部地区に設定された。グラントパークにはシカゴ美術館も所在している。シカゴ地域の他の主要な博物館ギャラリーは以下の通り。シカゴのロウアー・ウェスト・サイド地区と通称される。ピルゼンとは、チェコの都市プルゼニの英語およびドイツ語名である。しかし1970年代以降、地区の主な住人はメキシコ系へと置き換わっていった。北米4大プロスポーツリーグすべてを有する数少ない都市。さらにMLSやマイナーリーグなども構えている。友好姉妹都市（代表的な都市）.全米国際姉妹都市協会加盟都市。シカゴを舞台にした映画・ドラマ・漫画・舞台・ゲーム.シカゴは多くの映画やドラマの舞台となっており、シカゴ内のある高層ホテルでは様々な映画やドラマを10回以上も撮影していることで知られている。 +は、日本の東北地方に位置する県。県庁所在地は盛岡市。東北地方の北部は、内陸部の北上盆地に集中している。盆地と海岸部以外は山地や丘陵地が多く、緑豊かな県である。江戸時代の幕藩時代は現在の岩手県の前身にあたる地域は南部藩の北部と伊達藩の南部で構成されていた地域は陸中に当たる。「岩手」の名称は、県庁の置かれた盛岡市の所属郡名「岩手郡」に由来する。その起源については、「住民の悪鬼追討の祈りに対し、人々の信仰を集めて『三ツ石さま』と呼ばれていた大岩（三ツ石の神、現：三ツ石神社）がそれを懲罰し、二度とこの地を荒らさないという鬼の確約を岩の上に手形で残させた」という故事に倣うとされる。またと詠じたという。この表現は古今和歌集の中からの本歌取りである。1872年の発足以降現在に至るまで正式にはを正式名としている。気候区分は内陸の那須火山帯の麓は日本海側気候、それ以外の地域は太平洋側気候。それに併せて、内陸は内陸性気候で夏は暑く冬は寒く、太平洋側沿岸部は海洋性気候で夏は涼しい。。三陸海岸沿岸部はケッペンの気候区分では西岸海洋性気候 に分類されることもある。北部内陸地方や西部山岳地帯は亜寒帯湿潤気候 に属し、寒さが非常に厳しく、特に藪川は冬季に−30°C近くまで冷え込むこともある本州最寒地として有名である。県内全域が豪雪地帯に指定されているものの、冬の積雪量には地域差が大きい。西和賀町と八幡平市は積雪量がかなり多く、特別豪雪地帯に指定されている。奥羽山脈では、積雪量が多く雪質も良いため、いくつかのスキー場でスキーやスノーボードの国際大会や国内大会が開かれることが多い。一方、太平洋側に位置する宮古市、大船渡市などは積雪量は概して少ない。太平洋側の盆地である北上盆地は、冬季の西高東低の気圧配置になると奥羽山脈がの役割をはたして晴天になる場合も多い。そのため、放射冷却によって早朝の最低気温がかなり低くなる。対して、降雪時や曇天の場合は気温が下がりづらい。北上盆地に位置する盛岡市は、このような放射冷却の影響がある脊梁山脈東側盆地の最北端都道府県庁所在地であるため、は、今でも厳冬期に−15°C前後まで下がることも珍しくなく、北海道を除き、標高が高くない都市平地部では最も冷え込みが厳しい地域である。しかし、冬場の朝晩は市街地と郊外の気温差は非常に大きく、盛岡、北上、一関を中心にヒートアイランドが顕著に見られる。一方北上盆地の夏はフェーン現象の影響で南にあり海洋性気候の傾向もある仙台市よりも気温が高いことがしばしばあるが沿岸部は仙台市と同様の気候となることが多い。国土地理院の全国都道府県市区町村別面積調によると、岩手県の面積は平方キロメートルである。岩手県の東西南北それぞれの端は以下の位置である。東端は魹ヶ崎西端は黒森峠の北東約2km南端はJR東日本東北本線油島駅の東南東約6.7km北端はJR東日本八戸線角の浜駅の北約1kmである。加えて重心も併記する。また総務省統計局の平成27年国勢調査によると人口重心は紫波郡紫波町佐比内字砥ケ崎にある。総面積で全国2位だが可住地面積割合が24.3%と低く全国40位で可住地面積では全国5位に下がる（都道府県の面積一覧#2014年 面積の順位を参照）。可住地は大別して内陸部（人口100万人程度）と沿岸部（30万人程度）の2つ。このうち内陸部には東北新幹線東北縦貫自動車道などの高速交通インフラが整っているがその他の地域ではインフラが未発達で地域間移動は国道や在来線レベルに留まっている。特に内陸部と沿岸部を行き来するためには一般国道県道は急峻な峠を上り下りする道となっており直線距離の割に移動に大きな時間を要する結果を招いている。このような状況は県土が多数の島によって構成されている沖縄県とも相似しており救急医療においてはヘリコプター輸送が行われているほどである。交通インフラの未整備に起因して、短時間で県庁にたどりつけない県民が多数存在することから、従来岩手県庁は、県内各所にの管轄とした。この結果、従来12だった広域生活圏は、4に減少した。広域振興局は以下4つに分けられる。圏域は以下9つに分けられる。各振興局ごとに県内市町村を列記する。県内には14市10郡15町4村がある。と読む。盛岡広域振興局管内 482482人県南広域振興局管内 514,132人沿岸広域振興局管内 218,744人県北広域振興局管内 133,932人北上市など県の南部では経済発展によって所得水準が大きく向上している一方の内陸北部沿岸部では目立った経済的発展がなく発展が遅れがちで所得格差が存在している。統計資料で比較すると県全体の平均所得が242万円なのに対し県北の中心都市二戸市久慈市では190万円台にとどまり50万円以上もの格差が存在している。岩手県庁は2006年県北沿岸振興本部を設置して対策に乗り出したが南北の格差は逆に拡大傾向すら呈しており根本的な対策が求められている。約4万年 - 3万3000年前には、斜軸尖頭器を出土した柳沢舘遺跡などの遺跡から旧石器時代から人が住んでいたと考えられる。古くは縄文時代より豊かな狩猟・漁労生活を実現した地だった。近年の東北学では、上代の北上川流域は蝦夷の中心地で、日高見国とも呼ばれていたという説が唱えられている。一方で、胆沢の角塚古墳は最北の前方後円墳であり、ヤマト王権の影響力が及ぶ北の端でもあった。北東北地域は律令国家の形成期である7世紀後半にはまだその支配に組み込まれておらず蝦夷は朝廷側からは征伐の対象であった。8世紀末の38年戦争では胆沢に蝦夷の軍事指導者アテルイが現れて朝廷軍に抵抗するが征夷大将軍に任ぜられた坂上田村麻呂によって滅ぼされる。その後北上川流域は朝廷が掌握し蝦夷の多くが全国に強制移住させられた。残った蝦夷は俘囚として支配体制に組み込まれ同時に胆沢には関東地方から柵戸として入植者が入った。11世紀までに奥六郡にいたる広大な地域に影響力を発揮した俘囚長の安倍氏が半独立の勢力を築いた。安倍氏は前九年の役で源頼義の率いるヤマト朝廷軍になびいた秋田仙北の俘囚主清原氏によって滅ぼされた。その清原氏も一族の内紛から後三年の役で滅び安倍氏の血を引く奥州藤原氏が江刺郡豊田館から磐井郡平泉に拠点を移動して奥州を掌握豊かな産金をもとに仏教を基盤とする地域支配を実現しその平泉時代を築いた。平泉が源頼朝に攻略され再び源氏が統治した鎌倉時代には甲斐国南部の河内地方を領した甲斐源氏の南部氏が八戸周辺に移住し今の青森県から岩手県北及び秋田県鹿角地方にまで勢力を伸ばした。沿岸部では閉伊氏県央部では斯波氏稗貫氏阿曽沼氏和賀氏などが割拠し県南部は葛西氏留守氏が有力だったが次第に福島県伊達郡に根城を置く伊達氏の勢力が浸透し室町時代には葛西氏留守氏は伊達の馬打ちとして事実上支配下に置かれた。これらの諸氏は伊達氏の内紛によって再び自立するが伊達政宗の仙台移封を機会に葛西氏は滅亡留守氏は伊達氏の一族として組み込まれた。同じ頃安倍氏の末裔である一方井氏を母に持つ南部氏の南部信直が勢力を拡大し南部所属の頭領として振舞うようになるとこれを認めない九戸南部氏の九戸政実と争い豊臣秀吉の知遇を得た信直は秀吉軍を招きいれて政実を滅ぼした。大浦氏以外の南部氏諸家を統一した信直は盛岡に拠点を移し勢力を確立した。江戸時代には、県の南部は概ね仙台藩伊達氏に62万石、一関藩は田村氏、水沢には留守氏を作ると、現在の岩手県を支配していた伊達藩・南部藩はその中心となるが、結局敗れて明治政府によって占領された。明治3年7月10日盛岡藩は財政難により廃藩置県に先立って廃藩を申し出旧領には明治政府により盛岡県が設置された。盛岡県成立時の管轄地域は陸中国岩手郡稗貫郡および紫波郡和賀郡の一部のみで新政府に敗れる前の盛岡藩より大幅に縮小された。その後、莫大な御用金を課せられたり、旧藩を分断する県域を設定され弱体化を図られるなど敗戦の屈辱を味わう。（ただし盛岡藩の廃藩置県の折に課せられた70万両の納付は減免されている。）以降は旧藩を問わず多くの人材を輩出。原敬が内閣総理大臣に就任するなど、近代日本国家建設に多くの功があった。また中央へ人材を輩出したと同時に原敬と山田線、後藤新平と鈴木商店など金権政治の時代を先駆けた政治的犯罪も伴った。県域は明治4年の第2次府県統合で磐井県から胆沢郡・江刺郡・磐井郡を、青森県から二戸郡を編入したが、前者はおおむね旧仙台藩領であり、旧藩が分断された状態は是正されなかった。1876年1月に最初の県議会が開かれ、5月に岩手県が成立した。県名はそれまでの県庁所在地の郡名を採って付けられた。1889年には下閉伊郡宮古町・山口村・千徳村・磯鶏村が合併・市制施行して宮古市となり、戦前までに3市が誕生した。昭和戦後期の1950年代から1960年代には、山岳地帯のため交通の便が悪いことや、主な産業が富士製鐵1月22日封切のニュース映画において用いられたことから定着したという。その後1964年などの自動車産業東芝や富士通などの半導体工場塩野義製薬など大企業の工場の進出が進み製造品出荷額が大きな伸びを見せた。2008年が発生し沿岸部の各地で津波による大きな被害が出た。1995年以降公共投資予算は年10%以上の割合で急速に縮減され財政再建に大きく舵を切った。県自らも県議会での質問に答える形で財政悪化の原因について自己分析している。衆議院の小選挙区が3。参議院では、全県で1区を構成。かつては産業がほとんどない事を自称していたが東北新幹線や東北縦貫自動車道などの整備に伴って企業の誘致が進んでいる。企業の誘致には法人道府県民税収や法人事業税従業員からの住民税収関連企業による経済波及効果などで大きな税源涵養が見込まれることから全国の自治体が誘致にしのぎを削っている。岩手県もこの例に漏れず誘致に腐心しておりこれまでにトヨタ自動車系の生産工場東芝のフラッシュメモリ工場富士通などを誘致した。こうした奏功から1995年以降は製造品出荷額が伸びを示し47都道府県中県民所得は40位台後半から38位にまで改善した。東北6県で見ると福島県宮城県山形県に続く数字である。特に自動車産業については、トヨタ自動車が東北地方を新たに生産拠点と位置付けており、今後とも一層の誘致が見込まれる産業分野である。さらに、近年は国際リニアコライダーを軸とした国際学術研究都市構想を表明している。貯蓄率が極めて高いことで知られる。地方の県としては珍しく、県内に3行の地方銀行を持ち、保有する金融資産は4兆円以上に達する。県民の貯蓄率は39%で、東北地方平均の25%、全国平均の16.5%を大きく上回り、東北では宮城県に次いで2位、全国でも9位の高率を保つ。2006年（平成18年）農林水産統計によると、農業産出額は2,544億円。食料自給率は106%であり、北海道や青森県、秋田県、山形県などとともに、自給率100%を超える数少ない県の一つである。広大な面積と、山岳に囲まれた地形のため、地域によって気候が大きく異なる所があり、特性に応じてさまざまな形態の農業が営まれている。穀物ではコメの他に花巻市を中心に雑穀の生産が有名。畜産も盛んでありブランド牛肉である前沢牛のほか、北部を中心にブロイラーの全国有数の産地として知られる。林業では県の北部を中心に幹が通直で高品質なアカマツまたミズナラを中心としたブナ科広葉樹による木炭の生産が有名。木炭では特に黒炭の生産量が全国一である。アカマツが多いことからアカマツと共生するマツタケの出荷も多い。一方でアカマツの致死性の伝染病であるマツ材線虫病と全国5位の数字を出している。水産業では三陸海岸周辺が黒潮による豊かな漁場として知られている。リアス式海岸の岩礁はワカメや海苔といった海藻類の養殖にも適しておりワカメとあわびの養殖で生産高全国1位の規模を持つ。カキやホヤの養殖も盛ん。珍しいものでは陸前高田市広田湾におけるエゾイシカゲガイ養殖が知られる。流通量が少なく高値で取引される。製造品出荷額は2兆1000億円で東北地方では福島県である。長らく主要な産業が新日本製鐵（現日本製鉄）釜石製鉄所（釜石市）太平洋セメント大船渡工場（大船渡市）ほどしかなく政府の救済策を求めたこともあったが1982年（昭和57年）に東北新幹線大宮盛岡間が開業すると企業誘致が徐々に進展した。1993年（平成5年）に関東自動車工業（金ケ崎町）が進出して以来製造業は大きく進展し県民所得は全国40番台後半から30番台まで向上した。このほか県南には富士通や塩野義製薬東芝などの工場が立地する。特に2008年（平成20年）2月に決定された東芝フラッシュメモリ工場の北上市への建設は波及効果を合わせると1兆円程度の経済効果があるとされ県は法人事業税減免や低利融資などを通じてこれを後押しするとしている。東芝が「行政からの融資措置だけでなく質の高い人材の確保が容易なことが決め手になった」とし「金のかからない新しい産業誘致モデル」として注目された。工場新設に当たって北上市はこれまでに蓄積した企業誘致と合わせて法人市民税固定資産税の大きな増収が見込まれることから国から地方交付税の交付を受けない「不交付団体」への昇格を果たすことになった。岩手県ではかつて製鉄業が隆盛を極めていた時代に釜石市が不交付団体となっていた前例があり「それに次ぐ快挙」（2008年（平成20年）2月岩手県知事定例記者会見）と評された。自動車産業に関してはトヨタ自動車が東北地方を新たな生産拠点とする意向を示しておりすでに金ケ崎町に立地する自動車工場も現行より10万台増の25万台生産規模まで拡大されることが決まっている。自動車関連産業の集積を進めるため岩手県はトヨタ自動車東日本が進出している宮城県や山形県福島県などと連携して今後も誘致活動を展開していくとしている。観光業の振興に腐心している。2007年（平成19年）には、盛岡市を舞台にしたNHK連続テレビ小説「どんど晴れ」が放映され、盛岡さんさ踊りに訪れた観光客が8.7%増えて128万3000人となり、一定の効果が上がっている。2011年（平成23年）には、奥州藤原氏の栄華の遺産「平泉―仏国土（浄土）を表す建築・庭園及び考古学的遺跡群―」（平泉町）が世界遺産（文化遺産）に登録された。県庁所在地の盛岡市は、県内のみならず北東北の広域交通網を束ねる拠点として機能しており、新幹線に接続して北東北各地への高速バスが多数発着するほか、盛岡駅では東北新幹線の分割・併合も実施している。東北新幹線で首都圏や仙台青森と結ばれる。その停車駅でもある盛岡駅は県庁所在地にあり複数の路線が接続するなど拠点性を有している。旧国鉄のJR東日本のほか新幹線の新規開業に伴う並行在来線として分離した第三セクター鉄道のIGRいわて銀河鉄道および旧国鉄の既設線および予定線を承継した三陸鉄道がある。特にJR山田線・岩泉線は、民営化後も一部区間では列車本数が3 - 4本と数えるほどしかない。後者については事業者より廃止届が提出され、2014年4月1日をもって廃止されバスに転換された。貨物扱いについては盛岡貨物ターミナル駅が貨物駅となっている。県内のその他の路線は下記を参照。なお普通列車は盛岡市内近郊の区間を除いて本数は毎時1本以下である。また県内における営業列車の運用は臨時列車を除きすべて当日中に終了する。沿岸部と内陸部(特に対北部)を結ぶ鉄道のダイヤが極端に少ないため公共交通による県域横断の手段としては長距離バスが主力になっている。内陸部の縦軸の交通には、東北縦貫自動車道、国道4号など、自動車を用いた高速交通インフラが整っている。その反面、内陸部と沿岸を結ぶの交通は、いまだ急勾配・急カーブの一般国道レベルに留まっている。また、道路の舗装率も低く全国最下位である。なお、盛岡市内は道路が入り組んでいることと外環状バイパス道路の整備が不十分であることから、特に朝夕の混雑が激しい。秋田県秋田市とは、仙岩道路で結ばれており、トンネルや橋梁の整備で比較的スムーズな移動が可能である。また地域高規格道路である盛岡秋田道路が整備中で橋場バイパス、角館バイパスが一部供用中である。自動車のナンバープレート.運輸支局は、広大な県土に対し紫波郡矢巾町所在の本局1箇所のみであり、配下の車両検査事務所は存在しない。県内で登録される自動車のナンバープレートの地名表記はナンバーの使用が開始された。 重要港湾および主な関連施設を以下に列挙する。高校進学率は98.4%と全国平均を上回るが大学進学率が逆に10%以上低い。私立学校の数が少ないため公立学校が圧倒的な比重を占めている。なお、首都圏の大学に進学すると費用が高額に上りがちなことから、その対策として、当初は看護系単科大学となる予定だった岩手県立大学を、総合大学に路線変更したこともある。全国紙・広域（ブロック）紙.全国紙は全て東京本社発行の紙面となる。なお地域ニュース面は読売朝日毎日は岩手面だが産経日経河北は岩手単独ではなく東北6県版として掲載。スポーツ紙（スポーツニッポン日刊スポーツスポーツ報知サンケイスポーツ）の地域ニュース面は全紙が岩手単独ではなく東北6県版となっている。テレビは、朝日・毎日・読売は在盛局を中心に掲載。それ以外は、青森・秋田・岩手ので掲載する新聞もある。ラジオは、東北各県のAM・FMを掲載している新聞が多いが、聴取困難な福島県の放送局は割愛される場合もある。県内の民間放送局が2局しか無かった頃は、仙台放送や東日本放送を中心に宮城県の民間放送局の再送信が行われていたが、民間放送局が4局揃った現在では再送信は全て中止されている。岩手県の方言研究は南部藩士である服部武喬が1790年』がありいずれも語彙集である。1903年に国語調査委員会の方言調査が実施されたのをきっかけに各地域の学校個人による調査研究が盛んに行なわれた。大きく2地域から4地域に分けられるとされ4地域に分ける場合洋野町から西和賀町まで秋田青森県に隣接する帯状の北部方言地域久慈市沿岸から大船渡市北部までの沿岸方言地域盛岡を中心に遠野市中部北上市北部までの中部方言地方横は金ケ崎町から釜石市までの南部方言地方となる。広く県民に敬愛され県民に明るい希望と活力を与えることに顕著な業績があった者についてその栄誉を讃えることを目的とする。 +日本語のという言葉が記述された。これはIndividualの訳語といわれる。というのは社会集団と対比されている概念であり、社会集団を構成する個々の人のことである。 何らかの集団に対して、それを構成する個々の人のことである。赤石 路代は、日本の女性漫画家。埼玉県浦和市出身。武蔵野美術大学卒業。浦和第一女子高等学校時代は漫画同好会に所属。1979年小学館新人コミック大賞に入選。1980年1月増刊号掲載ので第39回小学館漫画賞児童部門を受賞。その後、で不定期連載していた完結。Twitterで自身のアカウントにアクセスできなくなり、新しいアカウントを作った。Cascading Style Sheets（CSS、カスケーディング・スタイル・シート、カスケード・スタイル・シート、）は、HTMLやXMLの要素をどのように修飾（表示）するかを指示する仕様の一つで、World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) がとりまとめ勧告する。文書の構造と体裁を分離させるという理念を実現するために提唱されたスタイルシートの具体的な仕様の一つ。CSSはHTMLで表現可能と考えられるデザインの大部分を実現できる要素を取り入れつつ新たなデザイン機能を備える。以下の点を特徴とする。CSSは、1994年にWWW生誕の地であるCERNに勤務するホーコン・ウィウム・リーにより提唱された。スタイルの情報は読み込む内容（作成者スタイルシート）やユーザーエージェントの設定（ユーザースタイルシート）の2か所に記載できる。ユーザーエージェントも独自のスタイル（デフォルトスタイルシート）を持っている。作成者スタイルシートはマークアップ文書の中に直接記述するか、別文書として読み込ませる形で利用される。CSSの利便性を最大限発揮するために、別文書として読み込ませる事が推奨されている。ここではCSS Level 2について説明する。CSSの文法は異なるレベル間でも後方互換性を持つように設計されており、例えばCSS Level 1で書かれたスタイルシートを CSS Level 2として扱うことも可能である。CSSでは要素にスタイルを与えるため、次のような仕様が定められている。以下のCSS断片を例にとる。上例の CSS 断片を適用すると宣言している文書のうち、セレクタが指定しているものと一致する部位を自由に入れられ、またで区切ることにより宣言を並べて書くことができる。上例は HTML 文書に適用する場合、という指定を意味する。color #ff3300このような宣言があったとき後者二つはで囲ったものは文字列として扱われcolorプロパティが取りうる色の値（#rrggbbrgb([0-255][0-255][0-255])またはblackやredなどのキーワードなど）ではないからである。と等価である。は前者のように宣言をセレクタに一つずつ書いてあるのをひとつのセレクタのブロックで記述するときに宣言を分けるのに使う。そのため必ずしも宣言にをつけるのを強制するものではない。セレクタは実装レベルの高いブラウザならばどの属性であってもCSSを適用することが可能でありこの場合IDに関する属性セレクタであるので#idはと等価である。セレクタの簡単なマッチングが可能である。そのほかHTMLタグに対する適用、文書構造からみた子・兄妹構造へ適用するセレクタ、更にはリンクや動的な表現・言語に関する疑似クラス(:link、:hover、:lang)などがある。CSSは必ずしも一つのところで一意に指定できずそのため指定内容の衝突を避けるために優先順位がユーザーエージェントによって計算される。その結果は以下のような条件により算出される。記載可能な方法の詳細は次の通りで一般的に優先される順位で並べ替えている。作成者スタイルシートの記述方法による優先順位は以下の通り。CSSの仕様にはレベルという段階があり、2011年11月段階で、Level 1 から Level 4 までの仕様が公開されている。Cascading Style Sheets, level 1 , 勧告 1996年12月.ボックスモデルの参考図ボックスにwidth属性を設定したとき、W3C のボックスのモデルでは内容の横幅であると解釈される。そしてパディングとボーダー分の横幅は要素の横幅に追加される。他方マイクロソフトのボックスのモデルでは width 属性は内容の横幅とパディングとボーダー分を足したもの、すなわち要素全ての横幅になる。そのためInternet Explorer5.5以下と6.0以上およびInternet Explorer以外のWebブラウザでの表示を近づけるためには、パディングとボーダーを0にする、もしくはCSSハックを使う必要がある。Internet Explorer 6 では DOCTYPE が正確ならば標準準拠モードに移行できる（ただXMLやXHTMLの場合、XML宣言を仕様通り書くと過去互換モードでレンダリングされるバグがある）。Cascading Style Sheets, level 2 , 勧告 1998年5月.CSS2 は CSS1 の上位互換。幾つかの概念の追加拡大改訂が行われた。具体的には表示媒体（モニターや TV、紙媒体など）によって自動的にスタイルシートを変更できるようにし、それに附随して音声ブラウザへの対応、印刷媒体への対応が行われ、フォントなどの表示機能の拡張や、ボックスの概念の修正などが行われた。ただし2002年頃以降に発表されたCSS対応UAで、これを仕様と見なしているものは存在せず、実質的に、CSS2.1に仕様としての役割を委ねた形になっている。CSS2勧告の仕様書にアクセスすると、CSS2は管理されておらず、仕様の参照や実装はCSS 2.1を基にせよと奨励する注意書きがある。Cascading Style Sheets, level 2 revision 1 , 勧告 2011年6月.CSS2の改訂版。CSS2仕様書の不明瞭な定義が原因で各ユーザーエージェントのCSS2実装に非互換が生じたため曖昧な記述を明確にする改訂が行われた。またtext-shadowプロパティのようにCSS2で策定されていながら長い間実装が行われなかったものdisplayプロパティのrun-in値のように複数のユーザーエージェントで相互運用性を確保できなかった機能は削除されている。それらはCSS3以降のレベルで定義され直すことになる。CSSの実装に際してベンダは2002年頃からCSS2.1を基本仕様と見なしている。Cascading Style Sheets level 3 .CSS3以降ではCSS 2.1を中核とし、新たな機能の追加や改良をモジュールとすることで実現するものとする。ユーザーエージェントは各モジュールへ対応するか否かを自由に選択できるようになる他、縦方向の書字や、HTML以外の規格にまで関与した内容となっている。2018年7月現在で勧告されているモジュールは以下の通り。Cascading Style Sheets Level 4 .CSS4はモジュール化されたため単一の統合された仕様は存在せずモジュールの総称となる。Level 4モジュールで追加される機能はLevel 3モジュールで未定義だった新しい機能のほか草案に一度含まれながら相互運用性を十分に確保出来ず仕様から省かれた機能からなる。未だに勧告候補に至っていないLevel 3モジュールが存在する中、既にLevel 4モジュールの公開草案がいくつか公開されている。 +吉田 秋生 は、東京都渋谷区出身の女性漫画家。武蔵野美術大学卒業。1977年にで第47回小学館漫画賞を受賞。津田 雅美は日本の漫画家。神奈川県出身。血液型はO型。1992年、「会えてよかった」で第17回白泉社アテナ新人大賞を受賞。1993年、同作品が『増刊LaLa ミステリースペシャル』1993年3月10日号（白泉社）に掲載されデビュー。以後、『LaLa』『LaLa DX』（いずれも白泉社）を中心に活躍。発表年は掲載誌の号数に準拠。藤崎 竜は、日本の漫画家、イラストレーター。男性。身長173cm。血液型はA型。初期の頃のペンネームは漢字表記は同じだが、読みが。青森県むつ市出身。工学系専門学校卒。小学校3 - 4年生の頃に車田正美のをきっかけに漫画を読むようになり気がついたら絵を描かけるようになっていた。幼い頃からパソコンに親しむ。10代の頃はコンピュータのシステムエンジニアを志望し専門学校に通っていた。高校在学中の16歳頃にオリジナル漫画を初めて製作し、雑誌の漫画賞に応募して最終選考に残る。1990年自分が漫画界に通用するかを試すための「実験」として製作した『ハメルンの笛吹き』を『週刊少年ジャンプ』に投稿したところ第39回手塚賞の佳作を受賞しそれをきっかけに漫画家を目指すようになる。同年再び『週刊少年ジャンプ』に応募した『WORLDS』が第40回手塚賞に準入選し『ジャンプ』増刊号に掲載されデビューした。デビュー後3本の読切漫画が『週刊少年ジャンプ』本誌および増刊に掲載される。1992年、3年制の専門学校を卒業して上京。在学中は就職活動をしており、採用通知も来ていたものの漫画家になるために断った。読切漫画をまとめた初の単行本、短編集を初連載するが、短期間で打ち切り終了。その後、3年間は読切漫画を増刊に3本発表するにとどまる。1996年に『週刊少年ジャンプ』で、連載開始した『封神演義』は人気作となり、1999年にはアニメ化された。2000年に完結。2002年にが掲載された。2006年には初の画集11月号に販促用の読切漫画を掲載した。2008年から月刊漫画誌の挿絵も手がける。2012年ジャンプスクエアとその季刊誌に自身が原作を担当した読切漫画を3本発表。同年末にはを発表。2013年、の連載を開始。2014年に第一幕了。2015年を漫画化し連載を開始する。書誌情報の詳細などについてはリンク先の各記事を参照。 +検索エンジンを検索する機能およびそのプログラム。インターネットの普及初期には、検索としての機能のみを提供していたウェブサイトそのものを検索エンジンと呼んだが、現在では様々なサービスが加わったポータルサイト化が進んだため、検索をサービスの一つとして提供するウェブサイトを単に検索サイトと呼ぶことはなくなっている。広義には、インターネットに限定せず情報を検索するシステム全般を含む。狭義の検索エンジンはロボット型検索エンジンディレクトリ型検索エンジンメタ検索エンジンなどに分類される。広義の検索エンジンとしてはある特定のウェブサイト内に登録されているテキスト情報の全文検索機能を備えたソフトウェア（全文検索システム）等がある。検索エンジンは、検索窓と呼ばれるボックスにキーワードを入力して検索をかけるもので、全文検索が可能なものと不可能なものとがある。検索サイトを一般にと呼ぶことはあるが、厳密には検索サイト自体は検索エンジンでない。検索エンジン（狭義）.ロボット型検索エンジン.与えられた検索式に従って、ウェブページ等を検索するサーバ、システムのこと。検索式は、最も単純な場合はキーワードとなる文字列のみであるが、複数のキーワードにAND等の論理条件を組み合わせて指定することができるものが多い。ロボット型検索エンジンの大きな特徴の一つとしてクローラすることができる。大規模な検索エンジンでは80億ページ以上のページから検索が可能になっている。収集したページの情報は前もって解析し索引情報。日本語などの言語では自然言語処理機能が生成される索引の質に影響する。このため多言語対応した検索エンジンの方が精度の高い検索が可能となる。検索結果の表示順は、検索エンジンの質が最も問われる部分である。ユーザーが期待したページを検索結果の上位に表示することができなければ、ユーザーが離れてしまうからである。そのため、多くの検索エンジンが、表示順を決定するアルゴリズムを非公開にし、その性能を競っている。検索エンジン最適化業者の存在も、アルゴリズムを公開しない要因になっている。Googleは、そのアルゴリズムの一部であるPageRankを公開しているが、やはり、多くの部分が非公開になっている。Googleの場合、創設初期におけるアルゴリズムについては、創設者自身がウェブ上で公表している論文でその一端を知ることができる。参照 英語原文 日本語の解説ウェブページの更新時刻の情報を用いて、新しい情報に限定して検索できるものや、検索結果をカテゴリ化して表示するものなど、特長のある機能を搭載したり、検索結果をユーザーへ最適化していく動きもある。従来のウェブページを検索するだけの検索エンジンにとどまらず、最近ではインターネットショッピング専用の検索エンジンなど、特定の分野に特化した検索エンジンの開発も散見される。商品検索では、価格比較サービス日本最大手の価格.comや、ベンチャー企業が開発するQOOPIEなどある。また、職業検索エンジンとしてはCraigslistなどがある。GoogleYahoo!インフォシークテクノラティMARSFLAGAltavistaムーターAlltheWebTeomaWiseNutInktomiSAGOOLYahoo! JAPAN (2005.10〜) など。ディレクトリ型検索エンジン.人手で構築したウェブディレクトリ内を検索するサーバ、システムのこと。人手で構築しているため質の高いウェブサイトを検索可能。概要を人手で記入しているため検索結果の一覧から目的のサイトを探しやすいサイトのカテゴリ分けがされていることから特定分野や地区などに限定したサイトを探しやすいという特長がある。しかし検索対象となるサイトは人手で入力するため検索対象となるサイト数が多くできないという欠点がある。インターネットが一般に使われるようになった初期のころにはディレクトリ型が主体であったがWWWの爆発的な拡大によってあらゆるウェブサイトを即時にディレクトリに反映させることが事実上不可能になり。日立国際ビジネスのHole-in-Oneなど。P2P通信によってウェブコンテンツのインデックスを多数のピアに分散させP2Pネットワーク全体で各ピアの持つインデックスを共有する検索システムのこと。ウェブのクロールは各ピアが独自に行い、インデクサーはRWIを作成する。作成されたインデックスの一部はDHTとして他のピアに分配される。検索は自分のピアの端末からP2Pネットワーク上にある他のピアにリクエストを送信することにより行うことができる。分散型検索エンジンの例としてはYaCyがある。YaCyはを標榜し分散型であることにより検閲を防ぐことができるとしている。ひとつの検索ワードを複数の検索エンジンで検索することをメタ検索という。Startpage.comなどがこれに分類される。与えられた文書群から検索式による全文検索機能を提供するソフトウェアシステムの総称でウェブサーバに組み込んで利用されることが多い。スタンドアローン環境で用いられる個人用途のものもありそういったものは特にと呼ばれる。検索エンジンのはしりは1994年にスタンフォード大学のジェリー・ヤンとデビッド・ファイロが開発したYahoo!である。Yahoo!はディレクトリ型の検索エンジンでインターネットの普及に大きな役割を果たした。その後ウェブ上の情報を自動的に探索して情報を索引として整理するロボットまたはクローラと呼ばれるプログラムが開発された。ロボット型検索エンジンの中でもラリーペイジとセルゲイブリンが開発したGoogle検索は検索結果のランキングと高速検索に優れていたため検索エンジンのトップに躍り出た。2009年にはマイクロソフトが新たな検索エンジンとしてBingを発表した。日本のインターネット普及初期から存在した検索エンジンには以下のようなものがある。黎明期には、豊橋技術科学大学の学生が作成したYahho や、東京大学の学生が作成したODiN、早稲田大学の学生が作成した千里眼など、個人の学生が作成したものが商用に対して先行していた（いずれも1995年に作成、日本電信電話株式会社のNTT DIRCECTORY、サイバースペースジャパン（現・ウェブインパクト）のCSJインデックスは1994年に作成）。これらは単に実験用に公開されていただけでなく、多くの人に用いられていたものであり、黎明期のユーザにとっては知名度、実用度ともに高いものであった。またMondouなどのように研究室（京都大学）で作成したものもあった。Yahoo! JAPAN の独走.1995年12月にソフトバンクがアメリカ合衆国Yahoo!株を一部買い取り翌年4月から日本版にローカライズしたYahoo! JAPANをサービス開始した。同年7月の展示会Interopでは机2つぶん並べる程度の小規模ブースで出展する程度の力の入れ具合でソフトバンクの一部署として開始する程度だったものがもともとの米国Yahoo!の知名度90年代後半のインターネット利用者人口の増加ディレクトリ型だけだった検索をロボット型も追加サイト登録した一部のウェブサイトの紹介をするYahoo! Internet Guideとの連携日本Yahoo!株高騰のニュースでインターネットを利用しない人にも名前が知れ渡るなど様々なプラス要因と経営戦略が見事に当たり検索サイト首位の座を固めた。そして検索サイトの集客力を武器にニュースオークションなど検索サービス以外のサービスを含めたポータルサイトとしての独走を始めた。1997年頃から、WWW（World Wide Web）の爆発的な拡大に伴って、ディレクトリ型のみであったYahoo!のウェブディレクトリの陳腐化が急速に進んだ。この頃、infoseekやgooに代表されるロボット型検索エンジンが人気を集め始め、Yahoo! JAPANはロボット型検索エンジンにgooを採用するなど、群雄割拠の時代になった。Googleが1998年に稼動させたGoogle検索は、従来の検索エンジンがポータルサイト化へと進む流れに逆行し、独創的な検索技術に特化し、バナー広告等を排除したシンプルな画面と2000年にYahoo!のロボット型検索エンジンに採用されたことにより、急速に人気を集めた。いつしかウェブページ検索の世界シェアのトップに躍り出たとされている。また日本においても、GoogleやYahoo!などの検索エンジンを利用すること＝として、2005年、オーストラリアで誕生したMooterが日本に進出し、検索サービスを開始した。検索エンジンの多様化.検索という行為が一般化するにつれて、各種目的別に多様化した検索エンジンが現れるようになった。ブログの情報に特化した検索TechnoratiやblogWatcher、商品情報の検索に特化した商品検索サイト、サイトの見た目で検索するMARSFLAG、音楽検索、動画検索、ファイル検索、アップローダ検索ほか、次々と新しい検索エンジンが生まれている。また検索エンジンでは判断できない抽象的な条件などでの検索を人手に求めたOKWaveや人力検索はてななどのと呼ばれるサービスも登場した。近年ではパソコンだけでなく携帯電話や携帯型ゲーム機からもウェブサイトが検索される傾向が高くなり、GoogleやYahoo!をはじめとする携帯向けのモバイル検索サイトが登場し活気がでている。ソフトバンクYahoo! JAPANがボーダフォンを買収しKDDIがGoogleと提携するなど携帯電話の分野で検索エンジンの戦いが激化してきている。モバイル検索の分野は長らく公式サイトと呼ばれる世界がユーザーの囲い込みを行っていたため脚光を浴びることが少なかった。Googleなどのウェブ検索エンジンでは、データベースの検索結果など多くの動的ページが検索対象になっていない。このような動的ページはなどと呼ばれている。静的ページの500倍の量が存在し、多くは無料だといわれる。深層ウェブは、一般の検索エンジンなどからデータベースなどを見つけ出すか、直接アクセスした上で、それぞれの検索機能から再度検索しなければならない。また、ダークウェブを探索する際に使われる検索エンジンAhmiaも存在している。ロボット型検索エンジンは、その原理上インターネット上のコンテンツを複製の上で、検索を目的とした蓄積に適した形態で保存する他、場合によってはキャッシュとして提供できるような形態でも保存する場合がある。著作権をたてに、ウェブサイトの閲覧利用規約等と称して、一切のいかなる複製も禁ずるとするサイト等があり、どういったものかと古くより話題になっていた。また2006年11月には日本の知的財産戦略本部コンテンツ専門調査会第3回企画WGにおいて検索エンジンに関して と報告されこれをうけて2010年1月の改正で複製が合法とされた。このことを拡大解釈したのか、あたかも著作権法のために、日本ではGoogleのような企業が育たなかったであるとか、日本におけるネット検索を妨げたのは著作権法である、といった論が巷に見られるが。検索エンジン上の各種広告.2006年頃から日本ではURLを表示せず社名や商品名などの検索キーワードを表示し検索エンジンで検索させるように仕向けるテレビコマーシャルなどの広告表現が急増している。大抵はキーワードが書かれた状態の検索フォームとボタンを表示しマウスクリックを促す演出がなされている。このような変化が生じた理由は不明であるが各メディアの広告掲載基準の変更やコマーシャルでURLを表示するのに比べてアクセス数を獲得しやすいことが増加の要因である。しかし検索結果に企業にとって不都合な情報が現れる場合があるためグーグル八分のような検索結果の操作が行われるケースも考えられる。現在主流となっている広告手法としてユーザーの検索結果後に広告を露出させる検索連動型広告とサイトの中を分析しそのサイトに合った広告を配信するコンテンツ連動型広告が主流である。英語圏でも2013年ごろからのような番号記号を使った広告活動をおこなっている。検索エンジンの課題と問題点.いわゆるは Internet Archive を用いて Euro Marketing と Global Reach から過去の月次資料を整理すると次のような推移を辿っている。1995年以前のInternet Societyによればインターネットで用いられている言語のうち英語が占める割合は85%とされていたがその後のITの進歩や各国のインターネットの普及により多言語化が進み上表に見られるように2000年の年末には英語と非英語の言語人口が逆転しその傾向は継続している。2005年2月2日の時点で、WWW検索エンジンの代表格であるGoogleでは80億を越す8,058,044,651ウェブページが登録されている。検索エンジンの利用者はそれら80億を越すウェブページから求める情報を容易に引き出せると思い込みがちであるが、例えば日本語入力のできないコンピュータなどの端末を用いて日本語サイトを検索することは容易ではない。同様に非英語圏の言語間の検索は中間に翻訳エンジンを介さないと検索作業は難しい。インターネットの多言語化が今後も増加すると仮定した場合言語間の壁をどのように乗り越えるかは今後の検索エンジンが抱える課題の一つとして挙げることができる。検索エンジンの危険性.検索エンジンは、利便性がある一方、危険性も存在する事やその被害例について参考文献や資料が存在する。検索エンジンの安全性に関する調査報告については、ウイルス対策ソフトなどを提供するセキュリティベンダーの米マカフィーが、2007年6月4日としている。また2006年05月12日に公表された調査報告書によると検索エンジンのキーワード検索結果には危険なリンクがあり検索エンジンが自分を守ってくれると思ってはいけない。それどころか検索結果ランキングがサイトの安全性を反映していないことも多く特に検索エンジン広告を訪れる場合ユーザーは高いリスクにさらされると警鐘を鳴らしている。さらに検索エンジンの提供サイトの危険度についての調査報告では同マカフィーが「検索エンジンの安全度調査」を発表し「最も危険な結果が多いのは米ヤフー」としている。サービスを終了した主な検索エンジンサイト. +テレビは、電気通信により、映像を遠方へと送る技術である。テレビジョンの略語であり、TVと表記することもある。主に放送や遠隔監視などに利用されている。「テレビジョン」は直接的にはフランス語の（）に由来する。なお、（）はギリシア語の「遠く離れた」、「」はラテン語で「視界」「像」の意味である。日本の電波法ではと定義されている。中国語では電信・電話に倣って電視と呼ばれる。TVチューナーのようなコンポーネント型の機器もあるが、基本的に複合型の機器が多い。演奏所設備をスタジオ機器と言うこともある。この場合撮影スタジオに置かれる機器だけを指すのではなく局舎内の放送関連機器全般を指す。主な物を以下に示す。放送の受信はアンテナまたはケーブルテレビ局などから信号を受け取りチューナーで選局され映像信号に変えられて、テレビ受像機やDVDレコーダー等の録画機に導かれる。アナログ放送もデジタル放送も次の機能や機器によって受信し視聴や録画を行うのは同じことである。かつては地上アナログ放送専用のチューナーと呼ばれる単体商品も存在した。これはゴーストキャンセル機能の強化や、音声多重機能のないテレビやビデオデッキに対しその機能を提供する目的で製造されていた。エントリークラスでもテレビで5万円、家庭用ビデオデッキで10万円を下らなかった時期に登場したものだが、NEC等1990年代に入っても生産していたメーカーも存在する。2005年度のフランスカンヌで開催されたテレビ番組の国際見本市「MIPTV」で発表された統計によると世界で最もテレビを見る時間が長いのは日本人で1日のテレビ視聴時間は平均5時間1分だった。2位は米国で4時間46分。世界平均は米国より90分少ない。最下位は中国とスウェーデンの2時間30分だった。テレビ番組の制作に関連する項目には次のようなものがある。詳しくは制作スタッフを参照。身体と精神の健康に与える影響.米国のこどもは1日平均3時間テレビを見ており高校卒業までに合計3年間テレビ視聴に費やしていることになる。また近年は生活習慣病の低年齢化も進行しておりI型糖尿病だけでなく小児でもII型糖尿病が増加し小児肥満も増加している。米国の調査ではテレビの視聴時間が長い小児ほど肥満の率が高い。テレビの長時間視聴によって運動時間が減り野菜や果物の摂取量が少なくなるという報告がなされている。CMや番組等でのハンバーガーやスナック菓子やソフトドリンクの映像による刺激がそうした症状の原因のひとつともなっている。エレンラペルシェルは食品業界にとって小児が大きなターゲットとなっており「家族の食費の鍵を握るのは子供である」といっている。心理学者のAric Sigmanはテレビの視聴は子供の健康に悪影響を与え、幼児期におけるテレビの視聴が多いほど、睡眠時間も不規則になり、免疫システムにも悪影響をおよぼし、自閉症や視力低下、肥満を引き起こす。また、テレビの視聴はホルモンの分泌を抑制し、その結果DNA変形を引き起こし、癌の原因になる可能性がある。そのため、3歳未満の子供はテレビを観るべきではないと言っている。また毎日視聴する場合はアルツハイマー疾患の可能性も高くなる。またテレビ視聴を減らすことで、国民健康保険制度の負担を減らすこともできると提言している。カナダのモントリオール大学と米国ミシガン大学の研究では幼児期にテレビを長時間見ていた子供は学校での適応能力の欠如いじめに遭いやすい数学などの学力低下運動不足ジャンクフードの過食肥満度（BMI）が高いといった問題が起きると発表した。日本小児科学会こどもの生活環境改善委員会は乳幼児にテレビを長時間見せると言語発達が遅れる危険性があるとして2歳以下の子供にテレビを長時間見せないことを提言している。同委員会によると子供に知識を教えるためにテレビを見させる親もいるが言語能力は大人との双方向の関わりが必要であり一方的に聞くだけでは発達しない。同委員会の調査結果では子供の長時間視聴は1歳6か月の時点における意味のある言葉の出現の遅れと関係があった。日本の文部科学省は2003年から2004年にかけての調査でTVゲームが予想以上に暴力性を誘発すること視力低下などは確認されたが社会的不適応といった問題については有用性も認められるともし今後悪影響とよい影響の双方から多角的に研究すべきとした。アメリカのランド研究所の研究によると10代の男女は性描写のあるテレビ番組を見る子供ほど妊娠するさせる可能性が高い。また性描写を含むテレビ番組を最も多く見る子供は最も見ない子供と比べて妊娠するさせる可能性が2倍だった。中国のによると14歳の少年がアニメに影響されてガソリンを5年間飲み続けていたことで知能障害に陥っていることが分かった。同作品のキャラクターがガソリンの補給でパワーアップする姿に感化されたという。少年は以前ガスを吸い込んでいたという経緯もあった。テレビに関する啓発映画.1950年代から1960年代にかけてテレビの構造や原理などを紹介するための短編映画が2本制作されている。一つは日本に於けるテレビ本放送が始まる前の年及びテレビカメラの原理の紹介の他本放送開始を前にしてNHKのテレビ実験局で行われたスタジオ収録の様子なども紹介されている。もう一つはカラー本放送開始の翌年の企画の下で東京シネマが制作したで、こちらはテレビを一電化製品として捉え、その原理や構造を細かく紹介しているほか、テレビの製造現場の様子も映し出されている。これら2本の短編映画は現在科学映像館のWebサイト上に於いて無料公開されている。 +テレビ番組の総称のことである。テレビ番組の内容は、きわめて多岐にわたり、また、放送局の性格によっても異なる。地上波放送は総合編成、衛星放送は専門店型編成が一般に見られる。具体的なテレビ番組の名称については、テレビ番組一覧を参照のこと。放送法によるテレビ番組分類.放送法5条では、が義務付けられている。そして、法107条では、各テレビ局は「放送番組の種別の基準」を定めて公表することが義務付けられている。日本放送協会（NHK）では「等」を除いた各4種、民間放送テレビ各局では4種に「通信販売」と「その他」を加えた6種（例→）を公表のための分類目安としている。なお教養番組と教育番組については法2条に内容の定義があるが報道番組と娯楽番組についての定義はなくこのの自主公表に委ねられている。この公表では1つの番組が上記4種ないし6種のいずれか複数を兼ねている場合が通例である。2020年4月期の日本テレビを例に取るとは娯楽教養に属する番組としてそれぞれ公表されている。その他のテレビ番組分類.上記の放送法に基づく種別公表や視聴率調査のための分類などテレビ番組の分類項目の設定は重要な事業として行われている。それらの分類は、あらかじめ項目を決めてから全番組をいずれかに分けるような方法をとるのではなく、いくつかの似た複合的性質をもった番組を、一つの種別としてカテゴライズするような形で行われる場合がある。結果、よく似た構成の番組が複数の分類にまたがって属したり、分類する者によって分類先が異なったりする。たとえばタレントが教科書から出る試験問題をクイズとして解くという内容の番組がある場合それは細分的にはクイズ番組であるが上記の法的に義務づけられた分類種別公表の場合はと分類する場合も考えうる。また、これまでに設定された項目のどれにも属さない番組が生まれた場合でも、項目の増加や拡大は、統計に困難をきたすために行えないことから、結果としてしっくりこない場所に分類されることもある。NHK教育テレビの番組に代表されるあらゆる世代向けの教育をおこなう番組。全国向けのものと、地域向けのものがある。多くのテレビ局ではニュース番組を報道局が制作する。映像で即時的に情報を伝えるテレビの特性から、しばしばニュースの現場からの中継放送が行われる。日本の地上波での民放テレビ番組の地域格差の諸問題.1950年代前半に日本で民放テレビ放送を開始するとともに各地で次第に地方局の相次ぐ開局特に平成新局の開局ラッシュにより放送対象地域も拡大されるようになったが今なお「地上波の民放」による「民放テレビ番組」の完全な形での全国（同時）放送は実現していない。これは公共放送であるNHKが放送法により日本全国をくまなくカバーすることが義務付けられているのに対し民放各局にはそれがないためである。また2000年に各キー局の子会社で個別にBSデジタル放送局との権利処理などの理由から各系列ともを行っている番組が少ないのが現状である。それを裏付けるかのように日本テレビのアニメや各コンテンツ事業を統括する元アナウンサーの船越雅史は「テレビ局にとっての最強のコンテンツは地上波放送の番組」と発言している。キー局の中でも特にテレビ東京は系列局がテレビ東京を含めて6局のみと他系列に比べて圧倒的に少なくの独立局向けに番販ネットする番組もあるがそれも一部に留まっている。また番組によっては一部系列局のみの放送に留まっているものも少なくない。2007年に大阪府域局であるテレビ大阪の京都府兵庫県全域への放送エリア拡大や宮城県静岡県広島県への系列局開局構想を当時の社長が発表したがその後具体的な進展はない。テレビ番組の存在意義.毎日放送の東京支社テレビ編成部に所属し現在は同局のテレビアニメなどを担当する丸山博雄はと語り能動的に視聴する傾向が強いインターネット番組との大きな違いを主張している。 +アメリカでは1982年9月26日から1986年8月8日までNBCで全84話（1シーズン毎に21話×4シーズン=全84話）が放送されたが日本ではテレビ朝日系列で全84話中、74本が放映され米国放送でシーズン4にあたるほとんどのエピソードは『新ナイトライダー』のタイトルで放映された。永らく未放映になっていた10エピソードは2015年にFOXクラシック 名作ドラマチャンネルで日本語吹き替え版が日本初放送され、その翌年の2016年にはNHK BSプレミアムでもシーズン1の未放映9エピソード（シーズン2の第11話にあたる1エピソードは未放送）が同じく放送された。本項目ではテレビドラマに関連する作品もあわせて解説する。「ナイトライダー。陰謀と破壊と犯罪の渦巻く現代に蘇る正義の騎士。（中略 登場人物紹介がある）巨大な悪に立ち向かう現代の騎士、ナイトライダー。今日、彼を待ち受ける者は、果たして、誰か」というナレーションで始まる（原語版では、ウィルトン・ナイト役のリチャード・ベイスハートによる「Knight Rider. A shadowy flight into the dangerous world of a man, who does not exist.」というナレーションである）。ナイトライダー誕生は、一発の銃声に始まる。若き敏腕刑事マイケル・ロングは、ある産業スパイ一味を追跡中一味に同僚を殺され、自らもまた凶弾に倒れた。だがマイケルは、ナイト財団の総帥ウィルトン・ナイトにより辛くも命を救われ、その身分もウィルトン・ナイトの養子として、新たにマイケル・ナイトとなる。重病で死の床についた養父ウィルトンはマイケルの手を取りを搭載しており自分で考えて言葉を話しさらに自らの意思で走行する事もできるスーパーカーでマイケルはキットと共に世の中の不正や巨悪と戦っていく。ナイト財団とはマイクロエレクトロニクス事業で巨万の富を築いた実業家ウィルトンナイトがその収益を投じて設立した組織」。ウィルトンナイトの名前を省略して頭文字をとりが製作されることとなった。劇中で、マイケルがと名乗っているように、ナイト財団の調査部門そのものに強制権・捜査権は一切ない。そのため、捜査の際には警察や軍との連携を図る場合もある。一方で、マイケルが不法侵入やハッキング等の違法行為を行うシーンがしばしば見られ、キットがマイケルを諌めながらも結局はそれに渋々協力する、というやり取りは半ば恒例となっている。マイケルが所属する組織は、日本語吹き替え版では単にとなっている。なお、偶然で全く同一名の財団法人が実在する。同作品中において2人以上の別名義で演じた俳優の一覧。役名の後のカッコ内は吹替え声優。備考は外観上の相違点など。以下は敵側による脅威級能力を持つメカ＆マシン以下はその他（1話限りのゲスト等）のメカ＆マシンアメリカで放送された順番に記載、また日本はテレビ朝日版での未放映エピソードで邦題タイトルはDVD版より。なおこれらテレビ朝日未放映エピソードはDVD版では全て原語音声と翻訳字幕のみだったが、2014年11月27日にリリースされたコンプリートブルーレイBOXで全話日本語吹替版が出揃う事となった。またシーズン2以降の各話の括弧内は通算話数を表記。シーズン1 エピソードリストシーズン2 エピソードリストシーズン3 エピソードリストシーズン4 エピソードリストCMへ移行する際のアイキャッチもシーズン毎に異なっている。新ナイトライダー2000.が1991年に製作された。製作当時から見て近未来である西暦2000年警官は銃規制が進んだことで実弾銃使用が撤廃され代わりに超音波銃の携行が義務付けられており犯罪者の服役は冷凍睡眠となっているシアトル市を舞台にした物語。捜査中に仲間に裏切られて頭部に銃撃を受けその影響による記憶の欠落を補うためかつてK.I.T.T.に使用されていたメモリーチップを頭に組み込まれた元警官の女性ショーンマコーミックが主人公である。ナイト財団では、10年前の下、バーチャル・リアリティを搭載したナイト2000の発展型・ナイト4000の製作が進められていた。2人はハロルド市長を相手にナイト4000のプレゼンテーションを行い、犯罪撲滅のための必要性を訴えるが、同席していたダニエルズ警察長官にと突っぱねられ、必要性を証明したいのなら30日以内に完成させるよう要求される。折りしも銃使用撤廃派市会議員の暗殺事件が発生しており助けが必要だと感じたデボンは引退して釣りのガイドや車いじりをして過ごす「第三の人生」を送っているマイケルの元を訪ね協力を要請する。デボンの熱意に打たれたマイケルはK.I.T.T.を相棒にすることを条件にナイト4000が完成するまでの30日間だけ財団に復帰するが肝心のK.I.T.T.とナイト2000はマドックによって解体されてしまっていた。マイケルは売却されたK.I.T.T.のパーツを買い戻させて再生し自らの愛車である1957年型シボレーベルエアに搭載して捜査を開始するが安物のチップを使って再生されたK.I.T.T.は手配中の犯罪者と一般人を間違えるなどかつてのような性能を発揮できないでいた。一方、銃撃された時の記憶を失くしたショーンは、ダニエルズから警官の職務に就くのは不適格であると言われ、警察を辞職してナイト財団に新たな職を求める。K.I.T.T.のチップがショーンに移植されていると知ったマイケルは、ショーンとともに捜査を開始する。当初は、マイケルとK.I.T.T.を見下した態度を取っていたショーンであったが、銃撃の真相をK.I.T.T.の協力で思い出し、次第に連携が取れるようになっていく。やがて、遂にナイト4000が完成し、デボンとマドックはテスト走行を行う。デボンは、性能はナイト2000を遥かに凌ぐと評価しながらも、マドックの声で話し、道路に飛び出してきた鹿をと言い放って避けようともしないナイト4000に、K.I.T.T.のような人間性が感じられないと不満を抱く。テスト走行を終えナイト4000を降りたデボンは、犯人一味に襲われて拉致されてしまう。犯人一味は意識不明となったデボンの記憶を抽出し、ナイト財団がまだ手掛かりを何も掴んでいない事を確認すると、そのまま薬剤を投与しデボンを殺害してしまう。死の間際デボンが最後に見た夢はウィルトンナイトの遺志を継ぎナイト財団総帥として悪と戦う決意をしたマイケルとに乾杯する場面であった。捜査を進める中マイケル達は犯人一味に追われK.I.T.T.の提案で車ごと海に飛び込み追跡をかわすもののK.I.T.T.は機能を停止してしまう。デボンの死にショックを受けたマイケルは、と自責の念にかられふさぎ込んでいたが、ショーンの叱咤で再び気力を取り戻す。財団に戻ったマイケルはK.I.T.T.を自分の愛車からナイト4000に移植する。マイケルとショーンは新たなボディを得たK.I.T.T.とともに事件の真相に迫ろうとする。この作品はパイロット版のみの製作にとどまったが、CICビクター株式会社からビデオソフトがリリースされた他、に特典として収録されている。また、テレビ朝日系を中心とした各地方局で深夜映画として放映された。日本語吹替え版は製作されていない。新主人公ショーンのというマイケルナイトの没設定をなぞったものであると言える。当作品でナイト4000のモデルとなったのは、ダッジ・ステルスをベースに新たに制作された車両で当時のコンセプトカーであるポンティアック・バンシーに類似したデザインで制作されたオリジナルカー。以後もの続編新作とされる作品がいくつか製作されている。ナイトライダー2010.1994年に2時間ドラマとして放映された。近未来のメキシコ。アメリカとの国境付近のなど、元祖ナイトライダーのコンセプトを骨子として部分的に織り込んでストーリーが紡がれていく。なお2014年11月27日にリリースされたに特典DVDとして初収録されている。チーム・ナイトライダー.1997年10月から1998年9月まで放映された連続テレビドラマ。90年代に入りF.L.A.G.はさらなる事件に対処するためにカイルスチュワートジェニーアンドリューデュークデパルマーエリカウエストケビンサンダースの5人のスペシャリストを集めそれぞれに人工知能による意思を持った車両」と呼ばれ人々にもその活躍は広く知られていた。マイケル・ナイトの情報はF.L.A.G.内でも最高機密とされていたが、終盤になって突然マイケルを名乗る人物が登場する。更に、など、様々な謎が登場する。しかし、番組自体が1シーズンのみで終わってしまったため、それらの謎は掘り下げられることはなかった。ナイトライダー/ナイトライダーNEXT. +2008年2月17日夜にNBC系列で『Knight Rider』新作のパイロット版が特番として放映され同年9月24日から翌年3月4日まで毎週水曜日2000 - 2100の時間帯で全17話（当初は全22話予定だったが諸事情により短縮された）の連続テレビシリーズ版が放映された。これまでの数ある続編作品としては元祖主人公であるマイケルナイト（デビッドハッセルホフ）が登場し次世代となる新主人公で自身の息子であるマイクトレーサー（）にバトンを受け継がせるシーンもあり最も正統な続編と見られる。時代観は前作でのシーズン1（ウィルトン没後）から25年後の時代としており前作でのシーズン4終了以降ではない。前作でのナイト財団はあくまでも単独での捜査を常としていたが今回の新生ナイト財団は「ナイトインダストリー」と呼ばれることが多く中盤までFBIと密接な協力関係にある。日本では2012年1月16日から7月2日まで、フジテレビの深夜枠の邦題で日本語吹替え版が全19話とは違う系列。なおの文字が必ず入っている。KNIGHT RIDER HEROES.2015年12月、の予告動画が公開された。日本でも放映された人気ホームコメディにナイト役のハッセルホフとK.I.T.T.がゲスト出演した。このエピソードの中でのK.I.T.T.は、ひがみっぽくて性格が悪く、ナイト2000によりかかったアーノルド坊やをと怒鳴りつけた。日本の音楽番組の1987年2月9日放送分でナイト2000がゲスト出演し、マイケルに代わり藤井フミヤが乗って野外から中継された。オムニバスドラマでテレビから飛び出すキャラクターの中でナイト2000がゲスト登場。主人公の自宅のキッチンに突っ込んでくる。日本ではパイロット版のみがビデオソフト及びレーザーディスクにて発売されている、アメリカのアクションドラマの第4話後半で、ナイト財団のトレーラーの後ろ姿が写っている。1989年からアメリカのFOXテレビで放送されているのシーズン10第2話にナイト2000がゲスト登場している。原語版の声はウィリアム・ダニエルズが担当している。2005年公開のの冒頭でハービーの活躍を新聞記事で紹介するシーンでナイト2000がハービーと共演している。2006年、日本では劇場未公開のコメディ映画『がんばれ! ベンチウォーマーズ』（THE BENCHWARMERS）にナイト2000（K.I.T.T.）が登場している。原語版の声はウィリアム・ダニエルズが担当している。2008年11月1日のでの模様も再び放映された。2014年9月2日に韓国Samsung Electronicsは公式YouTubeチャンネルでデビッドハッセルホフとナイト2000［声はウィリアムダニエルズ］が共演するスマートホームサービスのCM動画を公開。内容はSamsungのスマートホームのCMを撮影しているハッセルホフがスマートホームの利点を説明するたびに嫉妬したK.I.T.T.が。DVD / ブルーレイ.これまでに数回にわたって、シーズン1 - 4までの各シーズンごとのBOXセットが発売されている。また、それとは別に全2巻の傑作選も発売された。放映当時に日本語吹き替えがあった話は原則全て吹き替えが収録されているが日本での放送時にカットされていたシーンは吹き替えが行われていない。また日本未放映話は英語のみである。ただし後述のブルーレイ版はそれら全てに日本語吹き替えが追加新録されている。加えて日本初放映時にテレビ朝日独自に編集を行った場面付近の吹替えも収録されておらずテレビ放映時のオリジナルタイトル字幕配役出演者字幕次回予告及び日本語版エンディングも未収録。日本未放映話を収録するにあたっては日本で放送された当時の邦題を彷彿とさせるセンスで新規に邦題が付けられている。また収録エピソードの順番はパイロット版であるとなっている。シーズン12では字幕切替に字幕のみとなっている。またシーズン12ではオープニング前のティーザーが収録されておらずシーズン34ではティーザーが収録されている。シーズン1の前発売のの日本語吹き替えは収録されていない。各シーズンのDISC1には第1話に相当するエピソードとして、シーズン1は版である「電子頭脳スーパーカー誕生。シーズン2第10話はテレビ朝日での地上波放送時に吹替が存在していたがDVD版では日本語吹替が全く収録されていない。シーズン4第1話の折り返しとなる前半部分終盤でナイト2000がジャガーノートに破壊された直後にボニーが駆け付けるシーンが丸々カットされている。さらにこの直後のトレーラー内でデボンが偽者であることをマイケルが確信しボニーにデボンが偽者だと言う場面の日本語吹き替えが収録されていない。なお後述のブルーレイ版では上述シーズン2第10話のシーンも含めこのシーンは収録されている。同様にブルーレイ版での日本語吹替もTV放映当時と同じく収録されているが一部録り直しになっている。2011年2月16日アシェットコレクションズジャパンからDVDマガジンとして刊行開始。収録内容はBOXのものを1巻ごとに分割したもの。全30巻を予定していたが東日本大震災の影響により3号で休刊となった。2014年11月27日NBCユニバーサルエンターテイメントからが発売された。ブルーレイの2枚組の計26枚セットとなっている。先述のDVD版と異なり収録エピソード順番は米国で放映された順番に正しく修正されている。今回ブルーレイ化されるにあたり、オリジナル・フィルムからHD化を行い、片面2層24枚組に各シーズンを収録した。TV未放送のため今まで字幕版でしか存在していなかった10エピソードで吹き替え版を新規収録し、さらにDVD版では吹替がなかった3時間42分にも及ぶシーンも追加収録した。追加収録では声優陣のみならずスタッフの方も、演出に壺井正、翻訳に平田勝茂と、当時のスタッフが再結集している。ゲスト側は基本的に追加吹替用にキャスティングされた数名の役者が持ち回りで代役を行っており、有川博、大久保正信、内海賢二、石田太郎、小林勝彦、北村弘一、小林修、富山敬、仁内建之など、すでに故人となっているキャスト及び、藤田淑子といった往年のキャストが当時と同じ役で追加収録に参加している。全エピソードを詳細に網羅した40ページの完全版ブックレットやDVD版シーズン1に収録されていたの吹替台本の復刻版が同梱されている。この他の全19話を収録したDVDが2012年7月3日にリリースされた。こちらも放映当時にカットされていたシーンにも新規に吹き替えが行われており完全ノーカット版となっている。2016年10月11日にはアメリカのインディーズレーベル ミルクリークエンターテイメントから が発売された。日本のブルーレイではティーザーが全てカットされていたがこのアメリカ版Blu-rayでは全てティーザーが収録されている。なお同時にComplete Series のDVD版も発売されている。 +将軍は、比較的大きな軍隊の指揮官に与えられる官職および称号の一つ、また軍閥の指導者の地位でもある。称号としての将軍を将軍号ともいう。古くから東洋における軍隊の指揮官の役職名の一つであった。外交上または軍隊内の敬称としては閣下が用いられる。なお古代中国では「将軍は皇帝に任命された官職」「将は王侯や地方領主に任命された官職」と区別されている。将軍は中国において発祥した語であるがその意味は文字通りに代わって軍隊の指揮官の名称として用いられるようになる。漢では将軍職は常設ではなく臨時の官として任ぜられた。4〜6世紀には、高句麗・百済・新羅・倭などの諸国が中国王朝（南朝宋ほか）と外交を結び、よりランクの高い将軍号を求めて競い合った。中国歴代王朝における将軍号の序列.上段の称号ほど、また左側の称号ほど、格上となる。3〜7世紀東アジア諸国による中国王朝授与の将軍号の序列.3〜7世紀に中国王朝と外交交渉を持った東アジア諸国は、国主に対して号とともに、将軍号の格付けなどに関して、より上位の称号を求めてせめぎ合った。<br>管轄領域について: ◯◯に管轄する地域名称が入る。<br>3〜7世紀の中国歴代政権は、中国の軍事指揮官に授与するのと同一カテゴリーの将軍号を、近隣諸国・諸民族の君主たちに授与した。<br>4〜7世紀に倭百済高句麗新羅渤海の王と臣下たちが受けた将軍号.4〜6世紀中国の周辺諸国では君主の代替わりごとに中国に使者を派遣し君主に所属する「王号軍事指揮官としての管轄領域将軍号」等のセットについて更新しまた配下の豪族官僚のための「将軍の称号」と「幕府（=将軍府）に所属する文官の称号」を求めそれを配下に分配することにより国内を統制しようとした。（→府官制）倭百済高句麗新羅等が中国に送った国書の中にはと称する。年高句麗は「璉為二使持節都督営州諸軍事征東将は中国側が実際に授与した称号。近代以降の軍隊における将軍.近代以降の軍隊では、陸軍・空軍・海兵隊の将官以上の階級としては、准将 、少将 、中将 、大将 が存在する。海軍における将官の呼称は Admiral であり、これの和訳語はである。日本では日本書紀の記述する時代から使われている。中国の南北朝時代の史書には、倭の五王が南朝の皇帝から安東大将軍などの将軍号を受けたり、自称したという記録がある。なお、将軍を和語で訓ずる場合は「いくさのかみ」である。日本の律令制では軍防令24条に将軍の規定がある。それによれば将帥が出征するとき兵一万人以上なら将軍一人副将軍二人を置く。また三軍ごとに大将軍一人を置く。しかし実際の任命はこの兵数には基づかず特に大将軍の下に複数の将軍を置くという形態は一度もとられなかった。将軍は原則として臨時任命であり任命された事態は東の蝦夷に対する遠征南西の隼人や外国に対する遠征天皇の行幸の護衛都に来た外国使節や蝦夷隼人の迎接の四つである。各将軍はそれぞれ異なる称号を冠し単なるだけの官名はなかった。例示すれば対蝦夷戦では陸奥鎮東将軍征越後蝦夷将軍征狄将軍征東将軍征夷将軍など対隼人戦では討卑賊将軍征隼人持節度大将軍外国には征新羅大将軍など行幸と迎接では左将軍右将軍御前騎兵将軍御後騎兵将軍騎兵大将軍などである。唯一常設されたのが鎮守将軍で蝦夷に対する防備についた。常置された武官には近衛府・兵衛府があり、特に顕官である近衛大将はである。東国に武家政権を築いた源頼朝は右近衛大将を辞任してから後の地位を望んだ。頼朝の要請を受けた朝廷は先例を調査し1192年に征夷大将軍に任じた。頼朝の継承者である鎌倉幕府将軍は代々征夷大将軍の職にあり他の将軍職は任じられなかったため将軍は征夷大将軍の略称として通用されるようになった。将軍は武士の頂点にある存在として認識されるようになり御所と尊称されるようになっていった。南北朝時代には鎮守府将軍が復活する。南朝方の北畠親房はわが子北畠顕家が陸奥守鎮守府将軍に任ぜられるにあたり三位以上の将軍は鎮守大将軍とするように奏請。これにより顕家は鎮守大将軍として記録されている。しかし南朝方の勢力減退に伴い室町時代においては征夷大将軍である室町幕府将軍の存在のみとなった。この頃から将軍を指して公方と呼称されるようになり鎌倉公方などの呼称も派生している。江戸時代における将軍は征夷大将軍である江戸幕府将軍のみであった。外交呼称として対外的にを称した場合もある。しかし1867年（慶応3年）に江戸幕府の15代将軍徳川慶喜が大政奉還を行い王政復古の大号令により征夷大将軍の職を廃止された。その後仁和寺宮嘉彰法親王が征討大将軍に任ぜられたが短期間で廃止されている。西欧語に借用された は特に日本の征夷大将軍を指す言葉であり江戸幕府はと呼称される。明治時代になって近代軍制が敷かれると士官は将佐尉の三等に大別されその最上位の将には大将中将少将の三階級が置かれた。この職にあった軍人はときに将軍とも呼称された。三浦梧楼を指すの呼称を使う例が現れた。自衛隊においては幕僚長たる将将将補の将官が存在するが通常将軍とは呼称されない。前近代中国における将軍.漢代に於ける将軍は軍の指揮官として必要な時に皇帝により置かれたもので、最上級の大将軍は三公にも匹敵する重職であった。その下に驃騎将軍・衛将軍・車騎将軍があり、その下に上将軍・伏波将軍など臨時に任命される雑号将軍がある。後に戦乱などによって将軍号が増加し、南朝梁の武帝が将軍号を整理した際には12班で合わせて125号に分類整理されたという。唐の時代には、官職としての将軍の他に武散官の称号としての将軍も並存した。北宋では、武散官の称号としてのみ残され、それも神宗の時代に廃されてと改称された。元の時代に武散官の称号として復活し、続く明の時代には総兵官及びその麾下である軍指揮官の官職名としても復活した。清の時代には臨時の官職として大将軍が設置されたことがあるものの、常設官においては総兵官としての将軍の称号は再び廃されて、副将以下の軍指揮官及び駐防八旗兵の司令官の称号として残り近代に至る。国家指導者の敬称としての将軍.国際的には、軍事政権や一党独裁国家において最高権力者が、政権掌握当時の階級を意図的に名乗ったり国民の間に流布したりしている例がある。あるいは政権獲得後に軍人としてのキャリアの有無にかかわらず将官の階級を自らに与えるケースもある。例をあげるとパナマのマヌエルノリエガイラクのサダムフセイン北朝鮮の金日成金正日父子などもと呼ばれていた。存命人物では北朝鮮の金正恩がそう呼ばれている。このうちフセインと金正日金正恩父子は職業軍人としての経歴を持たない。金日成はソ連赤軍の朝鮮人義勇部隊に従軍したがソ連赤軍での最終階級は大尉である。また金日成の階級は朝鮮民主主義人民共和国大元帥金正日と金正恩は共和国元帥であり将官ではなく軍事的指導者の意味で将軍と称されていた。金正日はと呼ばれているだけであり日本語でそのまま将軍様とするのは適訳ではないという意見もある。 +は、大和朝廷から続く歴代の中央政権から見て、日本列島の東国などに住む人々の呼称である。大和朝廷による支配地域が広がるにつれ、この言葉が指し示す人々および地理的範囲は変化した。近世以降は、北海道・樺太・千島列島・カムチャツカ半島南部にまたがる地域の、アイヌ語を母語とするアイヌ民族を指す。大きく、という2つの呼称に大別される。大和朝廷の支配に服した東国の蝦夷は俘囚と呼ばれた。蝦夷は古くは愛瀰詩と書き次に毛人と表されともにが使われ始めたのは11世紀か12世紀である。えみし、毛人・蝦夷の語源については、以下に紹介する様々な説が唱えられているものの、いずれも確たる証拠はないが、エミシをしていたことが分かっている。古歌で「えみしを 一人 百な人 人は言へども 手向かいもせず」（えみしは一人で百人と人は言うが、我が軍には手向かいもしない） と歌われたこと、蘇我蝦夷、小野毛人、佐伯今毛人、鴨蝦夷のように大和朝廷側の貴族の名に使われたこと、平安時代後期には権威付けのために蝦夷との関連性を主張する豪族（安倍氏や清原氏）が登場していることから、「えみし」には強さや勇敢さという語感があったと推測されている。そこから、直接その意味で用いられた用例はないものの、本来の意味は「田舎の（辺境の）勇者」といったものではないかという推測もある。他方でアイヌ語に語源があると考えた金田一京助は、アイヌ語の雅語に人をであったと説いた。文献的に最古の例は毛人で5世紀の倭王武の上表文にとある。蝦夷の字をあてたのは斉明天皇5年の遣唐使派遣の頃ではないかと言われる。後代に人名に使う場合ほとんど毛人の字を使った。蘇我蝦夷はに出てくる毛民国を意識して中華の辺境を表すように字を選んだという説もある。人名に使った場合であっても、佐伯今毛人が勤務評定で今蝦夷になり、これが蝦夷の特徴なのだという説もある。諸説ある中で唯一定まっているのは、単独なら編者が彼を卑しめたものとする。だが、佐伯今毛人の例を引いてこれに反対する意見もある。用字については、『日本書紀』では蝦夷の夷の字に虫偏をつけた箇所も散見される。蝦夷の字の使用とほぼ同じ頃から、北の異民族を現す「狄」の字も使われた。「蝦狄」と書いて「えみし」と読んだらしい。毛人と結合して「毛狄」と書かれた例もある。一字で「夷」と「狄」を使い分けることもよくあった。これは管轄する国（令制国）による人工的区分で、越後国（後に出羽国）所轄の日本海側と北海道のえみしを蝦狄・狄、陸奥国所轄の太平洋側のえみしを蝦夷・夷としたのである。古代の蝦夷を、人種的にはともかく、民族的には区別する説が有力となった。は朝廷側からの他称であり、蝦夷側の民族集団としての自覚の有無に触れた史料はない。蝦夷に統一なアイデンティティーは無かったと解するか、朝廷側との交渉の中で民族意識が形成されたであろうと想定するかは、研究者の間で意見が分かれている。蝦夷についての形式上最も古い言及は神武東征記中に詠まれている来目歌の一つに愛濔詩として登場する。しかしこの来目歌がどの程度史実を反映するものかどうかは判然とせずまたここで登場する「えみし」が後の「蝦夷」を意味するかどうかも判然としないため古い時代の蝦夷の民族的性格や居住範囲については諸説があり確かなことはわかっていない。概ね関東地方から東北地方北海道にかけて広く日本列島の東方に住んでいたと考えられている。5世紀の中国の歴史書『宋書』倭国伝に478年（順帝昇明2年）倭王武が宋 (南朝)に届けた上表文として以下の記述がある。これにより既にこの時代には蝦夷の存在とその支配が進んでいた様子を確認することが出来る。景行天皇条には、武内宿禰が北陸及び東方諸国を視察した際の記述としと記述がある。蝦夷は、その優れた狩猟の弓術（和人の伝統の長弓に比べると短弓を用いた）に、古墳時代に日本へもたらされた馬を和人から取り入れ、飛鳥時代・奈良時代には狩猟における騎射の技を磨いた。戦闘が起きた場合には、優れた騎馬戦闘術（および蕨手刀などの騎乗武器）を生み出した。古墳の分布は和人文化の範囲を示し蝦夷との境界が北限となる。これまでの発掘調査により古墳時代前期における最古級の前方後円墳の北限は現在の新潟県越後平野中部福島県会津盆地宮城県仙台平野であったと考えられている。同時代の終末期までに北限は日本海側沿岸ではほとんど北進せずむしろ中越地方に後退するが日本海側内陸では山形県村山地方中部まで太平洋側では岩手県北上盆地南部まで北進した。飛鳥時代頃には蝦夷は現在の宮城県中部から山形県以北の東北地方と北海道の大部分に及ぶ広範囲に住んでいた。平時には和人と交易を行い昆布馬毛皮羽根などの特産物と引き換えに米布鉄器工芸品を得ていた。大和政権が支配領域を北に拡大するにつれてしばしば防衛のために戦い反乱を起こしまた和人の築いた城柵を襲撃したため日本書紀には襲撃や討伐の記録が記録されている。大和に帰順した蝦夷の集団は俘囚と呼ばれ関東地方へ移住させられたり西日本で兵隊集団を勤めるなどした。当初は大和側では秋田城などの城柵で儀礼的な会食や物資の提供を行い服属を促していたが蝦夷には中央政権が無いため恭順する集団と支配に抵抗し襲撃を行う集団が混在し長期間にわたり交易と征伐が並行して行われる事態となった。斉明天皇元年の管轄によって朝廷が用いた分類であると考えられている。この区別は後に出羽国と陸奥国の管轄になって平安時代まで踏襲されたが、字は北の異民族を指すとも書かれるようになった。斉明天皇4年と推定される。粛慎と呼ばれる集団の詳細は不明であり本州以外に住んでいる蝦夷の別称という説もあるが後には蝦夷と粛慎が別の集団であるかのような記述も登場する。斉明天皇5年蝦夷の長であった恩荷は阿倍比羅夫に降伏した際弓矢は武器ではなく狩猟の道具だと証言している。斉明天皇6年3月には阿倍臣が粛慎を討伐する際陸奥の蝦夷を自分の船に乗せて河を越え渡島に渡ったが到着後に渡島に住む蝦夷から粛慎の水軍が多数襲来するので河を渡って朝廷に仕えたいと申し出る記述がありこの時代には熟蝦夷の一部が朝廷軍として働いていたと見られている。また13世紀半ばから14世紀初頭にかけてモンゴル帝国は樺太のアイヌを攻撃しているが関連は不明である。蝦夷は、産馬、産金の地である陸奥で経済力および戦闘力を付けていったのに対し、朝廷は産出物に依存する形となるなど、次第にその王権外の存在が問題視され、完全に大和化する政策に次第に舵が切られていった。養老2年8月14日出羽と渡嶋の蝦夷が78人が馬1000頭を献納したので位と録を授けた記録がある。光仁天皇以降、蝦夷征討政策が本格化した。蝦夷も組織的に朝廷軍と戦うようになっていった。宝亀11年らの名がその指導者として伝わる。延暦6年（787年）の記録に「蝦夷に横流しされた綿で敵が綿冑を作っている」という記述 があり、不正な交易が行われていたことがうかがえる。延暦20年には志波城を築城し、蝦夷征討の目的がほぼ達成されたと見なされた。その後、朝廷は蝦夷に対する積極的な征服政策を転じ、民衆の負担を減らすことととし、朝廷の支配領域の拡大は現在の岩手県と秋田県のそれぞれ中部付近を北限として停止する。延暦24年（805年）、藤原緒嗣から蝦夷征討と平安京の造営の一時中止を奏上され、桓武天皇は蝦夷への遠征を中止した。また軍団を廃止し健児制へと移行したが、陸奥・出羽のみ蝦夷対策として軍団が維持された。その後は、現地の朝廷官僚や、大和に帰順した俘囚の長たちが蝦夷の部族紛争に関与することなどにより、徐々に大和化が進行していったものと思われる。その後前九年の役後三年の役などが勃発し平安後期の東北北部は戦乱の時代であったが当事者のうち安倍氏や清原氏は俘囚の長を自称し蝦夷との系譜的関連性を主張しているが他方源氏は蝦夷の系譜とは関係なく東北に乗り込んでいる。平安末期になると蝦夷との血縁的系譜的関係を主張する奥州藤原氏の支配が東北北端まで及ぶことになる。藤原氏3代は中尊寺金色堂でミイラになっている。を自称する藤原氏のミイラの調査は注目された。調査の結果、このミイラには指紋には渦紋が多く頭は丸顔で歯のかみ合わせも日本人的であり、藤原氏の骨格は日本人の骨格であるとされた。また、ミイラには内臓や脳漿は全く無く、腹部は湾曲状に切られ後頭部に穴が開いていた。ただ、裂け目にネズミの歯形が付いており、長谷部言人はミイラは自然発生したと主張し藤原3代は日本人であったとした。それに対し、古畑種基はミイラの人工加工説を主張した。木棺3個とも後頭部と肛門にあたる板に穴が開けられていたが、切り口は綺麗で汚物が流出した跡は無く、また男性生殖器は切断されており、加工の跡は歴然だとした。これは極めてアイヌ的な慣行で、樺太アイヌは偉大な酋長が死ぬと近親者は遺体の脳漿と内臓を除去し、何度か塩水を付けて天日で乾かしウフイを作る。森嘉兵衛は、和人との何代かにわたる婚姻で骨格は日本人化していたが、精神や葬祭の慣行はアイヌ的なものが変わらず残っていたのではないかとしている。奥州藤原氏が源頼朝率いる関東地方の鎌倉政権によって滅ぼされると、幕府は東北地方各地に東国武士を派遣し、ここに蝦夷の系譜ではなく、朝廷の系譜による鎌倉幕府（関東政権）による支配がはじめて東北北端にまで及び、大和化が成ったことになる。相前後して蝦夷、俘囚などと言った民族的諸概念は文献から姿を消し、次項に述べる「エゾ」に置き換わる。蝦夷の性格については、後のアイヌとの関係を中心に、江戸時代から学説が分かれている。蝦夷をアイヌ人とする蝦夷アイヌ説と、蝦夷を和人の一部とする蝦夷辺民説である。現在では、考古学からする文化圏の検討と、北東北にアイヌ語で説明できる地名が集中しているから、少なくとも飛鳥時代以降の蝦夷について、アイヌとの連続性を認める説が有力である。中央政府側に通訳がついていたことから蝦夷の言語が日本語と相当異なっていたことが分かり、前述の通りアイヌ語系の地名が東北北部に数多く残っていることから、アイヌ語系統の言葉を話していたと推定される。古墳時代の寒冷化に伴い、北海道の道央や道南地方を中心に栄えていた続縄文文化の担い手が東北地方北部を南下して仙台平野付近にまで達し、西南日本から北上して来た古墳文化の担い手と接触・交流していたことが、考古学的に明らかとなっている。彼らが文献上の蝦夷そのものであり、その後、北海道の蝦夷は最終的にアイヌに継承され、東北地方の蝦夷と国内に移配された俘囚は和人に合流したとされる。一方で蝦夷はモンゴル系民族と類似している。なおアイヌも短弓と毒矢を使用する。しかし北方系の騎馬民族には刺青の風習はなく日本在来馬の起源は蒙古馬から対州馬を経て拡散されたものでありこの説も空想の域を出ない。北米のネイティブ・アメリカンの例でもある様に、渡来した集団から馬を手に入れ、文化に組みこまれたものと思われる。民俗資料に見えるエミシ.東北地方に伝わる坂上田村麻呂伝説を始め種々の伝説中にエミシの族長クラスの名として悪路王阿弖流為大武丸赤頭の名が残る。民俗学者柳田国男はこのについて赤髪かまたは赤い顔の事だろうとしていた。柳田は同時にエミシの伝説として東北人は「赤頭太郎などと称して赤い大人。一方エミシは当時の東北人から鬼と呼ばれていたらしい。例を挙げると大武丸の生誕地が「鬼生田これらに共通した特徴を持っている事が分かる。中世以後の蝦夷頃には現在アイヌと呼ばれる人々と同一とみられるとなったとする説がある。アイヌ文化は前代の擦文文化を継承しつつオホーツク文化の量的増大にありアイヌ文化は交易に大きく依存していたことからアイヌ文化を生んだ契機に和人との交渉の増大があると考えられている。具体的には奥州藤原氏政権の盛衰との関係が指摘されている。鎌倉時代後期に任ぜられ、これら3種の蝦夷を統括していたとする記録もある。室町時代和人とアイヌの抗争の時代を生き抜き和人勢力を糾合して渡島半島南部の領主に成長していった蠣崎氏は豊臣秀吉徳川家康から蝦夷地の支配権交易権を公認され名実共に安東氏から独立し江戸時代になると蠣崎氏は松前氏と改名して大名に列した。蝦夷全体をクリルとしているものもある。昔のアイヌ民族は居住地にクリルという名前を使用していた。現在ロシア連邦では千島列島や歯舞諸島や色丹島を指しているとされているがまたロシア連邦領土北海道を指す用語としてという説もあり北海道全体や東北地方などの北日本をさす用語としても使用されている。クリルはロシア連邦では範囲がいろいろである。 +高橋 葉介（たかはし ようすけ、1956年（昭和31年）3月15日 - ）は、日本の漫画家、漫画原作者。本名 高橋庸介。代表作に怪奇幻想マンガ『夢幻紳士』シリーズや学園ホラーマンガ『学校怪談』や『もののけ草紙』などがある。母の実家のある長野県で出生し幼少期は東京都青梅市で育ち建築業の父とともに武蔵野市武蔵境豊島区池袋神奈川県相模原市に移る。小学生の頃からマンガを描き始め高校時代から集英社や小学館に投稿を始める。駒澤大学時代に水野流転主宰の同人誌8月号掲載のでデビュー。その後は同誌に多く作品を発表する。デビュー当時は毛筆とGペンを併用した特徴的な線と絵柄で知られ休刊後は意識的に作風を変えていった。1980年前後には漫画界のニューウェーブの旗手と目され従来の少年漫画や少女漫画の影響を受けつつそれらのいずれとも異なる独特な表現で漫画ファンの注目を集めた。作品は、基本的に猟奇要素の強い幻想怪奇漫画が多いが、と評している。藤田和日郎も、高橋作品に強い影響を受けたと語っている。を掲載この作品はライフワーク的位置付けとなる。荒俣宏を2000年まで連載。この登場人物達も夢幻一族の子孫という設定になっている。2006年、近藤豪志の作画によるで初めて原作を手がける。2005年、怪奇篇の流れを汲むに連載。以降は早川書房とぶんか社での執筆が多くなっている。2021年7月『夢幻紳士』40周年を記念して高橋初の画集『にぎやかな悪夢』を刊行。その刊行を記念して東京にあるリベストギャラリー創にて原画展が開催された。各巻の収録作品については高橋葉介ウヱブサイトの高橋葉介著作リストを参照。書誌情報に関してはを参照。数学とは、数・量・図形などに関する学問である。数学は一般に形式科学に分類され自然科学とははっきり区別される。方法論の如何によらず最終的には数学としての成果というものは自然科学のように実験や観察によるものではない。数学の範囲と定義については数学者や哲学者の間で様々な見解がある。数学の最も普通の定義としては、というものがある。また冒頭ではとする、百科事典に掲載されている、研究対象によって数学を定義する定義文を紹介した。なおという言葉によってどのような要素が省略されているか、他にどのようなことを研究するか、というところまで説明を補うと、量、構造、空間、変化...など、さまざまなものが続々と出てくる。19世紀のヨーロッパで集合論が提起されてからはといった単純な定義で済ませておくことはできない状態にある。 +「現代的な数学においては公理的に定義される抽象的な構造を数理論理学を共通の枠組みとして用いて探究する。」などとも。数学を専門的に研究する人物数学の学者を数学者と言う。が発達した。現代の数学では証明は非常に重視されている。現代における純粋数学の研究は主に代数学幾何学解析学の三分野に大別される。またこれらの数学を記述するのに必要な道具を与える論理を研究する学問を数学基礎論という。以下の分野や項目の一覧は数学に対する一つの有機的な見方を反映している。ヴィンチェンツォガリレイは音楽数学の発展と物理学の発展は密接な関係にある。数理モデルは計算機の研究にも使われる。また言語の研究にも使われることがある。数理モデルは理想化されており往々にして実際との間にはが生じるという問題はあるがそれでもそうした分野の研究に俯瞰的な視点を与え研究に大きな進歩や高い次元からの洞察をもたらすこともある。数学と初等中等教育現場.日本の義務教育現場では、初等教育ではと表記されている。学習する分野は、10年ごとに文部科学省から学習指導要領が告示され、その基準に基づいて決定される。この学習指導要領について文部科学省は、学習指導要領のより詳細な事項を記載したを発行しており、学習指導要領とは異なり法的拘束力はないとされ、教科用図書検定規則などには学習指導要領解説に沿わなければならないという規定はないのだが、学習指導要領解説で提示された公式のみが教科書に実際に記述されているなど、教科用図書検定の際には強い影響力を持っており、事実上拘束力がある。※というものは存在しない。数学に関する賞としてはフィールズ賞が最高峰とされている。食文化（しょくぶんか）は食（食事）にまつわる文化のこと。食文化には、食材の選び方、献立の立て方、調理法といったことから、食器の選び方、また誰と、どのように食べるのか、といったことや、作法・マナーなどに至るまで多くのことが含まれる。食の頻度摂取する時刻なども食文化の要素の一つである。普段は何を食べるか暦の上で特別な日には何を食べるのかということもある。現代社会のグローバリズムの中で、それぞれの食文化は均一化の方向へ向かっている面もある。欧米企業を主体にしたファストフード店が、世界各国に展開していたり、インスタント食品やスナック菓子などが流通している。とは言うものの、世界各国の各家庭では、親から子へと伝統的な家庭料理が伝授されつづけているし、郷土料理の再評価や、地元の食材を用いた料理の評価、も起きている。また、跡継ぎ問題もあって家庭料理だけでなく地域固有の郷土料理に詳しい継承者を育てる動きもある。くらしき作陽大学に、日本初のが設置されている。民族や宗教、地域、国家等々によってそれぞれの多様な食文化が存在する。固有のものがある一方で、麺類のように地域・国境を越えて食文化が伝播している場合もある。たとえばユダヤ教には「カシュルート」や「コーシェル」と呼ばれる食物規定がある。これはもとをたどれば旧約聖書において、食べてよいもの、食べていけないもの、一緒に食べてはいけないものの組み合わせ、動物の屠り方、調理法などに関すること細かに記述・規定されていることによる。厳格な教派においては現在でもこれを厳格に守っているユダヤ教徒が多い。Pesa（ペサハ。過越祭、すぎこしのまつり、ニサン月14日の夜。太陽暦の3月か4月の移動日に始まり一週間つづく）には、先祖がエジプト人の奴隷であった時代にモーセに率いられエジプトを脱出しようとした際、神はエジプト中の赤子を殺したが、小羊の血を家の入口に塗ったヘブライ人の家だけは「過ぎ越した」（殺さなかった）という故事を思い起こし、過越祭の最初の晩には「セーデル」と呼ばれる正餐を催す。小羊・苦菜・マッツァー（種なしパン、膨らますための酵母を入れないパン）を食べる。そして「ハガダー」という、出エジプトに関する物語・詩篇を読み、先祖がエジプトでの奴隷の身分から救出されたことを記念する。ムスリムの名を唱えながら鋭利な刃物でさばくと定められている。イスラム法にかなっている食べ物をという。中東ではハラールに関して寛容になっているムスリムも増えたがインドネシアのムスリムの中にはハラールに関して厳密な人も多い。ムスリムはラマダーン月（イスラム暦の月のひとつ)には日の出から日没まで断食を行うを仲良く楽しく食べる。それ故ラマダーン月には街の料理店にはお客はまったくいなくなるという。ラマダーン月には世界中のイスラーム教徒はひとつになっていると実感し信仰心が高まる。ヨーロッパの近世では地理上の発見や植民地を得たことが食材や香辛料などの面でに大きな影響を与えた。こうして様々な食文化がある。航空機の国際線などでは様々な食文化の人が乗客となりうるので、ユダヤ教徒向け、イスラーム向け、ヒンドゥー教徒向けなど、典型的な人を想定していくつか機内食の献立が用意されていることも多く、予約時にそれを指定すればそれを食べられるようになっている。広大な国土をもつ中国では地方ごとに傾向が異なる。小麦やトウモロコシの生産の多い地方では饅頭餃子小麦粉の麺などを主に食す。それに対してインディカ米の生産が多い南部では米飯やビーフンなどを主食にしている。沿岸部では魚料理をよく食べる。なお、中華料理のステレオタイプのイメージが中国の食文化の歴史を理解するうえで誤解の原因となりうることに注意が必要である。具体例を挙げるとすれば、フカヒレ料理の歴史はたかだか300年であるし、北京ダックの歴史はたかだか100年しかない。それ以前はそういうものは食べていなかった。なお中国では食べ物にまつわる宗教的な制約はないので近年経済発展してきたのにともない中国の人々は外国の味を抵抗なく受け入れている。たとえば食肉に関しても世界各国のレストラン系列やマクドナルドのハンバーガーケンタッキーフライドチキン吉野家の牛丼 等々等々が中国でも多数出店して世界の多様な食文化が急速に浸透している。食事内容の統計を見てみると1985年を境にして米の量が減り始めさらに近年では小麦の量も減ってきている。それに代わって畜産物が特に増えてきている。それとともに供給熱量も1985年に2572kcalだったのが2003年には2872kcalにまで増えた。食生活が肉や油を多用する欧米の食文化に向かって変化してきていると言ってよい。USDAのデータで見ても中国の牛肉の消費量は1989年に101万5000トンだったが2008年には621万トンと約6倍に伸びた。一人当たりの年間消費量で見ても0.9キログラム（1989年）→ 4.7キログラム（2008年）と約5倍となっている。台湾の食文化を理解するには台湾文化全般のしくみを知っておいたほうがよく「本省人」と「外省人」という用語を知っておいたほうがよい。また台湾料理は（50年ほどにもおよぶ）日本統治時代の食文化の影響も受けていることや蔣介石らが率いた台湾国民政府の影響も受けていることも知っておいたほうがよい。別の言い方をすると、台湾の食文化は、中国大陸南部の食文化の影響も受けており、台湾の先住民の食文化の影響も受けており、日本の食文化の影響も受けており、香港の食文化の影響も受けているということである。混ぜ合わさった民族性が台湾におけるという言葉で表されるものだともいう。たとえば広東料理の影響がある。 広東省はといわれるグルメの本場。豊富な海鮮、フカヒレやアワビといった珍味、飲茶文化などが有名。そうした食文化の影響を台湾の食文化は受けている。台湾のは台湾固有のものとなっていった。また台湾は宗教的に言うと仏教道教一貫道の影響が大きいわけでそれらはどれも殺生を禁止しておりその結果ベジタリアンやヴィーガンの人々も多く台湾素食も知られている。韓国の食文化の基本は「五味五色」と言われる。「五味」は辛甘酸献(しよっばい)苦のことで「五色」は青赤黄白黒のこと。朝鮮半島南部の気候と地理的特性が韓国の食べ物を豊かにし、韓国食文化の特徴の一つである主食と副食を明確に分ける習慣を作り出した。儒教が朝鮮民族の伝統を育んでおりその食文化にも影響を与えている。儒教は年長者や年配者を大切にすることを重視しそれを食事の場において言葉や動作でも表現する。乾杯のときには年長者や目上の人の前ではグラスは目立たないように飲まなければならないとされている。儒教は韓国の焼肉の文化も育んだ。ニンニクの多用に関しても李盛雨（イソンウ 『韓国料理文化史』の著者）は「我国（＝韓国）は崇儒廃仏主義であったため仏教で教える「ニンニク食禁忌」を受け入れずどんな抵抗感も無くニンニクを喜んで食べてきた」と述べた。日本においては仏教僧侶の献立や平安時代の貴族の酒宴における大饗料理さらに大饗料理の系譜を受け継いで武士社会における酒宴において儀式的な料理となった本膳料理などが成立した。本膳料理は客個別の卓上に膳部が配膳される銘々膳で一汁三菜のようにで構成され後々の日本人の食文化に大きな影響を与えた。また本膳料理を簡略化した袱紗料理も誕生した。その後明治維新に伴う文明開化にともなって牛肉などを食べる食肉文化が流入。他にも太平洋戦争中の食糧不足連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の占領下の日本での食糧援助高度経済成長などでも食文化が急速に変化した。 +飲むとは動物が口から水や他の液体を摂取する行為である。人間の開いた口に液体が注がれると嚥下過程によって食道の蠕動により液体が胃へ送られる。ただし重力によって液体は自然に胃の方へ向かうため固形物の嚥下の場合よりは蠕動は抑制されている。コップなどの食器から液体を飲むほか手から液体を注いで飲むこともある。熱い液体を飲むときや、スプーン、ストローなどで飲む場合には、空気を吸引することで液体を口に入れる。乳児が母乳を飲む場合は、唇を乳腺にきつく押し付けて吸引する。呼吸と舌の動きの組み合わせにより、口腔内の気圧を低下させて液体を口に引き込む 。行為が必要ないため歯のない乳幼児や歯の弱った老人には栄養を摂取する方法として適している。また消化器官が弱っている病人などには消化しやすいように流動食を与えることもある。水分補給のため又は嗜好品として液体状の物体を摂取する行為について用いられることが普通だが薬品（液体固体粉末）を服用する場合も飲むという。淡水に生息する両生類やは飲む必要はなく浸透によって皮膚を通して水分を安定して吸収する。それに対し海水魚は泳ぐときに口から海水を飲み余分な塩分は鰓から出す。飼育下のは水を飲むことに慣れるようになるがほとんどの野生の動物は食べ物の中の水分や液体によって水分補給を行う。水を飲まなければならない状態になった場合水の飲み方や動きは種によって大きく異なる。砂漠の動物の多くは水が利用可能であってもそれを飲まず多肉植物を食べて水分補給を行っている。猫、犬、反芻動物は、首を下げて、舌で水を舐める。猫と犬はスプーンのような形をした舌で水を包み込む。反芻動物やほとんどの草食動物は、舌を真っ直ぐにしたまま突っ込む動作によって水中に引き込むために、口の先端を部分的に水没させる。捕食の危険に直面する反芻動物と比べて、猫はかなり遅いペースで水を飲む。象は鼻で水を吸い込み、口に噴き出す。ほとんどの鳥は嘴の頬側の領域に水をすくい取るか、吸い込み、頭を上げて傾けて飲む。例外的に、カワラバトは吸入によって直接水を吸うことができる。という用語は酒および飲酒を伴う宴会の同義語としてよく使用される。歴史的にほとんどの文化で食事祝い事儀式乾杯やその他の機会に多種多様な酒を取り入れてきた。人間文化における発酵飲料の痕跡は新石器時代にまで遡り最初の絵画的な証拠は紀元前4000年頃のエジプトで見られる。飲酒は、世界中で様々なへと発展してきた。その一方で、アルコール摂取は重大な健康上のリスクをもたらす。アルコール乱用やアルコール依存症は、世界中の先進国で一般的な病気である。高頻度の飲酒は、肝硬変、胃炎、痛風、膵炎、高血圧、癌など、様々な病気を引き起こす可能性がある。 +ペンシルベニアドイツ語は、北アメリカのカナダおよびアメリカ中西部でおよそ15万から25万人の人びとに話されているドイツ語の系統である。高地ドイツ語のうち上部ドイツ語の一派アレマン語の一方言である。ペンシルベニアアレマン語とも呼ばれる。この言語を主に使用するのはアメリカ合衆国のペンシルベニア州東部から発生し中西部モンタナ州アイダホ州ワイオミング州ワシントン州オレゴン州それにカナダのオンタリオ州に住んでいる大部分のゲルマンドイツ系アメリカ人である。話し手の多くはアーミッシュかオールド・オーダー・メノナイト派である。ただし、数世代前は全く違う状態にあった。これについては以下の#継承の節を参照のこと。またメノナイト派の内アメリカ北部や南部に住む人びとは、低地ドイツ語の諸語を話すことがあるが、これはまた全く異なるグループの言語である。ペンシルベニアダッチとも呼ばれるがいわゆるオランダ語と直接の関係はない。英語のダッチは現代ではオランダ語やオランダ人の意味で使われるが古くはドイツ語およびドイツ人を指す言葉であった。この語とは同語源である。元来オランダはドイツ文化圏の一部とみなされていたが後に意味が狭義化した。この紛らわしい呼び名はその古い語義を保つ形になっている。同時にアシュケナジムが使用するイディッシュ語とも系統が異なるグループの言語である。ヨーロッパにおける起源.ペンシルベニアドイツ語はドイツ中西部のプファルツ地域の言語である中部ドイツ語に属するフランケン諸語のさまざまな地域からの移民から構成される。これはアルザススイスを含む南西部のバーデンバイエルンシュヴァーベンを含む南中部のシュヴァーベンフランケン地方南西部を含む中南部のヴュルテンベルクなど移民がやって来てから最初の数世代の間に各種の方言が融合し現在のようなものになったという。ペンシルベニアドイツ語は、大衆文化のなかではアーミッシュと結び付けられることが多い。ペンシルベニア・ジャーマン訛りの英語を話す人は、v と w の発音をすり替えてしまうことなどが典型的である。たとえばと言ってしまう、などとされる。ただし、現実のペンシルベニアドイツ語の話し手が英語を話す際には、非常にわずかな訛りしかない。上のようなイメージは観光のために誇張されているものという色合いが濃い。現在、ペンシルベニアドイツ語には、2つの競合する表記の方法が存在している。例えばは次のように2通りに表記され得る。Unsah Faddah im Himmeldei nohma loss heilich seiDei Reich loss kumma.Dei villa loss gedu seiuf di eaht vi im Himmel.Unsah tayklich broht gebb uns heit,Un fagebb unsah shuldavi miah dee fagevva vo uns shuldich sinn.Un fiah uns naett in di fasuchung,avvah hald uns fu'm eevila.Fa dei is es Reich, di graft,un di hallichkeit in ayvichkeit.Unser Fadder im Himmel,dei Naame loss heilich sei,Dei Reich loss kumme.Dei Wille loss gedu seiuff die Erd wie im Himmel.Unser deeglich Brot gebb uns heitUn vergebb unser Schulde,wie mir die vergewwe wu uns schuldich sinn.Un fiehr uns net in die Versuchung,awwer hald uns vum Iewile.Fer dei is es Reich die Graftun die Hallichkeit in Ewichkeit.参考までに、現代の標準的ドイツ語による表記は、次のようになる。Vater unser im Himmelgeheiligt werde dein Name.dein Reich kommedein Wille geschehewie im Himmel, so auf Erden.Unser tgliches Brot gib uns heute,und vergib uns unsere Schuldwie auch wir vergeben unseren Schuldigern.Und fhre uns nicht in Versuchung,sondern erlse uns von dem Bsen.Denn Dein ist das Reichund die Kraft und die Herrlichkeitin Ewigkeitペンシルベニアドイツ語は少なくとも2つの意味で絶滅の危機に直面している。ひとつにはこの言語はペンシルベニア州南東部でかつて日常的に話されていたのだが今日ではそのような使われ方はされていない。今日でも高年齢層のなかにはペンシルベニアドイツ語を話す人々が多い。だが彼らの孫の世代は英語のみしか知らないのが普通である。もうひとつ今日でもペンシルベニアドイツ語を日常的に使っているアーミッシュについてはそこに多くの英単語が混ざるようになったことが指摘できる。一部の関係者はこの変化が進展するとやがてペンシルベニアドイツ語は消え去ってしまうのではないかと危惧している。またこの変化が加速しつつあることも指摘されている。これは多くのアーミッシュの大規模な共同体にとって土地が稀少になりつつありそれに伴って農業以外の職業に就く必要性が出てきているためである。工場などで働く場合英語との接触がかなり増えることになるケースがある。また、アーミッシュとオールド・オーダー・メノナイト派は、かつてはペンシルベニアドイツ語の話し手のごく少数を占めるに過ぎなかったが、現在ではかれらだけが世代間の言語の継承をおこなっているため、話し手の大多数を占めるようになった。ジョンズ・ホプキンズ大学の社会学者でペンシルベニア・ダッチ人のジョン・A・ホステトラーによれば、当初これら2つの集団は話し手全体の人口の10%以下であったという。しかしながらこの2集団がペンシルベニアドイツ語の使用をやめる兆候はない。かれらの文化では言語は従順さ謙譲の証として扱われ外部の世界に対するバリアーとして機能している。またアーミッシュは一般に多産であるため短期的には若い世代の話し手がいなくなる可能性は低い。カナダでは、次の3つの集団がペンシルベニアドイツ語を話す。一般に、カナダ国内のペンシルベニアドイツ語の話し手はアメリカ国内の話し手の数と比べて非常に少ない。だが、少なくともカナダのメノナイト派の内の1集団は、ペンシルベニアドイツ語の使用を中止する率がアメリカの同様の集団と比べて低いことがわかっている。具体的には自動車オールド・オーダー・メノナイト派がそうである。アメリカでは自動車を利用するオールド・オーダー・メノナイト派の人々は、英語に切り替えてしまうけれども、カナダではこうした人びとは家庭内で依然としてペンシルベニアドイツ語を使い続けている。アメリカ国内では次の各集団がペンシルベニアドイツ語を話す。これらの内最後の一連の諸集団がかつてペンシルベニアドイツ語の使い手の主流派をなしていた。また今日では夜間学校で言語を教える試みなどもおこなわれている。しかしながらこれらの集団内での話し手の数は年々減少する傾向にある。ほかにこうした人々を主な対象とした週に一度のラジオ番組がありルター派と改革派教会の内以前ドイツ語を使っていた支部の多くはペンシルベニアドイツ語による毎年一回のミサをおこなっている。またペンシルベニアドイツ語の母語話者と商取引を頻繁に行う人々のなかにはこの言語を話すようになる人もいる。今日の話し手の人口は15万から25万の間であると思われる。但し学術出版物も含めこれよりもさらに低い数字を提供する者もいる。これは上に挙げたさまざまな集団の存在に気づかないために起こる誤認による。全人口の内アーミッシュは15万から20万人を占める。オールドオーダーメノナイトは数万人その他のメノナイト派の話し手が数千人アーミッシュでもメノナイト派でもない話し手が数千人いる。たとえばペンシルベニア南東部にあるペンシルベニアドイツ語の話し手のための組織であるGrundsau Lodgeの会員数は6千人にのぼるとされる。これらの内アーミッシュの人口は見積りがやや困難である。アーミッシュの人口として統計上報告されるものはしばしば洗礼を受けた人の数である。ここには20代なかばとそれ以下の人口を含まない。教区の数と教区ひとつ当たりの平均人口に基づいた推計の方がより正確である。さらにペンシルベニア州オハイオ州インディアナ州の各州には大きな話し手の集団がいることがわかっているがこれら以外の地域の話し手は英語の話し手の間に散在しているために把握が困難である。アーミッシュの人口の公式な統計は、現在のところ存在しない。また、ペンシルベニアドイツ語を話す人びとは、カナダやアメリカの国勢調査ではドイツ語を話す者としてカウントされる。これは回答用紙にある選択肢のなかでドイツ語が一番近いためである。 +アーミッシュ（）はアメリカ合衆国のペンシルベニア州や中西部カナダのオンタリオ州などに居住するドイツ系移民（ペンシルベニアダッチも含まれる）の宗教集団である。移民当時の生活様式を保持し農耕や牧畜によって自給自足生活をしていることで知られる。原郷はスイスアルザスシュワーベンなど。人口は20万人以上いるとされている。アーミッシュとメノナイトはルーテル派とツヴィングリ派の新教再組織から分かれてスイスのチューリッヒで生まれた一派で、宗教的迫害を受けたのちにドイツ南西部やフランスのアルザス地方に移住した。キリスト教と共同体に忠実である厳格な規則のある派で、創始者のメノ・シモンズの名前をとってメノナイトと呼ばれた。そのメノナイトの一員であったは、教会の純粋さを保つために、ほかのグループから離れて暮らすことを考え、更に保守的な一派を作った。アーミッシュという呼称は彼の名に由来する。ライフスタイルは少し違うが、メノナイトもアーミッシュも基本的信条は同じで、ひとくくりにアーミッシュと呼ばれている。アーミッシュにはという戒律があり、原則として快楽を感じることは禁止される。なお、オルドゥヌングは各地のコミュニティーごとに合議によって定められるので各地で差異がある以下のような規則を破った場合、懺悔や奉仕活動の対象となる。改善が見られない場合はアーミッシュを追放され、家族から絶縁される。政治的にはとの信条から積極的に有権者として関わることはなかった。しかし2004年アメリカ合衆国大統領選挙では激戦州となったペンシルベニア州やオハイオ州のアーミッシュに共和党が宗教的紐帯を根拠とし支持を広げたという。彼らは専用の教会をその集落に持たず、普通の家に持ち回りで集い神に祈る。これは教会が宗教を核とした権威の場となることを嫌って純粋な宗教儀式のみに徹するためである。学校教育はすべてコミュニティ内だけで行われ、教育期間は8年間である。1972年に連邦最高裁において独自学校と教育をすることが許可された。教師はそのコミュニティで育った未婚女性が担当する。教育期間が8年間だけなのは、それ以上の教育を受けると知識が先行し、謙虚さを失い、神への感謝を失うからだとされる。教育内容はペンシルベニアドイツ語と英語と算数のみである。アーミッシュは移民当時の生活様式を守るため電気を使用せず、現代の一般的な通信機器（電話など）も家庭内にはない。原則として現代の技術による機器を生活に導入することを拒み、近代以前と同様の生活様式を基本に農耕や牧畜を行い、自給自足の生活を営んでいる。自分たちの信仰生活に反すると判断した新しい技術・製品・考え方は拒否するのである。一部では観光客向け商品の販売などが行われている（アーミッシュの周辺に住む一般人が、アーミッシュのキルトや蜂蜜などを販売したり、アーミッシュのバギーを用いて観光客を有料で乗せたりする例もある）。基本的に大家族主義であり、ひとつのコミュニティは深く互助的な関係で結ばれている。新しい家を建てるときには親戚・隣近所が集まって取り組む。服装は極めて質素。子供は多少色のあるものを着るが、成人は決められた色のものしか着ない。洗濯物を見ればその家の住人がアーミッシュかどうかわかる。アーミッシュの日常生活では近代以前の伝統的な技術しか使わない。そのため、自動車は運転しない。商用電源は使用せず、わずかに、風車、水車によって蓄電池に充電した電気を利用する程度である。移動手段は馬車によっているものの、ウィンカーをつけることが法規上義務付けられているため、充電した蓄電池を利用しているとされる。しかし、メノナイトは自動車運転免許を持つことが許されており、家電製品も使用している。アーミッシュは現代文明を完全に否定しているわけではなく自らのアイデンティティを喪失しないかどうか慎重に検討したうえで必要なものだけを導入しているのである。アーミッシュがあまり生活について語らないため謎に包まれている部分もある。写真撮影は宗教上の理由から拒否されることが多い。ただし、これらの宗教上の制限は成人になるまでは猶予される。アーミッシュの子供は、16歳になると一度親元を離れて俗世で暮らす際に、一年の間、アーミッシュのコミュニティから離れた後にアーミッシュのコミュニティに戻るか、アーミッシュと絶縁して俗世で暮らすかを選択する事が認められているが、ほとんどのアーミッシュの新成人はそのままアーミッシュであり続けることを選択するといわれる。この模様はの中で、アーミッシュの子供達をアーミッシュの居住地域から離れた、大都会であるロサンゼルスに連れて行き大学生の生活をさせると、自分の人生の可能性に気付き、彼らの内9割以上が、俗世に出ることを選択したという出来事もある。アーミッシュの言語はドイツ古語の一派が第二次子音推移を経た高地ドイツ語のうち上部ドイツ語に属するアレマン諸語やその一方言であるスイスアレマン語およびアルザス語などがアメリカドイツ語と融合したペンシルベニアアレマン語を基本とする。しかし現在のドイツ南西部にいるアレマン人の言語はペンシルベニアアレマン語の話者にとってきわめて困難かつ理解できない言語である。前述のとおりペンシルベニアアレマン語はアメリカ内で上部ドイツ諸語およびアメリカドイツ語などが複雑に融合して形成された言語であり従来のアレマン諸語のシュヴァーベン方言スイスアレマン方言アルザス語などの話者と会話をしても標準ドイツ語の影響を受けたこれらの言語はまったく通じない言語である。そのため彼らはとのコミュニケーションのためにアメリカ英語の言語を使用する傾向がある。アーミッシュキルトが有名で、着古した服の端切れを集めて作られる。スイスを離れ、北米に移住する前に一時期隠遁生活を送っていたフランスのアルザス地方にあるかつて銀が採れたボージュ山脈の谷間の村、（サント・マリー・オ・ミン）は、現在でもパッチワークの発祥地として有名で、構図がアーミッシュキルトの構図に似ているものがあることも興味深い。アーミッシュの人形も、古切れを縫い合わせた丁寧な作りである。顔に目・鼻・口などが描かれることはないが、アーミッシュの少女は、人形を我が身の分身のように大切にするという。音楽は楽器を所有したり演奏したりすることが禁じられている。理由は個人を引き立て虚栄心をあおる可能性があるからである。歌は斉唱である。これも個人を引き立たせることを禁じているからである。1曲歌い終わるのに15分くらいかかるものが多い。アーミッシュはことに価値を見出しているからである。アーミッシュでは独自の農業を行いほぼ完全な自給自足の生活を送っている。農業は農薬や化学肥料を全く使わずアーミッシュの農作物は市場では高値で売られ一部の高級ホテルや高級レストランで重宝されている。2006年10月、ランカスター郡の小学校にという男が闖入し児童や教員を銃で殺傷する事件が発生し、13歳のアーミッシュの少女が、自分より小さな子供に銃口が向けられた際に身代わりとなって射殺され、その妹も銃撃された。その後彼女らの祖父は犯人に恨みを抱いていないことを表明し、犯人の家族を葬儀に招いた。その独特の生活様式は1985年のアメリカ映画『刑事ジョン・ブック 目撃者』で取り上げられ、広く知られることとなった。ハリソン・フォード演じる主人公の刑事が、偶然殺人事件を目撃したアーミッシュの子供を守るため、アーミッシュの家庭に身を寄せるうちにその母親と恋に落ちるという物語である。しかし、必ずしも事実に忠実に描かれているわけではないため、アーミッシュの人々の中では必ずしも好意的に受け止められておらず、実際は共同体外部の異性と恋愛をすることは現在でも皆無だと言われる。またアーミッシュが多く居住するランカスターはスリーマイル島から南東に40キロメートルほどに位置しておりスリーマイル島原子力発電所事故のような技術災害が技術自体を好む好まずに関係なく社会全体に影響することの代表例として知られている。 +イラストレーターを描くことを生業としている人のこと。挿絵表紙絵本広告パッケージポスターなどを主な活動範囲とする。日本のポップカルチャーにおいては絵師と呼ぶこともある。注文や要請に的確に応じる必要性のためイラストレーターには画力やセンスのみならず対象事物への理解力や専門知識も求められる。このため科学医療料理ファンタジーファッションなどの専門イラストレーター工業デザインインフォグラフィックコンセプトアートキャラクターデザインを得意とするイラストレーターあるいはパステルエアブラシコンピュータグラフィックスを用いるイラストレーターなどのように細分化された専門分野が存在する。画家とイラストレーター.（絵画や漫画などに対する）イラストレーションの定義と同様イラストレーターの定義にも曖昧さが残る。画家が自らの創作意欲に基づいて独自の色合いや筆使いで絵画を描き、絵画を販売する職業であるのに対して、イラストレーターは商業的な用途などから目的となる事物やスケジュールを指定されて図絵を描き始める職業である点が異なる。例えば、書籍の表紙のために新しく絵を描き下ろす者は大抵イラストレーターと呼ばれる。専業のイラストレーターも多い一方、ポスターや商業デザインの分野ではグラフィックデザイナーが、日本の雑誌や小説のイラストでは漫画家・アニメーターが兼業していることも多い。アルフォンス・ミュシャはその仕事のどの部分を捉えるかにより画家ともグラフィックデザイナーともイラストレーターとも呼ばれる。今日ではイラストレーターも画集を出し、画家も表紙を描いたりするので両者の境界はますます曖昧となってきている。イラストレーションを描くという意味において漫画家・キャラクターデザイナー・絵本作家・挿絵画家・工業デザイナー・ウェブデザイナーなどとの明確な区分は難しいが、例えば漫画にあっては原作が漫画家独自のものであれば創作意欲や独自性から扱いとしては漫画家になり、発案したキャラクターを用いた商品広告などの場合にはイラストレーターに準じた扱いになって対価も異なる。同様に絵本にあってはストーリーや図絵を一人で行う場合はイラストレーターとは呼ばず絵本作家となり、挿絵画家とは異なる位置付けになる。イラストレーターはフリーランスが多く、画家と同じく認定資格もなく、1件毎に発注を受けることが多い職種のため、プロの定義も曖昧である。初期のイラストレーターの職業団体としては1902年2月1日にアメリカ合衆国で設立され、ハワード・パイルとその弟子のブランデーワイン派のイラストレーターたちが参加したがあり、イラストレーターの地位を向上させた。欧米の美術大学ではイラストレーション専門の学科が開設されていることもあるが日本国内ではイラストレーション科を持つ美術大学は存在せずデザイン学科の中にコースが設けられている（京都嵯峨芸術大学など）グラフィックデザインやインダストリアルデザインの専攻科などで学ぶこともできる。一方専門学校ではイラストレーション科も存在する場合がありより実践的な内容が教えられている。いずれにしてもそうした機関で教育を受けたからといって仕事が得られるとは限らない。編集者などへの売り込み個展の開催コンペティションへの応募斡旋エージェントへの登録Webサイトでの宣伝などを通し自力で仕事を獲得する必要がある。イラストレーターと依頼主の間で取り交わされる契約の内訳にも左右されるが一般的にはイラストレーターの描く図絵の著作権はイラストレーターにあり使用範囲を限定した使用権を依頼主に与えることが多い。著作権を譲渡する場合でも氏名表示権などの著作者人格権は譲渡できずイラストレーターの許に残る。イラストレーターの描いたイラストやキャラクターを盗作から守るために日本では公表済みのものにあっては文化庁管轄のにより著作権の保護管理下に置くことが可能である。他方でたとえ依頼主の指示であっても他人の作品の構図トレースなどの著作権侵害を行えばイラストレーターが責任を問われる。 diff --git a/synthdog/resources/corpus/kowiki.txt b/synthdog/resources/corpus/kowiki.txt new file mode 100755 index 00000000..73735c25 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/resources/corpus/kowiki.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +제임스 얼 카터 주니어는 민주당 출신 미국 39대 대통령 이며, 독재자의 사신이라는 별명을 가지고 있다.지미 카터는 조지아주 섬터 카운티 플레인스 마을에서 태어났다.조지아 공과대학교를 졸업하였다. 그 후 해군에 들어가 전함원자력잠수함의 승무원으로 일하였다. 1953년 미국 해군 대위로 예편하였고 이후 땅콩면화 등을 가꿔 많은 돈을 벌었다. 그의 별명이 로 알려졌다.1962년 조지아 주 상원 의원 선거에서 낙선하나 그 선거가 부정선거 였음을 입증하게 되어 당선되고, 1966년 조지아 주지사 선거에 낙선하지만, 1970년 조지아 주지사를 역임했다. 대통령이 되기 전 조지아주 상원의원을 두번 연임했으며, 1971년부터 1975년까지 조지아 지사로 근무했다. 조지아 주지사로 지내면서, 미국에 사는 흑인 등용법을 내세웠다.1976년 미합중국 제39대 대통령 선거에 민주당 후보로 출마하여 도덕주의 정책으로 내세워서, 많은 지지를 받고 제럴드 포드 대통령을 누르고 당선되었다.카터 대통령은 에너지 개발을 촉구했으나 공화당의 반대로 무산되었다.카터는 이집트와 이스라엘을 조정하여 캠프 데이비드에서 안와르 사다트 대통령과 메나헴 베긴 수상과 함께 중동 평화를 위한 캠프데이비드 협정을 체결했다. 이것은 공화당과 미국의 유대인 단체의 반발을 일으켰다. 그러나 1979년, 양국 간의 평화조약이 백악관에서 이루어졌다.소련과 제2차 전략 무기 제한 협상(SALT II)에 조인했다.카터는 1970년대 후반 당시 대한민국 등 인권 후진국의 국민들의 인권을 지키기 위해 노력했으며, 취임 이후 계속해서 도덕정치를 내세웠다.임기 말 소련의 아프가니스탄 침공 사건으로 인해 1980년 하계 올림픽에 반공국가들의 보이콧을 하였다.그는 주이란 미국 대사관 인질 사건의 인질 구출 실패로 인한 원인으로, 1980년 제40대 대통령 선거에서 공화당의 로널드 레이건에게 패하며 재선에 실패하였다.지미 카터는 대한민국과의 관계에서도 중요한 영향을 미쳤던 대통령 중 하나다. 인권 문제와 주한미군 철수 문제로 한때 한미 관계가 불편하기도 했다. 1978년 대한민국에 대한 북한의 위협에 대비해 한미연합사를 창설하면서 1982년까지 3단계에 걸쳐 주한미군을 철수하기로 했다. 그러나 주한미군사령부와 정보기관의회의 반대에 부딪혀 주한미군은 완전철수 대신 6000명을 감축하는 데 그쳤다. 또한 박정희 정권의 인권 문제 등과의 논란으로 불협화음을 냈으나 1979년 6월 하순 대한민국을 방문하여 관계가 다소 회복되었다.1979년 ~ 1980년 대한민국의 정치적 격변기 당시의 대통령이었던 그는 이에 대해 애매한 태도를 보였고, 이는 후에 대한민국 내에서 고조되는 반미 운동의 한 원인이 됐다. 10월 26일, 박정희 대통령이 김재규 중앙정보부장에 의해 살해된 것에 대해 그는 이 사건으로 큰 충격을 받았으며, 사이러스 밴스 국무장관을 조문사절로 파견했다. 12·12 군사 반란과 5.17 쿠데타에 대해 초기에는 강하게 비난했으나, 미국 정부가 신군부를 설득하는데, 한계가 있었고 결국 묵인하는 듯한 태도를 보이게 됐다.퇴임 이후 민간 자원을 적극 활용한 비영리 기구인 카터 재단을 설립한 뒤 민주주의 실현을 위해 제 3세계의 선거 감시 활동 및 기니 벌레에 의한 드라쿤쿠르스 질병 방재를 위해 힘썼다. 미국의 빈곤층 지원 활동, 사랑의 집짓기 운동, 국제 분쟁 중재 등의 활동도 했다.카터는 카터 행정부 이후 미국이 북핵 위기 코소보 전쟁 이라크 전쟁과 같이 미국이 군사적 행동을 최후로 선택하는 전통적 사고를 버리고 군사적 행동을 선행하는 행위에 대해 깊은 유감을 표시 하며 미국의 군사적 활동에 강한 반대 입장을 보이고 있다.특히 국제 분쟁 조정을 위해 북한의 김일성, 아이티의 세드라스 장군, 팔레인스타인의 하마스, 보스니아의 세르비아계 정권 같이 미국 정부에 대해 협상을 거부하면서 사태의 위기를 초래한 인물 및 단체를 직접 만나 분쟁의 원인을 근본적으로 해결하기 위해 힘썼다. 이 과정에서 미국 행정부와 갈등을 보이기도 했지만, 전직 대통령의 권한과 재야 유명 인사들의 활약으로 해결해 나갔다.1978년에 채결된 캠프데이비드 협정의 이행이 지지부진 하자 중동 분쟁 분제를 해결하기 위해 1993년 퇴임 후 직접 이스라엘과 팔레인스타인의 오슬로 협정을 이끌어 내는 데도 성공했다.1993년 1차 북핵 위기 당시 북한에 대한 미국의 군사적 행동이 임박했으나 미국 전직 대통령으로는 처음으로 북한을 방문하고 미국과 북 양국의 중재에 큰 기여를 해 위기를 해결했다는 평가를 받았다. 또한 이 때 김영삼 대통령과 김일성 주석의 만남을 주선했다. 하지만 그로부터 수주일 후 김일성이 갑자기 사망하여 김일성과 김영삼의 정상회담은 이루어지지 못했다.미국의 관타나모 수용소 문제, 세계의 인권문제에서도 관심이 깊어 유엔에 유엔인권고등판무관의 제도를 시행하도록 노력하여 독재자들의 인권 유린에 대해 제약을 하고, 국제형사재판소를 만드는 데 기여하여 독재자들 같은 인권유린범죄자를 재판소로 회부하여 국제적인 처벌을 받게 하는 등 인권 신장에 크나 큰 기여를 했다.2011년 4월 26일부터 29일까지 북한을 3일간 방문했다.경제문제를 해결하지 못하고 주 이란 미국 대사관 인질 사건에 발목이 잡혀 실패한 대통령으로 평가를 받지만 이란 사태는 미국 내 이란 재산을 풀어주겠다는 조건을 내세워서 사실상 카터가 해결한 것이었고, 사랑의 집짓기 운동 등으로 퇴임 후에 훨씬 더 존경받는 미국 대통령 중에 특이한 인물로 남았다.그는 2002년 말 인권과 중재 역할에 대한 공로를 인정받아 노벨 평화상을 받게 되었다.이외에도, 그는 대통령 재임 시절부터 퇴임 후에 지속적으로 여러 장기집권 독재자들을 만나왔는데, 그와 만난 독재자들중 절대 다수가 얼마되지 않아 사망하는 일이 벌어지며 지미 카터는 '독재자의 사신'이라는 말이 붙기도 한다. +수학은 수 양 구조 공간 변화 등의 개념을 다루는 학문이다. 널리 받아들여지는 명확한 정의는 없으나 현대 수학은 일반적으로 엄밀한 논리에 근거하여 추상적 대상을 탐구하며 이는 규칙의 발견과 문제의 제시 및 해결의 과정으로 이루어진다. 수학은 그 발전 과정에 있어서 철학 과학과 깊은 연관을 맺고 있으며 다만 엄밀한 논리와 특유의 추상성 보편성에 의해 다른 학문들과 구별된다. 특히 수학은 과학의 여느 분야들과는 달리 자연계에서 관측되지 않는 개념들에 대해서까지 이론을 추상화시키는 특징을 보이는데 수학자들은 그러한 개념들에 대한 추측을 제시하고 적절하게 선택된 정의와 공리로부터 엄밀한 연역을 거쳐 그 진위를 파악한다.수학의 개념들은 기원전 600년 경에 활동하며 최초의 수학자로도 여겨지는 탈레스의 기록은 물론 다른 고대 문명들에서도 찾아볼 수 있으며 인류의 문명과 함께 발전해왔다. 오늘날 수학은 자연과학 사회과학 공학 의학 등 다른 여러 학문에서도 핵심적인 역할을 하며 다양한 방식으로 응용된다.수학을 의미하는 매스매틱스라는 단어는 및 그 활용형 mathmatiks에서 유래되었다.역사적으로 고대부터 현대에 이르기까지 문명에 필수적인 건축, 천문학, 정치, 상업 등에 수학적 개념들이 응용되어 왔다. 교역·분배·과세 등 인류의 사회 생활에 필요한 모든 계산에 수학이 관여해 왔고, 농경 생활에 필수적인 천문 관측과 달력의 제정, 토지의 측량 또한 수학이 직접적으로 사용된 분야이다. 고대 수학을 크게 발전시킨 문명으로는 이집트, 인도, 중국, 그리스 등이 있다.특히 고대 그리스 문명에서는 처음으로 방정식에서 변수를 문자로 쓰는 등 추상화가 발전하였고 유클리드의 원론에서는 최초로 엄밀한 논증에 근거한 수학이 나타난다. 수학의 발전은 이후로도 계속되어 16세기의 르네상스에 이르러서는 과학적 방법과의 상호 작용을 통해 수학과 자연과학에 있어서 혁명적인 연구들이 진척되었고, 이는 인류 문명 발달에 큰 영향을 미치게 되었다.수학의 각 분야들은 상업에 필요한 계산을 하기 위해, 숫자들의 관계를 이해하기 위해, 토지를 측량하기 위해, 그리고 천문학적 사건들을 예견하기 위해 발전되어왔다. 이 네 가지 목적은 대략적으로 수학이 다루는 대상인 양, 구조, 공간 및 변화에 대응되며, 이들을 다루는 수학의 분야를 각각 산술, 대수학, 기하학, 해석학이라 한다. 또한 이 밖에도 근대 이후에 나타난 수학기초론과 이산수학 및 응용수학 등이 있다.산술은 자연수와 정수 및 이에 대한 사칙연산에 대한 연구로서 시작했다. 수론은 이런 주제들을 보다 깊게 다루는 학문으로, 그 결과로는 페르마의 마지막 정리 등이 유명하다. 또한 쌍둥이 소수 추측과 골드바흐 추측 등을 비롯해 오랜 세월 동안 해결되지 않고 남아있는 문제들도 여럿 있다.수의 체계가 보다 발전하면서, 정수의 집합을 유리수의 집합의 부분집합으로 여기게 되었다. 또한 유리수의 집합은 실수의 집합의 부분집합이며, 이는 또다시 복소수 집합의 일부분으로 볼 수 있다. 여기에서 더 나아가면 사원수와 팔원수 등의 개념을 생각할 수도 있다. 이와는 약간 다른 방향으로, 자연수를 무한대까지 세어나간다는 개념을 형식화하여 순서수의 개념을 얻으며, 집합의 크기 비교를 이용하여 무한대를 다루기 위한 또다른 방법으로는 기수의 개념도 있다.수 대신 문자를 써서 문제해결을 쉽게 하는 것과 마찬가지로 수학적 법칙을 일반적이고 간명하게 나타내는 것을 포함한다. 고전대수학은 대수방정식 및 연립방정식의 해법에서 시작하여 군 환 체 등의 추상대수학을 거쳐 현대에 와서는 대수계의 구조를 보는 것을 중심으로 하는 선형대수학으로 전개되었다. 수의 집합이나 함수와 같은 많은 수학적 대상들은 내재적인 구조를 보인다. 이러한 대상들의 구조적 특성들이 군론 환론 체론 그리고 그 외의 수많은 대수적 구조들을 연구하면서 다루어지며 그것들 하나하나가 내재적 구조를 지닌 수학적 대상이다. 이 분야에서 중요한 개념은 벡터 벡터 공간으로의 일반화 그리고 선형대수학에서의 지식들이다. 벡터의 연구에는 산술 대수 기하라는 수학의 중요한 세개의 분야가 조합되어 있다. 벡터 미적분학은 여기에 해석학의 영역이 추가된다. 텐서 미적분학은 대칭성과 회전축의 영향 아래에서 벡터의 움직임을 연구한다. 눈금없는 자와 컴퍼스와 관련된 많은 고대의 미해결 문제들이 갈루아 이론을 사용하여 비로소 해결되었다.공간에 대한 연구는 기하학에서 시작되었고, 특히 유클리드 기하학에서 비롯되었다. 삼각법은 공간과 수들을 결합하였고, 잘 알려진 피타고라스의 정리를 포함한다. 현대에 와서 공간에 대한 연구는, 이러한 개념들은 더 높은 차원의 기하학을 다루기 위해 비유클리드 기하학과 위상수학으로 일반화되었다. 수론과 공간에 대한 이해는 모두 해석 기하학, 미분기하학, 대수기하학에 중요한 역할을 한다. 리 군도 공간과 구조, 변화를 다루는데 사용된다. 위상수학은 20세기 수학의 다양한 지류속에서 괄목할만한 성장을 한 분야이며, 푸앵카레 추측과 인간에 의해서 증명되지 못하고 오직 컴퓨터로만 증명된 4색정리를 포함한다.변화에 대한 이해와 묘사는 자연과학에 있어서 일반적인 주제이며, 미적분학은 변화를 탐구하는 강력한 도구로서 발전되었다. 함수는 변화하는 양을 묘사함에 있어서 중추적인 개념으로써 떠오르게 된다. 실수와 실변수로 구성된 함수의 엄밀한 탐구가 실해석학이라는 분야로 알려지게 되었고, 복소수에 대한 이와 같은 탐구 분야는 복소해석학이라고 한다. 함수해석학은 함수의 공간의 탐구에 주목한다. 함수해석학의 많은 응용분야 중 하나가 양자역학이다. 많은 문제들이 자연스럽게 양과 그 양의 변화율의 관계로 귀착되고, 이러한 문제들이 미분방정식으로 다루어진다. 자연의 많은 현상들이 동역학계로 기술될 수 있다. 혼돈 이론은 이러한 예측 불가능한 현상을 탐구하는 데 상당한 기여를 한다.수학기초론 관련 분야.수학의 기초를 확실히 세우기 위해 수리논리학과 집합론이 발전하였고 이와 더불어 범주론이 최근에도 발전되고 있다. 라는 말은 대략 1900년에서 1930년 사이에 일어난 수학의 엄밀한 기초에 대한 탐구를 상징적으로 보여주는 말이다. 수학의 엄밀한 기초에 대한 몇 가지 의견 불일치는 오늘날에도 계속되고 있다. 수학의 기초에 대한 위기는 그 당시 수많은 논쟁에 의해 촉발되었으며 그 논쟁에는 칸토어의 집합론과 브라우어-힐베르트 논쟁이 포함되었다.오늘날 수학은 자연과학, 공학뿐만 아니라, 경제학 등의 사회과학에서도 중요한 도구로 사용된다. 예를 들어, 정도의 차이는 있으나, 미적분학과 선형대수학은 자연과학과 공학, 경제학을 하는데에 필수적 과목으로 여겨지며, 확률론은 계량경제학에 응용된다. 통계학은 사회과학 이론에 근거를 마련하는데 필수적이다. 16세기에 갈릴레오 갈릴레이가 "자연이라는 책은 수학이라는 언어로 기록되어 있다."는 주장과 함께 물리학에 수학적 방법을 도입하였고, 17세기에 아이작 뉴턴이 고전 역학의 기본 물리학 법칙들을 수학적으로 기술하고 정립하여 물리학 이론에서 수학적 모델링은 필수적 요소가 되었다. 또한 이 시기는 과학적 방법이 정립되는 시기이기도 한데, 많은 과학적 현상들이 수학적 관계가 있음이 드러나면서 과학적 방법에도 수학은 중요한 역할을 하고 있다. 노벨 물리학상 수상자 유진 위그너는 그의 에세이 "The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in natural sciences"에서 인간 세상과 동떨어져있고 현실과 아무 관련이 없다고 여겨지던 수학 중 극히 일부는 뜻밖에도 자연과학과 연관성이 드러나고 과학이론에 효과적인 토대를 마련해 주는데에 대한 놀라움을 표현하였다. 예를 들어, 비유클리드 기하학과 3차원 이상의 임의의 차원에서 기하학을 탐구했던 미분 기하학은 당시에는 현실과 연관성을 가지지 않았으나 먼 훗날 일반상대성이론이 4차원 기하학을 필요로 함에 따라, 물리적 세상과 연관이 있음이 밝혀졌다. 또한 게이지이론, 양자장론 등에도 미분 기하학은 필수적이다.또한 수학은 음악이나 미술 등 예술과도 관련이 있다. 피타고라스는 두 정수의 비율이 듣기 좋은 소리가 난다는 점을 가지고 피타고라스 음계를 만들었다. 중세시대에도 음악과 수학을 밀접하게 연관시켰으며 성 빅토르의 후고는 “음악은 조화다”라고 했고, 성 트론드의 루돌프는 “음악은 조화의 토대다”라고 쓴 바 있다. 조화가 반드시 소리로 표현될 필요는 없고 소리의 음악은 음악의 형식 중 하나에 불과했다. 소리에 대해 다루었던 중세의 저술가들이 있는가 하면, 조화와 비례의 추상적 이론만을 다루고 소리에는 거의 관심을 보이지 않았던 저술가들도 있었다. 청각적인 면과 추상적인 면이라는 음악의 이런 이중적 측면은 고대의 음악이론보다는 중세의 음악이론에서 큰 특징이 되었다. 또한 현대 음악을 군같은 수학적 대상을 이용해 분석하기도 한다. 원근법은 사영 기하학에 해당한다. 미술 사조 중 하나인 입체파도 기하학의 영향을 받았다. +수학에서 상수란 그 값이 변하지 않는 불변량으로 변수의 반대말이다. 물리 상수와는 달리 수학 상수는 물리적 측정과는 상관없이 정의된다.수학 상수는 대개 실수체나 복소수체의 원소이다. 우리가 이야기할 수 있는 상수는 정의가능한 수이다.특정 수학 상수, 예를 들면 골롬-딕맨 상수, 프랑세즈-로빈슨 상수, formula_1, 레비 상수와 같은 상수는 다른 수학상수 또는 함수와 약한 상관관계 또는 강한 상관관계를 갖는다.문학은 언어를 예술적 표현의 제재로 삼아 새로운 의미를 창출하여 인간과 사회를 진실되게 묘사하는 예술의 하위분야이다. 간단하게 설명하면 언어를 통해 인간의 삶을 미적으로 형상화한 것이라고 볼 수 있다. 문학은 원래 문예라고 부르는 것이 옳으며 문학을 학문의 대상으로서 탐구하는 학문의 명칭 역시 문예학이다. 문예학은 음악사학 미술사학 등과 함께 예술학의 핵심분야로서 인문학의 하위범주에 포함된다.일반적으로 문학의 정의는 텍스트들의 집합이다. 각각의 국가들은 고유한 문학을 가질 수 있으며, 이는 기업이나 철학 조류, 어떤 특정한 역사적 시대도 마찬가지이다. 흔히 한 국가의 문학을 묶어서 분류한다. 예를 들어 고대 그리스어, 성서, 베오울프, 일리아드, 그리고 미국 헌법 등이 그러한 분류의 범주에 들어간다. 좀 더 일반적으로는 문학은 특정한 주제를 가진 이야기, 시, 희곡의 모음이라 할 수 있다. 이 경우, 이야기, 시, 그리고 희곡은 민족주의적인 색채를 띨 수도 아닐 수도 있다. 문학의 한 부분으로서 특정한 아이템을 구분 짓는 일은 매우 어려운 일이다. 어떤 사람들에게 은 어떠한 상징적인 기록의 형태로도 나타날 수 있는 것이다. 그러나 또다른 사람들에게 있어 문학은 오직 문자로 이루어진 텍스트로 구성된 것만을 포함한다. 좀 더 보수적인 사람들은 그 개념이 꼭 물리적인 형태를 가진 텍스트여야 하고, 대개 그러한 형태는 종이 등의 눈에 보이는 매체에서 디지털 미디어까지 다양할 수 있다.더 나아가 보면 의 범주에 포함된다.일반적인 문학의 분류.문학은 분류하는 방법에 따라 다음과 같이 구분한다.이 외에도 편의에 따라 발생적으로 대별하기도 한다.문학은 처음은 유일한 종류 즉 노래하고 말하고 춤춘다는 것이 분화되지 않은 것이었다. 이 춤추는 것을 중심으로 발달한 것이 연극이며 노래하는 것이 발달하여 시 말하는 것이 발달하여 산문의 이야기가 되었다. 시는 정형시자유시산문시로 또한 서사시와 서정시로 나뉜다. 산문은 사건을 중심으로 그려진 이야기 근대 리얼리즘의 수법 이후 인물의 성격을 묘사하는 것을 중심으로 한 소설이 있다. 이야기나 소설과 같이 특별한 구상에 의하지 않고 작자의 흥미에 의해서 씌어지는 것이 잡문 또는 수필이며 이것이 날짜에 따라 씌어지는 것이 일기 여행의 과정에 따라 씌어지는 것이 기행문이다. 일기와 마찬가지로 발표의 의도가 작은 것에 서간이 있다. 이 밖에 사건의 경험에 따른 회고록 사건 등의 특정시에 한정되지 않는 자서전 제삼자에 의해서 씌어지는 전기가 있다. 또한 이것들을 포함하는 예술작품의 가치평가를 시도하는 것이 평론이다.대중문학이란 상업성을 띠며 대중을 겨냥하여 그들의 통속적인 흥미와 욕구를 채워주는 문학을 말한다. 대중문학의 하위장르에는 여러가지가 있다.문학과 관련된 직업.문학을 창작하는 예술가를 문예가라고 부른다. 문예학을 연구하는 사람을 문예학자라고 부른다. 문학을 창작하는 사람을 따로 저술가라고 한다. 문예학자와 언어학자를 합쳐 어문학자로 칭하기도 한다. 그러나 언어와 언어를 사용한 예술인 문학은 현격한 차이가 있으므로 주의해야 한다.반영론적 관점에 의한 감상은 작품을 창작된 당시 시대 정황과 연결시켜 감상하는 입장이고 내재적 관점의 감상은 작품의 형식 내용에 국한하여 감상하는 것이다. 표현론적 관점의 감상은 작가의 전기적 사실과 작품을 연결시켜 감상하는 것이고 수용론적 관점의 감상은 독자와 작품을 연결시켜 감상하는 것을 말한다. +이 목록에 실린 국가 기준은 1933년 몬테비데오 협약 1장을 참고로 하였다. 협정에 따르면, 국가는 다음의 조건을 만족해야 한다.특히 마지막 조건은 국제 공동체의 참여 용인을 내포하고 있기 때문에 다른 나라의 승인이 매우 중요한 역할을 할 수 있다. 이 목록에 포함된 모든 국가는 보통 이 기준을 만족하는 것으로 보이는 자주적이고 독립적인 국가이다. 하지만 몬테비데오 협약 기준을 만족하는지의 여부는 많은 국가가 논쟁이 되고 있는 실정이다. 또한 몬테비데오 협약 기준만이 국가 지위의 충분한 자격이든 아니든 국제법의 견해 차이는 존재할 수 있다. 이 물음에 대한 다른 이론에 대한 고리는 아래에서 볼 수 있다.위 기준에 논거하여 이 목록은 다음 206개 국가를 포함하고 있다.다음 국가는 몬테비데오 협약의 모든 조건을 만족하지 못하거나, 자주적이고 독립적임을 주장하지 않는 국가이다.국제적으로 승인 받은 나라.이 목록은 주권을 주장하고 점유한 영토를 실제로 관리하고 있으나, 많은 국가와 외교관계를 맺지 못한 나라를 설명하고 있다. 극소형 국가는 이 목록에 포함하지 않는다.화학은 물질의 성질, 조성, 구조, 변화 및 그에 수반하는 에너지의 변화를 연구하는 자연과학의 한 분야이다. 물리학도 역시 물질을 다루는 학문이지만, 물리학이 원소와 화합물을 모두 포함한 물체의 운동과 에너지, 열적·전기적·광학적·기계적 속성을 다루고 이러한 현상으로부터 통일된 이론을 구축하려는 것과는 달리 화학에서는 물질 자체를 연구 대상으로 한다. 화학은 이미 존재하는 물질을 이용하여 특정한 목적에 맞는 새로운 물질을 합성하는 길을 제공하며, 이는 농작물의 증산, 질병의 치료 및 예방, 에너지 효율 증대, 환경오염 감소 등 여러 가지 이점을 제공한다.화학을 뜻하는 영어 ‘케미스트리’는 연금술사들이 물질을 섞으며 발전시켰기 때문에 연금술을 뜻하는 단어 ‘알케미’에서 비롯하였다. 이는 다시 아랍어 ‘알 키미야’에서 왔는데 이 단어의 어원에 대해서는 여러 가지 설이 있다.‘화학(化學)’이란 단어는 물질의 변화를 다루는 학문이라는 점에 착안한 번역어이다. 이 번역어는 의 《항해술기(航海述奇)》(1866) 의 자연과학 교과서 《격물입문(格物入門)》(1866) 등에서 처음 쓰였다.인간에 의해 발견된 최초의 기록된 금속은 금인 것으로 보이며 구석기 후기에 스페인 동굴에서 소량의 천연 금이 발견되었다고 한다.은, 구리, 주석 및 유성 철 또한 고대 문화에서 일부 제한된 양의 금속 가공을 허용하면서 고대문화로 발견 될 수 있었다. 기원전 3000년경 유성 철제로 만든 이집트 무기는 으로 높이 평가 받았다.아마도 통제 된 방식으로 사용 된 최초의 화학 반응은 불이였다. 그러나 천년 동안 불은 단순히 열과 빛을 생성하면서 한 물질을 다른 물질 (타는 나무 또는 끓는 물)로 변형시킬 수있는 신비한 힘으로만 알려졌다. 불은 초기 사회의 여러 측면에 영향을 미쳤다. 이들은 요리 및 서식지 조명과 같은 일상 생활의 가장 단순한면에서 도기, 벽돌 및 금속을 녹여 도구를 만드는 것과 같은 고급 기술에 이르기까지 다양했다.유리의 발견과 금속의 정화로 이어지는 불로 인해 야금이 부상했다. 야금의 초기 단계에서 금속의 정화 방법이 요구되었고, 금은 BC 2900년 초기의 고대 이집트의 귀중한 금속이되었다.17 세기와 18 세기 초기 화학영국계 미국인 화학자 로버트 보일 (Robert Boyle 1627-1691)은 연금술에 대한 현대의 과학적 방법을 정제하고 화학을 연금술과 분리한 것으로 생각된다. 그의 연구가 연금술 전통에 뿌리를두고 있음에도 불구하고 보일은 오늘날 현대의 화학자이자 현대화학의 창시자이자 현대 실험 과학 방법의 선구자 중 한 사람으로 불리고 있다. 보일이 원래 발견자가 아님에도 보일은 1662년에 제시한 보일의 법칙으로 가장 잘 알려져있다. 보일의 법칙은 온도만 폐쇄된 시스템 내에서 일정하게 유지된다면 가스의 절대 압력과 부피가 반비례함을 의미한다. 보일은 또한 화학 분야의 초석으로 간주되는 1661년의 《의심 많은 화학자》 에 대한 획기적인 저서로 인정받고 있다. 작품에서 보일은 모든 현상이 움직이는 입자의 충돌의 결과라는 가설을 제시한다. 보일 (Boyle)은 화학자들에게 실험을 호소했으며 실험은 지구 화염 공기 및 물과 같은 고전적인 4 가지 원소만으로 화학 원소를 제한한다는 것을 부인했다. 그는 또한 화학이 의학이나 연금술에 종속되어 과학의 지위로 부상하는 것을 중단해야 한다고 촉구했다. 중요한 것은 과학 실험에 대한 엄격한 접근 방식이라고 주장했다. 그는 모든 이론이 사실로 간주되기 전에 실험적으로 입증되어야 한다고 믿었다. 이 작품은 원자 분자 및 화학 반응의 가장 초기의 현대적인 아이디어를 포함하고 있으며 현대 화학의 역사의 시작을 나타낸다. 보일은 또한 화학 물질을 정제하여 재현 가능한 반응을 얻으려고 시도했다. 그는 재료 물질의 물리적 특성과 상호 작용을 설명하고 정량화하기 위해 Ren Descartes가 제안한 기계 철학의 보컬 지지자였다. 보일은 원자핵론자였지만 원자보다 더 많은 입자를 선호했다. 그는 속성이 유지되는 물질의 가장 정밀한 부분은 미립자의 수준에 있다고 논평했다. 그는 또한 공기 펌프로 수 많은 조사를 수행했으며 공기가 펌프로 퍼져 나감에 따라 수은이 떨어지는 것으로 나타났다. 그는 또한 컨테이너에서 공기를 펌핑하면 화염을 없애고 내부에 있는 작은 동물을 죽일 수 있음을 관찰했다.과거 화학에서 더 이상 나뉘지 않는 기초적인 요소가 존재한다고 했는데, 이 기초적인 요소를 원자라 한다. 원자란 물질을 구성하는 기본적인 입자로 고대 그리스의 데모크리토스에서부터 그 존재가 주장되었는데, 1803년 존 돌턴에 의해서 원자론으로 정리되었다. 20세기 초, 화학자들은 원자를 구성하는 더 작은 입자들, 즉 전자, 양성자, 중성자가 존재한다는 사실을 발견하였다. 전자는 음전하를 띠고 있고, 양성자는 양전하를 띠고 있으며, 중성자는 전하를 띠지 않고 있다. 원자는 양성자와 중성자로 구성되어 있는 원자핵을 가지고 있으며 전자는 이 주변에 오비탈을 이루며 분포되어 있다.원소는 일반적인 화학적, 물리학적 방법으로는 분해되지 않는 물질을 의미한다. 원소는 원자핵에 존재하는 양성자 수로 정의되는 원자 번호로 구별된다. 산소, 황, 주석, 철 등은 원소이다. 19세기 중엽까지 약 80가지의 원소가 발견되었는데, 이들은 주기율에 따라 배열될 수 있다.동위원소는 아이소토프 또는 동위체라고도 한다. 서로 화학적으로는 거의 구별하지 못하지만 그것을 구성하고 있는 원자의 질량이 서로 다른 원소를 동위원소라고 한다. 영어의 isotope는 그리스어인 isos(같은)와 topos(장소)의 합성어인데, 질량은 서로 달라도 원소의 주기율표에서 같은 장소에 배열되는 데서 1901년 영국의 화학자 F. 소디가 isotope라는 명칭을 붙였다. 대부분의 원소는 동위 원소를 가진다. 동위 원소는 원자 번호는 같으나, 중성자수가 다른 원소를 뜻한다. 동위 원소는 화학적인 성질은 동일하나, 원자량의 차이를 이용하여 분리할 수 있다. 자연에서도 발견되는 92개의 원소 중 88개는 동위 원소가 지표면 상에 존재한다. 자연에서 발견되지 않더라도 동위 원소는 핵반응을 이용하여 만들어낼 수 있다. 어떤 동위 원소는 방사능을 가지기도 하는데, 이 경우 동위 원소의 원자핵은 불안정하고 방사선을 방출하며 자연적으로 붕괴된다.동중 원소(isobar)는 원자 질량은 같으나 양성자수가 다른 원소를 뜻한다. 동중 원소는 화학적 물리적 성질이 다르며 40S 40Cl 40Ar 40K 40Ca등이 있다.분자란 원자의 결합체 중 독립 입자로서 작용하는 단위체이다. 일정한 개수의 원자가 특정하게 정렬되어 서로 결합해 분자가 형성된다. 원자가 원소의 최소단위이듯 분자는 화합물의 최소단위가 된다. 원자가 결합될 때 전자의 재배치가 일어나는데 이는 화학에서의 중요한 관심사중 하나이다.화학 반응은 원자 혹은 분자가 화학적인 변화를 겪는 일을 말한다. 화학 반응은 원자간의 결합이 끊어지는 일과 다시 이어지는 일을 포함한다. 결합이 끊어질 때는 에너지가 흡수되고, 결합이 이어질 때는 에너지가 방출된다. 화학 반응의 간단한 예로는 수소와 산소가 반응하여 물이 되는 것을 들 수 있다. 반응식은 다음과 같다.반응식에서 알 수 있듯이 화학 반응에서는 원자가 새로 생성되거나 나타나는 일이 일어나지 않는다. H는 에너지 또는 엔탈피 변화를 뜻한다. 반응은 발열반응일 수도 있고 흡열반응일 수도 있다. 발열반응은 주위로 열을 방출하는 반응으로 엔탈피 변화가 음수로 나타난다. 반면에 흡열반응은 주위 열을 흡수하는 반응으로 엔탈피 변화가 양수로 나타난다. 위 반응의 경우는 발열반응인데 이는 계로부터 주위로 열이 이동하였다는 의미이다.화학 결합을 주된 세 가지 부류로 나누어보면 이온 결합 공유 결합 그리고 금속결합으로 나눌 수 있다. 이온이란 전하를 띤 원자 또는 분자를 뜻한다. 이온 결합은 양전하와 음전하의 전기적인 인력에 의해서 생성되는 화학 결합이다. 예를 들면 염화 나트륨은 양전하를 띤 나트륨 이온과 음전하를 띤 염화 이온 사이의 전기적인 결합으로 이루어진 이온 화합물이다. 이러한 물질을 물에 녹이면 이온은 물 분자에 의해 수화되고 이렇게 해서 만들어진 수용액은 전기전도도를 가진다.공유 결합은 원자 궤도|오비탈이 겹쳐진 결과 두 원자가 전자쌍을 공유하게 되어 생성되는 결합을 의미한다. 공유 결합이 형성되는 결합은 발열반응인데 이때 방출되는 에너지의 양이 그 결합의 결합 에너지이다. 결합 에너지만큼의 에너지를 그 결합에 가해주면 결합은 끊어질 수 있다.금속 결합은 금속 원자에서 전자들이 떨어져 나와 자유전자를 생성하게 되어 생성되는 결합을 의미한다. 금속의 특성인 연성과 전성이 생성되는 이유이기도 하다.화합물은 구성하고 있는 원자의 종류 수 배치에 의해서 그 특성이 결정된다. 자연에서 찾을 수 있거나 인공적으로 합성할 수 있는 화합물의 수는 엄청나고 이들 중 대부분은 유기 화합물이다. 유기 화합물을 이루는 주된 화학 원소인 탄소는 다른 화학 원소와는 다르게 매우 긴 사슬 형태로 정렬될 수 있으며 같은 수많은 이성질체를 형성할 수 있다. 예를 들어 분자식 C8H16O는 약 천 개의 서로 다른 화합물을 뜻할 수 있다.화학은 취급 대상 및 대상의 취급 방법에 따라서 몇 가지 분과로 구분될 수 있다. 물질을 분석하는 분석화학은 크게 물질의 존재를 취급하는 정성 분석과 물질의 양을 결정하는 정량 분석으로 나눌 수 있다. 탄소를 포함한 유기 화합물을 다루는 유기화학과 유기 화합물을 제외한 무기 화합물을 다루는 무기화학도 있다. 물리학과 화학의 경계에는 물리화학이 있고 생물학과의 경계에는 생화학이 있다. 물리화학에서 특히 분자의 구조와 성질과의 관계를 다루는 부분을 구조화학이라고 부르기도 한다. 제2차 세계 대전 이후에는 방사성 물질을 다루는 방사화학이 발전하였고 화학 공업을 다루는 공업화학도 있다. 이 외에도 화학의 분과는 매우 다양하다.화학의 분과는 전통적으로 다음과 같은 5가지로 나눌 수 있으며, 각각의 분과는 더욱 세분화될 수 있다.무기화학은 유기화학에서 다루지 않는 물질을 다루며 주로 금속이나 준금속이 포함된 물질에 대해서 연구한다. 따라서 무기화학에서는 매우 넓은 범위의 화합물을 다루게 된다. 초기에는 광물의 구성이나 새 원소의 발견이 주요 관심사였고 여기서부터 지구화학이 분기되었다. 주로 전이 금속 등을 이용한 촉매나 생물에서 산소 수송, 광합성, 질소 고정 등의 과정에서 중요한 역할을 하는 금속 원자들에 대해 연구하며 이 외에도 세라믹, 복합재료, 초전도체등에 대한 연구를 한다.물리화학은 화학적 현상에 대한 해석과 이를 설명하기 위한 물리적 원리들에 대해 다루는 분과이다. 화학반응에 관련된 열역학적 원리와 물질의 물리학적 성질에 대한 설명은 물리화학이 다루는 고전적인 주제이다. 물리화학은 양자화학의 발전에도 큰 기여를 하였다. 분광계나 자기 공명, 회절 기기 등 물리화학에서 사용하는 실험 장비나 실험 방법들은 다른 화학의 분과에서도 매우 많이 사용된다. 물리화학이 다루는 대상은 유기 화합물, 무기 화합물, 혼합물을 모두 포함한다.분석화학은 물질의 조성이나 혼합물의 구성요소 등을 결정하는 방법에 대해서 연구하는 화학의 분과이다. 혼합물을 이루고 있는 성분의 탐색 분리 정량과 분자를 이루고 있는 원자의 비율을 측정하여 분자식을 결정하는 일 등이 분석화학에서 행해진다. 1950년대의 분석화학의 발전은 많은 질량 분석계를 포함한 분석 기구의 등장을 불러일으켰다. 이 외에도 고해상도 크로마토그래피 전기화학에서의 많은 실험방법 등은 분석화학에 있어서 중요한 분석법이다. 분석화학에 있어서 최종 목표는 더 정확한 측정법이나 측정기기 등을 개발하는 것이다. 분석화학의 발전으로 인해 환경오염 물질 등을 피코그램의 수준에서도 감지하는 것이 가능해졌다.[[파일Haemoglobin-3D-ribbons.png|섬네일|right|250px|헤모글로빈. 생화학에서는 이와 같이 생물체에서 기능하는 물질들을 다룬다.화학의 관점에서 다루는 학문이다. [[식물]]이나 [[동물]]의 [[세포]]에서 발견되는 [[물질]]이나 일어나는 [[화학 반응]]들이 주 관심사이다. 생명체에서 발견되는 [[탄수화물]] [[지방]] [[단백질]] [[핵산]] [[호르몬]] 등은 [[유기 화합물]]이라서 [[유기화학]]에서도 다루어지기도 하나 이들 [[화합물]]에 관련된 [[물질대사]] 과정이나 조절 과정에 대한 연구는 [[생화학]]의 고유 분야이다. [[효소]]와 [[조효소]] 그리고 이들의 작용 과정에 대해서도 연구하며 [[세포막]]을 통과하는 [[이온]]과 [[분자]] [[신경전달물질]]과 다른 조절 물질들의 작용에 대해서도 연구한다. [[생화학]]은 [[내분비학]] [[유전학]] [[면역학]] [[바이러스학]]의 발전에 큰 영향을 끼쳤다. +체첸 공화국, 또는 줄여서 체첸은 연방국가인 러시아를 이루는 러시아의 공화국이다. 북캅카스 지역에 위치하여 있으며, 인구 다수는 체첸인으로 구성되어 있다.거의 대부분이 체첸인이다. 일부는 러시아인, 인구시인과 기타 북코카서스계 민족도 섞여있다. 체첸에서는 체첸인들의 토착 언어인 체첸어와 러시아어가 모두 사용된다. 체첸어는 캅카스 제어 중 북동 캅카스어족으로 불리는 그룹에 속하는데 인근의 인구시인들이 쓰는 인구시어와 밀접한 관계에 있다.1989년에 행해진 체첸-인구시 자치공화국의 통계에서는 체첸인이 956879명 인구시인이 237438명으로 269000명의 러시아인은 인구의 약 23%로 소수 민족이었다. 그 후 서부가 잉구슈 공화국으로 분리되었기 때문에 인구시인들의 수가 절반 가까이 감소하고 내전과 사회불안으로 거의 대부분의 러시아인은 체첸공화국에서 거의 대부분 떠났다. 1990년대 체첸 공화국에 남아 있던 러시아인은 약 6만 명이었다.체첸 공화국은 일반적으로 러시아 연방 중에서도 젊은 층이 가장 많은 인구 구성을 가진다. 1990년대에는 몇몇 지방에서 인구증가가 있었다.다게스탄 지역을 통해 16세기에서 19세기를 기점으로, 체첸인들은 절대다수가 수니파 이슬람교를 믿으며 러시아 정교회도 소수 존재한다.1830년에서 1859년에 이르는 동안, 러시아군은 오스만 제국과의 접경지역 안보를 이유로 체첸에 진주했다. 체첸은 1859년 러시아 제국에 병합됐다.제2차 세계 대전 동안 소련 정부는 체첸이 나치군과 협력했다고 맹비난하였고 스탈린은 체첸 국민 전체에게 카자흐스탄으로의 강제이주를 명령했다. 그 후 스탈린이 사망한 지 4년 후인 1957년에 이르러서야 체첸인의 귀환이 허용되었다.소련 붕괴 이후 체첸인들의 분리주의 운동이 벌어져 수 차례 제1차 체첸 전쟁, 제2차 체첸 전쟁이 벌어졌으며, 이때 러시아의 엄청난 공세로 체첸 전역은 초토화되었다. 혼란기 동안 일시적인 독립 이후 재병합된 체첸에는 현재 친러파 성향의 대통령이 세워져 분리주의가 억제되고 있다.맥스웰 방정식(-方程式, s)은 전기와 자기의 발생, 전기장과 자기장, 전하 밀도와 전류 밀도의 형성을 나타내는 4개의 편미분 방정식이다. 맥스웰 방정식은 빛 역시 전자기파의 하나임을 보여준다. 각각의 방정식은 가우스 법칙, 가우스 자기 법칙, 패러데이 전자기 유도 법칙, 앙페르 회로 법칙으로 불린다. 각각의 방정식을 제임스 클러크 맥스웰이 종합한 이후 맥스웰 방정식으로 불리게 되었다.전자기역학은 맥스웰 방정식과 로런츠 힘 법칙으로 요약된다. 로랜츠 힘은 맥스웰 방정식으로부터 유도될 수 있다.맥스웰의 방정식은 네 개의 법칙을 모아 종합하여 구성한 것이다. 맥스웰의 방정식은 빛과 같은 전자기파의 특성을 설명한다. 각 방정식의 수학적 표현은 공식 부분에서 다루기로 하고 우선은 방정식의 의미를 살펴보면 다음과 같다.맥스웰의 방정식에 나타난 각 식은 오랜 시간에 걸쳐 연구된 전기와 자기의 특성을 종합한 것이다. 인류는 고대 시대부터 이미 정전기에 의한 인력과 방전 현상을 알고 있었고 자석의 특징을 이용한 나침반을 만들어 사용해 왔다. 근대에 이르러 전기와 자기에 대한 많은 연구가 진행되었으며 그 결과 쿨롱 법칙 패러데이 전자기 유도 법칙 앙페르 회로 법칙과 같은 법칙들이 발견되었다. 맥스웰은 이러한 기존의 연구 성과를 종합하여 전기와 자기가 하나의 상호작용 즉 전자기력에 의한 것임을 증명하면서 빛역시 전자기파라는 것을 밝혔고 전자기 복사의 발견을 예언하였다.맥스웰 이전의 연구 성과.앞서 밝힌 바와 같이 두 전하 사이에 인력과 척력이 작용한다는 것은 고대 이후 잘 알려진 사실이었다. 그러나 이렇게 두 전하 사이에 작용하는 힘의 관계와 크기는 측정하기 매우 어려웠는데 그 까닭은 작용하는 힘의 크기가 매우 작기 때문이었다. 1784년 샤를 드 쿨롱은 비틀림 저울을 이용한 실험장치를 고안하여 대전된 두 전하 사이에 작용하는 힘의 크기를 측정할 수 있었다.샤를 드 쿨롱은 금속공과 비틀림 저울을 이용하여 두 점전하 사이에 작용하는 힘을 측정하고, 두 전하 사이에서 작용하는 힘은 두전하 크기의 곱에 비례하고 거리의 제곱에 반비례한다는 쿨롱 법칙을 발견하였다.쿨롱 법칙을 식으로 나타내면 다음과 같다.한편, 쿨롱 힘은 전하 사이의 작용뿐만 아니라 자계에도 적용될 수 있다. 두 자극의 세기를 각각 mA, mB라 할 때, 이 두 자극 사이에 작용하는 힘은 다음과 같이 정리된다.자극의 세기 단위는 웨버로 쿨롱은 세기가 같은 두 개의 자극을 1m 떨어뜨려 놓았을 때 작용하는 힘의 세기가 formula_5인 경우를 1Wb로 정의했다. 따라서 상수 k의 값은 다음과 같다.자극 사이에 작용하는 힘의 크기는 전하 사이에 작용하는 힘의 크기와 같은 방식으로 계산할 수 있으나 둘 사이에는 분명한 차이가 있다. 즉 전하는 양전하이든 음전하이든 단독으로 존재할 수 있는 데 반해 자극은 홀극으로 존재할 수 없고 N극과 S극이 언제나 쌍으로 존재하여야 한다는 것이다.제임스 클러크 맥스웰은 각각 독립적으로 다루어져 오던 전기와 자기의 법칙들을 종합하여 맥스웰 방정식을 수립하였다. 맥스웰은 마이클 패러데이의 개념과 앙드레마리 앙페르의 회로 이론을 근간으로 방정식을 정리하였다.1861년 맥스웰은 논문 《물리적인 역선에 대해》를 발표하여 모두 4개의 방정식으로 구성된 맥스웰 방정식을 소개하였다. 이 방정식은 1865년 발표된 논문 《전자기장의 역학 이론》과 1873년 출간된 《전기와 자기에 관한 논문집》제2권의 9장에서 다시 소개되었다.물리학자 리처드 파인먼은 "이 방정식에 비하면 남북전쟁조차 큰 의미없는 지엽적인 사건이라고 할 수 있다"라고 맥스웰 방정식의 중요성을 강조하였다.맥스웰 방정식의 정리.1865년 맥스웰 자신에 의해 발표된 맥스웰 방정식의 원래 형태는 8개의 방정식으로 이루어진 것이었다. 그러나 오늘날에는 1884년 올리버 헤비사이드가 4개의 방정식으로 정리한 형태가 일반적으로 사용된다. 조사이어 윌러드 기브스와 하인리히 루돌프 헤르츠 역시 헤비사이드와 동일한 작업을 한 바 있다. 이 때문에 맥스웰 방정식은 헤르츠-헤비사이드 방정식으로 불리기도 한다. 그러나 이란 이름이 더 폭넓게 쓰이고 있다.1861년 맥스웰은 에서는 전자기파 방정식을 기술하면서 빛이 전자기파임을 제시하였다. 맥스웰의 이론은 1887년 하인리히 루돌프 헤르츠의 실험에 의해 증명되었다."장"이란 개념은 마이클 패러데이가 도입하였다. 알베르트 아인슈타인은 맥스웰이 장 개념을 도입한 것에 대해 다음과 같이 평가하였다.당시 이 방정식은 헤르츠-헤비사이드 방정식 또는 멕스웰-헤비사이드 방정식이라고 불렸다. 그러나 아인슈타인은 사이언스에의 기고문에서 이를 이라 부르며 이 방정식들이 이론물리학의 기초라고 설명하였다. 맥스웰은 방정식을 정리하면서 헤비사이드의 전위와 벡터 위치 등 위치 요소를 중요한 개념으로 도입하였다. 1884년 맥스웰은 전자기파의 전달을 중력과 같이 원격에서 상호작용하는 힘이 아닌 전자기장에서 빛의 속도로 전파되는 전위로 파악하였다. 라디오 안테나에 대한 현대의 분석에서도 맥스웰의 백터와 스칼라 위키에 대한 수식만으로 서로 떨어져 있는 안테나 사이에 작용하는 전파의 영향을 모두 설명할 수 있다.맥스웰 방정식과 관련한 헤비사이드의 업적은 맥스웰이 여러 논문과 책에서 서술한 맥스웰 방정식을 오늘날과 같은 4개의 방정식으로 정리하였다는 것이다.오늘날 4개의 방정식으로 정리된 맥스웰의 방정식은 1861년 발표된 논문인 에 기반한 것이다. 이 논문에는 전자기장에 대한 다수의 방정식이 실려있다.1855년 맥스웰은 케임브리지 철학 학회에서 을 발표하면서 formula_8와 formula_9 벡터의 차이점을 설명하였다. 이 논문은 오늘날에도 패러데이 전자기 유도 법칙에 대한 가장 간결한 모형으로 인정받고 있다. 여기서 맥스웰은 전류에 관한 모든 지식을 미분 방정식으로 나타내었다.1855년 맥스웰이 제안한 분자 와동의 바다란 개념은 1861년 에서 보다 분명하게 소개되었다. 이 논문에서는 자기장이 형성되는 분자 규모의 와동에서 formula_8의 밀도에 따라 formula_9의 순 와동 운동이 결정된다고 보았다. 맥스웰은 와동의 밀도를 측정하기 위한 값으로 투자율 을 정의하였다. 이 논문에서 밝힌 맥스웰의 개념은 다음과 같다.이 때 formula_14 는 전하 밀도이다. formula_8는 축을 이루어 회전하는 자기 전류이고 formula_9는 그 주위를 돌게 되는 자기력선의 자기 선속이다. 투자율 는 결국 자기장 formula_8에 의해 유도되는 자기 선속 formula_9의 비가 된다.전류 방정식은 전하의 대류 전류가 선형적으로 움직이는 것을 보여준다. 한편 자기 방정식은 유도 전류의 회전에 의해 발생하는 자기를 나타내는 것으로 formula_8 벡터의 방향성으로 인해 비선형 방정식이 된다. 따라서 자기 유도 전류는 역선으로 표현된다. 자기력선은 역제곱 법칙에 의해 전류에서 멀어질수록 약해지게 된다.1864년 맥스웰은 《전자기장의 역학이론》을 출간하였다. 맥스웰은 이 책에서 빛이 전자기파임을 제시하였다. 이 책에서 맥스웰은 8개의 방정식을 전자기장에 대한 일반적인 방정식으로 제시하였다. 이 때문에 훗날 "맥스웰 방정식"이라는 표현이 오늘날의 4개의 방정식을 가리키는 것인지 1864년 제시된 8개의 방정식을 가리키는 것인지를 혼동하기도 한다. 따라서 오늘날의 4개로 구성된 방정식을 분명히 하기 위해 헤비사이드가 정리한 맥스웰 방정식(멕스웰-헤비사이드 방정식)이라는 표현이 사용된다.현대 벡터 표기를 사용하여 정리한 멕스웰의 8개 방정식은 다음과 같다.이 책에서 표현된 방정식 D는 로런츠 힘의 효과를 나타낸 것으로 1861년 논문의 방정식 77번을 보다 간략하게 표현한 것이다. 또한 맥스웰은 1865년 논문에서 전자기파 방정식을 정의하였는데 이 책의 방정식 D를 전자기 유도를 설명하기 위해 사용하였다. 오늘날에는 방정식 D 대신 패러데이전자기 유도 법칙이 쓰인다. 맥스웰은 전자기파 방정식을 연구하는 과정에서 방정식 D의 formula_36를 버렸다.1873년 맥스웰이 출간한 에서 방정식은 두 개의 묶음으로 나뉘었다.다음은 국제단위계를 사용하여 수식으로 표현한 맥스웰 방정식이다.발산정리와 스토크스의 정리를 이용하면 미분형과 적분형 방정식이 같음을 알 수 있다.아래 표는 각 기호의 뜻과 단위를 나타낸다.formula_41는 발산 연산자(단위: 1 / 미터), formula_42는 회전 연산자(단위: 1 / 미터)이다. 두 번째 방정식은 자기 홀극이 없음을 뜻한다. 전기장과 자기장이 대전된 입자에 미치는 힘은 리엑턴스 힘에 따라 국제단위계에서 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_44는 입자의 전하량이고 formula_45 는 입자의 속도다. 위의 수식은 국제단위계로 표현되었지만 다른 단위계에서도 맥스웰 방정식은 변하지 않거나 약간의 상수 변화만이 있을 뿐이다. 물리학과 공학에서 일반적으로 가장 널리 쓰이는 국제단위계 이외에도 특수한 경우 CGS 단위계가 쓰인다. +초월수는 수학에서 대수학적이지 않은 수를 의미한다. 어떤 다항 방정식의 해도 될 수 없는 복소수이자 유리수인 계수를 가진 유한한 0이 아닌 근을 의미한다. 가장 잘 알려진 초월수는 과 이다.소수의 초월수들만 알려져 있다. 이는 부분적으로는 주어진 수가 초월수라는 것을 보여주는 것은 극히 어려울 수 있기 때문이다. 그러나 초월수들은 드물지 않다. 실제로 대수적 수들이 가산 집합을 구성하는 반면 실수의 집합 복소수의 집합은 모두 비가산 집합이므로 거의 모든 실수들과 복소수들은 초월적이다. 모든 초월실수는 모든 유리수가 대수학적이기 때문에 무리수이다. 그 반대는 사실이 아니다. 모든 무리수가 초월적인 것은 아니다. 따라서 실수의 집합은 겹치지 않는 유리수 대수적인 무리수 초월적인 실수로 구성된다. 예를 들어 제곱근 2는 무리수이지만 다항식 의 근인 만큼 초월수는 아니다. 황금비은 다항식 의 근으로서 초월적이지 않은 또다른 무리수이다."초월적"이라는 이름은 라틴어로 "넘어오거나 넘어서거나"를 뜻하는 '트란스켄데레'(transcendre)에서 유래되었다. 고트프리트 빌헬름 라이프니츠는 1682년에 발표한 자신의 논문에서 수학적 개념을 처음 사용했는데 가 의 대수함수가 아니라는 것을 증명했다. 레온하르트 오일러는 18세기에 "초월수"를 현대적 의미로 정의한 최초의 수학자로 여겨지고 있다.요한 람베르트는 1768년에 발표한 자신의 논문에서 와 둘 다 초월수라고 추측했고 무리수인 의 초월수 증명에 대한 잠정적인 스케치를 제안했다. 조제프 리우빌은 1844년에 초월수의 존재를 처음으로 증명했고 1851년에 리우빌 수와 같은 소수점 1번째 자리의 사례를 제시했다.이 인 경우에는 소수점 뒤의 번째 자리가 이고 그렇지 않은 경우에는 이다. 즉 이 숫자 가운데 하나일 경우에만 이 숫자의 번째 자릿수가 이다. 리우빌은 이 숫자가 특정한 무리수인 대수적 수보다 유리수에 의해 보다 가깝게 근사할 수 있는 초월수의 종류에 속한다는 것을 보여주었고 이 종류의 숫자는 그의 이름을 따서 리우빌 수라고 불린다. 리우빌은 모든 리우빌 수가 초월수라는 것을 증명했다. 1873년에는 샤를 에르미트가 초월수의 존재를 증명하기 위해 가 특별히 구성되지 않은 초월수임을 증명했다.1874년에는 게오르크 칸토어가 대수적 수들은 셀 수 있고 실수는 셀 수 없다는 사실을 증명했다. 그는 또한 초월수를 구성하는 새로운 방법을 제시했다. 비록 이것이 대수적 수의 계산 가능성에 대한 그의 증명에 의해 이미 암시되었지만 칸토어는 실수들만큼 초월적인 숫자들이 있다는 것을 증명하는 구성을 공개했다. 칸토어의 연구는 초월수의 보편성을 확립했다.1882년에는 페르디난트 폰 린데만이 의 초월성에 대한 최초의 완전한 증거를 출판했다. 그는 먼저 가 0이 아닌 대수적 수일 경우 가 초월수라는 것을 증명했다. 그렇다면 은 대수적이므로 는 초월수이어야 한다. 그러나 가 대수적 수이기 때문에 는 초월수이어야 한다. 이러한 접근 방식은 카를 바이어슈트라스에 의해 일반화되었는데 오늘날에는 린데만-바이어슈트라스 정리로 알려져 있다. 의 초월은 원적문제와 같이 가장 유명한 것을 포함하여 컴퍼스와 자 작도를 포함한 여러 고대 기하학 구조들이 갖고 있던 불가능성의 증거를 가능하게 했다.1900년에는 다비트 힐베르트가 힐베르트의 7번째 문제인 초월수에 대해 영향력 있는 질문을 던졌다. 이에 대한 긍정적인 대답은 1934년에 겔폰트-슈나이더 정리를 통해 제공되었다. 이 연구는 1960년대에 앨런 베이커가 진행한 로그에서 선형 형태의 하한에 대한 연구를 통해 확장되었다.초월수의 집합은 셀 수 없이 무한하다. 유리수인 계수를 갖는 다항식은 셀 수 있고 각각의 다항식은 유한한 근을 가지기 때문에 대수적 수도 셀 수 있어야 한다. 그러나 칸토어가 제시한 대각선 논법은 실수자 실수는 대수적 수와 초월수 간의 결합이기 때문에, 후자는 둘 다 셀 수 없다. 이것은 초월수를 셀 수 없게 만든다.어떠한 유리수도 초월적이지 않고 모든 실제 초월수는 무리수이다. 무리수는 2차 무리수 및 그 외의 형태를 가진 대수적 무리수를 포함하여 모든 실제 초월수와 대수적 수의 부분집합을 포함한다. 단일 변수의 일정하지 않은 대수함수는 초월 인수에 적용될 때 초월 값을 산출한다.단일 변수의 일정하지 않은 대수함수는 초월 인수에 적용될 때 초월 값을 산출한다. 예를 들어 가 초월적이라는 것을 아는 것으로부터 와 같은 숫자들을 즉시 추론할 수 있다. 도 초월수이다.그러나 여러 변수의 대수함수는 초월수에 적용될 때 대수적 수를 산출할 수 있다. 예를 들어 와 는 둘 다 초월적이지만 은 분명히 그렇지 않다. 예를 들어 가 초월적인지는 알 수 없지만, 와 가운데 적어도 하나는 초월적인 것이어야 한다. 보다 일반적으로 어떤 2가지 초월수 와 의 경우 적어도 와 가운데 하나는 초월수여야 한다. 이를 확인하려면 다항식 을 고려해야 한다. 만약 와 가 둘 다 대수적이라면 이것은 대수적 계수를 갖는 다항식이 될 것이다. 대수적 수는 대수적으로 닫힌 체를 형성하기 때문에 다항식인 와 의 근은 대수적이어야 한다는 것을 의미한다. 하지만 이것은 모순이다. 따라서 적어도 하나의 계수가 초월적이라는 것은 틀림없다.계산 불가능한 수는 초월수의 진부분집합이다. 모든 리우빌 수는 초월적이지만 그 반대는 아니다. 모든 리우빌 수는 지속적인 연분수에서 제한 없는 부분적인 몫을 가져야 한다. 계산 인수를 사용하면 제한된 부분적인 몫을 가진 초월수가 존재하므로 리우빌 수가 아니라는 것을 증명할 수 있다.의 지속적인 연분수를 사용하여 가 리우빌 수가 아니라는 것을 보여줄 수 있다. 쿠르트 말러는 1953년에 또한 리우빌 수가 아니라는 것을 증명했다. 결국 주기적이지 않은 경계 항을 갖는 모든 무한 연분수는 초월적이라고 추측된다.초월수로 입증된 수.초월수일 가능성이 있는 수.초월수 또는 대수적 수로 아직 입증되지 않은 수 +음계(音階)는 음악에서 음높이(pitch) 순서로 된 음의 집합을 말한다. 악곡을 주로 구성하는 음을 나타낸 것이며 음계의 종류에 따라 곡의 분위기가 달라진다.음계의 각각의 음에는 위치에 따라 도수가 붙는다.음계는 음계가 포함하고 있는 음정에 따라서 이름을 붙일 수 있다.또는 음계가 포함하고 있는 서로 다른 피치 클래스의 수에 따라서 이름을 붙일 수 있다."음계의 음정 뿐만 아니라 음계를 만드는 음의 수가 한 문화권의 음악에 독특한 음악적 특징을 지니게 한다" "어떤 음계의 음의 수보다 음의 거리가 음악의 소리에 대해서 더 많은 것을 알려준다."온음계와 반음계는 서양 음악에서 쓰이는 용어이다. 자체로는 음계에 관한 말이지만 온음계적반음계적인 선율 화음 화성 진행 등의 표현으로도 쓰인다. 대부분의 경우 온음계는 7개 음으로 이루어진 장음계를 말한다. 20세기 음악론에서는 반음계가 아닌 모든 음계를 말할 때 쓰이기도 한다.반음계는 12개의 반음으로 이루어진 음계를 말한다.계이름은 음계를 기준으로 한 음의 이름이다. 장음계를 이루는 음의 계이름은 으뜸음부터 위로 올라가면서 각각 도 레 미 파 솔 라 시 도가 된다.한국과 중국의 전통 음계.서양 음악에서는 도·레·미·파·솔·라·시로 된 7음계가 많이 쓰이지만 한국 전통 음악에는 황종-미♭·태주-파·중려-라♭·임종-시♭·무역-레♭으로 된 5음계가 많이 쓰이고, 중국 전통 음악에는 궁-도·상-레·각-미·변치-올림화·치-솔·우-라·변궁-시로 7음계를 많이 쓴다.한국 전통 음악에서는 5음계 외에도 3음계 또는 악계통에서는 7음계 등이 쓰인다.대한민국 제16대 대통령 선거는 2002년 12월 19일 목요일 한국의 새로운 대통령을 뽑기 위한 선거로 치러졌다.16대 대선은 지난 15대 대선에서 간발의 차로 낙선하고 재도전한 이회창 한나라당 후보와 사상 최초의 국민 참여 경선을 통해 여당의 대통령 후보가 된 노무현 새천년민주당 후보의 양강 구도로 진행되었다.대선 재수생인 이회창 후보는 경험이나 세력 면에서 노무현 후보보다 대권 고지에 좀 더 유리할 것으로 점쳐졌으나 이전 대선부터 불거진 이회창 후보의 두 아들의 병역기피 논란 노사모를 비롯한 네티즌들의 열성적인 노무현 지지 정몽준 후보와의 단일화 성공 등에 힘입어 노무현 후보가 당선되었다.만 20세 이상의 대한민국 국민은 선거권이 있었다. 즉 1982년 12월 19일 이전에 태어난 사람은 투표를 할 자격이 있었다.만 40세 이상의 대한민국 국민은 피선거권을 가졌다. 즉, 1962년 12월 19일 이전에 태어난 사람은 후보자가 될 자격이 있었다.새천년민주당은 3월 9일부터 4월 27일까지 한국 정당 역사상 최초로 국민 참여 경선을 실시하고 과반 득표자인 노무현 전 해양수산부 장관을 대통령 후보로 선출하였다.한나라당은 4월 13일부터 5월 9일까지 국민 참여 경선을 실시하고 최다 득표자인 이회창 전 당 총재를 대통령 후보로 선출하였다.민주노동당은 9월 8일 당원들에 의한 단일 후보 찬반 투표를 통해 권영길 당 대표를 대통령 후보로 선출하였다.통합21은 11월 5일 창당대회를 열고 정몽준 의원을 당 대표 및 대통령 후보로 추대하였다.사회당은 10월 27일 전당대회를 열고 김영규 전 인하대학교 교수를 당 대표 및 대통령 후보로 선출하였다. 김영규 후보는 대의원 찬반투표 결과 전체 투표수의 95%를 득표하였다.하나로국민연합은 11월 15일 재적 대의원 8500명 중 8125명이 참석한 가운데 창당대회를 열고 이한동 전 자유민주연합 총재를 당 대표 및 대통령 후보로 추대하였다.개혁국민정당 추진위원회.개혁당 추진위는 독자 후보를 내는 대신 노무현 민주당 후보를 지지하기로 하고 이를 10월 12일부터 18일까지 창당 발기인 28,500여명을 대상으로 한 인터넷·모바일 찬반 투표에 부친 결과 총투표수 16,733표 중 15,723표가 찬성으로 나와 노무현 새천년민주당 대통령 후보와의 대선 연대가 결정되었다. 개혁당 추진위는 10월 20일 창당 발기인 대회에서 이를 발표하였으며, 대회에 참석한 노무현 후보는 수락을 선언하였다.박근혜 한나라당 부총재는 2001년 12월 11일 한나라당 대선 후보 경선 출마를 공식 선언하였다. 그러나 박근혜 부총재는 2월 28일 이회창 총재의 리더십을 비판하며 한나라당을 탈당하였으며 이후 신당을 창당하여 독자적으로 대선에 출마할 뜻을 밝혔다. 결국 5월 17일 박근혜 대표가 이끄는 미래연합이 창당되기에 이르렀다. 그러나 한미련은 613 지방선거에서 대참패를 당한 뒤 동력을 잃었으며 그 후 별다른 움직임을 보이지 못하다가 대선 한 달 전 한나라당에 흡수 합당되었다.장세동 무소속 후보.장세동 전 국가안전기획부장은 10월 21일 무소속 대선 출마를 선언하였다. 그러나 장세동 후보는 12월 18일 당선 가능성이 없다며 사퇴를 선언하였다.호국당은 11월 25일 재적 대의원 645명 중 539명이 참석한 가운데 창당대회를 열고 김길수 법륜사 주지를 당 총재 및 대통령 후보로 추대하였다.제16대 대선은 민주당의 노무현 후보와 한나라당의 이회창 후보 두 후보의 양자 대결 구도로 진행되어 1971년 제7대 대선 이후 최초로 3자 4자가 아닌 양자 구도로 치러진 대선이 되었다. 그러나 제15대 대선에서 패한 후 차근차근 대권 재도전을 준비해오던 이회창 후보가 한나라당을 완전히 장악하고 있었던 것과 달리 진보 성향 인사이면서 보수 정당 민주당의 후보가 된 노무현 후보는 끊임없이 당 내부에서 공격을 받고 있었다.이같은 상황에서 이회창의 당선이 유력시되고 있었으나 제15대 대선과 마찬가지로 아들 병역기피 의혹에 시달리며 난관에 봉착한데다 노무현 후보가 이른바 '노풍'을 일으키며 선풍적 인기를 끌어 승패를 예측할 수 없게 되었다. 또한 노무현 후보는 정몽준 통합21 후보와 극적으로 단일화에 성공 이를 발판 삼아 이회창 후보의 지지율을 맹추격했다.민주당 후보 재신임.5월 들어 김대중 대통령의 두 아들인 김홍업과 김홍걸의 비리가 불거지며 민주당의 지지율이 하락함과 더불어, 노무현의 지지율도 본격적인 내림세로 돌아서기 시작했다. 이에 노무현은 6.13 지방선거에서 영남권 광역 단체장을 한 명도 당선시키지 못할 경우 재신임을 받겠다고 공약했다.선거 결과 새천년민주당은 호남과 제주의 광역단체장만 당선되는 등 참패를 기록했다. 노무현은 선거 전 약속한 대로 후보 재신임을 물었고 민주당 당무회의는 만장일치로 재신임을 의결했다. 민주당 내 최대 계파 모임인 중도개혁 포럼은 이를 인정할 수 없다며 ‘후보지도부 즉각 사퇴론’을 주장했다.지방 선거 참패를 계기로 이인제 등 민주당 내 반노무현 세력의 후보 흔들기는 더욱 노골화되는 모습을 보였다.대한축구협회장이던 정몽준 무소속 의원은 2002년 한일 월드컵을 유치해내고 성공적으로 개최함으로써 국민들 사이에 선풍적 인기를 얻어 유력 대권 주자가 되었다. 정몽준이 대선에 출마하자 노무현 후보의 지지율은 토막났고 안 그래도 노무현 후보와 갈등이 있던 당내 상당수 의원들은 노무현 후보를 더 적극적으로 배척하기 시작했다. 까지 나왔다. 노무현은 경쟁력이 없는 만큼 정몽준을 수혈해 대선 새판 짜기에 나서야 하지 않느냐는 정치공학적 판단이었다.10월 들어서는 아예 노무현의 낙마를 바라는 의원들이 탈당하여 후보 단일화 추진 협의회(후단협)를 만들고 후보 단일화를 주장했는데 이들은 노무현으로 후보 단일화가 되면 함께 할 수 없다고 발언하였고 정몽준 지지의 속내를 감추지 않았다. 11월 19일 후단협은 정몽준에 대한 공개 지지를 밝혔으며 심지어 후단협 소속 의원이 정몽준 대표 측에 돈을 요구하기도 했다. 후단협 해체 후 일부 의원은 한나라당에 입당했고 12명은 민주당에 복당했다.그러던 10월 17일 김민석 전 민주당 최고위원이 민주당 탈당 및 통합21 합류를 선언했는데, 노무현에게 큰 타격이 되리라는 관측과 달리 오히려 이는 노무현 후보에게 호재로 작용했다. 일반 국민들 사이에서 노무현 후보에 대한 동정론이 불었고, 결국 답보 상태였던 그의 지지율은 20%대를 회복하고 후원금도 크게 늘어난 것으로 드러났다.노무현정몽준 단일화.단일화 방안으로는 크게 3가지가 제시되었는데, 국민 경선과 여론 조사, 협상 담판이었다. 정몽준 캠프는 11월 1일 양 캠프가 협상·담판을 통해 단일 후보를 정할 것을 제안했고, 노무현 캠프는 11월 3일 국민 참여 50%, 당원 참여 50%로 국민 경선을 실시하는 방식을 제안했다. 또한 여론조사상 노무현 후보에 우위를 점하고 있던 정몽준 후보 측은 여론조사로 단일 후보를 정하는 방안도 긍정적으로 보고 있었다. 통합21은 노무현 캠프의 국민경선 실시 주장에 대해 “국민 경선을 할 시간적 여유가 없다”는 이유로 반대를 표했다. 그러나 노무현 후보의 지지율이 꾸준히 회복해 이미 판세는 이회창 후보가 독주하고 노·정 두 후보가 2위 싸움을 벌이는 1강 2중 구도로 재편되고 있었으므로, 정몽준 캠프로서도 하루 빨리 단일화를 성사시키지 않으면 안 되는 상황이었다.노무현 후보는 11월 11일 자신에게 불리한 것으로 여겨지던 여론조사를 통한 단일화를 정식으로 제의하였다. 또한 여론조사 결과 이회창 후보의 지지율이 일정 수준에 미달할 시 그 여론조사는 무효 처리하자는 정몽준 캠프의 주장을 수용하였다. 이에 따라 11월 23일부터 25일까지 주요 언론사에서 실시한 여론조사 결과 중 이회창 후보의 지지율이 가장 낮게 나온 결과보다 단일화 여론조사에서 이회창 후보의 지지율이 더 낮게 나올 시 그 결과는 한나라당 지지자들이 역선택을 했을 가능성이 있는 것으로 보고 무효 처리하기로 하였다. 11월 23일부터 25일까지 실시된 여론조사 중 이회창 후보의 지지율이 가장 낮게 나온 것은 국민일보-월드리서치가 11월 25일 실시한 결과에서의 30.4%였다. 따라서 단일화 여론조사에서 이회창 후보의 지지율이 30.4%보다 낮을 시 그 조사 결과는 무효 처리하도록 했다.단일화 협의 과정에서 노무현 후보가 단일화 방식 등 쟁점 사항에 있어 통큰 양보를 하는 모습은 국민들에게 좋은 인상을 주었고, 이는 노무현 후보의 지지율이 상승하는 효과로 이어지기도 하였다.단일화의 방식은 합의되었으나, 여론조사의 설문 내용을 두고도 논란이 일었는데, 는 경쟁력 질문에는 정몽준 후보의 지지율이 높게 나오는 경우가 많았다. 결국 양 캠프는 조율을 거친 결과 지지도 질문과 경쟁력 질문을 조금씩 섞은 를 사용하기로 결정하였다.두 후보는 여론조사 실시에 앞서 텔레비전 토론을 가지기로 했는데, 이에 대해 한나라당은 사전 선거 운동이 될 수 있다며 텔레비전 토론을 허용해선 안 된다고 주장하였다. 결국 중앙선거관리위원회는 한 차례에 한해 텔레비전 토론을 허용하였고, 두 후보 간 토론은 11월 22일 실시되었다.후보 단일화를 위한 여론조사는 11월 24일 오후 1시부터 8시 30분까지 7시간 반에 걸쳐 실시되었다. 여론조사는 월드리서치와 리서치앤리서치, 2개 업체에 의해 실시되었으며, 한 업체가 각각 2,000명, 총 4,000명을 상대로 실시되었다.민주당과 통합21은 11월 24일 자정 공동으로 여론조사 결과를 발표하였다. 리서치앤리서치 조사는 응답자 중 이회창 후보 지지율이 32.1%가 나와 무효 처리되지 않았다. 그러나 월드리서치 조사는 이회창 후보의 지지율이 28.7%로 무효화 기준인 30.4%에 미달하여 무효 처리되었다. 리서치앤리서치 조사 결과 노무현 후보가 46.8% 정몽준 후보가 42.2%를 얻음으로써 노무현 후보의 승리가 확정되었다. 무효 처리된 월드 리서치 조사 결과 또한 노무현 후보가 38.8% 정몽준 후보가 37.0%를 얻은 것으로 나타났다.정몽준 후보는 단일화 여론조사 결과에서 패배함에 따라 사퇴를 선언하고 노무현 후보 지지를 선언하였다. 노무현 후보는 정몽준 후보와의 단일화를 계기로 각종 여론조사에서 이회창 후보를 역전하였다.이인제와 정몽준의 노무현 지지 철회.민주당 대선 후보 경선 당시 2위를 했던 이인제 전 민주당 최고위원은 12월 1일 민주당 탈당을 선언한 데 이어 이틀 뒤인 12월 3일 자유민주연합에 입당하였으며 입당과 동시에 김종필 자민련 총재의 지명을 받아 총재 권한대행으로 취임하였다. 이인제는 이회창 후보 지지를 선언할 계획으로 자민련에 입당했으나 김종필 총재의 강력한 의지로 자민련은 12월 12일 당 차원에서 특정 후보를 지지하지 않기로 선언하였다. 다만 당원 및 당직자들이 개별적인 지지를 하는 것은 막지 않기로 해 이인제는 다수 자민련 의원들과 함께 이회창 지지를 선언하고 이회창 후보 지원 활동에 나섰다.정몽준 역시 대선 전날인 12월 18일 밤 10시 긴급 발표를 통해 민주당과의 선거 공조를 파기를 선언하였다. 정몽준은 지지 철회 발표문에서 그 날 유세에서 노무현 후보가 ‘미국과 북한과 싸우면 우리가 말린다’는 표현을 한 것에 노무현 후보의 외교안보 의식에 문제를 느껴 지지를 철회했다고 밝혔다. 노무현 후보와 정대철 민주당 선대위원장 등은 정몽준을 만나기 위해 정몽준의 자택 앞까지 찾아갔으나, 정몽준 대표는 끝내 만나주지 않았다. 하지만 이 모습이 전파를 타며 당시 진보 진영이 민노당 권영길 후보 대신 민주당 노무현 후보로 결집하는 의외의 효과가 일어났다는 분석도 있었다.이 선거는 본격적인 세대론의 대두와 함께 노사모의 등장 등 인터넷 정치 시대의 개막을 알렸다는 점에서 많은 의미를 담고 있다.이회창 후보는 선거 이후 정계 은퇴를 선언하였으나, 2007년 전격적으로 정계에 복귀하게 된다.노무현 후보의 당선으로 새천년민주당은 정권 연장에 성공하였다. 하지만 노무현 대통령을 위시한 신주류 소장파와 구주류파가 중심인 민주당의 관계는 썩 좋지 않았고 결국 임기 중이던 2003년 9월 30일 노무현 대통령이 새천년민주당을 탈당함으로써 민주당은 야당으로 전락하게 된다. 그리고 새천년민주당은 2004년 한나라당 자유민주연합과 함께 노무현 대통령 탄핵안을 가결시키지만 오히려 민심의 역풍을 맞고 총선에서 참패하며 몰락하고 만다. +함석헌은 대한민국의 독립운동가, 종교인, 언론인, 출판인이며 기독교운동가, 시민사회운동가였다.광복 이후 비폭력 인권 운동을 전개한 민권운동가이자 언론인, 재야운동가, 문필가 활약한 그의 본관은 강릉이며 호는 신천, 씨알, 바보새이다.1919년 3.1 운동에 참여했다가 퇴학 당한 후 사무원과 소학교 교사 등을 전전하다가 1928년부터 1938년까지 오산학교의 교사를 역임했다. 이후 교육 언론 활동 등에 종사하다가 해방 후 1947년 월남하였다. 이후에는 성서 강해 등을 하다가 1956년부터는 장준하의 사상계에 참여하여 정치 시사 등에 대한 평론 활동 신앙 활동 반독재 민주화 운동 등을 하였다.그의 종교는 초기에는 일본 유학 중에 우치무라 간조의 영향을 받아 무교회자였다가 중기에는 기독교였으나 후기에는 장로회로 바꾼것이다,함석헌은 1901년 평안북도 용천에서 출생했다. 어려서 당숙 함일형이 세운 한학 서당인 삼천재에서 한학을 수학하다가 덕일소학교에 입학 1914년에 덕일소학교를 수료하고 그 해에 양시공립소학교에 편입하였다가 1916년 양시공립소학교를 졸업했다.그해 평양고등보통학교에 진학하였으며 1917년에 황득순과 결혼하고 1919년 평양 고등보통학교 3학년 재학 중에 숭실학교 교사로 있었던 6촌 형 함석은 등의 영향으로 학업을 중단하고 31 운동에 참가한 후 3.1운동에 대한 반성문을 쓰면 복학시켜 준다는 일본인 교장의 제의를 거부하고 퇴학되어 2년간 학업을 중단한다. 이 시기에 함석헌은 수리조합 사무원과 소학교 선생 등을 하게 된다.1921년 함석규 목사의 권유로 평안북도 정주에 있는 오산학교 3학년에 편입하여 수학했으며, 그곳에서 류영모를 만나 평생 스승으로 삼았다. 또한 이때 안창호, 이승훈, 이광수, 조만식 등과도 알게되어 그들로부터 민족주의 사상과 실력 양성론의 영향을 받게 된다. 그러나 후일 그는 맹목적인 민족주의와 국가주의에 비판적인 성향으로 돌아서게 된다.1923년 오산학교를 졸업하고 1924년 일본 동경고등사범학교 문과 1부에 입학하여 우치무라 간조의 성서 집회에 참가하여 그의 무교회주의를 접했다.동경고등사범학교 재학 중에 일본인 무교회주의자 우치무라의 성서연구에 깊이 영향을 받고 김교신, 송두용, 정상훈, 유석동, 양인성등과 함께 교회에 다니지 않고도 신앙을 유지하는 무교회주의 신앙클럽을 결성하였다. 1927년 동인지 창간에 참여하고 논객으로 글을 발표하기 시작하였다.1928년 동경고등사범학교 졸업과 동시에 귀국하여 오산학교에서 역사와 수신을 가르쳤다. 1934년~1935년에 동인지 에서 그의 주저인 〈성서적 입장에서 본 조선역사〉를 연재한다. 1940년 계우회 사건으로 일본 당국에 의해 투옥되어 평양 대동경찰서에서 1년간 구치되었다.이후 1938년 3월까지 오산학교의 교사로 있다가 사임하였다.1940년 평안남도 송산(松山)에서 김혁(金赫)이 운영하는 송산학원의 이사로 참여하여 활동하다가 계우회 사건(鷄友會事件)에 연루되어 평안남도 대동경찰서에 체포 유치장에서 1년간 수감 생활을 하다가 1942년 초 풀려났다. 그러나 1942년 5월 《성서조선》(聖書朝鮮) 제 158호(폐간호)에 실린 김교신의 〈조와〉(弔蛙)라는 우화로 관련자가 모두 투옥되는 성서조선 사건이 발생했다. 이로 인해 성서조선은 폐간되고 함석헌은 서대문형무소에 미결수로 1943년 4월 1일까지 1년간 복역하였다(수형번호1588번).1945년 혈맹의 친구였던, 김교신이 흥남에서 장티푸스로 별세하고, 그 해 8월 15일 해방을 맞이한다. 해방이 되자 그는 해방이 ‘도둑같이 왔다’고 평하였다.해방 후에는 반공 시위인 신의주 학생시위의 배후로 지목되어 조선민주주의인민공화국 당국에 의해 투옥되었다가 소련군에게서 풀려난 후 1947년 3월 17일 월남하였다. 조선민주주의인민공화국 탈출 전 그는 조만식을 만나고 오기도 했다.1947년 3월부터 YMCA에서 성서강해를 계속하고, 이후 성서 강해와 신학, 종교적 강연 활동을 하였다. 또한 조만식의 추모 활동에도 참여하였다.1950년 한국 전쟁 때는 대전을 거쳐 부산으로 피난갔다가 휴전 후 상경하였다. 이후 1956년부터 장준하 등의 천거로 를 통해 논객으로 활약하였다. 1958년 는 견해를 발표하면서 정부의 정책에 비평을 가하기 시작하였고, 1958년 5월 잡지 <사상계>에 발표한 칼럼 하나는 화제가 되었다.이 일로 그는 우익 인사들로부터 비판을 받았다. 그는 또 1959년 6.25 전쟁 관련자들에 대한 훈장 서훈 이야기가 나오자 "형제를 죽이고도 무슨 훈장이냐"라고 비판하였다. 이 사건을 계기로 국가보안법 위반으로 수감되었다가 풀려났다. "한국전쟁에 대해 비판하고 전쟁하는 국가와 거리를 두어보려는 목사를 한 번도 만나지 못한 것이 놀라운 일"이라고 일갈하기도 했다.1961년 장면이 국토건설단을 창설하고 강사를 초빙할 때, 국토건설요원 정신교육 담당 강사로 초빙되었다. 그러나 5·16 군사 정변으로 제2공화국이 붕괴되자 다시 야인으로 되돌아갔다. 1961년 5·16 군사 정변이 있자 모두가 침묵하고 있는 그해 7월 사상계에 발표한 정치평론인 라는 글을 통해 신랄한 비판을 하여 군정 인사들과 갈등을 빚기도 했다.1962년 미국 국무성내 기독교 신자 정치인들의 특별 초청으로 미국을 방문하고 돌아왔다. 방미하였을 때 퀘이커교파 인사들과 만나 친분관계를 형성하고 돌아왔다. 이후 1989년까지 매년 미국 정계의 기독교인사들의 초청을 받고 미국을 방문하기도 했다.제3공화국 출범 후에는 종교인으로서 한일회담에 반대하는 등 사회운동에 참여했다.1967년 장준하의 국회의원 총선거 옥중출마를 지원하기도 하였다. 그는 이승만 정권 즉 자유당 정권 시절부터 좌익 운동에 참여하여 3선 개헌에 반대하였으며 이후 10월 유신 이후 민주화 운동에 앞장서서 수차례 투옥되었다. 1969년 4월 19일에는 4.19 10주년 기념 강연을 마친 뒤 침묵 시위에 들어가기도 했다.1970년에는 정치, 시사평론을 실은 월간잡지 를 창간하였으나 정권의 탄압을 받기도 했다. 이후 씨알의 소리의 발행인, 편집인, 주간 등으로 있으면서, 장준하 등 재야 언론인들을 필진으로 영입하고 1980년 1월 폐간당할 때까지 신진 문인들을 발간하였으며, 글과 강연 등을 통해 민중 계몽운동을 폈다.1974년 7월 인혁당 사건 관련자에 대한 탄원서에 서명하였다.10·26 사건 이후 통일주체국민회의에서 대통령 간선제를 고수하자 윤보선 등과 함께 대통령 직선제를 요구하기도 했다.11월 24일 YWCA 위장 결혼식에 참석하였다가 사건에 연루되어 윤보선과 함께 재판정에 섰다. 1980년 1월 YWCA 위장결혼식 사건 선고 공판에 출석하였다. 1980년 1월 25일 수경사 보통군법회의의 최종상고심에서 윤보선은 징역 2년 함석헌은 징역 1년을 선고받았으나 후에 복권되었다. 1980년 신군부 즉 전두환 정권의 탄압으로 는 강제 폐간되었다가 1988년 12월 복간되어 2011년 7월 현재 217호까지 출간되어오고 있다.제5공화국을 거치면서도 민주화운동을 계속하다가 1984년에는 민주통일 국민회의 고문을 지냈다. 1985년 민주쟁취 국민운동본부 고문이 되었다.그는 국가주의와 민족주의에 반대하였다. 한 인터뷰에서 그는 '민족통합을 참으로 하려면 우리의 대적이 누군가부터 분명히 알아야 합니다. 우리를 분열시킨 도둑이 누구입니까? 일본? 미국? 소련? 중공? 아닙니다. 어느 다른 민족이나 이데올로기 때문이 아닙니다. 국민을 종으로 만드는 국가지상주의 때문입니다. 이제 정치는 옛날처럼 다스림이 아닙니다. 통치가 아닙니다. 군국주의 시대에조차 군림은 하지만 통치는 아니한다는 말이 있었습니다. 참 좋은 군주는 그래야 한다 말입니다. 그런데 이 민주주의 시대에, 나라의 주인이 민중이라면서 민중을 다스리려해서 되겠습니까? 분명히 말합니다. 남북을 구별할 것 없이 지금 있는 정권들은 다스리려는 정권이지 주인인 민중의 심부름을 하려는 충실한 정부가 아닙니다. 그런 것들이 설혹 통일을 한다해도 그것은 정복이지 통일이 아닙니다. 민중의 불행이 더해질 뿐입니다. 나는 그래서 반대합니다.'라고 밝히기도 했다. 국가주의와 민족지상주의는 개인으로 하여금 권리와 자유를 스스로 반납하는 주요한 근거가 된다는 것이 그의 견해였다.1984년 민주쟁취국민운동본부 고문에 위촉됐다. 또한 동아일보로부터 제1회 인촌상을 수여받았다.성서뿐만 아니라 동서양의 각 고전을 섭렵하여 자신의 사상으로 소화하여 씨알사상이라는 비폭력 민주 평화 이념을 제창하였다. 비폭력주의 신조로 말미암아 라는 별명을 가지고 있기도 하다. 사회 평론뿐만 아니라 등의 각종 동양 고전 주해도 행하였고 그리고 시를 창작하기도 했다. 1989년 서울대학교 병원에서 입원 그해 서울대 병원에서 별세하였다.장지는 경기도 연천군 전곡읍 간파리의 가족산에 매장되었다가 2002년 독립유공자로 선정되어 건국포장 수훈 이후 묘소가 대전 현충원으로 이장되었다.일본 유학 시절 우치무라 간조의 제자였던 함석헌은 김교신, 송두용 등과 함께 초창기 한국 무교회주의 기독교 운동을 하였고, 퀘이커 모임(1961년과 1967년)을 계기로 퀘이커 신자가 되었다. 상훈으로 1987년 제1회 인촌상과 2002년 건국포장을 받았다.그는 김교신 등과 함께 무교회주의 운동을 하기도 했다. 이는 일본 유학 시절 동경고등사범학교 재학 중에 일본인 무교회주의자 우치무라 간조의 성서연구에 깊이 영향을 받고 김교신 송두용 정상훈 등과 함께 교회에 다니지 않고도 신앙을 유지하는 무교회주의 신앙클럽을 결성하였다.귀국 후에도 무교회주의에 대한 신념을 버리지 않았다. 일본인 신학자 우치무라 간조의 성서집회의 영향을 받은 그는 이후 줄곧 무교회주의를 주장하게 되었다.사회진화론 추종자 논란.2010년 함석헌이 사회진화론 추종자인가 아닌가 하는 내용을 두고 관련 학계에서 논란이 일고 있다. 2009년 3월 함석헌평화포럼 공동대표인 김영호 인하대 명예교수는 한길사에서 30권으로 발간한 ’함석헌 저작집’에 실은 글 에서 그가 사회진화론자라고 주장했다. 당시 함석헌씨알사상연구원장이던 김영호는 함석헌을 사회진화론자로 소개하며, 함석헌 사상에서 거듭 반복되는 일관된 주제 가운데 하나로 사회진화론을 들었다.이에 대해 함석헌이 창간한 잡지 ’씨알의 소리’ 편집위원인 김상봉 전남대 교수는 '씨알의 소리' 2010년 1~2월호에 반론인 '함석헌과 사회진화론의 문제'를 실어 “함석헌의 철학과 사회진화론은 물과 기름처럼 양립할 수 없는 사상”이라고 반박했다. 김상봉 교수는 “사회진화론은 전쟁으로 열등한 종족이 도태되고 상대적으로 우수한 종족들만이 살아남아 인류가 발전했다는 것”이라며 “사회진화론자들은 약자가 도태되는 것은 자연적인 필연이므로 이를 인위적으로 막는 것은 자연법칙을 거스르는 일이라고 본다”고 설명했다.이어 그는 고 강조했다.2010년 김영호는 3월 16일 열린 함석헌학회 창립총회 기념 학술발표에서 ’함석헌과 사회진화론’이라는 제목의 글을 통해 김상봉 교수의 주장을 재반박하고 나섰다. 김영호 교수는 ’함석헌은 사회/전체의 진화를 주장하지 않았는가’라는 부제가 달린 이 글을 통해 "김상봉 교수의 주장은 자신이 쓴 '사회 진화론'을 '사회다윈주의'로 오해한 것'이라고 반박하였다. 그에 따르면 ’사회진화론’에는 김상봉 교수가 받아들인 '사회다윈주의' 말고도 여러 가지 다른 일반론이 있다고 하였다. 그는 함석헌이 쓴 “지금까지 생각의 주체는 개인이었지만 앞으로는 커뮤니티이다. 그런 역사의 진화단계가 지금이다”라는 글을 인용하며 함석헌이 전체사회, 곧 인류공동체로서의 사회의 진화를 통찰했다고 강조하였다.투사론에 대한 반론.함석헌은 라고 하기도 했다.고려대학교 화학공학과 교수를 역임한 철학자 김용준은 함석헌이 철학자라고 하였다. 그는 "나는 화학 빼고는 다 함선생님한테 배웠다고. 요즘 사람들은 함석헌하면 마치 주먹질만 하는 사람으로 아는데 그것은 넌센스야. 그건 함선생님의 일부분이고 80퍼센트는 도를 찾아 헤맸던 구도자"라고 하였다. +백남준은 한국 태생의 세계적인 비디오 아트 예술가 작곡가 전위 예술가이다. 본관은 수원이고 출신지는 서울이다.생전에 뉴욕, 쾰른, 도쿄, 마이애미와 서울에 주로 거주한 그는 여러 가지 매체로 예술 활동을 하였다. 특히 비디오 아트라는 새로운 예술의 범주를 발전시켰다는 평가를 받는 예술가로서 로 알려져 있다.현 서울특별시 종로구 서린동 출신이다. 친일파인 아버지 백낙승과 어머니 조종희 사이의 3남 2녀 중 막내로 태어났다. 그후 종로구 창신동 197번지 소위 "큰대문집"에서 18세까지 살았다. 수송국민학교와 경기제1고등보통학교를 다니면서 피아니스트 신재덕에게 피아노 연주를, 이건우에게 작곡을 각각 배웠다. 이때 한국이 낳은 작곡가 김순남을 사사했다. 1949년 그는 홍콩 로이덴 스쿨로 전학했으며, 한국 전쟁이 발발하기 이전 가족이 일본으로 이주했다. 그 후 일본으로 건너가 1952년 도쿄 대학교 문과부에 입학했다. 2년 후 미술사학 및 미학으로 전공을 정했지만, 실제로는 일본 당대의 작곡가 모로이 사부로, 미학자 노무라 요시오 등에게서 작곡과, 음악사학을 공부했다. 졸업 논문은 ‘아르놀트 쇤베르크 연구’이다.1956년 백남준은 졸업과 함께 독일로 유학을 떠나 뮌헨 대학교 및 쾰른 대학교 등에서 서양의 건축 음악사 철학 등을 공부하였다. 뮌헨 대학교 입학 1년 후에는 프라이부르크 국립 음악 대학교로 옮겨 볼프강 포르트너 교수에게 배우지만 곧 쇤베르크 이후 현대음악의 실험이 활발히 진행되던 다름슈타트 하기 강좌에 참여했다. 1958년 그 곳에서 현대음악가 존 케이지를 만나 그의 음악에 대한 파괴적 접근과 자유정신으로부터 깊은 영감을 얻었다. 이 영감은 "세계의 역사는 우리에게 알려준다. 주어진 게임에서 이길 수 없다면 규칙을 바꿔라" 라는 것으로 규정된다. 이후 1950년대부터 활발해지기 시작한 독일 라인 지역의 액션뮤직의 현장에서 백남준은 ‘아시아에서 온 문화테러리스트’라고 불릴 정도의 탁월한 퍼포먼스 아티스트로 활약했다. 1959년 ‘존 케이지에게 보내는 경의’에서 음악적 콜라주와 함께 피아노를 부수는 퍼포먼스를 선보이는 것을 시작으로 바이올린을 단숨에 파괴하거나 존 케이지가 착용한 넥타이를 잘라버리는 퍼포먼스가 특히 유명하다. 이 초기 퍼포먼스에 대해 백남준은 스스로 "충격 표현주의 낭만주의 클라이맥스 놀라움 기타 등등을 보여준 것"이라고 표현한 바 있다. 1961년 카를하인츠 슈토크하우젠의 음악 퍼포먼스 ‘오리기날레’에서 머리와 넥타이로 잉크를 묻혀 두루마리에 흔적을 남기는 독특한 퍼포먼스 심플 머리를 위한 선율을 보여주기도 했다. 1960년대 초반 조지 마키우나스 요셉 보이스 등과 의기투합하여 플럭서스 활동을 함께 전개했다. 다다이즘에 영향을 받은 플럭서스는 헤라클레이투스가 주장한 ‘변화 생성의 흐름’ 이라는 개념을 받아들여 "목적이 없는 자유 실험을 위한 실험"이라는 명목 하에 이벤트와 퍼포먼스 그리고 전위음악에 주력했고 곧 유럽과 아시아 및 미국 등 세계로 퍼져나갔다.1961년 백남준은 작곡가 슈토크하우젠이 중심이 된 쾰른의 WDR 전자음악 스튜디오에 출입했으며, 이때 1950년대부터 노버트 위너에 의해 제안된 같은 우상파괴적 설치 작업 및 참여예술 형태의 퍼포먼스가 함께 펼쳐졌다. 청년 백남준은 이러한 전시 내용을 등등에 관한 16개의 테마로써 정리하는 종합적인 큐레이팅 전시로 보여주었기 때문에 최근 독일, 오스트리아 등지의 연구자들 사이에서 이 전시의 중요성을 재평가하면서 아카이빙 작업과 연구가 점차 활발해지는 추세에 있다.1964년 백남준은 일본으로 건너가 '로봇 K-456'을 제작했으며 곧 세계 예술의 중심지 뉴욕으로 이주했다. 뉴욕 언더그라운드 필름 운동의 중심지 중 하나였던 시네마테크 필름메이커스에 관여했으며 스스로 영상 작업을 진행하기도 했다. 1965년 소니의 포타팩으로 미국 뉴욕을 첫 방문 중이던 교황 요한 바오로 6세를 촬영하여 곧바로 그 영상을 ‘카페 오 고고’에서 방영했다. 이것이 미술사에서는 한동안 공식적인 비디오 아트의 시작으로 기록되어 있었다. 지금은 1963년 첫번째 전시를 비디오아트의 기점으로 보고 있다. 또한 첼로 연주자이자 뉴욕 아방가르드 페스티벌의 기획자였던 샬럿 무어먼과 함께 비디오 아트와 음악을 혼합한 퍼포먼스 작업을 활발히 펼쳤다. 특히 1967년 음악에 성적인 코드를 집어넣은 백남준의 ‘오페라 섹스트로니크’에서 샬럿 무어먼은 누드 상태의 첼로 연주를 시도하다가 뉴욕 경찰에 체포되어 큰 사회적 파장을 불러일으켰다. 그 결과로 인해 예술 현장에서 누드를 처벌할 수 없다는 뉴욕의 법 개정이 이루어지는 획기적인 진전이 일어난다. 이후에도 미디어 아트가 미국 뉴욕을 중심으로 서서히 득세해가는 시대적 조류 속에서 두 사람은 ‘살아있는 조각을 위한 TV 브라’ ‘TV 첼로’ ‘TV 침대’ 등등 미디어 테크놀로지와 퍼포먼스를 결합한 많은 예술활동을 전개했다.1974년부터 백남준은 영상으로서의 비디오 아트를 새로운 미술적 방법인 설치 미술로 변환하여 다양하게 진행했으며 그에 따라 을 통해 그의 예술 세계가 뉴욕을 중심으로 미국 사회에 많이 알려지는 계기가 되었다.1970년대 중반부터는 뉴욕 WNET 방송국, 보스턴 WGBH 방송국과 협력하여 자신의 비디오 아트를 공중파 TV에서 방송했고, 이는 네트워크 방송을 끌어들여 예술 세계의 영역 확장을 꾀한 놀라운 시도였다. 나아가 1984년 1월 1일 ‘굿모닝 미스터 오웰’은 세계적인 아티스트들의 퍼포먼스를 뉴욕 WNET 방송국과 파리 퐁피두 센터를 연결한 실시간 위성 생중계로 방송하여 전 세계적 반향을 불러일으켰다. 샌프란시스코와 서울까지 연결된 이 국제적인 규모의 위성 아트에는 로리 앤더슨, 피터 가브리엘, 오잉고 보잉고, 존 케이지, 요셉 보이스, 앨런 긴즈버그, 이브 몽탕 등의 예술가과 대중문화의 스타가 다수 참여했으며, 전 세계 2천 5백만명이 시청하였다. 이로써 전세계적인 차원의 대중적 각인이 이루어졌고, 마치 대중스타처럼 성가를 높였다. 이후에도 ‘위성 아트’ 3부작으로 명명된 ‘바이 바이 키플링’, ‘손에 손잡고’ 등이 이어져 위성 연결을 통한 전세계의 네트워크가 어떻게 새로운 부족사회를 낳는지 실감시켰다.1984년 일본 도쿄 소게쓰[草月]홀에서 백남준과 요셉 보이스가 공동으로 참여한 퍼포먼스 '코요테 콘서트 II'가 펼쳐졌으며, 이들이 각각 몽골의 늑대 울음소리와 초원의 달빛을 음악적으로 표현한 것을 통해 1961년 첫 만남부터 계속 이어온 공동의 관심사가 무엇인지 알려지기 시작했다. 그러나 이들의 이후 퍼포먼스 계획은 요셉 보이스의 죽음과 함께 미완으로 끝났다.1992년 이라는 주제의 이 전시에서 그는 북방 유라시아의 유목 문화를 배경으로 전자적 소통을 시도하는 비디오 로봇 형태의 같은 작품들을 중심으로 다수의 작품을 내놓았다.1995년 백남준은 제1회 광주 비엔날레 태동의 산파 역할을 하며, 한국 미술이 국제적으로 진출할 수 있도록 조력자 역할을 수행했다. 제1회 광주 비엔날레는 국내외 총 관람객이 160만 명에 달하는 성공을 거두었고, 특히 백남준이 직접 관여한 등을 전시한 바 있다.2006년 1월 29일, 미국 마이애미의 자택에서 노환으로 75세로 별세, 유해가 서울, 뉴욕, 독일에 나눠서 안치되었다.. +2002년은 화요일로 시작하는 평년이며 이 해는 21세기의 첫 대규모 행사의 해이다.12월 19일은 그레고리력으로 353번째 날에 해당한다.5월 31일은 그레고리력으로 151번째 날에 해당한다.6월 30일은 그레고리력으로 181번째 날에 해당하며, 6월의 마지막 날이다.우크라이나는 동유럽의 국가이다. 남쪽과 남동쪽으로는 흑해와 아조프 해 동쪽과 북동쪽으로는 러시아 북쪽과 북서쪽으로는 벨라루스 서쪽으로는 폴란드 슬로바키아 헝가리 남서쪽으로는 루마니아 몰도바와 접한다. 키예프가 수도이며 가장 큰 도시이다. 동유럽 평원과 이어져 있으며 기후는 비교적 온화한 편이다. 법적 공용어는 우크라이나어이지만 실질적으로는 많은 사람들이 러시아어를 일상적으로 사용하며 인구의 절반이 러시아어 사용자이며 일반적으로 학교/회사나 인터넷 사이트에서는 두 언어 모두 사용하고 있으며 사실상 러시아어가 제2의 공용어 지위를 유지하고 있다. 주요 도시로는 키예프 도네츠크 드니프로 하르키우 리비우 오데사 자포리자가 있다. 2014년 러시아가 크림반도를 합병함에 따라 행정력이 크림반도에 미치지 못하지만 국제사회는 대체로 크림반도를 우크라이나의 일부라는 입장을 견지하고 있다.루스 카간국으로부터 키예프 대공국으로 이어진 우크라이나는 튀르크족·몽골족 등의 오랜 지배를 받았다. 19세기까지 우크라이나의 가장 큰 부분이 러시아 제국에 통합되었고, 나머지 부분은 오스트리아-헝가리의 통제하에 놓였다. 우크라이나는 러시아 혁명 후의 혼란과 끊임 없는 전쟁 속에서 여러 차례 독립을 시도하여 1917년에 민족국가를 건설했으나, 1922년에 소비에트 연방에 강제합병되었다. 1923년 소비에트 연방 헌법의 적용을 받았다. 1991년 소련 해체와 함께 독립하였다. 군사력 운영의 질적 수준은 아직 러시아와 벨라루스의 중간사이다. 지하자원도 풍부하여, 도네츠 탄전의 석탄, 크리보이로그의 철광석, 카르파티아 유전과 천연가스, 그 밖에 망간, 우라늄, 식염, 칼리염, 석회석 등을 산출한다. 산업으로는 석탄·철광·선철의 생산에 있어서 중요성을 지니고 있다. 풍부한 수력전기를 이용하여 기계제조공업·화학공업이 크게 발달했으며 유수의 공업지대를 이루고 있다. 석탄업, 철강업, 기계제조업, 화학공업의 중심은 돈바스·드네프르 주이며, 드네프르강의 하구에서 키이우까지의 사이에는 6개소의 수력발전소가 단계상(段階狀)으로 건설되어 있다. 우크라이나의 경지율은 약 70%에 이르고 있어, 겨울밀·옥수수·보리·사탕무·해바라기·포도의 재배, 가축사양 등에서는 구 소련 시절 매우 중요한 지위를 차지하고 있었다. 온난한 크림반도 남단과 광천(鑛泉)이 솟는 카르파트 지방은 중요한 관광·보양지이다.러시아의 작가 니콜라이 고골의 작품 〈타라스 부리바〉의 배경이 되기로도 알려졌다. 공용어는 우크라이나어 및 러시아어가 쓰이고, 국민의 절대다수가 믿는 종교는 우크라이나 정교회이다.국토 면적 603,700km에 576,700km 해안선 길이는 2,782km로, 우크라이나는 세계에서 44번째로 큰 국가이다. 또한, 유럽에서는 두 번째로 큰 나라이다. 어떤 사람들은 유럽의 중심이 우크라이나 서쪽의 라키브 마을 인근이라고 한다. 하지만 여전히 유럽의 지리적 중심을 보는 관점에 대해 논쟁이 있다.우크라이나는 비옥한 평원 스텝 고원이 있으며 그들을 지나가는 강이 흑해로 흘러들어간다. 거의 남쪽 만으로 강이 빠져나가고 남동부 지방에는 다뉴브 삼각지가 루마니아와 국경을 접하고 있다. 우크라이나의 대표적인 산은 카르파티아 산맥으로서 우크라이나 서부에 위치한다. 우크라이나에서 가장 높은 산은 호베를라 산으로 높이는 2061m이다. 크림 반도를 따라서 넓은 해안선이 펼쳐진다.우크라이나에 분포하고 있는 초르노젬 지대는 비옥한 토양으로 유명하다. 그 밖에 아스팔트, 무연탄, 철, 망가니즈, 크롬, 타이타늄, 납, 아연, 알루미늄, 수은, 니켈, 천연 가스, 석유 등 70여 가지의 종류에 달하는 천연 자원이 매장되어 있다.대개 온화한 대륙성 기후를 보이는데 남쪽의 크림 반도 인근에서는 온난 습윤 기후가 나타나기도 한다. 비는 북서부 지방에 가장 많이 내리고 동부와 남동부 지역은 덜 오는 편이다. 겨울은 흑해 인근 지방이라면 따뜻하지만 내륙으로 들어갈수록 대체로 추워진다. 여름에는 전반적으로 따뜻하지만 남쪽 지방은 무덥다.동슬라브족의 역사에는 중앙아시아에서부터 건너와 동유럽을 정복한 튀르크 민족들의 관계를 빼 놓을 수 없다. 3세기부터 시작한 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들의 유럽 침공과 동슬라브족 정복 그리고 이주는 5세기부터 10세기까지 사바르 카간국에 이어 아바르 카간국 그리고 하자르 카간국까지 이어진다. 동유럽 동슬라브 원주민들은 사바르 카간국에 정복당해 프랑크족들과 대립하기도 하였고 하자르 카간국의 우크라이나 초원 정복으로 인해 동슬라브 문화는 서유럽의 문화와는 조금 이질적인 특징을 가지게 되었다. 하자르 카간국의 영향에 따라 동슬라브족으로서의 정체성이 생기기 시작하였고 8세기에서 9세기에 루스 카간국이라는 고대 투르크어인 군주 칭호인 카간을 자칭하는 북게르만족 루스인의 첫 국가가 등장하였다. 그 전까지는 벨라루스와 우크라이나를 지배했던 중앙아시아 투르크 민족들이 카간을 자칭하였으나 그 지배 아래 동슬라브인들도 완전히 종속과 동화되어 동슬라브인의 정체성이 확립되었고 그 후 동슬라브인들이 카간을 자칭하였다. 키예프 대공국은 10세기까지 중앙아시아 투르크 민족의 영향을 받았고 이에 따라 류리크 왕조의 시조인 류리크 또한 위대한 카간이자 왕으로 불렸다는 기록이 존재한다. 862년경 전까지는 확실히 카간이라 칭한 루스인들이 페르시아 사서와 동, 서 로마 기록에 남아 있다. 여기에 원초연대기의 기록에서는 루스인들의 카간으로 알려진 류리크가 동슬라브족 지역에 정착하면서 류리크 왕조와 키예프 대공국이 나타나며 카간이라는 호칭보다는 크냐지 또는 벨리키 크냐지라는 호칭이 자주 쓰이게 된다.<ref>< „ “ „“ +가위는 손으로 잡아 종이 등을 쉽게 자를 수 있게 하는 도구이다. 두 장의 얇은 금속 날을 결리지 않도록 엇갈리게 나사로 엮어 그 두 날이 지레의 원리로 움직이면서 서로 부딪치면 절단력이 발생한다. 플라스틱 판 얇은 철판 머리카락 끈 종이 옷감 강삭 등을 자를 때 쓰인다.핑킹가위는 무늬를 내며 자를 때 사용하는 가위이다. 무늬의 종류는 여러가지이며 물결무늬 지그재그 톱니모양 등이 있다.쪽가위는 실 따위를 자를 때 사용하는 가위이다. 발견된 가위 중 가장 오래된 가위가 쪽가위 형태로 제작되었다. 16세기까지 유럽에서 사용되었으며, 오늘날에도 쪽가위의 형태를 변형한 가위를 찾을 수 있다.X자 형태의 날을 지닌 가위이다. 서기 100년경 고대 로마에서 쪽가위 디자인을 각색하면서 발명되었다.지렛대의 원리로 구분.지렛대의 원리에 바탕을 둔 것으로 지레의 작용점 · 받침점 · 힘점의 상호관계에 의하여, 힘점이 작용점과 받침점 사이에 있는 원지점식, 지레의 받침점이 힘점과 작용점의 사이에 있는 중간지점식, 작용점이 힘점과 받침점 사이에 있는 선지점식의 3가지로 구별된다.따라서 이것을 응용한 가위도 3종으로 대별된다. 원지점식에 속하는 것으로서 손자수용 가위 잎따기가위 망(綱)베기가위 등이 있고 중간지점식에 속하는 것으로는 재단가위 꽃가위 전정가위 전지가위 잔디가위 양철가위 버튼홀가위 의료가위 이용(理容)가위 등이 있다. 선지점식에 속하는 것은 눌러서 자르는 가위와 과일따기 가위 등이 있다.지금까지 발견된 세상에서 가장 오래된 가위는 기원전 1000년경 메소포타미아에서 만들어진 가위다. 특히 로마 시대의 유물로 가위가 많이 발견되었으며, 이 시대 가위는 라틴 문화 중기에 중부 및 북유럽 등으로 전해졌다. 라틴 문화의 가위는 남자의 무덤에 부장되어 있는 것으로 보아, 알려져있던 양모를 깎기 위한 것이 아니고 수염을 깎는 데 쓰인 것으로 추측된다. 그리고 로마 시대의 유물에서 발견된 날이 짧고 튼튼하게 만들어진 가위는 철사나 튼튼한 실, 얇은 철판등을 자르는 데 사용된 것으로 보인다.한국에서 발견된 가장 오래된 가위는 경주 분황사 모전석탑에서 발견된 가위이며, 모양이나 쓰임새가 중국에서 발견된 것과 같은 걸로 보아 중국에서 건너왔을 것이라고 학자들은 말한다. 전 세계에서 발견된 유물을 비교해볼 때 가위는 서양에서 처음 만들어져 사용되다가 중국에 전해졌을 거라고 추측할 수 있다. +위키는 불특정 다수가 협업을 통해 직접 내용과 구조를 수정할 수 있는 웹사이트를 일컫는다.또한 일반적인 위키에서 텍스트는 단순화된 마크업 언어을 이용하여 작성되며, 리치 텍스트 에디터의 도움을 받아 편집하기도 한다. 위키는 지식경영이나 기록 등 다양한 용도로 이용된다. 공동체용 웹사이트나 조직 내 인트라넷에 쓰이기도 한다. 그러나 주로 개인적인 용도로 이용되는 위키도 있는데, 이를 개인 위키라고 한다.최초의 위키 소프트웨어인 위키위키웹을 만든 워드 커닝엄은 위키를 "동작하는 가장 단순한 온라인 데이터베이스" 라고 설명했다. "위키"는 "빠른"을 뜻하는 하와이어 "wiki"에서 따왔다.워드 커닝엄이 보 뢰프와 같이 쓴 《위키 방식: 웹 상의 빠른 협업()》이라는 책에서, 위키의 가장 핵심적인 개념을 다음과 같이 꼽았다.위키는 간단한 마크업 언어와 웹 브라우저를 이용, 함께 문서를 작성하는 공동체를 가능케 한다. 위키 웹사이트의 한 문서는 라 한다. 위키는 본질적으로 정보를 만들고, 찾아보고, 검색하기 위한 데이터베이스다. 위키는 비선형적인, 진화하는, 복잡하게 얽힌 문서, 토론, 상호 작용을 할 수 있게 돕는다.위키 기술을 정의하는 특징은 문서를 간단히 만들고 고칠 수 있다는 점이다. 일반적으로 수정이 반영되기 전에 승인이나 검토의 과정이 없다. 대부분의 위키는 사용자 등록을 요구하지 않고, 일반에게 공개되어 있다. 많은 편집자가 실시간으로 만들며, 즉시 온라인으로 배포된다. 단 이는 시스템의 남용을 유발할 수 있지만 주로 장점이 더 많다. 개인 위키는 문서를 고치거나 읽기 위해 사용자 인증을 요구하기도 한다.위키 문서 편집하기.일반적으로 위키 문서는 위키 마크업이라 불리는 간단한 마크업 언어로 이뤄져 있다. 예를 들어 별표로 시작하는 줄은 목록을 표시하는데 사용된다. 위키 마크업의 문법은 위키 소프트웨어마다 다르며, 일부는 HTML을 직접 사용할 수 있도록 하기도 한다.점차 사용자가 위지위그 편집을 할 수 있도록 지원하는 위키가 늘고 있다. 위지위그 편집은 위키 마크업의 모든 기능을 제공하지 못하므로 이들 사이트에서는 편집자가 위키 문서를 직접 수정하는 방법을 제공하기도 한다.대부분의 위키는 위키 문서의 변경 이력을 보존하고 있다. 편집자는 쉽게 문서를 예전 판의 내용으로 되돌릴 수 있으며, 이는 사용자의 실수나 고의적 훼손 때문에 필요한 기능이기도 하다. 미디어위키를 비롯한 많은 위키 소프트웨어는 문서를 편집할 때, "편집 요약"을 남길 수 있도록 한다. 이 편집 요약은 문서 본문에는 남지 않으나, 문서의 이력에서 편집 이유를 설명할 수 있도록 지원한다.대부분의 문서는 다른 문서를 가리키는 수많은 하이퍼링크를 포함하고 있다. 사용자는 필요에 따라 다른 문서의 목차나 색인을 따로 구축할 수도 있다. 여러 편집자가 임의로 문서를 만들고 삭제하기 때문에 수동으로 이런 목차나 색인을 유지하는 것은 쉬운 일은 아니다. 위키 소프트웨어는 이를 돕기 위해 분류나 태그 기능을 제공한다.대부분의 위키는 현 문서를 가리키는 다른 문서를 찾는 백링크 기능을 제공한다.위키에서 존재하지 않는 문서를 가리키는 링크를 만드는 것은 일반적인 일로 다른 사용자가 자신이 아는 내용을 채울 수 있도록 유도한다.위키의 문서는 문서의 제목과 표기는 다르지만 발음이 같은 등의 경우에 해당되면 그 문서의 제목과 거의 같은 명칭, 혹은 그 문서의 제목과 같은 명칭이 아니지만 그 문서가 설명하는 대상을 가리키는 또 다른 명칭이 있는 경우 넘겨주기를 이용해서 넘겨주기 문서를 만들어 그 명칭으로도 그 문서가 설명하는 대상의 원래 제목과 같은 내용의 문서에 들어갈 수 있다.문서를 연결하고 만들기.다른 문서에 대한 링크는 등을 링크로 사용하므로 쉽게 알아챌 수 있다.일부 소프트웨어는 두 단어 사이에 다시 공백을 넣어서 사용자가 보기 좋게 표시해주기도 한다. 그러나 대문자 표기를 되돌리는 건 쉽지 않다. 예를 들어 로 표시되어야 한다. 일부 위키는 괄호를 이용한 자유 링크 기능을 지원하기도 하며 일부는 낙타 표기법 링크 기능을 막기도 한다.대부분의 위키는 문서 제목을 이용한 검색을 지원하며, 일부 위키는 본문 검색을 지원하기도 한다. 검색의 확장성은 위키 엔진이 사용하는 데이터베이스에 따라 좌우된다. 일부 위키는 일반 파일을 사용하기도 한다. 미디어위키도 초기 버전에서는 일반 파일을 저장용으로 사용하기도 했으나, 2000년대 초에 데이터베이스를 사용하도록 다시 작성되었다. 데이터베이스의 색인 기능은 대형 위키에서 빠른 검색을 위해 필요하다. 대안으로 일부 위키는 구글 검색 등 외부의 웹 검색 엔진을 이용하기도 한다.최초의 위키 소프트웨어는 위키위키웹으로, 워드 커닝엄이 창안했다. 커닝엄은 1995년에 위키위키웹을 만들기 시작하면서 처음으로 위키의 개념을 고안했고, 위키라는 이름도 지었다. 또한 최초의 위키 서버를 만들기까지 했다. 위키 소프트웨어는 디자인 패턴 모임에서 패턴 언어를 쓰면서 생겼으며, Portland Pattern Repository가 최초의 위키였었다. +지구과학(地球科學)은 행성인 지구와 그 주위의 천체를 대상으로 연구하는 학문들을 묶어 부르는 이름이다. 지구의 환경은 크게 육지, 바다, 대기로 나누어지며, 이러한 환경들은 각각 지구과학의 주요분야라고 할 수 있는 지질과학, 수문과학, 대기과학 분야의 주요연구대상이 된다. 일반적으로 지구과학으로 불리는 학문들은 대기에서 일어나는 현상을 대상으로 하는 기상학, 지구 표면의 물질을 주로 대상으로 하는 지질학, 바다 현상을 대상으로 하는 해양학, 지구의 깊은 속에서 일어나는 현상을 대상으로 하는 지구물리학과 실용적인 응용분야로서 환경공학 등이 있다.지구과학에는 많은 전문 분야가 포괄되지만 대체로 여섯 가지로 나뉜다.아오조라 문고는 ‘일본어판 구텐베르크 프로젝트’로 불리는 일본의 인터넷 전자도서관으로 저작권이 풀린 문학작품을 수집 전자문서화해서 인터넷에 공개하고 있다. 저자 사후 50년이 지난 메이지 쇼와 시대 초기의 일본 문학 작품이 그 대부분을 차지하고 있고 일본어 외 문학 작품의 일본어 번역 작품도 다수 있다. 1997년 2월 도미타 미치오 노구치 에이치 야마키 미에 란무로 사테이 등 4명이 창설하여 시작되었다. 2016년 연간 방문객수는 940만 건 이상이다.아오조라 문고에 수록된 작품은 JIS X 0208에 해당되는 한자 범위 내에서 자원봉사자에 의해 아오조라 문고 형식 텍스트파일이나 HTML 파일로 전자화된다. 또 아오조라 문고 수록파일 취급기준에 따라 자유롭게 이용할 수 있기 때문에, 수록된 작품을 PC는 물론 PDA와 휴대전화로도 볼 수 있다. 텍스트 파일을 큰 글자로 인쇄하거나 전용 소프트웨어에 불러들여 시각장애인용으로 이용하는 방안도 기대되고 있다. 아오조라 문고의 열람 소프트웨어는 따로 개발 및 제공되고 있는 것은 없지만, 전자사전이나 아이폰용 어플리케이션 등은 타사에서 개발하여 출시되어 있다.저자 사망 이후 50년이 지나 저작권이 소멸한 메이지 시대부터 쇼와 시대 초기까지의 서적 대부분이 존재한다. 외국 번역작품이나 저자가 무료보기를 인정한 현대작품도 포함된다. 장르는 정치부터 취미까지 다양하지만, 비교적 문학작품(시대소설, 추리소설등의 오락작품 포함)이 많다. 유명작가의 작품이 모두 갖춰져있진 않지만 그래도 일본어작품에 관련해서는 충실하게 갖춰진 편이다. (번역작품의 경우 번역저작권을 문제로 수가 많지 않다.)잘 알려지지 않은 작품을 보존 소개하는 장점도 있다. 작품 텍스트화는 지금도 현재진행형이며 2011년 3월 15일 현재 등록작품수가 1만권이 넘었다.고전작가인 모리 오가이, 나츠메 소세키, 아쿠타가와 류노스케, 최근의 작가로는 나카지마 아츠시, 다자이 오사무, 하야시 후미코, 미야모토 유리코, 호리 다쓰오, 사카구치 안고, 다카무라 고타로, 나가이 가후, 요시카와 에이지 등 인물의 작품이 있다.아오조라 문고는 자원봉사로 운영되며 열람 역시 무료이다. 서비스 개시 초반에는 보이저 사에서 서버를 제공하였다. 1998년부터 1999년까지는 토미타가 작업 수칙과 매뉴얼을 만들었다.자원봉사로 운영되기 때문에 작품의 입력과 교정 역시 자원봉사자가 한다. 입력은 원본을 보면서 타자입력이나 스캐너로 입력하는 방법으로 이뤄진다. 또 작품을 입력하는 상태인 작품이 증가하고있다. 이는 입력에 비해 교정 작업이 부족하기 때문으로 아오조라 문고 출범 당시부터 안고 있는 문제점이기도 하다. 이 문제에 대해서는 작품의 교정작업을 하지 않고 공개하는 방안과 입력자가 교정한 것도 인정하자는 방안이 제기된 적이 있지만 현재까지도 이 방안은 채택되지 못하고 있다. 대신 2011년 12월 16일 공개분부터는 기부금을 재원으로 삼은 '유상교정' 서비스가 진행되고 있다.2013년 8월 아오조라 문고의 설립자인 토미타가 사망한 것을 계기로 아오조라 문고에 지속적인 지원을 해줄 '책의 미래 기금' 이 설립됐다. 하지만 2015년부터는 엔지니어가 없는 상태로 서버를 강제로 돌리고 있으며 서버 자체도 노후화되고 있다는 점이 문제되고 있다. 이 때문에 2015년 5월 "'Code for 아오조라 문고' 아이디어 송"이 개최되어 향후 시스템 운용에 대한 의견 교환이 이뤄졌다. 그 이후에는 해당 모임을 바탕으로 시스템 관리와 코드수정 등을 맡는 'aozorahack' 프로젝트가 진행되고 있다.텍스트 파일을 아오조라 문고에 수록할 때, 텍스트 파일이 갖추어야 할 서식을 '아오조라 문고' 형식이라 부른다.아오조라 문고 형식은 텍스트 파일로서 많은 환경에서 읽을 수 있도록 규격화되어있다. 때문에 가능한 한 원본의 충실한 재현을 목표로 삼고 있지만 줄 바꿈이나 삽화 등의 정보는 원칙적으로 포함되지 않는다.아오조라 문고 형식에 대응하는 텍스트 뷰어와 텍스트 편집기도 존재하며 올림문자와 방점 등도 재현할 수 있다. 또 이러한 텍스트 뷰어에서는 본래 아오조라 문고 형식에 포함되지 않았던 삽화 정보를 삽입하거나 세로쓰기로 표시할 수 있으며 텍스트를 읽기 쉽도록 만드는 다양한 기능이 포함되어 있다. 이러한 소프트웨어는 유료와 무료를 불문하고 종류가 다양하다.일본어 표기에 많이 쓰이는 올림문자 는 그대로 올려쓰지 않고 로 묶거나 ｜로 올릴 문자열을 특정하는 방식은 일본 시각장애인 독서지원협회 의 원문입력 수칙에 따른 것이다.이 같은 방식을 예시로 들자면 다음과 같다.라고 표기했다면 '' (분코)라는 올림표기가 '文庫' 부분에 걸려 있는 것이다. 다만처럼 올림표기를 쓸 한자가 가나로 충분히 구분된다면 ｜를 써서 분리할 필요가 없으므로 쓰지 않는다. 또한처럼 가나에 올림표기를 강제로 쓰는 것도 가능하다. +프로젝트 구텐베르크(Project GutenbergPG)는 인류의 자료를 모아서 전자정보로 저장하고 배포하는 프로젝트로 1971년 미국인 마이클 하트(Michael Hart)가 시작했다.인쇄술을 대중화도로 확장시킨 요하네스 구텐베르크의 이름에서 따온 것으로, 인터넷에 전자화된 문서를 저장해 놓고 누구나 무료로 책을 받아 읽을 수 있는 가상 도서관을 만드는 것을 목표로 한다. 수많은 자원봉사자들이 인터넷을 이용해 기여하여 만들어지는 프로젝트로 수많은 고전의 원문이 모여 있다.2006년 3월 프로젝트 구텐베르크 발표에 따르면 프로젝트는 18000개 항목 이상의 전자문서를 보유하고 있으며 매주 50여개의 새로운 전자책이 새롭게 등록되고 있다고 한다.프로젝트에 등록된 전자책은 대부분이 서구의 문학작품으로 이루어져 있다. 소설 시 단편소설 드라마 등의 문학작품 외에 요리책 사전류 정기간행물이 포함되어 있다. 또한 일부 오디오 파일과 음악 악보 파일도 갖고 있다.대부분은 영문 서적이지만 독일어 프랑스어 이탈리아어 에스파냐어 네덜란드어 핀란드어 중국어 포르투갈어 라틴어 스웨덴어 라틴어 에스페란토로 된 책도 있으며 여타 언어 문서도 꾸준히 증가하고 있다.문서는 주로 아스키 문자 집합 때때로 ISO-8859-1 문자 집합으로 인코딩된 텍스트문서를 언제나 내려받을 수 있으며 HTML등의 다른 형식의 문서도 받을 수 있다. 편집이 어려운 PDF등의 문서형식은 프로젝트가 지향하는 바와 맞지 않는 것으로 여겨지지만 PDF형식을 이용할 수 있는 문서도 있다. 최근 수년동안 XML형식을 도입할지에 대한 토론이 있었지만 토론은 지지부진하다.1990년대 들어 스캐닝과 OCR기술에 힘입어 마이클 하트는 컴퓨터 제조회사에서 스캐닝장비를 기증받아 문서를 스캐닝한후 OCR소프트웨어로 이를 텍스트화하는 작업을 구축하였다. 이러한 형태의 발전된 프로세스는 현재 주요한 작업기술이다. 한편 PG는 다중원본제공을 지원하며 또한 사용자 제공 콘텐츠 절차를 지원한다. 이는 셀프 출판을 의미한다.프로젝트 구텐베르크 라이선스는 아래와 같은 2개의 큰 맥락을 갖는다.이러한 프로젝트 구텐베르크 라이선스는 이후 몇몇 추가된 라이선스를 도입했으며 이전의 라이선스와 추가변형된 라이선스는 의 공식웹사이트에서 전문을 확인할 수 있다. +는 일본 헤이안 시대 중기에 무라사키 시키부가 지은 소설이다. 54첩에 달하는 장편으로 800여 수의 와카가 들어있다. 고대의 일본 문학의 최고 걸작이라는 의견도 있다. 이야기는 헤이안 시대를 배경으로 천황의 황자로 태어나 신하 계급으로 강하한 히카루 겐지와 그의 아들 세대까지의 이야기를 그리고 있다.등장인물은 500명에 가깝고 4대의 임금 70여 년에 걸친 장편이다. 작자는 궁정 귀족사회의 진상을 포착하고 인간의 운명을 깊고 예리하게 응시하고 있다. 성격묘사라든지 자연묘사에서 세세한 부분에까지 빛을 발하는 완성도가 높은 작품이다.헤이안 시대 중기 11세기 초에 성립된 장편 소설이다. ≪겐지 모노가타리≫는 오랫동안 특정한 명칭 없이 ≪源氏物語≫ ≪光源氏物語≫ ≪紫物語≫ ≪光源氏≫ ≪源氏≫ ≪源語≫ ≪紫文≫ 등으로 불려 오다가 오늘날에는 일반적으로 ≪源氏物語≫라는 서명으로 불리게 되었다. 전체 54권으로 나뉘어 있으며 200자 원고지 5000매가 넘는 세계 최고 최장의 고전 소설로 치밀한 구성과 인간의 심리 묘사 표현의 정교함과 미의식 등으로 일본 문학사상 최고 걸작으로 평가된다.당시의 전형적인 이야기가 보통 ‘옛날에 남자가 있었다’라고 시작되는 것과는 달리, ≪겐지 모노가타리≫는 ‘어느 천황의 치세 때였는지’라는 독창적인 서두로 시작된다. 작품 전체는 400여 명의 등장인물과 기리쓰보, 스자쿠, 레이제이, 금상에 이르는 4대 천황에 걸친 70여 년간의 이야기로, 히카루겐지라고 하는 주인공의 비현실적이라 할 만큼 이상적인 일생과 그 후손인 가오루와 니오미야 등의 인간관계를 그리고 있다. 또한 본문은 수많은 전기적 화형과 함께 795수의 와카가 산재되어 있어 긴장감 있는 문체를 이루고 있다.귄터 그라스는 독일의 소설가이자 극작가다.독일 단치히 자유시에서 식료품 상인이었던 독일계 아버지와 슬라브계 어머니 사이에서 태어났다. 하버드 대학에서 명예박사학위를 받았다. 1999년에 노벨 문학상을 수상하였다.제2차 세계 대전과 그라스.제2차 세계 대전 당시 독일 제국노동봉사대에서 근무하던 중, 1944년에 무장친위대에 입대하여 10 SS기갑사단 프른즈베르크로 발령받아 참전했다. 징집당한 것이라는 얘기도 있으나, 당시 친위대의 독일인 대원들은 징집 대상이 아니라 자원 입대가 기본이었다. 종전후 부상당한 채 미군 포로로 잡혀 1946년까지 포로 수용소에 수감되었다. 이런 사실은 그라스 자신이 최근 발간한 자서전에서 인정했다.전후 1947~48년에는 광산에서 일하며 석공 기술 과정을 마친다. 이어 1948년부터 1952년까지는 뒤셀도르프 미술대학에서 그래픽과 조각을, 1953년부터 1956년까지는 베를린 예술대학에서 조각을 배웠다.1955년 슈투트가르트 방송국의 서정시 경연대회에 입상하고, 1956~57년에 예술 작품 전시와 별도로 작가 활동을 시작했다. 1958년까지 단문, 시, 희곡 등을 발표한다. 1954년에 결혼을 하고, 1960년부터 계속 베를린에 산다. 1959년에 매우 묘사적인 언어로 나중에 영화화 되기까지 한 을 발표했다. 이 작품으로 그는 제2차 세계 대전 후 처음으로 세계 문학계에 이름을 날린 독일 작가가 된다. 이어 <고양이와 쥐> <개의 해>에서도 전쟁 전과 전쟁 후에 걸친 시대의 과오와 대결하고 있으며, 무대는 다같이 단치히이다. 이밖의 작품에 <달팽이의 일기에서> <넙치> 등이 있다. 1996년 유럽문화공로상을 받았다.그는 소설가로 활약하는 한편 부조리극적인 소품인 <요리사> <홍수> <버팔로까지 앞으로 10분> 등을 발표한 바 있는데 현대정치에도 직접 행동으로 참가하여 동서 독일의 분열이라는 가장 현실적인 문제에 대담하게 도전한 <천민의 폭동연습>을 발표했다. 1953년 동독의 폭동 당시 브레히트를 모델로 하여 예술과 정치의 관련을 추구한 작품으로 <독일의 비극>이 있다.그라스는 전후 독일 사회민주당의 주요 지지자가 되어 외국인 혐오증, 신나치주의 등에 반대하는 사회활동에 적극 참여하였다. +일반 상대성이론 또는 일반상대론은 마르셀 그로스만, 다비드 힐베르트, 알베르트 아인슈타인 등에 의해 발전되고 아인슈타인이 1915년에 발표한, 중력을 상대론적으로 다루는 물리 이론이다. 핀란드의 이론물리학자 노르드스트룀도 일반 상대론의 많은 부분을 논문으로 발표했었다. 일반 상대론은 현재까지 알려진, 중력을 다루는 이론 가운데 가장 정확하게 실험적으로 검증되었다.특수 상대성 이론에서 수학자 헤르만 민코프스키가 민코프스키 공간을 도입하여 평평한 시공간을 기하학적으로 다루었다. 일반 상대성 이론은 중력의 영향을 시공간의 휘어짐으로 기술한다. 일반상대론에서 시공간의 수학적 구조는 특별한 종류의 준 리만 다양체이며 국소적으로 민코프스키 공간이다. 시공간의 휘어짐은 수학적으로 준 리만 다양체의 곡률에 해당한다. 즉 일반상대론은 1850년대에 만들어진 수학인 리만 기하학으로 기술된다. 시공의 곡률은 4차원 운동량 밀도에 비례하는데 이를 아인슈타인 방정식이라고 한다. 일반 상대성 이론에서는 관성계뿐만 아니라 비관성계를 포함한 임의의 좌표계에 대해 물리 법칙이 동등한 형태를 유지하여야 한다.자유낙하하는 승강기와 승강기 바닥에서 승강기 천장으로 쏘여진 빛을 떠올려보면, 승강기 안에서 승강기와 같이 자유낙하하는 관찰자는 빛에서 어떠한 도플러 효과도 보지 못할 것이다. 왜냐하면 등가원리를 따르면, 중력장 내에서 자유낙하하는 관찰자는 중력장이 없는 관성계의 관찰자와 같으며, 중력장이 없는 관성계에서는 빛에 어떠한 변형도 일어나지 않기 때문이다. 따라서 자유낙하하는 관찰자는 승강기 천장에 설치된 빛 감지기에서 어떠한 도플러 효과도 나타나지 않을 것이라고 결론짓는다. 하지만 승강기 밖에서 땅 위에 서있는 관찰자는 빛에서 도플러 효과를 기대한다. 왜냐하면, 승강기가 자유낙하를 시작할 때 빛이 출발했다고 가정하면, 빛이 승강기 바닥에서 승강기 천장으로 가는 시간 formula_1 동안 승강기 천장은 formula_2만큼 빠르게 되고, 이 속도에 따라 빛에 대한 청색편이를 감지해야 하기 때문이다. 여기서 청색편이는 느린 속도 근사식 formula_3만큼 일어났다고 가정한다.감지기가 어떤 관찰자에게는 도플러 효과가 없다고 감지하고 어떤 관찰자에게는 청색편이의 도플러 효과가 있다고 감지할 수는 없으므로 우리는 청색편이의 결과를 상쇄시켜 자유낙하하는 관찰자의 결과와 일치시킬 어떤 것을 필요로 한다. 다행히 중력장이란 존재가 있으므로 중력장이 청색편이를 상쇄시키는 적색편이를 일으켰다고 할 수 있다. 중력 적색편이는 formula_4만큼 일어나며 여기에 빛이 감지되었을 때의 승강기 천장의 속도와 빛이 승강기 천장으로 가는 시간을 대입하면 formula_5라는 중력 퍼텐셜의 차이 formula_6에 따른 적색편이의 식을 얻을 수 있다. 그러므로 승강기에서처럼 빛 방출기와 빛 감지기가 서로 상대적인 운동에 있는 상황이 아니라 서로에 대해서 정지해있는 상황이라면 빛의 감지기는 청색편이로 상쇄되지 않는 중력 적색편이를 감지할 것이다.빛의 감지기가 빛의 방출기에 대해서 정적인 상황에서 어떻게 서로 다른 진동수를 얻을 수 있을까? 다시 말해 빛의 감지기와 빛의 방출기가 단위 시간 당 서로 다른 개수의 파면을 받아들일까? 아인슈타인은 여기에 대해서 파면의 개수는 동일하지만 빛의 감지기와 빛의 방출기가 서로 다른 시간 단위를 갖는다고 지적했다. 즉 서로 다른 중력 퍼텐셜에 위치한 시계에서는 서로 다른 빠르기로 시침이 움직인다는 뜻이다. 진동수는 그 곳의 고유 시간에 반비례 하므로 formula_7이며 이를 중력 적색편이 식에 집어넣으면 formula_8의 식을 얻을 수 있다.일반 상대성 이론에서는 시공을 특수 상대성 이론의 민코프스키 공간에서 임의의 준 리만 다양체로 확장한다. 다양체의 계량 텐서 formula_9로서 시공간의 곡률을 정의하고, 이 곡률을 중력으로 재해석한다. 뉴턴 역학에서 중력은 질량의 밀도에 의하여 결정된다. 질량의 밀도를 자연스럽게 상대화하면 에너지-운동량 텐서를 얻는다. 아인슈타인과 다비트 힐베르트는 아인슈타인-힐베르트 작용 을 통해 다음과 같은 장 방정식을 얻었으며, 이는 오늘날 아인슈타인 방정식으로 알려져 있다.여기서 기호는 다음과 같다.이 식으로부터 중력장이 약하다고 가정하면 뉴턴의 역제곱 법칙을 비상대론적 극한으로 얻는다.공간 좌표를 formula_17으로 하고 시간 좌표를 formula_18로 하면 세계선의 선소 formula_19는 formula_20 로 표시된다.formula_21와 formula_22는 시간과 공간의 좌표를 나타내는 인덱스로 0은 시간, 1,2,3은 공간 성분을 표시한다. formula_9는 시공간 사이의 변환을 나타내는 계량 텐서이다. 예를 들어 가장 평탄한 시공간을 나타내는 민코프스키 계량 텐서의 경우일반 상대성 이론에서 중력 밖의 다른 힘이 작용하지 않고 그 무게가 무시할 만큼 작은 입자는 시공간의 측지선을 따라 움직인다. 측지선은 시공에서 고유 시간을 극대화하는 경로이다. 즉 formula_25이다.일반적으로 중력에 의해 시공간이 휘어지는 것을 알 수 있다. 질량이 큰 물체는 시공간을 휘게 할 수 있고 그것이 중력을 제공하는 역할을 한다일반 상대성 이론은 실험적으로 성공적이나 이를 주로 양자장론과 관련하여 여러 가지로 확장할 수 있다. 일반상대론에 비틀림을 더한 이론은 아인슈타인-카르탕 이론이고 중력상수를 스칼라장으로 승진시키면 브랜스-딕 이론을 얻는다. 일반 상대성 이론에 추가 차원을 도입하여 다른 상호작용을 포함시키는 이론은 칼루차-클라인 이론이며 초대칭을 도입하면 초중력 이론을 얻는다. 또한 초끈이론 에서는 아인슈타인-힐베르트 작용을 자연스럽게 얻을 수 있으며 고리 양자 중력에서는 아인슈타인-힐베르트 작용을 가지고 이를 양자화 한다는 것에서 시작한다. +데니스 매캘리스터 리치는 미국의 저명한 전산학자이자 현대 컴퓨터의 선구자이다. C와 유닉스의 개발자로 알려져 있다.미국의 뉴욕 주 브롱크스빌에서 태어났으며, 1967년 하버드 대학교에서 물리학과 응용수학 학위를 얻었다. 1968년부터 벨 연구소 컴퓨터 연구 센터에서 일했다. 2007년 루슨트 테크놀로지의 시스템 소프트웨어 연구부장으로 은퇴했다. 홀로 살고 있던 그는 미국 시각으로 2011년 10월 12일 뉴저지 주 버클리 헤이츠의 자택에서 사망한 채로 발견되었다 .켄 톰슨 등과 함께 최초의 유닉스 시스템을 개발했고 1971년 최초의 〈Unix Programmer's Manual〉을 썼다. 또한 C 언어를 개발한 후 브라이언 커니핸과 함께 〈C 프로그래밍 언어〉를 기술했다. 커니핸과 〈C 프로그래밍 언어〉책을 썼기에 커니핸이 C 언어 개발에 참여한 것으로 종종 오해받으나 커니핸의 말에 따르면 자신은 C언어 개발에 참여하지 않았다고 한다.ALTRAN, B언어, BCPL, Multics 등의 개발에도 영향을 끼친 것으로도 알려져 있다.1983년에 켄 톰프슨과 로 튜링상을 수상했다.미국의 경제 전문지 '비즈니스 인사이더'에서는 '현재의 애플 컴퓨터는 거의 모두 데니스 리치의 업적에 기반하고 있다'이라며 그의 업적을 평가했다. 현재 애플 매킨토시의 OS X와 아이폰의 iOS는 모두 유닉스 운영체제를 기반으로 만들어져 있다.주기율표 또는 주기표는 원소를 구분하기 쉽게 성질에 따라 배열한 표로, 러시아의 드미트리 멘델레예프가 처음 제안했다. 1913년 헨리 모즐리는 멘델레예프의 주기율표를 개량시켜서 원자번호순으로 배열했는데, 이는 현대의 원소 주기율표와 유사하다.가장 많이 쓰이는 주기율표에는 단주기형과 장주기형이 있다. 단주기형 주기율표는 1주기와 3주기를 기준으로 하고, 4주기 아래로는 전형원소와 전이원소가 같은 칸에 있다. 이 단주기형 주기율표는 초기에 쓴 모델로 원자가 많이 알려지지 않았을 때 많이 사용하였다. 장주기형 주기율표는 현재 가장 많이 쓰고 있는 주기율표이다.주기율표의 오른쪽에 있는 이 원소들은 다른 원소들과 다르게 화학 반응을 하지 않는다. 그래서 비활성 기체라는 이름을 갖게 되었다.17족의 원소들로 구성되어있다. 전자를 가져오려는 성질이 강하다. 수소와 반응한다.준금속은 금속과 비금속 사이에 있어 금속과 비금속의 성질을 모두 갖고 있다. 특히 규소나 저마늄은 반도체의 주 원료이다.알칼리 금속은 수소를 제외한 1족 원소들이다. 칼로 잘릴 정도로 무른 금속이며, 물과 격렬하게 반응을 하여 때론 폭발을 하기도 한다.알칼리 토금속은 2족 원소들이다. 알칼리 금속과 희토류 원소의 중간 성질을 띤다.란타넘족은 란타넘 에서 루테튬 까지의 희토류 원소이다. 란타넘족은 원자번호가 늘어나면서 4f 오비탈을 채운다.악티늄족은 악티늄 에서 로렌슘 까지인 족이다. 악티늄족은 원자번호가 늘어나면서 5f 오비탈을 채운다.전이금속은 주기율표에서 4~7주기 3~12족 까지의 원소들을 말한다. 원자번호가 늘어나면서 d 오비탈이 채워진다.전이후 금속은 주기율표의 p-구역에 있는 금속 원소를 말한다. 전이 금속에 비해 녹는 점과 끓는 점이 낮고, 무르다.되베라이너의 세 쌍 원소.주기율표의 역사는 요한 볼프강 되베라이너의 "세 쌍 원소"로부터 시작된다. 그는 실험을 통해 세 개의 원소로 이루어진 무리 중 어떤 원소들은 첫 번째 원소와 세 번째 원소의 물리량 평균이 두 번째 원소의 물리량과 같음을 확인했다. 그 구체적인 예로는 '칼슘 스트론튬 바륨'의 세 원소가 있다 여기서 스트론튬의 물리량은 칼슘과 바륨 원소의 물리량을 합하여 2로 나눈 평균값과 비슷하거나 같다. 되베라이너는 이들을 세 쌍의 원소라고 불렀다. 이러한 세 쌍 원소 관계를 만족하는 원소들은 칼슘-스트론튬-바륨 염소-브로민-아이오딘 그리고 리튬-나트륨-칼륨이 대표적인데 이를 만족하는 원소수가 적어 인정받지 못하였다. 세 쌍 원소는 현대 주기율표에서 같은 족에 해당된다.뉴랜즈의 옥타브 설.영국의 과학자 존 뉴랜즈는 원소들을 원자량의 순으로 배열하면 8번째 원소마다 비슷한 성질의 원소가 나타나는 것을 발견하였고 이를 피아노의 개념에 대입하여 옥타브 법칙을 세웠다. 하지만 이 대응성은 3번째 줄에서부터 어긋나기 시작했고 처음 이 이론이 발표되었을 때만 해도 그는 웃음거리가 되었으나 이후 여러가지 실험이 뉴랜즈의 법칙의 중요성을 보였다. 현대 주기율표에서 주기개념의 시초가 되었다.드미트리 멘델레예프는 화학 교수였다. 멘델레예프는 원소의 규칙을 밝히기 위해 이런저런 시도를 하다가 결국 원소들을 원자량순으로 나열하면 되베라이너의 세쌍원소, 뉴랜즈의 옥타브 법칙을 만족하게 된다는 것을 알게 되었다. 그는 원소가 어떤 함수의 결과라는 것을 확실히 믿었지만 비활성 기체가 발견되면서 그의 주기율표는 바뀌기 시작했다. 멘델레예프가 만든 주기율표에는 빈자리가 있었다. 그리고 그 빈자리에 언젠가는 빈 칸을 채울 원소가 발견될 것이라고 주장했다.멘델레예프의 문제는 영국의 모즐리에 의해 풀렸다. 그는 음극선관을 이용하여 생성되는 X선의 파장을 연구하여 양성자 수에 따라 화학적 성질이 달라진다는 것을 밝혀냈다. 이를 모즐리의 법칙이라하며, 이것을 기본으로 현대적 의미의 주기율표가 탄생하였다.수소와 헬륨의 위치에 대한 논쟁이 이어지고 있다. 현재의 주기율표에서는 수소를 알칼리 금속과 마찬가지로 가장 바깥쪽 껍질에 전자를 하나 가진 리튬 위에 배열한다. 그러나 일부에서는 수소는 금속 원소가 아니며 수소가 전자의 구조 면에서는 알칼리 금속이 아닌 할로겐에게 가깝고 할로젠 원소와 성질이 비슷하다고 주장하며, 수소의 위치를 17족 원소로 옮겨야 한다고 주장한다.마찬가지로 생각해서 수소가 1족 원소라면 헬륨도 베릴륨 위에 2족 원소로 배치해야 한다는 설이 있다. 그러나 헬륨은 비활성 기체이므로 현재처럼 네온 위인 18족 원소가 가장 적당하다고 한다. +아미노산은 생물의 몸을 구성하는 단백질의 기본 구성 단위로, 단백질을 완전히 가수분해하면 암모니아와 함께 생성된다. 화학적으로 아미노기와 카복시기를 포함한 모든 분자를 지칭하기도 하며 화학식은NH2CHRnCOOH이다.생화학에서는 흔히 -아미노산을 간단히 아미노산이라 부른다. -아미노산은 아미노기와 카복시기가 하나의 탄소에 붙어있다. 아미노산의 일종인 프롤린은 실제로는 아미노기 대신 이차 아미노기를 포함한 2차 아민인데 생화학적으로 보통의 아미노산과 비슷한 기능을 수행하기 때문에 2차 아미노기를 가진 프롤린도 아미노산으로 분류한다.일반적인 -아미노산의 구조는 오른쪽 그림과 같다.아미노기와 카복실기를 모두 포함하고 있어, 아미노산은 중성에서 양쪽성 이온으로 존재하며, 카복실기가 공명 상태로 안정화를 취한다. 오른쪽의 구조에서 R은 나머지라는 뜻의 "Residue" 혹은 "Remainder"의 머릿글자로 곁사슬을 나타내고, 곁사슬에 무엇이 붙느냐에 따라 아미노산의 종류가 결정된다. 아미노산은 곁사슬의 성질에 따라 산성, 염기성, 친수성, 소수성의 네 가지 종류로 구분된다. 곁사슬이 수소 원자뿐인 글라이신을 제외하고, 다른 아미노산은 모두 두가지 광학 활성을 가져, D형과 L형으로 구분된다. 단백질을 구성하는 아미노산의 거의 대부분은 L-아미노산 형태로 존재한다. 청자고둥같은 일부 특이한 바다생물에서 D-아미노산이 발견되기도 했다. 단백질은 아미노산의 탈수반응이자 펩타이드 결합인 축합 중합을 통해 만들어진다.A,B,C는 친수성이며 D는 소수성이다. 21개의 주요 아미노산중에서 파란색은 비필수 아미노산이며 빨간색은 필수아미노산이다.히라가나()는 일본어에서 사용하는 두 가지 가나 가운데 하나다. 가타카나는 주로 외래어 표기 등에 쓰고, 히라가나는 다음과 같은 용도로 쓴다.히라가나는 여성이 많이 썼다고 한다. 그래서 온나데라고 불린 적도 있다. 이런 이유로 히라가나는 여자들만 쓰는 글이라 하여 오랫동안 일본의 공용 문서에선 가타카나와 한자만이 사용되었다. 현재 일본 철도의 역명판에는 히라가나와 칸지가 적혀 있다. 히라가나는 헤이안 시대부터 쓰인 것으로 알려져 있다. 일본의 유아들도 가나를 배울 때는 히라가나를 먼저 배우고 가타카나를 나중에 배우기 때문에 유아용 그림책 등에는 가타카나로 쓰인 단어 위에 히라가나를 후리가나로 덧붙이기도 한다. 음절문자이다.한영 자판 상태에서 히라가나를 입력할 경우 ㄸ+한자 키를 누르면 된다. 가타카나의 경우 장음 등 일부 문자를 제외하면, 꼭 ㅃ+한자 조합을 해야 한다.히라가나는 만요가나에서 왔다.메이지 시대 이전에는 히라가나의 모양이 확실히 정해지지 않고 여러 형태의 문자가 사용되었다. 메이지 시대의 학제 시행 후에야 위와 같은 자형이 표준화되어 쓰이기 시작했다. 위 이외의 구식 자형은 헨타이가나(変体仮名)라고 부른다. +토마스 만( 1875년 6월 6일 ~ 1955년 8월 12일)은 독일의 평론가이자 소설가이다. 사상적인 깊이 높은 식견 연마된 언어 표현 짜임새 있는 구성 등에 있어서 20세기 독일 제일의 작가로 알려져 있다. 1929년 노벨 문학상을 비롯 괴테 상 등 많은 상을 받았다.토마스 만의 형은 급진적인 작가 하인리히 만이다. 그리고 6명의 자식 중 3명인 Erika Mann 클라우스 만 Golo Mann들도 또한 독일의 중요한 작가로 성장했다.토마스 만은 평의원이며 곡물 상인이었던 토마스 요한 하인리히 만과 율리아 다 실바 브룬스 부부 사이에서 두 번째 아들로 독일의 뤼베크에서 태어났다. 어머니 율리아는 7살 때 독일로 망명한 부분적 독일계 브라질리안이다. 토마스 만의 아버지가 1891년에 돌아가시면서 회사는 청산되었다. 1893년 뮌헨으로 이주하여 보험 회사의 견습 사원이 되었다. 이때 첫 작품 <호의>가 잡지에 실리면서 문단에 데뷔하였다.토마스 만은 뤼베크 체육관 기술 분야에 참가하면서 뮌헨 대학과 기술대학에서 시간을 보내게 된다. 그 당시 그는 역사 경제학 미술역사 문학등을 공부하게 되면서 언론계로 커리어를 준비하게 된다. 그는 이탈리아 팔레스트리나에서 살았던 1년을 제외하면 1891년부터 1933년까지 형이자 소설가인 하인리히와 함께 뮌헨에 거주하게 된다. 토마스 만은 보험회사에서 1894년에서 1895년까지 일을 하게 된다. 그가 Simplicissimus에서 글을 쓰기 시작하면서 작가로서의 커리어를 시작하게 된다. 토마스 만의 첫 번째 소설은 1898년에 출판된 이다.1901년 부유한 상인의 집안이 4대에 걸쳐 몰락하는 과정을 그린 장편 <부덴브로크스 가의 사람들>을 발표하여 문단에서의 자리를 굳혔다.그가 동성애 관계를 가졌다는 여러 정황이 있으나 종국에는 카티아 프링스하임과 사랑에 빠졌다. 1905년, 그는 그녀와 결혼을 하며, 6명의 아이들을 낳았다.제1차 세계 대전이 일어나자 <프리드리히와 대동맹> <비정치적 인간의 고찰> <독일 공화국에 대하여> 등 정치적 논설을 발표하고, 점차 구낭만주의적인 반지성주의를 벗어나, 새로운 휴머니즘을 품기 시작하였다. 1924년 12년간의 노력의 결정인 장편소설 <마의 산>을 발표하였는데, 이 소설은 손꼽히는 발전 소설로서 독일 문학사상 중요한 위치를 차지하고 있다.1929년 토마스 만은 Nidden에 있는 어촌에 오두막을 가진다. 그 곳에는 독일 예술 공동체가 있었으며 1930년에서 1932년 여름에는 "요셉과 그의 형제들"을 집필한다. 현재 이 오두막은 소규모 전시를 하면서 토마스 만에 대한 문화적인 중심이 됐다.1933년 나치스 정권 성립으로 조국을 떠나, 남프랑스·스위스 등을 거쳐, 1938년 미국에 이르렀다. 그 곳에서 프린스턴 대학에서 수업을 한다. 제2차 세계 대전 때는 높은 휴머니즘의 입장에서 민주주의 옹호를 위해 싸웠다.1942년 그의 가족들은 캘리포니아 로스엔젤레스에 있는 로 이사를 한다. 그 곳에서 제2차 세계 대전이 끝날 때까지 살게 된다. 1944년 6월 23일 토마스 만은 미국 시민권을 받게 된다. 1952년에 스위스 취리히 근처에 있는 에서 살게 된다.그는 독일을 규칙적으로 여행하긴 했지만 그 후로 살지 않았다. 가장 유명한 독일 방문은 1949년 요한 볼프강 폰 괴테의 200주년이다.1955년 취리히에 있는 한 병원에서 아테롬선 동맥 경화증으로 죽고 Kilchberg에 묻힌다. 많은 협회들이 그의 이름을 기린다.토마스 만의 작품은 처음으로 H. T. Lowe-Porter가 번역했다. 그녀는 토마스 만의 작품을 영어권 사회에 크게 전파시켰다.제1차 세계 대전 동안, 토마스 만은 카이저의 보수주의를 지지하고 진보주의를 공격한다.1930년 토마스 만은 베를린에서 "An Appeal to Reason" 라는 연설을 한다. 그는 강하게 나치중심 사회주의를 비난하고 운동권들에 의한 반대를 격려한다. 이것은 그가 집필한 수많은 평론과 문학에서 나치를 공격한 것에서 알 수 있다. 동시에 그는 사회주의자들의 생각에 대해서 늘어나는 동정을 표현했다. 1933년 나치가 집권을 했을 당시, 토마스 만과 아내는 스위스에서 주말을 보냈다. 나치 정책에 대한 그의 매우 강력한 비난 때문에, 아들 클라우스는 돌아가지 말자고 권했다. 하지만 토마스 만의 책은 하인리히나 클라우스의 책들과는 달리, 히틀러 정권에 의해서 태워지지 않았다. 물론 그것은 그가 1929년 노벨상을 받았기 때문이다. 결국 1936년 나치 정권이 공식적으로 토마스 만의 독일 시민권을 빼앗아간다. 몇 달 후, 그는 캘리포니아로 이사를 가게 된다.그러나 1933년 8월 26일이라고 기록된 개인적인 편지에서, 이미, 토마스 만은 나치즘에 대한 견해를 표현하고 있었고, 이것은 후에 와 일치한다. 이 소설에서, 토마스 만은 2차 대전에서 모든 잔인함에 대한 독일 국민에 대한 역사적인 책임감을 가진 몇몇 지역들을 언급한다.전쟁 동안 토마스 만은 반-나치 라디오 연설 시리즈를 만든다. 이것은 미국에서 녹음돼서 영국에 전해지고 BBC가 방송을 하게 되면서 독일 청취자들이 듣기를 원한다.사회 비판가 의 컬렉션 는 토마스 만의 정치적 성형이 바뀌는 것을 설명한다. +하인리히 뵐(Heinrich Bll , 쾰른, 1917년 12월 21일 - 랑엔브로이히 1985년 7월 16일)은 독일의 남성 소설가다.1917년 쾰른에서 목공예 가문의 여섯 번째 아들로 태어났다. 전후 가장 먼저 두각을 나타낸 독일작가들 중 하나. 청소년기 나치 하에서 히틀러 유겐트의 유혹을 뿌리치고 참여하지 않는다. 서점의 견습공으로 있다가 카이저 빌헬름 김나지움을 졸업하고 1939년 쾰른대학교 독문학과에 입학하나 곧 제2차 세계대전에 징집되었다. 프랑스 루마니아 헝가리 러시아 등지에서 복무한다. 4차례 부상당한 후 1945년 4월 미군에게 포로로 잡혀 2년이 지나 그의 나이 30에 전업작가가 된다. 전후 귀향하여 ‘전쟁에서 본 것’과 전후의 ‘폐허’에 대해서 쓰기 시작했다.1949년 병사들의 절망적인 삶을 묘사한 등의 작품을 집필했다. 1967년에는 독일 최고 권위의 문학상인 "을 수상했다.1970년대에는 사회 참여가 더욱 적극적이 되었고 이에 따라 독일 사회와의 갈등도 심화되었다. 특히 1969년과 1972년 뵐은 귄터 그라스와 함께 사회민주당으로의 정권교체를 위해 선거 유세에 직접 참여하며 빌리 브란트를 적극 지지했다. 또한 1971년 독일인으로서는 최초로 국제 펜클럽 회장으로 선출되어 세계 곳곳에서 탄압받고 있는 작가와 지식인들의 석방을 위해 노력했다. 1971년에는 성취 지향 사회에 대한 저항을 담은 ≪여인과 군상≫을 발표하고 이듬해 노벨문학상을 수상했다. 1929년의 토마스 만 이후 독일이 이 상을 받은 것은 43년 만이었다. 그의 작품은 30개 이상의 언어로 번역되었고, 그는 아직까지 독일에서 가장 많이 읽히는 작가로 알려져 있다. 문학 작품뿐만 아니라 행동으로도 보다 나은 사회를 위한 활동에 진력했던 뵐은 1985년 동맥경화로 세상을 떠났다.그의 죽음 이후 독일 녹색당은 그의 저항적 삶을 기리기 위하여 당의 정책 연구소 이름을 라고 짓기로 결정하였다.방정식은 미지수가 포함된 식에서 그 미지수에 특정한 값을 주었을 때만 성립하는 등식이다. 이때 방정식을 참이 되게 하는 특정 문자의 값을 해 또는 근이라 한다. 방정식의 해는 없을 수도 있고 여러 개일 수도 있고 모든 값일 수도 있다. 전자의 경우는 불능이라고 하고 중자의 경우는 방정식 후자의 경우는 항등식이라 한다.은 문자 formula_2가 어떤 값이든 항상 등호가 성립하므로 항등식인 반면,은 방정식이고 그 해는 formula_4와 formula_5이다. 또한방정식의 방정은 고대 중국의 산학서인 구장산술의 여덟 번째 장의 제목인 方程에서 유래하였다. 여기서 方은 연립방정식의 계수를 직사각형 모양으로 배열한다는 뜻이고 程은 이렇게 배열한 계수를 조작하여 해를 구하는 과정을 뜻한다. 이 해법은 약 1500년 뒤에 등장하는 가우스 소거법에 해당한다. 고대 중국의 수학자들은 이 과정에서 음수의 계산도 자유자재로 할 수 있었다.방정식에서 해를 구하려는 문자, 즉 미지수로는 보통 formula_2를 사용한다. 미지수로 알파벳의 뒤쪽 문자 formula_9를 사용하는 것은 프랑스의 수학자겸 철학자인 데카르트로부터 비롯되었다.방정식의 항에 무리식(루트)을 포함하는 다항식으로 이루어진 방정식을 무리 방정식이라 한다.그러니, 무리방정식은 해에 대해서 무연근 검사로 마무리검산을 해야하므로,위의 두 근인 formula_21을원래의 식인 formula_10에 대입해보면우선 양변으로 놓으면 formula_24이어서 formula_25일때formula_26따라서, formula_10 방정식의 근은 formula_25이다.그러나 무리방정식은 해에 대해서 무연근 검사로 마무리검산을 해야하므로위의 두 근인 formula_42는 1보다 작지 않으므로 무연근이다.연립 방정식은 서로 다른 2개의 미지수가 주어진 방정식들에 모두 적합할 때 이 방정식의 쌍을 의미한다. 연립 방정식도 미지수의 차수에 따라 연립 일차 방정식, 연립 이차 방정식 등으로 나뉜다. 연립 일차 방정식에선 y=ax+b와 같이 한 미지수를 어떠한 값으로 나타내어 이 값을 그 미지수에 대입하는 방법인 대입법과 미지수의 계수를 같게 곱하여 둘을 더하거나 빼서 그 미지수를 없애는 가감법, 그리고 행렬을 이용한 가우스 소거법이 주로 사용된다.방정식은 2x+3=0과 같이 x(미지수)의 값에 따라 등식이 참이 되기도 하고 거짓이 되기도 한다. 방정식은 중국의 구장산술이라는 산학서에서부터 유래되었다고 한다. 이 방정식에도 원 방정식 직선의 방정식 미분 방정식 등 여러가지가 있고 또 미지수의 차수에 따라 일차 방정식 이차 방정식 삼차 방정식 고차 방정식... 등으로 나뉜다. 특히 이차 방정식에는 미지수의 값을 구하는 근의 공식이라는 식이 있다. 이차방정식 ax^2+bx+c=0(a≠0)의 근의 공식은 -b±√b^2-4ac/2a 이고 ax^2+2b'x+c=0(a≠0)의 근의 공식은 -b'±√b'^2-ac/a이다. 삼차 방정식과 사차 방정식은 특수한 경우에 성립하는 근의 공식이 있다. 오차 방정식부턴 근의 공식이 존재하지 않는다. (아벨이 증명) 갈루아 이론을 이용하면 아벨과는 다른 방법으로 증명 이 가능하다. +수학에서 삼각함수 항등식은 삼각함수가 나오는 항등식을 말한다. 이 공식들은 삼각함수가 나오는 복잡한 식을 간단히 정리하는 데 유용하며 특히 치환적분에서 매우 자주 쓰이기 때문에 중요하다.참고로 아래에서 formula_1 formula_2 등의 함수는 formula_3와 같이 정의된다.주기성, 대칭성, 이동.다음 관계는 단위원을 사용하면 쉽게 보일 수 있다.다음 식은 삼각함수의 주기성을 나타낸다.다음 식은 삼각함수의 대칭성을 나타낸다.다음은 삼각함수의 이동 성질을 나타낸다.또한 주기가 같지만 상이 다른 사인파들의 선형결합은 또 다른 상의 동일주기의 사인파가 된다. 즉 다음과 같다.다음 식들은 삼각함수의 정의와 피타고라스 정리를 이용하면 쉽게 보일 수 있다.다음의 삼각함수의 덧셈정리를 증명하는 가장 쉬운 방법은 오일러의 공식을 이용하는 것이다. 탄젠트 공식은 위의 둘을 결합하여 얻는다.다음 공식은 바로 위 덧셈 공식에서 formula_22로 놓으면 바로 얻어진다. 피타고라스의 식을 쓰면 변형을 얻는다. 또한 드무아브르의 공식에서 formula_23로 놓아도 된다.아래 공식들은 덧셈정리에서 한 각을 2x, 다른 한 각을 x로 놓고 전개하면 얻을 수 있다.아래 공식들은 배각의 공식에서 x를 2x로 두고 전개하여 풀면 얻을 수 있다.formula_40이 formula_41번째 체비쇼프 다항식일 때디리클레 핵formula_44 은 다음의 항등식의 양변에서 도출되는 함수이다. 디리클레 핵을 갖는 2n차의 어떤 제곱적분 가능함수의 합성곱은 함수의 n차 푸리에 근사와 함께 동시에 일어난다.n차 제곱한 삼각함수를 일차식의 삼각함수 식으로 바꾼다.두배각 공식의 코사인 공식을 formula_46 과 formula_47으로 푼다.차수 줄이기 이차식 공식에서 formula_58에 formula_59을 대입하고, formula_60 과 formula_61으로 푼다.또한, formula_65는 formula_66과 같고, 여기에 분자 분모에 같은 formula_67을 곱한다. 그러면, 분자는 사인의 두배각 공식에 의해 formula_68이 되고, 분모는 formula_69 이므로 코사인 두배각 공식을 쓰면 formula_70 이 된다. 두 번째 식은 분자와 분모에 다시 formula_68를 곱하고, 피타고라스 공식으로 간단히 하면 얻어진다.곱을 합으로 바꾸는 공식.우변을 덧셈정리로 전개하면 증명된다.합을 곱으로 바꾸는 공식.위 식의 formula_58를 formula_78로, formula_79를 formula_80 로 바꾼다.그리고 또 다른 식들로 다음과 같이 있다.다음 식들은 아마 변수가 있는 일반화된 식을 찾기가 위 보다 어려울 것이다.21을 택해서 각을 나누면, 도로 표현한 각이 더이상 깔끔하지 않다. 다음 식을 보자.1 2 4 5 8 10 이란 인자를 보면 차츰 답이 드러난다. 이 수들은 모두 보다 작고 21과의 공약수가 1인 수 들이다. 사실 위 세 가지 예는 더 인수분해되지 않는 원분다항식(cyclotomic polynomial)에 대한 기본정리의 따름정리이다. 코사인값은 다항식의 영(zero)들의 실수부이고 그들의 합은 21(가장 마지막 예)의 뫼비우스 함수값이다. (식에선 값의 반만이 나타난다.)미적분학의 삼각함수에선 각을 라디안(radian)으로 써야 한다. 그렇지 않으면 다음 관계식들은 성립하지 않는다. 우선 삼각함수가 기하학적으로 정의된 후에 함수들의 미분을 구하기 위해선 우선을 증명한다. 그리고 미분의 극한 정의와 덧셈정리를 이용한다. 삼각함수가 테일러 급수로 정의되었다면 각 항을 미분하여 알아낼 수 있다.(참고 formula_92나머지 삼각함수의 미분은 위 항등식과 미분법칙으로 얻어진다.적분식은 적분표를 참고하라. +노무현은 대한민국의 제16대 대통령이다. 부산에서 인권변호사로 활동한 그는 이후 정계에 입문해 제1315대 국회의원직을 역임했다. 대통령 당선 이전에는 김대중 정부에서 제6대 해양수산부 장관직을 역임했다.본관은 광주이며 경상남도 김해 출생이다. 부산상업고등학교를 졸업하고 막노동에 뛰어들었다가 독학으로 1975년 3월 30세에 제17회 사법시험에 합격하였다. 대전지방법원 판사로 1년을 재직하다가 그만두고 부산에서 변호사 사무실을 개업하여 여러 인권 사건을 변호하였다. 통일민주당 총재 김영삼의 공천을 받아 제13대 총선에 출마하여 부산 동구에서 당선되며 5공비리특별위원으로 활동했다. 1990년 3당 합당에 반대하면서 김영삼과 결별한다. 김대중 정부에서 해양수산부 장관을 지냈고 국민경선제에서 새천년민주당 소속으로 제16대 대선에서 대통령으로 당선되었으나 2003년 말에 새천년민주당을 탈당하고 2004년 초 새천년민주당을 탈당한 개혁 세력들이 주축이 되어 창당한 열린우리당에 입당하였다.2004년 무렵 공직선거 및 선거부정방지법이 정한 중립의무 및 헌법 위반을 시유로 야당에 국회로부터 대한민국 헌정 사상 최초로 대통령직 재임 중 탄핵 소추를 당해 대통령 직무가 정지되었다. 하지만 이후 탄핵을 주도했던 새천년민주당과 한나라당 자유민주연합은 여론의 역풍에 휩싸여 제17대 총선에서 참패하였고 얼마 후 헌법재판소에서 소추안을 기각하며 노무현은 다시 대통령 직무에 복귀하였다.주요 업적으로는 권력층에 만연해 있던 권위주의와 정경유착을 타파하고 기존 정권이 하지 못했던 각종 재벌 개혁을 시행한 것이 꼽힌다. 상속증여세의 포괄주의를 도입해 대기업 총수의 탈세 여지를 좁힌 것, 증권 관련 집단소송제를 시행한 것, 대기업 간 불공정 담합에 대한 적발과 처벌을 강화한 것 등이 높게 평가받는다. 임기 중 경제성장률은 4.42%로 OECD 평균성장률을 항상 상회했지만 역대 대한민국 정부 중 OECD의 성장률을 하회한 정부는 존재하지 않는다. 이러한 수치는 이후 이명박 정부의 2.9%와 박근혜 정부의 2.8%를 크게 상회하는 것이나, IMF의 발표 자료에 따르면 세계 경제성장률 대비 국내 경제성장률이 노무현 정부 -0.7%, 이명박 정부 +0.0%, 박근혜 정부 -0.5%로 나타났다. 노무현 정부는 골디락스 호황에도 불구하고 세계 경제성장률을 상회하지 못했고 도리어 이를 가장 크게 하회한 대한민국 정부로 기록되었다.주요 실책으로는 정치적으로 친인척 및 측근비리, 사회적으로 교육 정책 및 부동산 정책의 실패, 경제적으로 양극화 심화에 따른 민생경제 파탄, 외교적으로 햇볕정책의 실패 등이 꼽힌다. 부동산 정책은 전반적으로 실패했다는 평가를 받았고, 1997년 IMF 외환위기 이후 노무현 정부에서 소득 분배 지표가 더욱 악화되어 서민경제의 파탄을 초래했다는 비판도 있다. 게다가 반미적 입장, 편협한 국수주의, 친북적 정책으로 인한 외교적 모순으로 국제사회에서 신뢰를 잃었다는 분석도 존재한다. 이렇듯 서민 생활과 직결되는 분야에서의 정책적 과오와 외교·안보에서의 실책으로 인해, 대통령 직무수행에 대한 여론 조사가 정례화 된 제6공화국 이래 노태우를 제치고 임기 평균 국정 지지율 최하위를 차지할 정도로 대중적인 지지가 부족했던 대통령으로, "이게 다 노무현 때문이다" 같은 유행어가 나올 정도로 재임 시 국민들에게 많은 원성을 듣고 대중적 인기가 부족했으며 적이 많았던 대통령으로 평가받는다.정계 입문 초기에 직설적인 화법으로 청문회 스타 자리에 오르기도 하였으며, 이는 대중적 인지도를 크게 끌어올려 대통령 당선의 밑바탕이 되었다. 그러나 임기 중에는 등 그의 화법이 논란이 되며 보수 언론으로부터 비판을 받기도 했다. 한국대학총학생회연합(한총련) 합법화, 국가보안법 폐지 검토, 2007년 10월 4일 남북정상회담 당시 김정일과의 회담에서 NLL에 관한 발언이 오해를 불러 일으켜 보수 언론의 공격을 받았다. 보수 언론들은 노무현을 반미주의자이며 좌파로 규정하고 공격을 가했으나, 실제 임기 중에 펼친 정책은 그러한 노선과는 거리가 멀었으며, 진보 진영으로부터는 한미 FTA 추진과 이라크 파병 등 노무현 정부의 정책이 신자유주의 우파에 가깝다는 비난을 받기도 했다. 진보 언론으로부터는 신자유주의자라고, 보수 언론에게는 반미주의자라며 양측 진영에서 모두 비판받은 대통령으로 평가받는다. 행정수도 이전과 혁신도시 등 지방 균형 발전을 추진하였으나 세종특별자치시의 수도 이전은 헌법재판소에서 관습헌법이라는 이유로 위헌 결정을 내려 행정도시로 선회하였다.퇴임 후 고향 김해의 봉하마을로 귀향하였다. 2009년 검찰의 정관계 로비 수사가 전방위로 확대되면서 노무현의 측근 세력들이 수사 대상에 오르게 되었고, 노무현과 개인적 친분이 있던 박연차로부터 노무현 일가가 금전을 수수했다는 포괄적 뇌물죄 혐의를 받아 조사를 받았으며, 노무현 또한 검찰 조사를 받기에 이르렀다. 아내가 받았다는 노무현의 주장과는 달리, 박연차는 검찰 조사에서 노무현이 직접 전화를 걸어 자녀들의 집 장만을 위한 100만달러를 요구했다고 일관되게 진술하였고, 비서관을 통해 요청을 받고 차명계좌에서 노무현의 아들 노건호와 조카사위 연철호가 동업하는 기업에 500만 달러를 송금한 사실도 밝혀졌다. 이러한 노무현 일가의 640만 달러 수수 의혹은 현재까지도 해소되지 않고 있다.이같은 뇌물 수수 직접 개입 의혹이 수면으로 부상하면서 궁지에 몰리게 되자 노무현은 그 해 5월 23일 자택 뒷산인 봉화산 부엉이 바위에서 투신자살하였다. 양산부산대학교병원에서는 기자회견을 통해 두부 외상과 다발성 골절 등을 사망 이유로 결론내렸다. 노무현이 사망하면서 법무부는 노무현의 뇌물 수수 의혹에 대한 검찰 수사를 공소권 없음으로 종결시켰다. 사후 봉하마을에는 전국에서 노무현 재단의 주장에 따르면 500만여 명의 추모객들의 발길이 이어졌고 노무현의 장례는 국민장으로 치러졌다.대통령이 되기 이전.노무현은 1946년 9월 1일에 경상남도 김해에서 아버지 노판석과 어머니 이순례 사이에서 3남 2녀 중 막내로 태어났다. 그의 위로 있는 형 2명 중 맏형 영현은 교통사고로 세상을 떠났고 작은 형 건평은 현재까지 살아있다. 노건평은 1968년 세무직 9급 공무원이 되어 10년간 지방 세무서에서 근무하였다. 노무현은 광주 노씨 광주군파 31대 손으로 광주 노씨는 광주광역시 일곡동에 집성촌을 이루고 있는 가문이다.1953년에 진영대창국민학교에 입학하였고 학업 성적은 우수했으나 가난으로 결석이 잦았다고 한다. 6학년 때 담임교사의 권유로 전교 학생회장을 맡았다. 1959년 3월에 진영중학교에 진학했다. 중학교 재학 당시 노무현은 입학금이 없어 중학교는 외상으로 입학하였다고 한다. 1학년 말 제4대 정부통령 선거를 앞두고 당시 이승만 대통령의 생일을 기념하는 교내 글짓기 대회가 열리자 노무현은 백지동맹을 일으키다가 정학을 당하였다. 집안 형편이 어려워져 중학교를 1년간 휴학한 뒤 부일장학회의 장학금을 얻어 가까스로 중학교에 다니다가 1963년에 가까스로 졸업하고 부산상고에 진학하여 1966년에 졸업하였다.고등학교 졸업 후 농업협동조합의 입사 시험에 응시했으나 낙방하고, 한 어망 제조업체에 취직하였으나 최저 생계비에도 미치지 못하는 임금과 다쳐도 치료비조차 주지 않는 고용주의 비정함에 실망하여 결국 그만두었다. 이후 막노동과 사시 공부를 병행하였다.1968년 군에 입대하여 제12사단 을지부대에서 육군 상병으로 만기전역하였다. 1972년 27세에 권양숙과 결혼하였고 1973년에 아들 건호를, 1975년에 딸 정연을 낳았다. 1975년 3월 30세에 제17회 사법시험에 합격하였다. 이는 4번째 도전에서 이루어진 성과였고 노무현은 제17회 사법시험에서 유일하게 고졸 출신 합격자였다. 이후 대전지방법원의 판사로 임용되었으나 5개월 만에 사직하였다.1978년 5월 무렵 판사를 그만두고 부산에서 변호사로 개업하였다. 이후 세무·회계 전문 변호사로 명성을 쌓았다. 주로 조세 및 회계 사건 등을 통해 높은 수임료를 받았다. 당시 평범한 동료 변호사들처럼 지역의 경제인과 어울리며 요트를 즐기는 등 여유롭게 생활하였다.그러나 민청학련 사건 변론으로 이름이 높았던 김광일 변호사가 1981년 부림 사건의 변호에 참여하라고 권유했고 이를 수락함으로써 본격적인 인권 변호사 활동을 시작하는 계기가 되었다. 노무현은 나중에 이 사건을 통해 자신의 인생이 바뀌었다고 회고하며 당시 학생들이 라고 밝혔다.1982년에는 부산 미국문화원 방화사건의 변론에 참여하였고 1984년 부산 공해문제 연구소 이사를 거쳐서,1985년에는 부산 민주시민 협의회 상임위원장을 맡게 되면서 시민운동에 발을 들여놓게 되었다. 그해 자신의 사무실에 노동법률 상담소를 열기도 했다. 또 1987년에는 민주헌법쟁취 국민운동본부 부산 본부 상임 집행위원장을 맡아 6월 민주항쟁에 앞장섰다. 그 해 8월 22일의 거제도 대우조선 사건에서 경찰이 쏜 최루탄에 맞아 대우조선 노동자 이석규가 사망하자 이상수 등과 함께 사인 규명 작업을 하다가 9월에 제삼자 개입, 장식 방해 혐의로 경찰에 구속되었다. 이어 1987년 11월에는 변호사 업무정지 처분을 받았다.1987년 부산 추도회에서 연행된 노무현에 대해 부산지방법원 한기춘 판사가 도주 및 증거인멸의 우려가 없다는 이유로 기각하자 검찰은 한밤 중에 기각된 영장기록 보따리를 들고 3명의 부장판사를 찾아다니며 영장불부를 중용하다 사회적 물의을 일으키기도 했다.안기부 직원을 가르치다.한편 노무현은 자신을 감시하던 안기부 직원에게 광주항쟁 비디오와 노동운동 관련 자료들을 보여주면서 강의하였다. 안기부 직원 이화춘은 이러면 우리가 당신을 잡아가야 된다면서 오히려 놀라는 반응을 보였다. 그러나 노무현은 안기부 직원들에게 민중 노동운동 관련 비디오 자료들을 태연히 보여주었다.안기부에 들어와 8년 동안 미국 자료를 수집하는 내근 업무를 하던 이화춘은 85년 5월 안기부 부산지부로 파견돼 법조를 담당하게 됐다. 전임자는 며 밤에 집으로 오라고 했다.노무현이 보여준 자료들을 보고 안기부의 직원들은 당황해했다. 이화춘 등은 고 답했다. 이화춘과 안기부 직원들은 노무현과 문재인 변호사가 같이 운영하는 은 무뎌져 갔고, 그와 노무현은 서로의 애환을 챙기는 관계로 발전했다고 한다.재야 활동을 하던 노무현은 통일민주당 총재 김영삼과의 인연으로 1988년 4월 26일 제13대 총선에 출마하여 부산 동구에서 통일민주당 후보로서 제13대 국회의원에 당선됐다.국회 노동위원회에서 활발한 활동을 벌여 이해찬, 이상수 의원 등과 함께 로 불렸다. 한편, 1987년 12월에 있었던 현대중공업 파업 현장에서 강연 중에 라고 했던 구절이 문제가 되어 언론의 공세를 받았다.청문회 스타로 등극.1988년 11월에 제5공화국 비리 특별조사위원회 청문회에서 전 국가안전기획부장 장세동 전 청와대 경호실장 안현태 전 법무부장관 이종원 현대그룹 회장 정주영 등을 상대로 한 증인 신문에서 차분하고 논리적인 질의와 치밀한 추궁으로 가 되었다. 이어 최초로 텔레비전으로 중계된 5공 청문회에서 죄가 없다고 주장하는 전두환 전 대통령에게 명패를 던지는 등의 언동으로 국민의 관심을 받았다. 1989년 초 국회 5공 비리광주 사태 특별위원회의 증인 출석 여부를 둘러싼 정부여당의 집요한 방해 책동에 항의해 의원직 사퇴서를 냈다가 이를 번복하고 사퇴서를 거둬들이기도 했다. 한편 이 무렵 김영삼은 그를 상도동 자택으로 수시로 불러서 면담도 하고 용돈도 넉넉히 지원해 주었다.3당 합당 거부와 야당 정치인.1990년 1월 12일 통일민주당 김영삼 총재 민주정의당 총재인 대통령 노태우 신민주공화당 총재 김종필이 민주자유당을 창당하기로 하는 3당 합당 선언을 하였다. 이에 노무현은 3당 합당을 '밀실야합'이라고 규정하였다. 이후 노무현은 민자당에 합류하지 않고 통일민주당 잔류 세력 등과 함께 민주당 을 창당하였다. 김영삼 총재가 3당 합당 당시 "구국의 차원에서 통일민주당을 해체합니다. 이의 없습니까? 이의가 없으므로 통과됐음을…."이라고 말하는 순간 갑자기 노무현이 일어나 오른손을 번쩍 들며 "이의 있습니다. 반대 토론을 해야 합니다"라고 외쳤다. 이후 그는 김영삼의 3당 합당 참여를 민주화 운동에 대한 배신으로 규정해 자신의 후원자였던 김영삼과 결별하였다. 1990년 7월 5일 민주당 중앙당 기획조정실장이 되었다.한편 노무현은 노태우 정부 하에서 국군 보안사령부의 사찰 대상 중 한 사람이 되어 감시당했다. 이는 1990년 10월 4일 한국외국어대학교에 재학 중 민학투련 출신으로 보안사로 연행돼 프락치로서 수사에 협조해 오다 탈영한 윤석양 이병의 폭로로 밝혀졌다.1991년 10월 14대 총선을 코앞에 둔 시점에서 '주간조선'이 게재한 ‘노 의원은 과연 상당한 재산가인가’라는 제목의 기사를 보도했다. 이 기사는 인권 변호사로 알려진 당시 노무현 의원이 부동산 투기의 전력이 있고 호화 요트를 소유하고 있다는 등 재산 규모 및 형성 과정의 의혹을 보도했다. 노무현 의원은 명예훼손 소송을 제기했고 1년여 만에 승소 판결을 받아냈다. 이 기사가 선거에 어느 정도 영향을 미쳤는지는 계량할 수 없으나 결국 노무현은 1992년 민주당 후보로 부산 동구 선거구에 출마하였다가 2위로 낙선하면서 재선에 실패했다. 1993년 민주당 최연소 최고위원이 되었다. 1995년에는 민주당 후보로서 부산광역시장 선거에 출마하여 36.7%의 득표율을 얻었으나 결국 낙선했다.새정치국민회의 입당.14대 대선에서 패한 후 정계 은퇴를 선언한 김대중이 1995년에 정계 복귀하면서 새정치국민회의를 창당했고 노무현은 이를 '전근대적 정치 행태'라고 비난하면서 합류하지 않았다. 많은 의원들이 민주당를 탈당하여 새정치국민회의로 가면서 민주당은 제2야당으로 전락하였다. 이후 민주당은 개혁신당과 통합하여 통합민주당을 창당하는데 노무현도 이 통합민주당에 합류하였다.정계에 복귀한 김대중이 지역등권론을 주장하자 노무현은 이부영 등과 함께 김대중의 지역등권론을 비판하였다.1995년 노무현은 민주당 부산시장 경선에 출마하여 황백현 부산진을 위원장을 13표 차로 누르고 민주당 부산시장 후보로 출마했으나 지역감정의 벽을 넘지 못하고 낙선했다.1996년 4월 11일에 시행된 15대 총선에서 노무현은 서울 종로구에 통합민주당 후보로 출마했으나 신한국당의 이명박 후보 새정치국민회의의 이종찬 후보에 밀려 3위로 낙선했다. 이후 노무현은 이부영 박계동 김원기 이철 등과 함께 국민통합추진회의를 결성하여 활동하였다. 통추 활동기간 동안 노무현은 대선 출마를 선언하기도 하였는데 이에 대해 노무현 후보는 "3김 정치에 한 번도 저항하지 않은 이인제 후보는 세대교체를 논할 자격도 없다"라며 이인제가 주장한 세대교체에 대해 강력 비판하는 뜻으로 대선 출마를 선언했다. 그러나 일주일이 흐른 후 노무현은 대선 출마를 철회하게 되는데 이는 통추의 '노무현 대선 출마'에 대한 강력한 비토로 인한 것이었다.15대 대선을 앞두고 통합민주당의 대통령 후보 조순이 신한국당의 이회창과 연대 및 합당을 결정하면서 통추 내에서는 격론이 벌어졌다. 이부영·이철 등은 라는 말로 과거의 일을 반성했다. 그리고 그 해 12월 18일, 김대중이 15대 대통령에 당선되면서 노무현은 사상 처음으로 여당에 몸담게 되었다.1998년 2월, 한나라당 의원 이명박이 선거법 위반으로 의원직 상실형을 최종 선고 받기 직전 서울특별시장 경선 출마를 선언하며 의원직을 자진 사퇴하였다. 이에 따라 치러진 7월 21일 국회의원 재선거에서 노무현은 새정치국민회의 소속으로 서울 종로구에 출마하여 한나라당의 정인봉 후보를 물리치고 6년 만에 국회에 복귀하게 되었다.2000년 4월, 16대 총선에서 상대적으로 당선 가능성이 높았던 서울시 종로구 공천을 거절하고, "지역주의 벽을 넘겠다"라는 의지를 표명하면서 부산 북·강서을 지역구에서 새천년민주당 후보로 출마하였으나 결국 낙선하였다. 이를 안타깝게 여긴 네티즌들이 인터넷을 통해 노사모를 조직하였고, 이후 노무현은 '바보'라는 별명을 얻었고, 노사모는 노무현의 중요한 정치적 자산이 되었다.국회의원에 낙선이 된 후 그는 2000년 8월부터 2001년 3월까지 김대중 정부의 해양수산부 장관을 지냈다.2002년 대통령 선거.일명 16부작 정치 드라마로 불렸던 국민 경선제는 2002년 3월 9일부터 제주를 필두로 전국 16개 시도를 돌면서 당원들과 국민들이 직접 투표하는 방식으로 진행됐다. 국민 경선제에는 노무현을 비롯해 김근태 김중권 유종근 이인제 정동영 한화갑 등이 후보로 출마하였다.국민 경선이 도입되기 이전에 민주당 부동의 1위는 이인제였고, 노무현은 군소 후보로 지지율은 10% 미만이었다. 경선 국면이 시작되면서 노무현은 "영남 후보론" 및 이인제 후보를 겨냥한 "정체성 시비"로 20%대 지지율에 진입하기 시작했다. 첫 번째 지역이었던 제주에서 한화갑 후보가 의외의 1위를 차지했고, 노무현은 득표 3위를 기록했다. 두 번째 울산에서는 인상적인 연설을 한 노무현이 예상대로 1위를 차지했다.한편 여론조사에서는 대선 판도에 큰 변화가 나타나기 시작했다. 3월 13일 문화일보와 SBS가 공동으로 실시한 조사에 따르면 노무현과 이회창이 양자 대결을 벌일 경우 노무현이 41.7%로 40.6% 지지율을 기록한 이회창을 앞서는 것으로 조사되었다. 대선 주자 지지도 여론 조사에서 이회창이 민주당 후보에 뒤처지는 결과가 나온 것은 대선 구도가 형성된 이후 처음 있는 일이었다.예비 후보 지명전에서 승리.관건은 3월 16일에 실시한 광주 경선이었다. 무엇보다도 광주는 김대중 대통령의 정치적 기반이자 새천년민주당의 근거지로서 이곳의 결과가 사실상 새천년민주당 대선후보를 결정짓는다고 해도 과언이 아닐 정도로 최대의 승부처였다. 당시 이인제 대세론이 있었고 호남 출신으로 오랫동안 김대중을 보좌해온 한화갑의 기세가 만만치 않아 당시의 분위기는 노무현에게 결코 우호적이지 않았다. 무엇보다도 영남 출신인데다 새천년민주당 내에서는 이렇다 할 조직이 없었다. 그러나 결과는 노무현의 승리였다. 이회창을 이길 수 있는 유일한 카드라는 여론 조사 결과가 유리하게 작용했다. 거세게 불 것으로 예상했던 지역주의 투표 성향이 무너지면서 광주 경선은 지역주의 극복이라는 의미를 지니게 되었다. 정작 1위를 장담했던 호남 출신인 한화갑 후보는 3위를 기록했고 영남 출신 후보가 1위를 기록했기 때문이다.노무현은 당시 연단에 서서 고 소감을 밝혔다. 이후 강원도와 전남, 전북, 경남, 대구를 비롯한 거의 전 지역을 석권해 나갔고, 2002년 4월 26일, 서울 경선에서 새천년민주당의 제16대 대통령 선거 후보로 공식 선출됐다.경선이 끝난 4월 말 노무현의 지지율은 당시 역대 대통령 후보 가운데 사상 최고치라는 60%를 기록했다.민주진보세력 대통합론과 위기.노무현은 대선 후보로 선출된 직후 대선 승리를 위한 계획으로 '민주 세력 대통합론'을 내놓았다. 1987년 대선에서 양김이 분열되면서 쪼개졌던 민주화 세력을 하나로 묶어내 한국의 미래를 함께 열어젖히겠다는 포부였다. 이를 위해 노무현은 상도동 자택에서 김영삼 전 대통령을 만나 대통합론의 취지를 전달하고 김영삼에게 지방 선거 후보 추천을 제안하기도 했다. 이 자리에서 노무현은 김영삼에게 통일민주당 시절 김영삼으로부터 손수 받은 손목시계를 내보이기도 했다. 그러나 노무현의 '민주 세력 대통합론'은 국민들에게 대선 승리를 위한 정략으로 보이면서 진정성을 인정받지 못했다. 게다가 5월 들어 김대중 대통령의 두 아들인 김홍업과 김홍걸의 비리가 불거지며 새롭고 신선한 이미지의 노무현에게 큰 타격을 줬고 지지율은 본격적인 내림세로 돌아서기 시작했다.한편 노무현은 영남권 광역 단체장을 한 명도 당선시키지 못할 경우 재신임을 받겠다고 말했다.새천년민주당은 지방 선거에서 광역 단체장에서 호남과 제주의 4석만 건지며 참패했다. 노무현은 선거 전 약속한 대로 후보 재신임을 물었고, 민주당 당무 회의는 만장일치로 재신임을 의결했다. 이에 대해 민주당 내 최대 계파 모임인 중도 개혁 포럼은 불복하고 ‘후보, 지도부 즉각 사퇴론’을 주장했다.친이인제 성향의 반노, 노무현의 집권 가능성에 회의적이던 비노 의원들은 지방 선거에 참패하자 집단으로 신당 창당, 후보 사퇴를 주장하며 라고 말했다.2002년 한일 월드컵 바람을 타고 대통령 출마를 선언한 정몽준이 거센 돌풍을 일으키자 노무현은 지지율도 토막이 나고 당내 의원들로부터도 배척받기 시작했다. '노무현 흔들기'는 더욱 노골화되었고 '후보 단일화론'은 물론이거니와 '후보 교체론'까지 나왔다. 노무현은 경쟁력이 없는 만큼 정몽준을 수혈해 대선 새판 짜기에 나서야 하지 않느냐는 정치공학적 판단이었다.10월 들어서 상황이 악화되었다. 노무현의 낙마를 바라는 의원들이 탈당하여 후보 단일화 추진 협의회를 만들고 후보 단일화를 주장했는데 이들은 노무현으로 후보 단일화가 되면 함께 할 수 없다고 발언하였고 정몽준 지지의 속내를 감추지 않았다. 11월 19일 후단협은 정몽준에 대한 공개 지지를 밝혔으며 심지어 후단협 소속 의원이 정몽준 대표 측에 돈을 요구하기도 했다. 후단협 해체 후 일부 의원은 한나라당에 입당했고 12명은 민주당에 복당했다.이때 정몽준의 국민통합21에 입당하기 위한 김민석의 탈당은 노무현에게 반전의 계기가 되었다. 그의 탈당은 노무현에게 악재가 되지 않겠느냐는 관측이 있었으나 답보 상태였던 그의 지지율은 20%대를 회복하고 후원금 액수도 크게 늘었다.정몽준과의 후보 단일화.후보 단일화는 정 대표로의 단일화를 염두에 둔 민주당 내 반노무현, 비노무현 측의 요구에서 비롯하였다. 단일화 방안으로는 크게 3가지가 있었는데, 국민 경선과 여론 조사, 협상 담판이었다. 이 중 협상 담판은 정몽준의 후보의 주장으로 11월 1일에 정식 제안했고, 국민 경선안은 국민 참여 50%, 당원 참여 50%의 민주당 안을 노무현 후보가 11월 3일 정식 제안했다. 여론 조사안은 단일화 여론 조사를 실시했을 때 우위를 점하는 정몽준 후보가 유리한 안으로 정몽준 후보가 선호하는 안이었다.국민통합21은 노무현 진영 측의 제안을 반대하며 라는 이유를 들었다. 그러나 판세는 1강 2중의 구도로 바뀌고 있던 차였다. 국민통합21도 더는 단일화 방안을 놓고 입씨름을 벌일 만한 상황이 아니었다.노무현 후보는 11월 11일 자신에게 불리한 여론 조사를 통한 단일화를 제의하였고 단일화 재협상에서도 마지막 쟁점인 을 전격 수용하면서 양보하는 모습을 보였다. 민주당으로서는 받아들이기 힘든 설문 내용 변경도 단일화를 위해 수용했다. 민주당 김원기 고문은 노무현의 결단은 이라고 말했다. 이로 인해 노무현 후보의 지지도는 더욱 반등하기 시작했다.텔레비전 토론을 거쳐 2002년 11월 24일 노무현 후보는 극적으로 단일화 여론 조사에서 승리했다. 24일 시행된 2군데 여론 조사 중 리서치 앤드 리서치 경쟁력 조사에서 46.8%를 얻어 42.2%를 얻은 정 후보를 제쳤고, 월드 리서치 조사에서는 이회창 후보 지지율이 조사 유효화 조건인 31.1%에 미치지 못한 28.7%가 되어 무효가 되긴 했지만, 38.8%를 얻어 37%를 얻은 정몽준 후보를 앞섰다. 노 후보 측은 이날 승리 원인에 대해 이라고 말했다.단일화가 되고 나서 여론 조사에서 노무현이 이회창 후보를 역전한 직후 이인제가 탈당하여 자유민주연합에 입당한 후 이회창을 지지하는 선언을 하는 등 새로운 갈등을 야기하기도 하였다. 2002년 11월 새천년민주당 후보였던 그는 서울 여의도에서 열린 에 참석했다가 성난 농부들이 던진 달걀에 얼굴을 정면으로 맞았다.정몽준의 후보 단일화 파기.정몽준은 대선 투표 전날인 12월 18일 저녁 10시 민주당과의 선거 공조를 파기했다. 지지 철회 발표문에 따르면 노무현 후보가 라는 표현을 했는데 국민통합21은 면서 이 발언을 문제 삼았다.노무현 후보는 설득을 위해 심야에 정몽준 국민통합21 대표의 자택을 방문하였다. 노무현은 정대철 선대위원장 등과 함께 자택 앞에서 기자들에 둘러싸여 기다렸으나 정몽준 대표는 만나주지 않았고 심야 회동은 결렬되었다. 그러나 정몽준의 지지철회로 위기감을 느낀 진보 진영이 민주노동당을 지지하지 않고 노무현에게 표를 몰아주는 의외의 효과가 나타난다.제16대 대통령 당선.노무현은 2002년 12월 19일 대통령 선거에서 역전극을 반복하다가 한나라당의 이회창 후보를 57만 표 차로 이기고 당선됐다. 참여정부를 표방하며 이듬해인 2003년 2월 25일 대한민국 제16대 대통령으로 취임하였다. 대선 과정에서 인터넷의 젊은 지지층을 만들어 이끌어냈다. 대통령 취임 전인 2003년 1월 14일, 대통령 당선자인 노무현은 라고 덧붙였다.취임 초 노무현은 노무현 정부, 즉 참여정부의 주요 정책은 크게 12개의 국정 과제로 제시됐다. 외교안보 분야와 정치행정 분야의 기조로 부패 없는 사회 봉사하는 행정, 지방 분권과 국가 균형 발전, 참여와 통합의 정치 개혁이 경제 분야에는 자유롭고 공정한 시장경제 확립, 동북아 경제 중심국가 건설, 과학기술 중심사회 구축, 미래를 열어가는 농어촌이 제시되었다. 사회 문화 여성 보건 분야로는 참여복지와 삶의 질 향상, 교육 개혁과 지식문화 강국 실현, 국민 통합과 양성평등의 구현, 사회 통합적 노사관계 구축 등을 제시하였다.외교 방식은 동북아 균형자론을 표방하였다.그는 대표적으로 그리스, 루마니아, 핀란드, 영국, 스페인 국빈 방문과 동남아시아, 남미, 러시아, 프랑스, 폴란드, 이탈리아, 바티칸 순방을 위한 23차례에 걸쳐 총 49개국을 방문했다. 한국 대통령 가운데 처음으로 공식 방문한 국가는 이집트, 나이지리아, 알제리, 아제르바이잔, 아랍에미리트, 스페인 등 6개국이다.그는 대선 전부터 반미주의자로 여겨졌는데, 2002년 대한민국 제16대 대통령 선거 당시 이는 약점보다는 강점으로 작용했다. 당시 대한민국 국민들은 미군 장갑차 여중생 압사 사건, 불평등 SOFA 협정 등 때문에 미국에 대해 우호적이지 않았다. 노무현은 며 대미 관계에 있어 독자노선을 갈 것처럼 보였다.당시 미국은 조지 W. 부시를 위시한 네오콘이 장기 집권하고 있었다. 이로 인해 참여정부와 미국 정부와의 정책적 충돌이 자주 일어났다. 취임 후 부시 행정부와 대북 정책의 입장 차이가 발생하자 미국의 공화당 보수파는 그를 의심스럽게 쳐다보았고 당시 야당인 한나라당은 이에 가세하여 그를 좌파라고 강력하게 비난했다. 그러나 실제로 노무현 정부가 미국에 대해 대북 정책 이외엔 독자노선을 걸었던 흔적은 드러나지 않고 반대로 부시 행정부의 요청에 따른 이라크 전쟁 파병 주한미군 용산 기지 이전 문제 한미 FTA의 추진 등에서 오히려 부시 행정부의 요구를 받아들이면서도 실리는 챙기지 못했다.2007년 9월 호주에서 아시아태평양 경제협력체 정상회담이 열렸을 때 당시 노무현은 부시에게 "평화조약에 대해 더 분명히 말해 달라"고 여러 차례 외교적 결례에 해당하는 요구를 하자 부시가 짜증내는 사태까지 발생했다. 워싱턴 정가의 소식을 전하는 넬슨리포트는 "노 대통령의 의전상 결례에 대해 부시 대통령뿐 아니라 현장의 기자들도 놀란 것 같았다"라고 전했다. 양국의 외교관들이 서둘러 진화에 나섰지만 두 정상 간의 껄끄러운 궁합을 보여주는 상징적 사건이 되었다.2008년 2월 마이클 그린 전 미 NSC 선임보좌관은 인터뷰에서 "노무현 대통령의 한미동맹에 대한 그의 기여는 전두환노태우 이상이다. 그가 퇴임하는 2008년 2월 현재 한미 동맹은 훨씬 강하고 좋아졌다. 노 대통령은 미국영국 다음 가는 대규모 이라크 파병에다 한미 자유무역협정체결 주한미군 용산기지 이전 등 정책적으로 한미 동맹에 크나큰 기여를 했다"라고 평가하였다.고이즈미 준이치로 정권 출범 이후 일본의 우경화 추세에 맞물려서 일본과의 관계는 악화일로를 걸었다. 2004년 3·1절 치사에서 그는 제2차 세계 대전 당시 전쟁을 일으켰던 A급 전범들의 위패가 안치된 야스쿠니 신사 참배와 관련하여 일본의 지도자를 강하게 비판했다. 이는 야스쿠니 신사 참배에 대한 국민 감정을 대변하려는 것이었지만, 보수 언론 및 야당으로부터 감정적 대응이라는 비판을 듣기도 했다.2005년 야치 쇼타로 일본 외무성 사무차관이 한국의 야당 의원들과의 대담에서 북핵 문제와 관련하여 대북 유화 정책을 지속하려는 노무현 행정부를 비판하자 김만수 청와대 대변인이 외교적 결례로서 공식 항의하는 일도 벌어졌다. 2006년 일본의 시마네현이 "다케시마의 날"을 제정하는 등 독도 문제에 관해 일본과의 긴장이 높아가자 4월 25일에는 특별 담화를 발표하여 일본에 대해 강하게 경고했다. 아베 정권 출범 이후로도 점점 우경화되는 일본과 마찰을 빚는 일이 빈번해졌다. 그는 또 3월 23일에 일본의 행태를 "더 이상 묵과할 수 없는 사태"로 규정하고 독도 문제에 대해서는 "지난 날 침략을 정당화하고 대한민국의 광복을 부인하는 것"이라고 성토하면서 외교적 갈등이 시작되었다.2006년 11월 APEC 정상회의와는 별도로 열린 아베 신조 총리와의 양자 회담에서 동해를 예를 들어 '평화의 바다' 또는 '우의의 바다'로 부르면 어떻겠느냐고 제안했다고 청와대가 확인했다. 그러나 청와대측은 정식으로 제안한 것이 아니라 "발상의 전환의 한 예로 든 것을 언론이 전격 제안으로 보도했다"라고 해명했다.미국의 UPI 통신은 의 한글 번역본에는 독도를 다케시마로 표기하고 있다.이와는 별개로 2003년 한일 정상회담 후에 가진 기자회견에서 라는 표현을 써 파문이 일었다. 일본 언론들이 이를 고 불쾌감을 드러냈다.취임 1년차 (2003년 2월 25일 ~ 2004년 2월 24일).2003년 2월 25일 노무현은 제16대 대통령으로 취임하였다. 이로써 참여정부가 출범하였다. 이튿날에는 고건 총리 임명 동의안이 국회에서 통과되었고 또 이튿날에는 참여정부 조각 발표로 새 내각을 출범시켰다.취임식 당일인 2003년 2월 25일에는 고이즈미 준이치로 일본 총리와의 정상회담, 5월 15일에 미국을 방문하여 부시 대통령과 백악관에서 정상회담을 하였다.한편 3월 9일 검찰 개혁의 향배와 검찰 인사를 놓고 검찰이 일선 검사들과 마찰을 빚자 노무현은 강금실 법무부 장관과 일선 검사들이 함께하는 '대통령과 전국 검사와의 대화'라는 제목의 토론회가 방송 3사를 통해 전국에 생중계되었다. 이 자리에서 검사들은 검찰 개혁을 외치면서 대통령이 인사위원회도 거치지 않고 인사 개입을 하는 것은 검찰 개혁이 아니라며 대통령 검찰 인사의 부당성을 지적했으나 노무현은 "지금 인사위원회에 앉아 있는 사람들이 모두 인사 대상"이라며 "여기서 인사하지 않으면 낡은 검찰로 몇 달 더 가자는 것"이라며 검찰 인사의 불가피성을 강조했다. 검사들의 친인척 의혹 등 부적절한 발언이 거론되자 대통령이 "이쯤 되면 막 하자는 거죠”라는 발언을 하였는데 보수 언론은 이를 "이쯤 되면 막가자는 거죠"라고 구설수에 올렸다. 검사들은 토론회의 의도에 대해 "대통령께서 토론의 달인으로 알고 있는데 토론의 아마추어인 검사들을 말로써 제압하려 한다면 무의미하다"는 비판을 했다. 당시 이 토론회는 권위적이고 군림하는 대통령이 아닌 탈권위적인 '토론하는 대통령'을 보여준 모습으로 평가받았다.2003년 3월 20일 미국이 이라크를 침공하고 한국을 비롯한 동맹국에 파병을 요청하자 그는 "국익을 위해 파병해야 한다"라며 이라크 파병이 '전략적 선택'이라고 표현한 대국민 담화문을 발표했다.한편 3월 24일에는 원칙대로 운용되지 못하고 자의적으로 운용되거나 국회의원들이 유용해 온 특별 교부금에 대해 폐지 또는 보통 교부금에 통합하는 등 개선을 명령했다. 그러나 2008년 12월까지 이러한 관행은 개선되지 않았다. 4월 18일에는 노무현의 지시에 따라 청남대가 개방되고 모든 관리권이 충청북도로 이관하였으며 현재는 관광지로 이용되고 있다.그러나 노무현은 초기 어려움을 겪에 되었다. 5월 21일 각종 사회적 갈등이 봇물 터지듯 쏟아져 나오자 그는 며 국정 운영의 어려움을 호소했다. 한편 2003년 9월에는 새천년민주당을 탈당하였다.2004년 2월 25일 민주당은 참여정부 출범 1주년을 맞아 실패한 1년, 잃어버린 1년이라는 제목의 국정평가 보고서를 배포했다. 보고서에는 참여정부의 7대 비리의혹을 꼽았으며, 또한 노무현 대통령의 11가지 자질부족 사례를 꼽았다.불법 관권선거 개입 사례로는 노무현의 양강구도 언급 등 총선관련 발언들과 군복무기간 추가단축 검토를 비롯한 행정부의 총선용 선심성 공약 남발 사례 민주당 파괴공작 총선 올인 등을 꼽았으며 이와함께 장관임기 보장 약속 파기 대북송금 특검 수용과 정몽헌 현대아산 회장의 자살을 비롯한 사례 21가지 등 총 43가지 예를 들어 노무현 정부 1년을 혹평했다.위기돌파와 신행정 수도론.10월 청와대 총무비서관인 최도술이 SK그룹으로부터 비자금을 수수했다는 의혹이 터지고10월 10일에는 대통령 측근 비리 의혹에다가 김두관 행정자치부 장관 해임 건의안 가결되었고 윤성식 감사원장 임명 동의안 부결 등의 문제가 계속해서 발생하자 노무현은 청와대에서 열린 기자 회견에 "국민에게 재신임을 묻겠다"고 선언했다.2003년 12월 29일 국회는 여야의 합의로 신행정수도법을 통과시켰다. 이후 2004년 1월 14일 그는 연두 기자 회견에서 라고 말했다. 그해 1월 16일에는 2003년 말에 국회에서 여야 합의로 통과된 신행정수도법을 공포했다.2004년 1월에 노무현의 며느리인 배정민이 개인 홈페이지에 "150만 원짜리 유모차가 사고 싶은데 엄마 아빠(노무현 권양숙 추정)에게 사 달라고 졸라야겠다."라는 글을 올린 이른바 유모차 해프닝이 벌어졌다. 그 뒤 항의가 일자 배정민은 결국 홈페이지를 폐쇄했다.취임 2년차 (2004년 2월 25일 ~ 2005년 2월 24일).2004년 노무현은 위기를 맞이하였다. 한나라당이 다수를 차지하던 국회는 새천년민주당의 주도 하에 그를 탄핵하였고, 이로써 헌정 이후 사상 처음으로 탄핵된 대통령으로 낙인찍혔다. 그러나 이 여파로 좌파진영이 국회의 다수를 차지하게 되었다.2004년 3월 3일 중앙선거관리위원회는 민주당이 고발한 노무현의 열린우리당 지지발언에 대해 노무현 대통령이 선거중립 의무 위반이 있다고 인정하고 선거중립의무 준수요청을 했다. 민주당은 이 조치를 근거로 노무현이 선거법 위반에 대해 사과하지 않으면 탄핵을 발의하겠다며 야3당과 함께 노무현 대통령 탄핵 소추를 추진하기 시작했다.같은 달 그의 형인 노건평이 대우건설 사장 남상국으로부터 청탁성 명목으로 뇌물을 수수한 사실이 언론에 보도되었다. 노무현은 언론 브리핑에서 "대우건설의 사장처럼 좋은 학교 나오시고 크게 성공하신 분들이 시골에 있는 별 볼일 없는 사람에게 가서 머리 조아리고 돈 주고 그런 일 이제는 없었으면 좋겠다"면서 남상국을 질타했고, 2004년 3월 11일 남상국은 한강에서 투신했다. 이 사건으로 노건평은 유죄가 인정되어 집행유예 판결을 받았다. 이와 관련해 일각에서는 남상국의 자살이 노무현에서 비롯됐다는 주장을 펴면서 노무현이 사과해야 한다고 주장했다. 민주당 송영길 최고위원은 국회에서 열린 최고위원회의에서 이 사건의 본질에 상관없이 무조건적으로 노무현 대통령을 마녀사냥하는 언론의 태도에 대해 비판하였고, 노무현 대통령이 기자회견을 통해 자신의 형에 대한 인사청탁에 대해서 관련된 당사자의 실명을 거론하며 공개적으로 비난한 부분에 대해서 적절치 못한 행동이라는 의견을 제시했다. 그 당시 송영길 의원은 열린우리당 소속으로 탄핵반대투쟁에 참가하였다.3월 12일 대한민국 국회가 찬성 193표 반대 2표로 노무현 대통령 탄핵 소추안을 가결시켰다. 그로 말미암아 노무현의 대통령 직무 수행이 정지되고 고건 국무총리가 직무 권한 대행의 역할을 맡았다.그러나 노무현의 탄핵은 국민들의 불만을 키우는 요인으로 적용되었다. 탄핵 당일인 3월 12일부터 3월 27일 보름 동안 서울을 중심으로 전국 각지에서 이 주도하는 탄핵 찬성 집회도 3월 27일에 2000여 명이 운집한 가운데 이루어졌다.이후 한나라당을 비롯한 보수세력들은 국민들의 반감을 사고 말았다. 이 영향으로 인 열린우리당이 탄핵 후폭풍으로 지지도가 크게 상승하였고, 4월 15일에 치러진 17대 총선에서 단숨에 152석을 차지해 제1당이 되었다. 이로써 헌정 이후 사상 처음으로 진보세력이 중심이 되는 국회가 출범하였고, 국민들의 큰 기대를 얻었다. 이후 5월 14일 헌법재판소는 노무현 대통령 탄핵 심판 사건을 기각했다. 그러나 헌법재판관들의 개별 의견은 공개되지 않았다.새로운 여당의 탄생.같은 해 5월 20일 노무현은 1당이 된 열린우리당에 "수석 당원"으로 입당하여 열린우리당은 공식적인 여당이 되었다. 같은 해 8월 11일에는 1월에 공포한 신행정수도법에 따라 국회는 신행정수도를 연기군과 공주시의 일부를 신행정수도의 입지로 정했다.한편 8월에는 노무현에게 숨겨놓은 딸이 있다는 악성 댓글을 인터넷에 올린 혐의로 기소된 H 씨에 대해 징역 1년 3개월을 선고했다. 재판부의 증거 조사 결과 그런 사실은 없는 것으로 확인됐다.2004년 10월 21일 헌법재판소는 이라며 수도 이전은 위헌이라는 판결을 내렸다. 수도는 서울이라는 것이 관습 헌법에 해당하므로 수도 이전을 위해서는 헌법 개정을 통해 수도의 위치를 삽입하거나 수도가 서울이라는 법적 확신이 소멸해야 한다는 것이다. 헌법재판소는 81로 위헌 판결을 내렸지만 이라는 일반에 생소한 개념까지 동원하며 헌법재판소에서 기각되자 수긍할 수 없다는 일부 여론이 있기도 했다. 어쨌든 이에 따라 그가 선거 공약으로 내걸었던 행정수도 이전이 차질을 빚게 된다.같은 해 12월 16일 FTA 추진 지시를 내렸다.대통령직 퇴임 이후.2008년 2월 25일 차기 대통령인 이명박의 취임식에 참석한 후 KTX를 타고 밀양을 거쳐 고향인 경상남도 김해 봉하 마을로 귀향했다. 그는 퇴임 후 고향으로 내려간 첫 대통령으로 꼽혔으며 봉하 마을에 대한 관심이 누리꾼들에게 화제가 되었다. 노무현의 귀향으로 김해시 봉하 마을에 지지자 및 관광객들의 발길이 끊이질 않아 관광지로 급부상했다. 언론에 비친 모습을 통해 특정 누리꾼들에게 친근한 대통령으로 다가왔다. 또한 특정 네티즌들은 '노간지'라는 애칭을 붙여 줬다. 노무현이 봉하 마을 귀향 이후 관심을 갖고 추진한 사업으로 오리쌀 농법과 화포천 정화 생태숲 조성 등 친환경친농촌 생태사업이 있다.원세훈 전 국정원장은 2009년 3월 노무현 전 대통령이 자신의 홈페이지에 한 토론글을 게시하자 곧바로 심리전단에 적극적인 대응을 하라고 지시한 것으로 드러났습니다.2009년 3월 1일 홈페이지 라는 제목으로 이라는 내용을 게시하였다. 2009년 3월 3일 원세훈 국가정보원장은 내부 회의에서 심리전단에 해당 글을 언급하면서 적극적인 대응 심리전을 펼치라고 지시했다.그는 대통령 임기를 마치고 자신의 사저인 봉하 마을로 귀향하였다. 이명박이 대통령으로 취임한 첫날에 노무현 정권 인사들이 고의적으로 청와대의 컴퓨터 시스템에 보안 장치를 걸어 새 정권이 시스템을 사용 못하게 막아 놓았다는 뉴스가 나왔고, 그 후 약 2주간 시스템을 사용하지 못했다고 한다. 알고 보니 단순히 화면 보호기에 암호가 걸렸으며, 이는 남아 있는 'e-지원' 담당자에게 물어보면 충분히 알 수 있는 일이었다고 한다.2008년 4월 20일 그는 광주광역시 북구 오치동에 위치한 노씨 문중 선산에서 열린 종친회 삼릉단 제종회 대제에 참석해 제관인 초헌관 자격으로 제를 지냈다. 같은 날 오후에는 국립 518 민주묘지를 참배했다.2008년 7월, 국가기록원과 뉴라이트 전국연합에서 대통령 기록물을 사사로이 봉하 마을로 옮긴 건에 대하여 검찰에 불법적인 로 기록물에 관련된 전 비서관과 행정관들을 고발하여 수사가 진행되었다. 기록원의 고발 조치에 대해 노무현 측 비서관인 김경수는 라고 말했다. 검찰이 대통령 기록물 유출 실체 규명에 나서게 됨에 따라 신·구 정권 간 대립과 갈등이 격해질 것이라는 시각도 있다. 한편 회수 조치를 하는 와중에 기록이 담긴 하드디스크뿐만 아니라 노무현이 개인 자금으로 구매한 e-지원 시스템 서버까지 반환하라고 요구했고, 노무현 측은 개인 재산이라는 이유로 거부했다. 이때 대통령기록물 관리에 관한 법률 제17조 5항에 따르면, 전직 대통령 및 전직 대통령이 지정한 대리인은 대통령 기록물을 열람할 수 있고, 그것이 비밀로 지정되어 있지 않다면, 그것을 출판하거나 언론매체에 공표할 수 있다고 규정되어 있다. 그러나 법률 내용에도 불구하고 외부로 반출하여 지정되지 않은 장소에 보관하는 것은 기록물의 관리 및 보안상 유출 우려가 있어 인정할 수 없다는 것이 법학자들의 다수 견해가 있었다.2008년 9월 18일 그는 건전한 토론 문화 조성을 취지로 인터넷 토론 사이트 에서 착안한 이름으로 체계적 토론을 통해 더 나은 민주주의 공동체를 만들어 가자는 뜻을 담고 있다고 설명했다.2008년 10월 17일, 한국 정치학회와의 인터뷰에서 자신에게 위협이 되는 보수주의를 비판하였다. 2008년 10월 21일, 보수적 성향의 시민단체인 자유시민연대는 노무현을 국가보안법 및 대통령 기록물 관리에 관한 법률 위반 혐의로 서울중앙지검 첨단범죄수사부에 소송을 제기하였다.노무현과 관련한 기록물 유출 의혹 사건은 훗날 2009년 10월 29일 노무현의 자살로 인하여 검찰에서 불기소 종결했다.뇌물 수수 혐의 검찰 수사.2007년 12월 이명박은 대통령 당선 직후, 문재인 당시 청와대 비서실장에게 전임자가 존중받는 전통을 만들겠다고 피력하여 전임 대통령에 대한 정치보복 가능성을 배제하였고, 복수의 정관계 관계자들은 이 시기 전임자와 후임자의 관계는 나쁘지 않았다고 증언하였다. 그러나 2008년 5월부터 미국산 쇠고기 협상 반대 시위와 광우병 괴담 파동으로 이명박 정부 출범 초기 국정에 큰 차질을 빚게 되자 상황은 바뀌게 된다. 청와대 관계자들의 증언에 의하면, 이명박 정부는 정황상 이 사태의 배후의 중심에 친노세력이 있다고 판단하였고, 2008년 7월 한상률 국세청장으로 하여금 박연차를 비롯한 노무현 주변의 측근들에 대한 강도 높은 세무조사를 진행하도록 하여, 전임자에 대한 방침을 급선회하였다.이후 노무현은 부인과 자녀 등이 노무현의 퇴임 후 금품을 수수한 혐의가 드러나 검찰 수사를 받게 되었다.2008년 10월 박연차가 정관계 인사 등에게 로비를 벌였다는 의혹이 제기되었다. 이때 이명박의 친형 이상득 의원이 로비 상대로 거론되었다. 2008년 12월 4일 노무현의 친형 노건평은 세종증권 매각비리 의혹과 관련 농협의 인수 청탁과 함께 29억여 원을 받은 혐의로 영장 실질 심사를 거쳐 구속 수감되었다.2008년 12월 5일, 자신의 친형인 노건평의 비리 사건에 대해 이라며 대국민 사과를 거부하였다.2009년 3월 26일, 이호철 전 민정수석과 정윤재 전 비서관이 금품을 수수했다는 오보를 문화일보 등에서 보도하였다. 이때 노무현 게이트라는 말을 문화일보에서 처음으로 사용했고, 이로 말미암아 이호철 및 정윤재로부터 명예훼손에 따른 손해배상 소송에 휘말렸다. 그해 4월 7일, 노무현은 검찰이 정상문 전 청와대 비서관을 체포하자 자신의 개인 공식 홈페이지에 부인 권양숙이 박연차로부터 돈을 받아 사용했다는 내용의 사과문을 게재했다. 그러나 사과문에 대해 한나라당 최고위원 박순자는 같은 날 기자 회견에서 라며 비판하였다.2009년 4월 9일 대검찰청 중앙수사부는 박연차가 정상문 전 대통령비서실 총무비서관을 거쳐 10억여원을 노무현의 부인 권양숙에게 전달한 사실을 확인했다. 해당 돈은 차용증이 포함되지 않았고, 박연차는 빌려준 것이 아니라고 진술했다. 검찰은 정상문에 대해 구속영장을 청구했으나, 4월 10일 새벽 법원은 영장 청구를 기각했다. 2009년 4월 10일 오전 9시, 검찰은 박연차의 홍콩 비자금 500만 달러를 송금받은 혐의로 노무현의 조카사위인 연철호를 체포했다.2009년 4월 12일 뇌물 수수 관련 혐의로 그의 부인인 권양숙이 검찰 소환 조사를 받았다. 이때 문재인은 변호인 자격으로 동행하였다. 같은 날 아들 노건호가 소환 조사 받았다. 4월 19일 권양숙 여사가 빌려 썼다는 3억 원에 대해 ‘검찰이 거짓임을 확인’했다고 보도했다. 당시 권양숙 여사가 정상문 비서관에게 말해 박연차로부터 돈을 빌렸다고 진술했다. 그러나 12월 18일 정상문 유죄 판결문에서는 노무현이 3억 원을 빌렸다는 사실을 적시했다.2009년 4월 22일, 검찰이 노무현에게 박연차의 정관계 로비 의혹 수사와 관련된 서면 질의서 7장을 발송했다. 그에 대한 답변서를 4월 25일 노무현이 검찰에 전자 우편으로 먼저 제출했고, 검찰은 이것을 검토하였다.2009년 4월 30일 오전 8시 노무현은 김해 봉하마을 사저를 출발, 오후 1시 20분 경 대검찰청에 피의자 신분으로 출석해 대검찰청 중앙수사부 1120호 특별조사실에서 오후 11시 20분 경까지 조사를 받았다. 노무현은 진술조서를 검토한 뒤 익일 오전 2시 10분쯤 청사를 나와 귀가했다. 노무현은 박연차로부터 2007년 6월 말 정상문 전 총무비서관을 통해 100만 달러를 받고, 2008년 2월 말 조카사위 연철호를 통해 500만 달러를 받은 혐의를 받았다. 또한 검찰은 정상문 전 총무비서관이 횡령한 대통령 특수활동비 12억 5천만원에 대해 보고를 받았는지, 박연차의 명품 시계 선물과 15억원의 차용증을 쓰게 된 경위에 대해서도 조사했다. 노무현의 조사는 주임검사인 우병우 중수1과장이 신문을 하였고, 직무관련성 부분은 김형욱 검사가, 100만달러 수수 혐의에 대해서는 이주형 검사가 조사했다. 또한 500만달러 수수 혐의와 특수활동비 12억 5000만원 수수 혐의에 대해서는 이선봉 검사가 조사했고, 이인규 중수부장과 홍만표 수사기획관은 조사 상황을 모니터로 지켜보며 실시간으로 지휘했다. 임채진 검찰총장은 자정까지 청사에 남아 수사 내용을 보고 받았으며, 노무현의 변호인 측은 문재인과 전해철 변호사가 번갈아 가며 변호했다. 수사팀은 오후 1시 40분 경부터 4시 10분까지 대통령의 직무와 권한, 박연차와의 관계에 대해 조사하였으며, 10분간 휴식한 뒤 박연차로부터 100만달러를 수수한 혐의에 대해 오후 6시 30분까지 조사를 진행했다. 저녁 식사 후 오후 7시35분부터 박연차로부터 500만 달러를 수수한 혐의, 정상문 전 대통령 총무비서관이 횡령한 대통령 특수활동비 12억5천만원, 박연차가 노무현 측에게 선물한 명품시계 등에 대해 조사했다. 검찰은 박연차의 베트남 화력발전소 사업 등에 도움을 준 대가로 600만 달러를 받은 게 아니냐고 신문했으나, 노무현은 대통령이 한국 기업의 해외 사업에 도움을 준 게 문제가 될 수 없다고 주장했다. 노무현은 2007년 박연차로부터 받은 100만 달러에 대해 채무를 갚는데 자신의 배우자 권양숙이 쓴 것이며, 대통령 재임 중 이같은 사실을 몰랐다고 진술했다. 100만 달러의 구체적인 사용처에 대해서는 서면 답변과 마찬가지로 밝힐 수 없다고 진술했다. 2008년 500만 달러를 받은 사실에 대해서는 대통령 퇴임 후에 알게 된 사실이며, 호의적인 투자일 뿐 자신과는 무관하다고 주장했다. 정상문이 횡령한 12억 5000만원에 대해서도 몰랐다고 진술했다. 검찰은 노무현의 조사에 앞서 금융정보분석원에서 외화송금 거래 내역을 건네받아 2006∼2007년 권양숙이 다른 사람을 시켜 30만 달러 이상을 미국에 체류하던 장남 노건호와 딸 노정연에게 송금한 사실을 확인했다. 노무현은 기존 서면 답변과 같이 사실이 아니며 기억이 나지 않는다는 입장을 유지했으나, 검찰이 확보한 금융정보분석원 자료 앞에서는 흔들리는 모습을 보인 것으로 전해졌다. 노무현이 전반적으로 혐의를 부인함에 따라 검찰은 오후 11시경 노무현과 박연차의 대질 조사를 시도했으나, 노무현과 변호사 문재인은 전직 대통령에 대한 예우가 아니며 시간이 너무 늦었다고 거부해 11시 20분 경 조사를 종료했다.2009년 5월 13일 노무현의 부인 권양숙이 노무현의 회갑 선물로 받은 1억 원짜리 시계 두 개를 논두렁에 버렸다고 검찰에 진술하였다고 언론에 보도되었다. 이에 라고 진술했다고 확인했다. 2009년 5월 14일 노무현의 딸 노정연이 받은 40만 달러를 놓고 검찰과 노무현 측이 진실 공방을 벌였으며 검찰은 권양숙을 5월 16일 재소환하기로 했다.2009년 5월 23일 노무현이 자살함으로써 노무현에 대한 검찰 수사를 종료하였다.2009년 6월 12일, 검찰은 23일 박연차 사건과 관련하여 노무현을 조사하던 부분을 '공소권 없음' 처분을 하고, 관련된 수사를 종결하기로 결정했다. 또한 박연차의 정·관계 로비에 관한 수사도 노무현의 장례가 마무리될 때까지 당분간 중단하기로 했다.2009년 9월 9일 해운회사로부터 비자금과 관련해 세무 조사를 무마해 달라는 청탁과 함께 거액을 받은 혐의로 기소됐던 정상문 전 청와대 총무비서관이 3심 모두 무죄 판결을 받았다. 2009년 9월 17일 박연차가 여러 정치인에게 뇌물을 준 뇌물공여죄의 혐의로 1심에서 유죄 판결을 받았다. 그러나 노무현 및 그 가족과 관련해서는 뇌물 수수 혐의가 확인되었다고 발표했으나 기소하지 않았다. 이에 대해 보수 언론은 라고 추정했다.2009년 12월 16일, 이호철 전 민정수석과 정윤재 전 비서관이 금품을 수수했다는 문화일보의 기사 내용이 오보이므로 손해배상 및 정정 보도를 하라고 판결했다. 2009년 12월 18일, 박연차로부터 금품을 받은 정상문 전 청와대 총무비서관이 항소심에서도 유죄 판결을 받았다. 그러나 " 15억 원이나 관리하면서 박연차로부터 노무현이 3억 원이나 빌릴 때에도 그 돈을 내놓지 않고 차명 계좌에 은닉하고 있었다는 것을 믿을 국민은 없다"라고 판시하였다.2009년 12월 18일 박연차로부터 금품을 받은 정상문의 재판 판결문에서 노무현이 박연차로부터 돈을 빌렸다는 내용이 포함되었다.2010년 1월 8일 세종증권 비리와 관련하여 관련자 가운데 다수가 무죄 판결을 받았다. 1월 14일 세종증권 비리와 관련하여 노건평이 유죄 판결을 받았다. 2013년 1월 11일 창원지검 결심공판에서 노건평은 변호사법 위반업무상 횡령 혐의로 징역 5년에 추징금 13억5000만원을 구형 받았다.2013년 1월 23일 서울중앙지방법원은 노정연에게 외화 100만 달러를 불법 송금한 혐의로 유죄 판결을 내리고 징역 4월과 집행유예 1년의 형을 선고했다.2013년 2월 20일 노무현이 자살한 것은 전날 거액의 차명계좌가 발견됐기 때문이라는 취지의 발언을 했다가 노무현재단에 의해 고소된 조현오 전 경찰청장이 징역 10월을 선고받고 법정구속됐다.2013년 3월 29일 외화 밀반출 혐의로 재판을 받아온 노정연이 항소를 취하해 집행유예가 확정됐다. 항소가 취하됨에 따라 이 재판은 1심 선고인 징역 4월에 집행유예 1년이 확정됐다.2013년 9월 4일 노무현의 딸 노정연의 '13억원 불법송금' 사건에 연루된 재미교포 경연희가 1심에서 벌금 1500만원을 선고 받았다.검찰 수사에 대한 평가.검찰 수사가 형평성을 잃었다는 비판이 제기되었으며, 여론 조사에서도 검찰 책임론이 대두되었으나, 검찰은 원칙대로 수사하였을 뿐이라 주장하였다. 사망 이후 '노무현 정권에 대한 정치 보복'이라는 말은 공공연해졌다. 또한 노무현의 죽음에 대해 민주당 천정배 의원은 "노무현 전 대통령의 서거는 권력기관의 사유화와 보수언론의 탐욕이 만들어낸 재앙이다"라고 말하여 보수 언론과 함께 검찰에게 책임이 있음을 강조하였다.박연차 태광그룹 회장으로부터 시작된 검찰 수사는 노무현의 일가와 주변 인물에만 집중됐다는 지적이 있다. 정상문 전 비서관 구속으로 이어졌고 대부분의 언론은 봉하 마을에 있는 노무현의 사저 앞에서 24시간 대기에 들어갔다. 노무현은 자신의 홈페이지에 "저의 집은 감옥입니다"라고 괴로운 심경을 드러냈다. 검찰이 박연차 회장으로부터 세무 조사 무마 청탁을 받은 것으로 알려진 이명박 대통령의 친형인 이상득 의원에 대해서는 혐의가 없어 수사 초기 단계에서 제외됐다는 점을 문제 삼았다. 이번 검찰 수사는 2008년 7월 '태광실업 특별 세무 조사'에 대한 한상률 당시 국세청장의 청와대 보고 후 시작됐다. 그리고 검찰이 수사 과정을 언론에 피의사실을 공표하여 피의 사실 공표 금지법을 검찰 스스로 위반하였으며 그 뒤 수사 과정에서 노무현 및 그 가족의 피의 사실 입증에 실패하자 스스로 '빨대' 논쟁을 일으키는 등의 무리수를 두었다는 지적이 있다. 검찰의 수사에 대한 비판은 한나라당 내부에서도 제기되었다. 한나라당 홍준표 의원은 "나는 가장 큰 실수가 노 대통령에 대한 신병처리 결정을 빨리 하지 않은 거라고 본다. 구속 여부를 신속하게 했어야지. 전직 대통령 수사를 하면서 이래저래 모욕감을 주는 행동을 한 셈"이라며 검찰을 비판했다.그러나 이는 노무현 측근들의 지속된 거짓 증언 및 증거 인멸로 의심되는 행위를 하는 등 노무현 측근들이 스스로 자초한 측면도 있다는 지적이 있다. 한편에서는 그 물품 자체를 받은 사람이 노무현 부처가 아니라 노건평이었다는 주장도 있었다.이후 검찰 책임론이 거세지자 임채진 검찰총장은 모든 책임을 지고 사표를 제출해 퇴임했고 이인규 대검찰청 중수부장도 사표를 내 퇴임했다.야당과 진보 성향의 시민 단체들은 검찰 수사에 대한 노골적인 비판을 가했으며, 검찰 수사와 관련된 시국 선언도 줄을 이었다. 대검찰청 홈페이지에는 검찰을 비하하는 '떡검'이라는 표현이 넘치며, 검찰을 견제하기 위한 공직자 부패 수사처를 신설해야 한다는 주장과 비판이 제기되었다. 그러나 보수 언론 및 시민단체에서는 전직 대통령이라도 법 위에 군림할 수 없고 죄를 지으면 누구나 처벌받을 수 있다는 원칙을 다시 세움으로써 대한민국이 법치국가임을 재확인했다고 주장했다. 그럼에도 불구하고 검찰은 노무현과 관련한 인물에 대해 그가 죽었다는 이유로 기소하지 않은 데 대해 이의가 제기되었다. 이는 예전에 노건평과 남상국 사이에 벌어졌던 뇌물 수수 사건에서 남상국이 자살했음에도 노건평을 기소한 예 와도 모순이 된다는 의견도 있으며, 검찰이 노무현과 관련한 사항에서 유죄가 확실하지 않았기 때문에 기소하지 않았다는 비판이 있다. 이와 별개로 검찰은 노무현의 아내인 권양숙의 거짓 증언이 사법 방해에 해당한다고 주장하면서 이를 근거로 뇌물 수수 혐의로 기소하려 했으나 노무현의 자살에 따른 동정 여론으로 인해 기소조차 하지 못했다는 비판도 있다. 앞서의 남상국 예와 같이 과거에 자살한 사람에 대해 그 상대방을 기소한 전례가 있기 때문이다. 다만 박연차와 권양숙이 관련된 자금에 대해서는 뇌물이 아닌 빌린 돈이라고 정상문 유죄 판결문에서 적시했다.2015년 1월 당시 수사를 담당했던 이인규는 그 당시 시계를 논두렁에 버렸다고 한 진술은 국정원의 조작이었으며 피의사실을 과장하여 언론에 흘린 주체가 국정원이었다고 기자들에게 밝혔다. 이인규의 증언에 의하면 당시 검찰은 구속 수사를 염두에 두고 있었으나 국정원이 망신주기 여론전을 제안하였으며 이에 수사권 침해라며 검찰이 국정원 직원의 멱살까지 잡은 일이 있었다고 한다. 이인규는 그 당시 국정원의 행태는 공작 수준이었다고 주장했다.2009년 5월 23일 11시 양산 부산대학교 병원 측은 노무현 전 대통령 사망의 직접 원인은 두부외상으로 판단된다고 말했다. 공식 발표에 의하면 23일 8시 13분 경 인공호흡을 시행하며 양산부산대병원 응급센터로 이송됐다. "도착 당시 의식과 자발 호흡이 없었으며 심전도 모니터 상 박동이 없었다"라고 백승완 원장은 밝혔다. 백 원장은 "두개골 골절 등이 관찰됐으며 두부의 외상이 직접 사망원인으로 판단되고 늑골골절 척추골절 등 다발성 골절도 관찰됐다"라고 말했다.경남지방경찰청장은 고 설명했다. 노무현이 정확하게 언제 투신했는지는 알 수 없다. 사후 인터넷을 통해 일부 네티즌이 타살설과 유서 조작설 등 음모론을 언급하자 노무현의 유족과 측근은 이에 대해 불편한 기색을 드러냈다.경찰은 노무현 전 대통령이 오전 8시50분께 사망한 것으로 밝혀진 가운데, 사망 원인이 로 최종 확인했다. 노무현 전 대통령은 오전 6시 40분께 경호원과 함께 간단한 복장으로 사저 인근 뒷산으로 등산하던 중 10분 뒤 벼랑에 떨어져 크게 다쳤다. 노 전 대통령은 7시 인근 김해 세영 병원과 양산 부산대 병원(오전 8시10분)으로 호송됐으나 이미 상태가 다발성 골절로 소생할 수 없는 상황이어서 사망했다. 경찰은 노무현 대통령의 사망 원인을 실족사에 무게를 두고 조사했으나 집을 나설 당시 평소와 달리 권양숙 여사, 보좌관 등 측근에게 알리지 않고 경호원만을 대동한 점, 뒷산의 경사가 완만하다는 점 등을 종합해 투신 자살로 최종 공식 확인했다.문재인 전 청와대 비서실장은 노무현 전 대통령의 사망 원인과 관련 유서를 남겼다고 밝힘에 따라 자살 가능성이 거의 확실시 되고 있다. 문 전 실장은 기자들과 만나 라고 확인했다. 김경수 비서관도 노 전 대통령이 유서를 남겼다고 밝혔다.노무현이 5월 22일 검찰 소환 조사를 응하면서 '정치적 자살'을 선택했다고 평가했다. 또한 그가 극단적인 선택을 한 것은 결벽증에 가까운 정치적 자산이자 무기인 '도덕성'이 상처를 입고 검찰의 수사 내용이 실시간으로 중계되면서 견디기 힘들 정도로 인간적인 모욕을 당했기 때문이면서 이와 함께 노무현은 자신으로 인해 자신들의 참모와 가족들까지 고초를 당하고 있는 것이 대해 부담을 느낀 것으로 보인다고 평가했다. 그의 극단적인 선택은 전직 대통령의 오욕과 비운의 역사를 끊어내려는 몸부림으로 해석할 수 있다면서 정권이 바뀌면 전 정권에 대한 '먼지털이식' 수사가 반복되는 현대사의 비극이라는 평도 있으며 '정치적 타살'이라는 비판도 있다.각계 반응 및 애도.이명박 대통령은 "참으로 믿기 어렵고 비통한 일"이라고 애도의 뜻을 표하고 "전직 대통령에 대한 예우에 어긋남이 없도록 정중하게 모시라"라고 지시했다. 정계나 학계, 시민단체는 보수와 진보를 가리지 않고 잇따라 공식 논평을 발표하고 애도의 뜻을 나타냈다. 서울에서는 네티즌과 시민들이 서울 도심에 분향소를 마련해 추모의 발길이 이어졌다.후진타오 중화인민공화국 주석은 조문에서 "노 전 대통령은 나의 오래된 친구"라며 "재임 기간에 중국과 한국의 전면적 협력 동반자 관계 수립 및 발전을 위해 중요한 기여를 했다"라고 밝혔다. 원자바오 총리는 애도하면서 노무현의 대(對)중국 관계의 중시, 노무현의 솔직함과 성실함이 깊은 인상을 받았다며 한중 관계의 전면적 발전 추진을 위해 기울인 공헌을 기억하겠다는 소회를 덧붙였다. 미국의 버락 오바마 대통령은 긴급 애도 성명을 발표하였다. 이 성명에서 노무현 재임 기간에 한국과 미국 간의 '강력하고 활기찬'(strong and vital) 관계를 형성하는 데 기여했다며 애도의 뜻을 전했다. 아소 다로 일본 총리는 외상 시절 노 전 대통령을 만났던 기억을 떠올리며 애도했다. 영국의 엘리자베스 2세 여왕도 청와대에 애도 조문을 보내어, "지난 2004년 노 전 대통령의 영국 공식 방문은 한·영 양국 관계 증진에 중요한 이정표였다"라고 전했다. 반기문 국제 연합 사무총장은 사망 관련 성명을 발표하고 애도의 뜻을 표명하면서, "노 전 대통령은 민주주의 촉진을 위해 여러 가지 노력을 기울였다"라고 노 전 대통령을 칭송했다. 고든 브라운 영국 총리 역시 애도의 뜻을 전했다.아래는 그가 투신 자살하기 전에 남긴 것으로 보이는 유서 전문이다. 이 유서는 사저의 컴퓨터에 라며 평했다.그의 사망은 또한 '언론 책임론'을 불러 일으켰다. 검찰의 몰아붙이기식 수사도 문제였지만, 이를 "받아쓰기"하듯이 그대로 전달하거나, 한발 앞서 검찰 수사의 방향까지 제시한 언론 은 여론 조사에서 "노 전 대통령의 사망에 언론의 책임이 크다"는 쓴소리를 들어야 했다. 또한 천정배 의원은 "노무현 전 대통령의 서거는 권력기관의 사유화와 보수언론의 탐욕이 만들어낸 재앙이다"라고 말하여 검찰과 함께 보수 언론에게 책임이 있음을 강조하였다.보수 신문은 "일부 세력은 신문과 방송이 노 전 대통령의 혐의를 중계하듯 보도해 억울한 죽음으로 몰고 갔다"라고 주장하지만 2009년 9월 17일 판결이 나오자 "이번 판결을 보더라도 노 전 대통령이 근거 없는 모함을 당한 것은 아니다"라고 단정했다. 또 "언론이 신속 정확한 보도를 위해 노력하는 것은 당연하다"라며 자신들을 비롯한 언론이 검찰의 모욕 주기 수사흘리기 수사를 받아쓰고 '아니면 말고' 식의 보도를 했던 것을 정당화했다.한겨레는 보수지의 노무현과 관련된 보도를 란 제목의 기사에선 검찰 수사가 한창이던 때 진보 신문이 박연차 태광실업 회장과 노무현을 비판하고 희화화해 이전의 우호적 분위기를 찾아볼 수 없을 정도였지만 사망 전후 확연히 다른 보도 행태를 보였다며 고 비판했다.한겨레신문에서 조사한 여론 조사에서 누가 가장 큰 책임이 있는지에 대한 여론 조사 결과 라고 보도했다. 이에 빅뉴스는 한겨레 여론 조사는 응답 1순위에서 노 전 대통령 자신을 꼽은 응답이 가장 많았는데도 여론 조사 항목을 자의적으로 배치하고 1,2,3순위를 합산하여 결과를 왜곡했다며 비난했다.이렇듯 언론 책임론이 나오자 신문들은 즉각 보수·진보 양쪽으로 헤쳐 모여서 상대편의 책임이 더 크며, 상대편의 사망 전·후 보도 행태가 완전히 상반된다는 식의 공격을 퍼붓기 시작했다.노무현의 서거일 이틀 후인 2009년 5월 25일에 위원회가 결성된 뒤, 5월 29일까지 거행되었다. 당초 유족들은 가족장을 추진하였으나 전직 대통령에 대한 예우와 전 국민적인 추모열기로 국민장으로 치러졌다.노무현의 영결식은 국민장으로 치러져 전국적으로 500만이 넘는 인파가 각지에 시민들이 마련한 분향소에 조문을 했다. 봉하 마을을 찾은 조문객의 수는 100만으로 사망 직후부터 전국에 분향소가 설치되기 시작하여 총 301곳 이 설치되었다. 일주일간의 추도 기간 동안 인터넷 포털, 언론사, 기업의 로고는 검은색으로 바뀐 추도배너가 내걸렸고, 대다수의 방송사 오락 프로그램의 방송이 결방 하였으며, 지지 세력들이 이웃처럼 느껴지던 서민 출신 전 대통령의 안타까운 자결에 충격과 슬픔과 정부가 그를 죽음으로 내몰았다는 생각에 따른 분노가 함께 표출되었고, 여론 조사에서도 60%가 넘는 사람들이 이명박과 검찰의 책임이라고 응답하였다. 한편으로는 위법 행위에 대해 끝까지 책임을 지지 않고 자살을 택한 것에 대해 전직 대통령으로서의 도리가 아니라는 비판이 제기되며, 한나라당에서는 추모 열기가 정치적으로 이용되는 것을 우려하는 목소리도 나왔다.덕수궁 앞 대한문 앞에 마련된 장례 기간 동안 시민 분향소에서는 2킬로미터가 넘는 장례 행렬이 밤새 이어졌다. 임시 분향소가 차려진 서울 덕수궁 대한문 일대에 경찰이 출입을 통제하고 시청 앞 서울 광장을 원천 봉쇄하여 전의경 버스가 시민들의 추모발길을 막는 등 노무현 전 대통령에 대한 조문행렬을 잠재적 폭력 시위대로 간주하고 있다는 비판이 있다. 정부는 "애석하고 비통하다"라고 조의를 표할 때와 말과 행동이 다르다며 진정성과 이중성에 대한 비판이 있다. 이처럼 정부가 국민장으로 치르기로 결정하고도 서울 광장과 청계 광장의 민간 분향소 설치를 막으면서 ‘과잉 통제’ 논란이 일었다. 정부와 경찰 측은 장례식 참석자들의 돌출 행동으로 인한 폭력 사태가 우려되어 부득이한 통제였다고 주장하였다. 이렇게 노무현 수사에 대한 책임론이 대두되고 과잉 통제 논란이 지속되는 상황에서 이명박 정부에 대한 국정 운영 지지율이 이명박이 집권한 이후 가장 낮은 20%대까지 폭락하였다.이날 영결식에 직접 참석하지는 않았지만 앞서 세계 150여 해외 공관에 설치된 분향소에도 각국 주요 인사가 추모 행렬에 동참했다. 미국 백악관의 제임스 존스 국가안보 보좌관과 성 김 대북 특사가 분향소가 차려진 주미 한국 대사관을 찾아 조문했다. 힐러리 클린턴 국무장관이 미국 정부를 대표해 조문했다. 아소 다로 일본 총리와 하토야마 유키오 민주당 대표, 나카소네 야스히로, 고이즈미 준이치로 전 총리 등 일본 정·관계 주요 인사들이 주일 한국 대사관으로 찾아가 분향했다. 중국의 후진타오 주석과 원자바오 총리는 노무현의 사망을 애도하는 메시지를 장례위원회에 보냈다.영결식은 장례는 국민장으로 엄수되었으며 시신은 봉하 마을에서 새벽 5시에 출발 5월 29일 오전 11시 서울 경복궁 흥례문 앞뜰에서 가족 정부 종교단체 인사들이 참석한 가운데 치러졌다.일본에서는 후쿠다 야스오 전 총리 미국은 스티븐스 주한 대사를 단장으로 알렉스 아비주 국무성 동아태 부차관보 마이클 그린 국가 안보회의 선임보좌관 빅터차 전 NSC 보좌관이 영결식에 참석했다.빈소 및 분향소 설치.5월 23일 서거한 노무현 제16대 대통령의 시신은 당일 오후 6시 30분 봉하마을 마을회관으로 옮겨져 빈소가 마련되었다. 임시 분향소에서 5월 23일 오후 10시부터 조문객을 맞았으며 이튿날 마을회관 앞 광장에 공식 분향소가 세워졌다. 노무현 전 대통령의 서거 소식이 전해진 뒤 곳곳에서 추모객이 몰려 들었으며 5월 29일 국민장 기간이 끝날 때까지 100만명 이상의 추모객이 봉하마을 분향소를 방문하였다.정부에서 세운 공식 분향소는 서울역사박물관을 비롯해 102개소에 마련되었으며 총 조문인원은 5월 29일 18시까지 98만 5331명에 달하였다.시민들이 자발적으로 세운 분향소는 대한문 앞을 비롯해 알려진 것만 150여곳에 달하였다. 5월 29일 새벽까지 조문객은 500만여명에 달하였다.정부는 5월 23일 관계 국무위원 간담회를 개최해 국민장을 거행하기로 뜻을 모았고, 5월 24일 국무총리 주재로 임시 국무위원회의를 개최하여 국민장 거행을 의결하였다. 장의위원장은 관례에 따라 국무총리인 한승수가 선정되기로 하였으나 유가족 측이 공동위원장을 제의, 5월 25일 현직 국무총리 한승수와 전 국무총리 한명숙이 선정되었다. 장의위원은 전·현직 고위공무원, 사회지도층 인사, 유족이 추천한 친지 및 친분이 있는 인사 총 1,383명으로 구성되어 역대 최대 규모이다. 이와 함께 정부는 5월 27일 국민장 영결식을 5월 29일 경복궁 흥례문 앞 뜰에서 거행하기로 공고하였다.한명숙 전 총리의 추도사와 김대중 전 대통령의 추도사가 영결식 동안 진행되었다.2009년 5월 29일 오전 많은 주민들과 지지자들의 애도 속에서 운구차량이 출발하였다. 주민들과 지지자들은 고 노무현 전 대통령을 대표하는 색깔인 노란 풍선과 종이 비행기를 운구차량에 날렸다. 주민들의 슬픔을 뒤로하고 고속도로를 5시간을 달려 경복궁 영결식장에 도착하였다.노무현의 시신은 당초 예정보다 약 2시간여 늦게 경기도 수원 연화장에 도착해 화장되었다. 화장 후 수습된 유골은 고향인 경남 김해 봉화산의 정토원에 49재가 끝나고 매장되기 전까지 안치되었다. 당초 작은 비석을 세워달라고 유언하였으며 한때 국립묘지 안장 여론이 제기되기도 하였으나 바로 고인돌 형태의 묘소에 납골당 형태로 안장되었다.경찰의 분향소 강제 철거 논란.경찰은 덕수궁 분향소에 조문가는 일반 시민들이 촛불을 켜 들고 이동하는 것을 ' 시위로 발전할 우려가 있다'면서 제지하기도 하여 시민들의 지탄을 받았다. 또한 한편 시민분향소 주변을 시청 앞 서울광장을 전경 및 의경 버스로 둘러 막아 이곳에서의 추모 행사를 원천봉쇄하는 등 노무현 전 대통령에 대한 조문행렬을 잠재적 폭력시위대로 간주하여 시민들과 충돌을 벌이기도 했다.국민행동본부의 분향소 파괴와 영정 강탈.6월 24일 오전 5시 30~40분경 국민행동 본부 50여명이 비공식 분향소를 파괴 및 강제철거하고 영정사진을 강탈했다. 국민행동본부는 고엽제 전우회와 함께 분향소를 철거했다고 밝혔다. 서정갑 본부장은 연합뉴스와의 전화통화에서 불법 시설물을 치운 것이라 잘못이 없다는 입장을 밝히고, 경찰이 이를 방치한 것은 직무유기라고 주장했다. 시민분향소 운영진은 오전 10시 30분 기자회견을 열어 분향소 파괴 및 철거와 영정 강탈을 규탄했으며, 49재가 끝나는 날까지 분향소를 운영할 것이라고 밝혔다. 서울특별시 중구청은 직원 30여명을 동원해 오후 2시 20분부터 50여분간 파괴된 분향소 잔해를 철거하였으며, 이 과정에서 시민 5명이 연행되었다. 그리고 이날 오후 8시 30분쯤 분향소 철거에 항의하는 시민들 28명이 연행되었다. 경찰은 분향소 파괴 관련자를 수사하겠다고 밝히고 서정갑을 불구속 입건했다. 한편 분향소를 파괴한 애국기동단 측은 경찰의 조사를 받은 뒤 표창장을 받아야 한다고 주장했다. 국민행동본부 등이 절도한 영정은 당일 오후 서울역 광장에서 열린 북핵도발 총궐기대회에서 서정갑의 연설도중 등장하였으며, 이후 영정은 택배편으로 봉하마을에 보내졌다. 서정갑은 한겨레21과의 인터뷰에서 이라고 주장했다. 또한 분향소 철거를 위해 사전답사를 하고 파트별 임무를 부여하는 등 계획적으로 추진하였다는 사실도 밝혔다.2009년 9월 23일 이 출범했다.2009년 9월 24일 노무현의 생가가 복원과 함께 일반인에게 공개됐다.2009년 10월 1일 노무현의 회고록인 은 출간한 지 열흘 만에 베스트셀러로 판매량 1위를 기록하기도 했다.2009년 12월 2일 전국 7개 도시의 대학생을 대상으로 에 대한 설문조사에 41.1%로 노무현이 1위를 기록했다. 서울 41.4%, 경기도 39.5%, 경상도 41.5%, 전라도 36.7%, 충청도 47.2%, 강원도 30%, 제주도 45%로 전국적으로 고른 인기를 얻었다. 또한 에는 12%로 2위를 기록했다. 2009년 12월 19일 중국의 반관영 통신사인 중국 신문사가 선정한 조사에서 1위를 기록했다.2010년 5월 23일 노무현 사망 1주기를 맞아 광주, 대구, 대전, 창원, 인천, 대전, 충남 등 전국 각지에서 추모행사가 열렸다. 김제동이 사회를 보기도 했으며, 봉하마을에 7만명, 서울에도 2만 5천명의 추모객들의 발길이 이어졌다. 또한 2010년 6월 2일에는 전국 지방선거가 있는 날인데 노무현 추모 열기로 인해 지지율 하락을 걱정하던 한나라당의 이른바 에는 는 내용이 공개되기도 하였다.노무현 묘소 배설물 투척 문제.2010년 11월 14일 오후 1시경 봉하마을 노무현 묘소에 인분이 투척되는 사건이 발생했다. 62세의 정모씨는 노무현 묘소에 인분을 투척하고 유인물 22장을 살포하였는데 그가 뿌린 유인물은 노무현 그대 무덤에 똥물을 부으며고 주장했다.2016년 7월 21일에도 노무현 묘소에 소변이 투척되는 사건이 발생했다. 41세의 최모씨는 노무현 묘역에서 "노무현 대통령이 한 게 무엇이 있느냐"며 500ml 페트병 2통에 담긴 소변을 너럭바위 위로 뿌리고, 묘역에서 경비를 서던 의무경찰이 제지를 하자 들고 있던 페트병으로 의경을 폭행하였다. 경찰은 최씨를 재물손괴, 사체모욕, 공무집행방해 등의 혐의로 구속하였다. 계속되는 배설물 투척 사건에 대해 묘역을 관리하는 노무현재단 측은 경비와 시설 강화는 노무현 생전의 뜻과 배치되기 때문에 현실적으로 어려운 문제라고 토로하였다.1980년대 인권과 민주주의를 위해 인권 변호사로서 활동하다 정치에 입문하였다. 그의 정치 인생은 원칙을 굽히지 않으면서 권위주의와 지역주의 정치 타파를 위해 애쓴 노력의 연속이었다. 재임 중에는 대연정 제안과 사법 개혁 등을 통해 한국 사회의 지역주의와 권위주의를 탈피하려고 애쓴 것으로 평가되고 있다. 또한 그는 지지 정당으로부터도 비판받으면서 원칙과 소신에 입각해서 당정 분리라는 성과를 이루어내었다. 일각에서는 대한민국의 역대 대통령 중 가장 민주적이고 서민적인 대통령이라는 평가가 있다.하지만 재임 기간 중에 보수적인 시각에서는 사회주의적이고 반미와 친북적인 설화가 많다는 이유로 비판을 받았으며 진보적인 시각에서는 기업의 요구를 많이 반영된 비정규직 보호법으로 정규직 전환을 가로막고 대량 해고로 이어져 실직자를 양산한 점과 같은 노동 환경의 악화와 한미 FTA의 추진 이라크 전쟁 파병 부실한 부동산 개혁 및 친재벌적이라고 비판을 받아 진보 보수 어느 진영에게서도 명확한 지지를 얻지 못했다. 보수주의자에 따르면 '친북좌파'라는 비판과 진보 진영에서는 '친미신자유주의자'라는 비판 이 양립하고 있다. 이런 파병결정에 대해 훗날 문재인은 미국 부시 행정부의 네오콘들이 대북 제한폭격을 거론했고 그것을 막기 위해 파병을 했다고 털어놓았다.2010년 9월에 시행된 묻는 여론조사에서 박정희의 지지율이 떨어지면서 노무현에 대한 평가가 상대적으로 가장 많이 올랐다. 전체 지지율은 25.3%로 나타났으며 특히 20~30대 젊은층과 화이트칼라 직종 대학재학 이상의 고학력층에서는 박정희를 능가하는 지지율을 보이기도 했다.법치주의 확립을 위한 노력.노무현은 대통령 취임 뒤 국정원장의 독대 보고를 없앴고 사법 고시 23회인 강금실을 법무부 장관에 임명함으로써 사법부에 뿌리 깊은 권위주의를 타파하기 위해 노력했다는 평가가 있다. 2003년 구태의연한 대법관 선발 관행에 제동을 걸었고 사법 사상 최초로 여성 헌법재판관과 서열을 무시한 여성 대법관을 탄생시켰다. 또 사법 개혁 위원회를 통해 법조 일원화 국민의 사법 참여 등의 사법부 개혁을 위한 밑거름을 쌓았다. 일각에서는 지나친 의전 등으로 문제가 되던 법원들의 재판 사무 감사가 2006년 폐지된 이유가 김영란 대법관이 기수를 파괴하며 올라갔기 때문이라는 견해도 있다. 언론인 강준식은 "선거공영제를 확대하여 돈이 들지 않는 선거제를 확립한 것이라든지 부작용은 있었지만 시민단체의 활발한 정치참여를 유도한 것이라든지 시장 개입을 없앰으로써 정경유착의 고리를 상당 부분 끊은 것이라든지 인권을 신장시킨 것이라든지 권위까지 함께 버리는 우를 범했지만 권위주의를 청산한 것이라든지 하는 것 등은 다 그의 공이다."라고 말했다.해양수산부 장관 출신으로 연안 어족자원 복원에 노력했다. 당시 문제가 되고 있던 저인망식 불법어로를 근절하기 위해 촘촘한 그물을 제조하는 업체에 영업정지를 가하는 등 강경책을 사용했으며 연안에 인공 어초를 대량 투입하는 등의 대책을 시행하였다.문민정부 출범 이후로 군생활을 제대로 한 최초의 대통령으로 국민들에게 대접을 받았다. 참여정부 당시에 김대중은 해안경비대 대원으로 군생활을 하였다고 알려졌었고 학도병 김영삼의 이야기는 전혀 대중에게 알려지지 못하였다. 최전방에서 초병 근무를 하였다는 진지가 '노무현 벙커'로 명명이 되었다고 유명해지며 그 진지에서 근무를 서며 자랑스러워하는 초병들이 언론에 주목을 받기도 하였다.UN 평화유지군으로 지속적인 해외 파병은 있었으나 미군에 항구적 자유 작전과 관련하여 이라크전이 발발함에 따라 추가적으로 자이툰부대의 이라크 파병이 결정되었다. 파병 동의 기간에는 국회에서 전투병 파병이냐 비전투병 파병이냐는 뜨거운 논란이 있었다. UN군이 아닌 국군으로서 해외 파병을 군사 정권이 아닌 행정부에서 최초로 결정한 수장이 되었다.재임 기간 중에 보수적인 시각에서는 사회주의적이고 반미와 친북적인 설화가 많다는 이유로 비판을 받았으며 진보적인 시각에서는 기업의 요구를 많이 반영된 비정규직 보호법으로 정규직 전환을 가로막고 대량 해고로 이어져 실직자를 양산한 점과 같은 노동 환경의 악화와 한미 FTA의 추진 이라크 전쟁 파병 부실한 부동산 개혁 및 친재벌적이라고 비판을 받아 진보 보수 어느 진영에게서도 명확한 지지를 얻지 못했다. 보수주의자에 따르면 ‘친북좌파’라는 비판과 진보 진영에서는 ‘친미신자유주의자’라는 비판 이 양립하고 있다. 이런 파병결정에 대해 훗날 문재인은 미국 부시 행정부의 네오콘들이 대북 제한폭격을 거론했고 그것을 막기 위해 파병을 했다고 털어놓았다.그는 스스로 지역주의에 반대하며 민주자유당과 새천년민주당의 주류의 그늘에서 벗어나 개혁 정당인 열린우리당에 참여하였다. 하지만 국회에서의 그는 자신의 지지 정당인 열린우리당의 정치적 기반의 취약성과 새천년민주당, 한나라당, 자유민주연합과 같은 기존 정치 세력과의 타협이 부족해 다수당의 횡포로 탄핵 사태에 이르러 정치적 리더십이 부족하다는 비판을 받기도 한다.국회의원 김경재는 그의 정치력 자체를 의심하였다. 2004년 김경재는 노무현을 가리켜 어떻게 현충일에 일본에 가서 '김구(金九) 선생은 실패한 정치인'이라는 말을 할 수 있느냐"라고 지적하기도 했다.측근 · 친인척 비리 논란.노무현은 대선 당시 깨끗한 정치, 낡은 정치 타파를 기치로 내걸어 집권에 성공했으며, 재임 중에도 기회 있을 때마다 도덕성을 강조했다. 참여정부가 내건 제일의 기치 또한 도덕성이었다. 그러나 친형인 노건평을 비롯하여 안희정, 이광재 등의 측근 비리에 연루되었다. 항상 도덕성을 토대로 정치적 정당성을 주장하던 노무현이었지만 측근과 친인척의 비리를 막지는 못했다는 평가가 있다.이러한 언급에도 불구하고 취임 첫 해부터 대선 자금 문제로 안희정, 최도술 등 주변 인사들이 줄줄이 사법 처리되는 상황에 몰리지만 특유의 공세적 대응으로 불법 대선 자금 규모가 한나라당의 10분의 1을 넘으면 정계를 은퇴하겠다는 발언이 논란을 일으키기도 했다. 이 밖에 2004년 3월에는 전 대우건설 사장 남상국에게서 3000만 원을 받은 혐의로 형 노건평이 불구속 기소되자 기자 회견을 열어 라고 형을 두둔하였고, 이 발언 이후 남 전 사장은 스스로 목숨을 끊었다.또한 변양균-신정아 의혹이 터졌을 때는 "요즘 깜도 안 되는 의혹들이 많이 춤을 추고 있습니다"라는 발언을 하는 등 참여정부의 도덕적 우위를 지키기 위해 정치 상대를 비난하는 발언으로 논란이 되었다. 결국 2007년 11월 "대통령 취임 후 새살림을 꾸리려고 했는데…. 구시대의 막내 노릇, 마지막 청소부 노릇을 할 수밖에 없었다. 참여정부는 설거지 정부"라고 평가하면서 참여정부 시절 불거나온 비리 의혹들에 대해서 유감을 표하기도 했다.국회의원 이종걸은 고 밝히며 노 전 대통령에 대한 애증(愛憎)을 피력했다.그는 노 전 대통령의 사법처리 여부를 묻는 질문에는 "민정수석도 구속됐다"면서 "법의 형평성 차원에서, 임채진 검찰총장 입장에서 본다면 노무현 전 대통령을 구속시킬 수도 있다"고 말했다. 그러면서 포괄적 뇌물죄 적용과 관련, "돈의 액수가 적다는 게 문제는 안 된다. 대통령 위치에서도 돈을 받았다면 포괄적 뇌물죄가 적용될 수 있다"고 말했다. 그는 하지만 "전직 대통령을 사법처리까지 하는 것은 잘못된 것"이라고 지적했다.김지태와 인연 논란.노무현은 60년 김해 진영중학교 2학년 재학중 친일 부정축재 의혹이 있는 김지태가 설립한 부일장학회 시험에 합격해 1년 동안 장학금을 받았다고 한다. 부산상고에 입학해서도 동문회장인 김지태가 교내에 만든 에서 이 과정을 언급하기도 하였는데 이라며 고마움을 표시했다고 한다. 또한 1984년엔 김지태 회장의 유족들이 부탁한 117억원 짜리 상속세 소송을 맡아 전액을 취소 시키는 승소판결을 이끌어낸 바 있으며 그는 착수금 2000만원 승소 사례금 4000만원을 포함 총 6000만원을 김지태 유족으로부터 받았다고 한다.정수장학회 논란이 한창이던 2012년 10월 22일 이정현 새누리당 공보단장은 노무현과 부일장학회의 원소유자인 김지태와의 이와 같은 인연을 들어 논란을 촉발 시켰다. 이정현은 "김지태씨는 친일 부정축재 의혹이 있는데 민주당이 언제부터 그런 의혹이 있는 사람들의 대변자가 됐냐"라고 말했다. 같은날 박용진 민주당 대변인은 이정현의 발언을 비판하며 "민주당이 '왜 강압과 부당한 방법으로 남의 재산을 강탈하고 그 위에서 온갖 혜택을 누렸냐'고 묻자 느닷없이 새누리당 이 단장이 '너도 한패냐'고 윽박지르고 나섰다"라고 말했다.실패한 부동산 정책.참여정부 5년간 가장 실패한 정책으로 부동산 정책이 꼽힌다. 참여정부 시절 전국 미분양 주택은 2003년 3월 2만 3000여 가구에 불과했 것이 참여정부 말기 2007년 12월 11만여 가구로 약 4.7배 이상 증가하였다. 또한 참여정부 5년 동안 신도시 집값은 56% 상승했으며 전국 집값은 36%나 상승했다.참여정부의 부동산정책이 실패한 가장 큰 원인은 부동산시장의 해법을 경제문제로 접근하지 않고 소득 계층간 갈등구조로 파악했다는 점이다. 이로 인해 서울 강남권 등 일부 부유층을 향해 반 시장적 규제를 가했고 이는 결국 주변집값마저 끌어올리는 부작용을 낳았다. 또한 동시다발적으로 전국토의 난개발로 인해 토지가격 급등과 저금리 기조에 따른 과잉 유동성에 대한 대처 등 부동산시장의 근본적인 원인을 제대로 해결하지 못했다. 수요가 몰리는 곳에 공급을 확대하는 정책이 아닌 단순히 투기적 수요를 근절해 부동산 시장을 잡겠다는 수요측면에서만 접근함으로써 불씨를 키웠다. 정상적인 수요도 투기로 간주해 수요를 차단시켰고 공급은 지나친 가격 규제를 도입해 공급을 더욱 줄어들게 만들었다.빈부 격차 및 소득 양극화 심화.노무현 정부 때는 임기 내내 소득 분배가 악화됐다. 지니계수는 2002년 0.293에서 노무현 정부 첫해인 2003년 0.283으로 낮아졌다가 이후 2004년 0.293 2005년 0.298 2006년 0.305 2007년 0.316으로 올랐다. 반면 이명박 정부가 들어선 2008년 0.319에서 2009년 0.320으로 올랐으나 2010년 0.315 2011년 0.313 2012년 0.310으로 내려 소득 분배가 소폭이지만 개선됐다. 박근혜 정부에선 2013년 0.307 2014년 0.308 2015년 0.305로 비슷했다. 성장보다 분배를 강조했던 참여정부 시절에는 오히려 지니계수가 증가하면서 소득 불평등이 악화되었고 참여정부보다 성장을 강조했던 이명박 정부 시절에는 오히려 지니계수가 감소하면서 소득 불평등이 개선되는 모습이 나타났다.2018년 8월 23일 통계청이 발표한 2분기 가계동향조사 결과에 따르면 노무현정부에서의 1분위 가구 연평균 소득성장률은 4.0%였으며 5분위 가구는 5.0%를 기록해 큰 차이를 보이지 않았다. 보수정권으로 분류되는 이명박박근혜정부에서는 오히려 1분위 가구의 소득성장률이 높게 나타났다. 이명박정부에서 1분위 가구의 가계소득은 연평균 6.6%나 오른 반면 5분위 가구 성장률은 4.6%에 그쳤다. 박근혜정부는 1분위 가구가 2.5% 5분위 가구는 2.0%의 성장률을 보였다. 보수 정권기에는 소득 5분위 배율과 지니계수가 개선되었으나 진보 정권기에는 도리어 악화된 것으로 나타났다. 이두원 연세대 경제학과 교수는 라고 말했다. 문재인 정부가 추진 중인 소득주도성장은 이번 2분기 가계소득 통계를 통해 그 실상이 적나라하게 드러났다고 평가된다. 그동안 정부는 최저임금 인상을 통해 취약계층의 소득을 올려주는 방식으로 새로운 성장 모델을 만들어낼 수 있다고 주장했으나 지난 1분기에 이어 이번 2분기에도 저소득층의 소득이 절대적으로는 물론 상대적으로도 큰 폭으로 감소한 게 확인됐기 때문이다.2003년 7.23배였던 소득 5분위 배율은 해마다 증가해 2006년 7.64배까지 벌어졌고 지니계수는 2003년 0.341에서 2006년 0.351로 증가해 소득 불평등이 심화됐다. 소득 5분위 배율은 상위 20% 소득을 하위 20% 소득으로 나눈 값이고 지니계수는 1에 가까울수록 불평등하고 0에 가까울수록 평등함을 나타낸다. 양극화를 해소할 참여정부의 정책이 없었다는 비판이 있으며 관료들이 주도한 정책은 양극화를 더 심화시켰다는 비판 역시 존재한다. 유종일 한국개발원 국제정책대학원 교수는 “참여정부는 출범 초기에 이라는 성장우선주의 담론을 내걸었고 집권하자마자 법인세 인하 조치를 취했다고 비판했다.2003년 4월 교육행정정보시스템의 논쟁이 뜨거웠다. 토론회 집회 등에 여러 가지 양상으로 도입 반대 의견들이 쏟아졌다. 결국 출결 성적만 관리하는 형태인 호주의 경우와 달리 모든 업무를 관리하는 초기 설계로 관철 되었다. 반대측에 우려대로 운영 초기 시스템 부하 문제 등이 발생하였으나 일선 교사들은 전산화로 업무가 편해졌다고 찬사를 보낸다. 산간 벽지에 폐교 위기의 학교가 아닌 부촌에 사립 학교 조차 IoT Cloud 등을 도입하여 전산 시스템을 증설하기 힘든 결함이 존재한다.황우석 사건에서의 태도 또한 비판의 대상이 되고 있다. 2005년 11월 27일 청와대 홈페이지에 라는 말로 상황을 무마시키려 했다는 비판이 있다.이후 2006년 12월 28일에는 황우석 사건을 통해 대통령에게 제대로 보고하지 않은 책임을 지고 같은 해 1월에 물러난 박기영 전 대통령 정보과학기술 보좌관이 정책기획위원으로 발탁되었는데, 라고 발언을 해 논란이 되기도 하였다.한편 2007년 12월 노동운동계에서는 노무현 정권에서 구속되거나 희생당한 노동자 수가 김영삼 정권의 두 배라며 비판하였다. 일부 노동단체는 노무현 정권에게 인권을 유린당했다고 주장하였으며 20여 명의 구속 노동자가 무기한 단식 농성에 돌입한 일도 있었다. 단식 농성에 참여한 구속 노동자들은 관련 싸움을 진행했던 포항건설 노조의 9명 타워크레인 노동자 5명 뉴코아-이랜드 관련 2명 비정규직 철폐와 한미 FTA 반대 집회에서 연행 구속된 3명 노사관계 로드맵 야합에 반대하며 한국노총 점거 농성을 진행한 2명의 노동자 등이다. 언론에서는 이렇게 많은 수가 감옥에서 단식 농성에 돌입한 것은 독재 타도를 외치던 80년대 이후 처음이라는 주장도 나왔다.한편 언론지 '참세상'의 조사에 따르면 구속 노동자 후원회가 집계한 2007년 11월 30일 당시 구속 노동자는 총계 62명으로 집계하였으며 노무현 정권에만 1천 37명의 노동자가 구속된 바 있다고 주장했다. 그중 2007년 11월에만 17명이 구속되었다. 이는 문민정부가 들어섰다는 김영삼 정권 때 632명보다 두 배에 가까운 수치이다. 구속 노동자들은 그 외에 "강제 구금당한 이주 노동자의 수는 너무 많아서 집계가 불가능할 정도"라고 주장하기도 했다.노무현은 2003년 6월의 일본 방문에서 한 로 규정하였다.2004년 한일정상회담 직후에는 한나라당 이상배 정책위의장이 그의 외교를 라고 비판하자 청와대와 민주당이 강력 반발, 국회 본회의를 거부하는 등 여야가 정면 충돌하기도 했다. 이때문에 국회 의사 진행이 중단되는 등의 파행이 벌어지기도 했다.2007년 남북정상회담에서 NLL을 포기했다는 주장이 있었다. 이에 따르면 노무현 대통령이 면서 NLL에 대한 새로운 합의 필요성을 역설적으로 설명했다고 한다.이에 송대성 세종연구소 수석연구위원은 노무현의 민주평통 NLL발언에 대해 "어떻게 국군통수권자로서 농담처럼 NLL문제를 얘기할 수 있냐"고 반문하면서 "영토문제에 대해 통수권자가 이렇게 말하는 경우는 세계에 유례가 없을 것"이라고 비판했다. 이어 "북측은 NLL이 일방적으로 그어졌다고 주장하면서도 70년대 중반까지 실제적인 영토선으로 준수해왔으나 대북햇볕정책이 실시되면서부터 북한이 본격적으로 시비를 걸기 시작했다"고 지적했다.김영호 성신여자대학교 정치외교학과 교수는 "대한민국을 수호해야 하는 대통령으로서 대단히 부적절한 발언"이라고 말했다. 이어 "NLL이 무너질 경우 수도권 방어가 어렵고 국익과 안보에 위해가 올 것이기 때문에 NLL 준수가 바람직하다고 생각하는데 대통령은 국민들보다도 안보의식이 해이한 것 같다"면서 "노 대통령이 임기말 대북관계에서 억지 성과를 내려는 데 집착해 누가 봐도 납득이 안 되는 이상한 망언들을 하고 있다"고 비판했다.이렇게 보수적인 색채를 띄는 사람들이 NLL(북방한계선)에 대하여 기본적으로 영토선적인 인식을 가지고 노무현 정부를 비판하지만 이런 문제는 김영삼 정부 시절 국방부 장관이 국회에서 한 발언을 볼 때 단순히 '트집잡기'에 지나지 않으므로 건설적인 대안을 마련해야 한다는 시각도 있다.한편 대북低(저)자세 외교라는 비판과 함께 민간 차원의 북한 반대 운동을 탄압하여 표현의 자유를 억압하였다는 주장이 있었다. 민간단체의 인공기 소각 퍼포먼스에 대해 대통령이 직접 북한에 사과한 것에 대해서도 대북 굴종 외교 논란이 있다.이런 태도에 대하여 반론도 있다. 대한민국 헌법에 의하여 조국의 평화적 통일을 위한 성실한 의무(헌법 제66조 제3항)를 다하여야 하는 대통령 입장에서 대북 적대를 하여 괜히 국익에 이로울 것이 없다고 판단하여 남북관계개선의 기반이 된다고 할 수 있는 남북신뢰를 다지기 위한 전략적 발언이라고 볼 수 있으며 그 결과 2007년 남북 정상 회담을 통한 2007 남북정상선언문을 이끌어낼 수 있었다.진보적 가치 실현, 사회적 약자에 대한 관심 등등을 노무현 정신으로 이야기하는 사람들이 많다. 하지만 노무현 정신의 핵심을 한마디로 정리하면 바보 노무현의 삶처럼 사람 냄새 나는 삶의 실현이었던 듯하다. 로 말하고 서민의 몸짓으로 행동하던 노무현 전 대통령의 언행은 오해를 불러일으키는 일도 많았고 그로 인해 안티도 많았다. 이 모든 해프닝은 노무현 전 대통령이 청와대에 입성한 뒤에도 털어내지 못한 서민적 언행에서 비롯된 것들이었다. 노무현 전 대통령의 서민적 풍모는 전직 대통령으로는 처음으로 낙향해 살면서 보여준 봉하마을 생활에서도 그대로 드러났다.2011년 미국의 폭로 전문 웹사이트 위키리크스는 노무현에 대한 미국 대사관의 평가를 공개했다. 이 문서에서는 노무현을 고 평가했다.2010년 10월, 30여개 분야 전문가 1,500여명을 대상으로 시행된 조사에서 응답자 가운데 가장 많은 11.1%가 노무현 전 대통령을 으로 꼽았다. 이어 김대중 전 대통령과, 박정희 전 대통령이었다. 또한 정치, 통일, 국제, 외교 분야에서 가장 존경받는 인물로는 김대중 전 대통령에 이어 2위를 기록했다. 이어 12월 4일 중앙일보가 실시한 여론조사에서도 정치발전에 대한 긍정 평가가 67.9%에 달해 박정희 전 대통령에 이어 2위를 차지했다. 특히 남북 화해 부분에서는 80% 이상이 긍정적인 평가를 내렸다.2011년 5월 12일에 더 좋은 민주주의 연구소가 리서치뷰에 의뢰해 실시한 여론조사에 따르면 노무현 전 대통령은 다시 대선에 출마할 경우 다시 뽑겠다는 응답이 47.4%로 나타나 박정희 전 대통령에 이어 2위를 기록했다. 또한 전현직 대통령들 중 가장 호감 가는 인물을 묻는 단순 호감도 조사에서도 30.3%로, 31.9%를 기록한 박정희 전 대통령에 이어 2위를 차지했다.신행정 수도이전 공약 논란.2002년 12월 11일 당시 민주당 노무현 대통령 후보는 이날 인천을 방문해 유세를 하면서 충청권으로의 수도이전 공약을 내세웠다.당시 그의 이같은 발언을 두고 대전일보는 다음날 1면 머릿기사로 대서특필하면서 출처를 밝히지 않은 채 "노 후보는 이날 인천 유세에서 정치 행정은 충청권으로 분산시키고 경제금융비즈니스는 수도권에 남는다"면서 "돈 되는 것은 여기서하고 돈 안되고 시끄럽고 싸움하는 것은 충청권으로 보내자고 말해 청중의 웃음을 샀다"고 보도했다.2006년 1월 18일 그는 2006년도 대국민 신년연설을 통해 한미 FTA 협상 의지를 발표 하였다. 2월 3일 당시 미국시각으로는 2월 2일 그는 미국으로 간 통상교섭본부장 김종훈을 통해 미국 의회에서 협상 출범을 선언했다. 이후 노무현이 대통령에 재임 중인 2007년 4월 2일 한미 FTA가 타결되었다.6월 5일부터 6월 9일 미국 워싱턴 D.C.에서 한미 자유무역협정(FTA) 1차 협상이 개최되었다.2006년부터 그는 한미 FTA 추진을 강행한다. 그러나 한미 FTA 반대운동에 적극 참여하던 허세욱은 결국 협상이 타결 직전에 이르러 가자 2007년 4월 1일 협상장인 서울 하얏트 호텔 정문 부근에서 분신하였다. 그는 의식이 혼미한 상태로 실려 가면서까지 한미FTA 중단과 노무현 정권 퇴진을 요구하였다.4월 3일 민주노동당은 지역위원회별로 모금운동을 시작했다고 언론에 밝혔고, 4월 4일 참여연대 등도 며 성금 모금 활동이 있었다. 참여연대 게시판 등에도 많은 네티즌들의 격려와 후원이 있었다. 그러나 그는 사망하면서 모두가 비정규직이니 모금성금은 하지 말아달라는 유언을 남기기도 했다. 2007년 3월 8일부터 3월 12일 한미 FTA 8차 협상이 서울에서 개최되었다. 협상은 1개월만에 체결된다.2007년 4월 2일 한미 FTA가 최종 타결된다. 그러나 6월 16일 미국 측에서 노동 환경 등 7개 분야 수정안 제의하여 6월 21일부터 6월 22일 FTA 추가협상 1차 협상을 개최하여 6월 29일 추가협상도 최종타결되었다.한편 분신자살기도로 입원중인 허세욱을 문병왔다가 허세욱으로부터 입당 권유를 받은 경제학자이자 노무현 정부의 청와대 경제비서관 출신정태인은 그의 뜻에 따라 민주노동당에 입당했다. 정태인은 이후 노무현 정부와 결별했고 더불어 그의 30년 친구인 유시민 등과도 결별을 선언하기도 했다. 2008년 진보신당 창당 이후 정태인은 진보신당에 입당하였다.남상국 실명 언급 논란.2003년 그의 둘째 형 노건평이 대우건설 사장 남상국으로부터 뇌물을 받은 것과 관련 언론에 출연하여 남상국의 실명을 공개적으로 비난한 것에 대한 비판과 논란이 있다. 노무현의 남상국 비난 발언은 언론을 통해 공식 보도되었다. 이 사건 직후 남상국은 한강 다리에서 투신 13일만에 시신이 발견되었다.사돈 배병렬의 권력형 비리 의혹.노무현 전 대통령의 사돈인 배병렬 전 NH-CA자산운용 상임감사가 검찰의 조사를 받았다. 2005년 자신의 삼촌이 회장으로 있던 회사가 농협에서 수십억원대의 대출을 받는 과정에서 개입 압력을 행사했다는 의혹이 불거졌기 때문이다.경남 김해시 소재 농협 내외동지점 부지점장을 역임한 김모 씨 주장에 따르면, 배씨는 자신의 삼촌 배OO이 회장으로 일하던 T개발이 아파트를 짓는 과정에서 농협 대출이 원활히 이뤄지지 않자 농협 김해 내외동지점과 심사를 맡은 농협중앙회 등에 압력을 행사해 대출이 가능토록 했다. 김 전 부지점장은 당시 대출을 진행하는 과정에서 여러 차례 배 전 감사를 만났고 압력에 가까운 지시를 받았다고 주장하였다.당시 T개발에 대한 대출이 문제가 있었음은 이 대출에 직간접적으로 관여한 농협 인사들을 통해서도 확인된다.김구에 대한 관점 논란.2003년 6월 일본 순방 중 6월 8일 도쿄에서 가진 공개 인터뷰에서 존경하는 인물에 대해 "과거에는 김구 선생이었으나 정치적으로 성공을 못해 그 뒤 링컨으로 바꿨다"라고 평가하여 논란이 되기도 했다.그러나 언론들 사이에서는 노무현이 고 분개했다.김근태는 그가 외교 문제에서 실패하는 것이라고 비판했다. 는 것이다.그러나 노무현의 발언을 지지하는 의견도 만만치 않다. '정치인 김구선생이 바르게 평가돼야'라는 글을 게시한 네티즌은 "외세의 힘에 의해 우리 국민은 공산주의가 아니면 자유민주주의를 선택해야하고 다른 선택의 여지가 없었는데 백범 김구선생의 중립적인 민족주의 국가는 어디에 세워야하고 국민은 어떻게 김구를 선택하고 어떻게 따라야했던가"라며 정치 지도자로서 김구 선생은 재평가되어야 한다고 주장했다. 이 네티즌은 "결국 김구는 훌륭한 인격자이자 지도자이지만 남에도 북에도 설자리가 없었던 비운의 지도자였고 우리 국민은 훌륭한 지도자 김구를 두고 북에서는 공산주의를 따라갔고 남에서는 자유민주주의를 따라갔다"며 어쩔 수 없는 현실의 비극을 강조했다. 성균관대 교수 김삼웅은 "일왕이나 수상과 공식적으로 말한 것도 아니고 애국심은 존경하지만 정치인으로서 실패했다는 발언 하나 가지고 왈가불가하는 것은 적절하지 않다"고 말하고 더 이상의 코멘트는 하지 않겠다는 입장을 보였다. 그러나 발언의 파문은 쉽게 가라앉지 않았고 비판거리의 하나로 활용되었다.다케시마 발언 논란.2004년 7월 한일 정상회담 당시 독도를 일본이 자국 영토라며 부르는 호칭인 다케시마라고 발언하여 논란이 되었다.7월 21일 한.일정상회담 후 가진 공동기자회견 과정에 일본 기자의 질문에 다케시마(竹島)이나 일본 언론들이 이를 했다는 식의 보도를 하고 있고 야당도 이를 문제삼고 나와 논란이 되었다.노무현의 다케시마 발언은 곧 일본 언론들에게도 보도되었다. 지지통신은 "영토와 역사문제에 대한 견해를 묻는 일본인 기자의 질문에 답하는 과정에 무심코 발언한 것으로 보이나 눈살을 찌푸리는 한국인 기자도 있었다"고 비꼬았다. 그의 다케시마 발언을 일본 극우 인사일각에서는 한국에서 다케시마로 인정한 것으로 해석하였다.북방한계선 포기 논란.2007년 남북정상회담에서 서해상 북방한계선을 포기하겠다는 발언을 했다고 새누리당 서상기, 정문헌 의원이 주장하여 논란이 일었다. 당시 공세를 주도했던 윤상현 새누리당 의원은 2007년 남북정상회담 당시 노무현 대통령이 서해 북방한계선 포기 발언을 하지 않았다고 훗날 밝혔다.노무현이 3당 합당을 거부하고 통합민주당 대변인이 된 직후인 1991년 10월 조선일보는 주간조선 보도를 통해 이력과 재산을 문제 삼았다. 노무현은 주변의 만류에도 불구, 정치인으로는 이례적으로 조선일보를 상대로 명예훼손 소송에 나서 승소했다. 국민의 정부 때 해양수산부 장관으로서 언론사 세무조사를 앞장서 지지하고 2002년 민주당 대선 후보 경선 당시 언론사 소유 지분 제한에 공개 찬성했다. 보수 언론과의 적대적 관계가 고착화되기 시작했다.처음 '이인제 대세론'에 묻혀 있다가 2002년 3월 16일 광주 지역 경선부터 본격적인 노풍을 일으켰고 언론들은 이 현상을 신기한 듯 부쩍 관심을 보였다. 그러나 노무현 바람에 심상치 않은 무게가 실리자 보수 언론의 견제가 본격화됐다. 대선 당일 조선일보가 사설에서 "지금 시점에서 분명한 것은 후보 단일화에 합의했고 유세를 함께 다니면서 노무현 후보의 손을 들어줬던 정몽준 씨마저 '노 후보는 곤란하다'고 판단한 상황"이라며 "이제 최종 선택은 유권자들의 몫"이라고 방점을 찍은 일은 두고두고 회자되었다.대권을 잡은 이후에는 집권 1년 만에 보수 언론의 포화 속에 헌정 사상 유례없는 탄핵을 당하기도 했다. 탄핵 반대 촛불 여론으로 권좌를 되찾은 후에도 보수 언론의 공격은 그치지 않았으며, 여기에 이라크 파병과 한미 FTA 협정 추진, 대연정 구상 등으로 인해 진보 언론도 노무현에게 칼을 겨누기 시작했다. 임기 말에는 취재 지원 시스템 선진화 방안이 기자실 폐쇄로 이어지면서 보수와 진보를 가리지 않은 모든 언론이 비판을 퍼부었다.에 연루된 정황이 드러나면서 진보 언론마저 완전히 등을 돌리고 말았다. 언론들은 검찰발로 노무현의 가족과 관련된 비리를 낱낱이 보도하며 노무현을 부도덕과 비리의 몸통인 양 매도했다고 해도 과언이 아니었다.사망으로 노무현의 생애가 역사의 뒤안길로 넘어가면서 언론의 긍정적인 평가들이 등장했다. 한국 정치사에서 언론과의 관계가 가장 순탄치 않았던 정치인으로 평가되었다.1986년 당시 천주교 부산교구 당감 본당의 주임신부였던 송기인 신부로부터 영세를 받아 '유스토'라는 세례명을 얻었지만 열심히 신앙생활도 못하고 성당도 못 나가 프로필의 종교란에는 무교로 쓴다고 밝힌 적이 있다.대통령 후보 시절인 2002년 6월 20일에 서울 종로구 혜화동 가톨릭대 주교관이던 김수환 추기경을 방문했다. 서로 이야기를 주고받다가 노무현이 먼저 신앙 문제를 화제로 꺼냈다. 노무현은 라고 고백했다.이에 김수환은 고 대답했다.노무현은 자택 옆에 있던 정토원이라는 사찰에서 사시 공부를 하였다. 이후에는 김해시 장유면 대청리 장유암에 머무르면서 사시를 준비했으며 틈틈이 불교 경전을 탐독했다. 9년간 사시 공부를 하여 1975년 3월 30세에 제17회 사법시험에 합격하였다. 평소 불심이 깊은 것으로 알려진 아내 권양숙은 2002년 10월 1일 당시 대선을 앞두고 합천 해인사에 머물고 있는 조계종 종정인 법전 스님으로부터 보살계와 는 대한민국 제56789대 대통령 박정희의 아내 육영수가 받은 법명과 같은 것이었다. 이러한 법명 수계는 불교계의 민심이 실린 것으로 볼 수 있으며 불교계의 기대를 받고 있음을 보여주는 것이다. 이후 노무현은 재임 기간 동안 해인사를 무려 세 차례나 방문해 현직 대통령으로서는 최다 방문을 하였다. 2003년 12월 22일에 노무현은 아내와 함께 경남 합천 해인사를 불시 방문해 조계종 종정 법전스님 총무원장 법장스님과 환담한 뒤 오찬을 함께 했다. 사패산 터널 문제에 대한 공약을 지키게 못하게 되었다면서 양해를 구했다.또한 노무현은 2005년 8월 30일에 T-50 골든이글 양산 1호기 출고식에 참석했다. 그리고 대한민국 최고 목조 불상인 쌍둥이 비로자나불이 발견되었다는 소식에 해인사에 들러 비행기 사고 없이 잘 날아다니고 잘 팔아 달라고 부처님께 기도를 했다. 취임 이래 2번째로 해인사를 방문했고 해인사 대비로전 건립에 30여억 원의 국고 지원을 즉석에서 약속했다. 2007년 11월 24일 해인사 대비로전 낙성 대법회에 참석하면서 축사를 하였는데 3번째로 해인사를 방문했다.2009년 5월 23일에 과거 사시 공부를 했던 정토원의 법당에 모셔진 부모와 장인의 위패에 예를 표한 뒤 그 옆의 부엉이 바위에서 투신자살하였다.봉하마을 뒤편 봉화산에 자리 잡은 정토원은 그가 투신한 부엉이 바위에서 약 200M 거리에 위치한 사찰이다.2009년 5월 24일 해인사의 승려 300여 명이 분향소를 찾아 노무현의 죽음을 애도했다.노무현은 청와대 온라인 행정업무 처리 표준화 시스템인 을 통해 이뤄지고 있다고 설명했다. 또한 e지원으로 인해 행정관이나 비서관의 업무 기안이 온라인에서 이뤄지고 대통령을 비롯해 간부들은 실시간으로 추진 중인 업무에 대해 댓글로 지시, 보완하고 결재까지 해서 간소화되었다. 노무현은 임기 후 e지원의 복사본을 제작해 봉하 마을에 설치하였는데, 국가정보 보안과 관련하여 문제가 제기되었고, 복사본을 제작하여 사유하는 것에 대하여 법적 근거가 없다는 법제처의 해석이 나오기도 했다. 차후 국가기록원에 반납 처리되었다.사법 시험 준비생 시절 그는 도 발명했지만 큰 빛을 보지 못했다. 퇴임 후에는 인터넷 토론 사이트 을 개설했다.'사람 사는 세상 노무현 재단'은 노무현의 개인 홈페이지이며, 줄여서 '사람사는 세상'으로 불리기도 한다. 2009년 5월 홈페이지 개편을 대대적으로 실시하다가 5월 23일에 노무현이 사망하자 개편알림 내용을 추모 이미지로 깔아놓기도 했다. 청와대로 연결되는 주소 "맞습니다 맞고요", "맞습니다", "맞고요"는 넷피아에 의해 넘어가기도 했었다. 한명숙이 서울본부 이사장, 권양숙이 경남본부 이사장이며, 경남본부는 경상남도 김해시 진영읍 본산리에 있으며, 서울본부는 서울특별시 마포구 신수동에 위치해 있다.일베저장소와 디시인사이드 합성 갤러리의 합성 및 비하.격식 없는 그의 발언이 인기를 끌면서 일베와 합필갤 이용자들은 그의 사진과 동영상을 합성하여 비하하고 희화화하였다. 노무현 사후 그 정도는 더욱 심해졌다. 합필갤에서 자살 장면과 운지버섯 자양강장제 광고를 합성한 영상이 인기를 끌면서 추락을 뜻하는 이라는 별명을 붙였다. 일베저장소에서 노무현을 교묘하게 합성한 사진이 사진 검색 결과의 상당수를 차지하는 탓에 공식적인 곳에 실수로 사용되어 관련자들이 물의를 빚는 일이 잦다. 노무현은 여전히 일베저장소에서 폄하되고 있다. +수론에서 곱셈적 함수(-的函數 ) 또는 곱산술 함수(-算術函數)는 서로소인 두 정수의 곱셈을 보존하는 수론적 함수이다.함수 formula_1가 다음 조건을 만족시키면, 곱셈적 함수라고 한다.함수 formula_1가 다음 조건을 만족시키면, 완전 곱셈적 함수라고 한다. 곱셈적 함수의 정의역은 formula_8의 곱셈에 대하여 닫혀있는 부분 집합일 수도 있다.곱셈적 함수 formula_1에 대하여 다음과 같은 함수들 역시 곱셈적 함수이다.곱셈적 함수 formula_1에 대하여 만약 formula_13의 소인수 분해가일 경우 다음이 성립한다.만약 추가로 formula_16가 완전 곱셈적 함수일 경우 다음이 성립한다.즉 곱셈적 함수는 소수의 거듭제곱의 상에 의하여 결정되며 완전 곱셈적 함수는 소수의 상에 의하여 결정된다.곱셈적 함수 formula_18에 대하여 다음과 같은 항등식이 성립한다.여기서 formula_23는 뫼비우스 함수이다.곱셈적 함수 formula_24의 정의역 formula_25이 formula_26를 만족한다면,곱셈적 함수는 디리클레 합성곱에 대하여 아벨 군을 이룬다. 즉 곱셈적 함수 formula_18의 디리클레 합성곱은 곱셈적 함수이다.곱셈적 함수 formula_1에 대하여, 만약 formula_13의 소인수 분해가일 경우 다음이 성립한다.만약 추가로 formula_16가 완전 곱셈적 함수일 경우 다음이 성립한다.다음과 같은 수론적 함수들은 완전 곱셈적 함수이다.다음과 같은 수론적 함수들은 곱셈적 함수이나 완전 곱셈적 함수가 아니다.양의 정수를 두 정수의 제곱의 합으로 나타내는 방법의 가짓수를 구하는 함수는 곱셈적 함수가 아니다. 예를 들어, 1을 제곱수로 나타내는 방법은 다음과 같이 4가지가 있다.는 formula_46이 어떤 소수 formula_48의 양의 정수 제곱일 경우 formula_75를, 소수의 거듭제곱이 아닐 경우 0을 값으로 취한다.이므로 이는 곱셈적 함수가 아니다.수학에서, 체비쇼프 다항식은 삼각 함수의 항등식에 등장하는 직교 다항식열이다.실수 formula_1차 다항식 formula_4에 대하여 다음 네 조건이 서로 동치이며 이를 만족시키는 formula_5을 formula_1차 체비쇼프 다항식이라고 한다.드무아브르의 공식의 실수부를 비교하면 formula_17가 formula_18의 formula_1차 다항식으로 표현된다는 것을 알 수 있다. 좌변의 실수부는 formula_17 우변의 실수부는 formula_18와 formula_22의 다항식이다.체비쇼프 다항식들은 다음의 무게 함수에 대해 구간 formula_14에서 직교한다.즉, 다음이 성립한다.짝수 차수의 체비쇼프 다항식은 짝함수이며 홀수 차수의 체비쇼프 다항식은 홀함수이다.formula_1차 체비쇼프 다항식 formula_5은 닫힌구간 formula_14 속에서 formula_1개의 서로 다른 근을 가지며 이들은 다음과 같다.체비쇼프 다항식을 복소수 함수로 여길 때, formula_33의 경우 다음이 성립한다.의 경우 이는 분지 지표 2의 두 분지점 formula_39를 가지며 그 값은 formula_40 및 formula_41이다. 마찬가지로의 경우 분지 지표 2의 두 분지점 formula_43 및 분지 지표 3의 분지점 formula_44를 가지며 그 값은 각각 formula_45 및 formula_46이다.이에 따라 formula_32는 벨리 사상을 이루며 이에 대응하는 데생당팡은 formula_15개의 꼭짓점을 갖는 선형 그래프이다.낮은 차수의 체비쇼프 다항식들은 다음과 같다.파프누티 체비쇼프가 1854년에 도입하였다.체비쇼프 다항식의 통상적인 기호 T는 체비쇼프의 이름의 프랑스어 표기 또는 독일어 표기 에서 딴 것이다. +파이의 날은 원주율을 기념하는 날이다. 파이의 날은 원주율의 근삿값이 3.14이어서 3월 14일에 치러진다. 보통 3.14159에 맞추기 위해 오후 1시 59분에 기념하는데, 오후 1시 59분은 엄밀히 말하면 13시 59분이기 때문에 오전 1시 59분 혹은 15시 9분에 치러야 한다고 주장하는 사람도 있다. 세계 각국의 수학과에서 기념행사를 연다.3월 14일은 알베르트 아인슈타인의 생일이면서 스티븐 호킹의 기일이기도 하다. 이 날은 여러 방법으로 기념된다. 사람들이 모여서 원주율이 생활에서 어떤 역할을 했는지 이야기하고 원주율이 없는 세상을 상상해 본다. 모임에서는 보통 파이를 먹는다. 또한 많은 행사에서 원주율을 소수점 아래의 숫자를 얼마나 많이 외우는지 겨루는 대회가 열린다.분수 3과 7분의 1을 가분수로 나타내면 7분의 22가 되는데 이를 무한소수로 나타내면 3.142857...로 의 근삿값이 되므로 7월 22일을 파이 근삿값 날로 부르기도 한다.기하학에서 코사인 법칙(cosine法則 )은 삼각형의 세 변과 한 각의 코사인 사이에 성립하는 정리이다. 이에 따르면 삼각형의 두 변의 제곱합에서 사잇각의 코사인과 그 두 변의 곱의 2배를 빼면 남은 변의 제곱과 같아진다. 삼각형의 두 변의 직각 삼각형에 대한 피타고라스의 정리에 대한 일반화이다. 코사인 법칙은 삼각형의 두 변과 그 사잇각을 알 때 남은 한 변을 구하거나 세 변을 알 때 세 각을 구하는 데 사용될 수 있다.삼각형 formula_1의 세 각 formula_2가 마주하는 변이 각각 formula_3라고 하면 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_5은 삼각 함수의 하나인 코사인이다. 이를 코사인 법칙이라고 한다.코사인 법칙을 통해 삼각형의 두 변과 그 사잇각으로부터 제3의 변을 구할 수 있다. 또한 삼각형의 세 변으로부터 세 각을 다음과 같이 구할 수 있다.코사인 법칙에서 formula_7가 직각일 경우, formula_8이므로, 다음과 같은 피타고라스의 정리를 얻는다.유클리드의 2권 명제12 및 명제 13은 코사인 법칙과 동치인 명제를 서술한다.레기오몬타누스는 1462~3년에 작성한 에서 제2 구면 코사인 법칙을 제시하였다.유클리드의 에서의 증명.그림과 같이, formula_7를 둔각으로 하는 둔각 삼각형 formula_1의 높이선 formula_12를 긋자. 그렇다면, formula_13는 formula_14를 직각으로 하는 직각 삼각형이므로, 피타고라스의 정리에 따라 다음이 성립한다.또한 formula_16이므로 다음이 성립한다.마지막 두 항을 직각 삼각형 formula_18에 대한 피타고라스의 정리를 통해 정리하면 다음을 얻는다.이로써 유클리드의 2권 명제12가 증명된다. 코사인의 정의에 따라이 formula_7가 둔각일 경우 성립함을 알 수 있다. formula_7가 예각일 경우의 증명은 이와 비슷하다.삼각법을 통한 증명.삼각형의 세 변을 각각 높이선으로 안에서 또는 밖에서 나누면 다음을 얻는다.세 등식의 양변에 각각 formula_3를 곱하면 다음을 얻는다.이제 첫째 등식에 둘째 등식을 더한 뒤 셋째 등식을 빼면 다음을 얻는다.이로써 코사인 법칙이 증명된다.벡터와 스칼라곱을 사용한 증명.다음과 같은 세 벡터를 정의하자.그렇다면, 벡터 formula_33의 길이는 각각 formula_3이며, 벡터 formula_35와 formula_36 사이의 각도는 formula_7이다. 따라서, 코사인 법칙을 벡터의 스칼라곱의 성질에 따라 다음과 같이 간단히 증명할 수 있다.비유클리드 기하학의 경우.단위 구면 위의 구면 삼각형 formula_1의 세 각 formula_2가 마주하는 세 변이 각각 formula_3라고 하면, 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_43은 각각 코사인 사인이다. 이를 구면 코사인 법칙이라고 한다. 이에 대한 쌍대 명제는 다음과 같다.이를 제2 구면 코사인 법칙이라고 한다.이 둘은 각각 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있다.제1 구면 코사인 법칙의 증명 .다음과 같은 벡터들을 정의하자.즉, formula_48는 각각 formula_7에서 formula_50를 향하는 구면의 단위 접벡터이다. 그렇다면, formula_48 사이의 각도는 formula_7이다. 또한, formula_53는 각각 평면 formula_54의 정규 직교 기저를 이루므로, formula_55를 각각 다음과 같이 분해할 수 있다.따라서 다음이 성립한다.제1 구면 코사인 법칙의 증명 (비네-코시 항등식 사용).단위 구면의 중심을 formula_59라고 하자. 또한, 다음과 같은 세 벡터를 정의하자.그렇다면 formula_33의 길이는 모두 1이며 formula_62 사이의 각도는 formula_63이며 formula_64 사이의 각도는 formula_65이며 formula_66 사이의 각도는 formula_67이다. 따라서 벡터곱 formula_68 formula_69 formula_70의 길이는 각각 formula_71 formula_72 formula_73이다. 또한 formula_68와 formula_69 사이의 각도는 formula_76이며 formula_77와 formula_70 사이의 각도는 formula_79이며 formula_80와 formula_81 사이의 각도는 formula_7이다. 이제 비네-코시 항등식에 따라 다음이 성립함에 주의하자.여기에 위의 결과들을 대입하면 다음을 얻는다.이로써 제1 구면 코사인 법칙이 증명된다.제2 구면 코사인 법칙의 증명.구면 삼각형 formula_1의 극삼각형을 formula_86라고 하자. 그렇다면 다음이 성립한다.따라서 제1 구면 코사인 법칙을 극삼각형 formula_86에 적용하면, 구면 삼각형 formula_1에 대한 제2 구면 코사인 법칙을 얻는다.가우스 곡률 -1의 쌍곡면 위의 쌍곡 삼각형 formula_1의 세 각 formula_2이 마주하는 변이 각각 formula_3라고 하면, 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_95는 각각 쌍곡 코사인 쌍곡 사인이다. 이를 쌍곡 코사인 법칙(雙曲cosine法則 )이라고 한다. 마찬가지로 다음이 성립한다.이를 제2 쌍곡 코사인 법칙이라고 한다.이 두 법칙은 각각 다음과 같이 다시 쓸 수 있다.특히, formula_7가 직각일 경우의 제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙은 쌍곡 피타고라스 정리가 된다.제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙의 증명.복소 평면 formula_101 위의 열린 단위 원판 formula_102 위에서 푸앵카레 원판 모형을 취하자. 쌍곡 삼각형 formula_103의 세 각의 크기를 formula_2, 세 변의 길이를 formula_3라고 하자. formula_106 위에 적절한 등거리 변환을 가하여 formula_107을 각각 원점 0, 양의 실수 formula_108, 허수부 formula_109가 0보다 큰 복소수 formula_110로 옮길 수 있다. 등거리 변환의 성질에 따라 새로운 삼각형 formula_111의 세 변 및 세 각은 원래의 삼각형 formula_103와 같으므로, 새로운 삼각형 formula_111에 대하여 증명하는 것으로 족하다. 쌍곡 거리의 정의에 따라, 세 변은 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_117은 자연 로그이며, formula_118은 복소수의 절댓값이다. 이 셋을 다음과 같이 변형할 수 있다.여기서 formula_122는 쌍곡 탄젠트이다. 쌍곡선 함수의 항등식을 사용한 뒤 위의 결과를 대입하여 정리하면 다음을 얻는다.제2 쌍곡 코사인 법칙의 증명.쌍곡 사인 법칙에 나오는 비율의 구체적인 값은 다음과 같다.이에 따라 각 formula_2의 사인 값은 다음과 같다.또한, 제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙에 따라 formula_2의 코사인 값은 다음과 같다.따라서 다음이 성립한다.마지막 등호에는 항등식 formula_135이 사용되었다. 이로써 제2 쌍곡 코사인 법칙이 증명된다.평면 코사인 법칙과의 관계.평면 코사인 법칙은 제1 구면 및 쌍곡 코사인 법칙의 극한이다. 예를 들어, 평면 코사인 법칙이 제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙의 극한임을 다음과 같이 보일 수 있다. 푸앵카레 원판의 반지름이 formula_136일 경우, 제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙은 다음과 같이 된다.이 경우, formula_138일 때 쌍곡 거리 formula_139는 유클리드 거리의 2배 formula_140로 수렴하며, 쌍곡각 formula_141은 유클리드 각 formula_142로 수렴한다. 테일러 정리에 따라 다음이 성립한다.이를 법칙에 대입하면 다음을 얻는다.다음에 주의하여, 양변에 formula_147을 곱한 뒤 극한 formula_138을 취하고 다시 양변에 4를 나누자.그러면 평면 코사인 법칙을 얻는다.제2 쌍곡 코사인 법칙에 극한 formula_138을 취하면 다음과 같은 자명한 항등식이 된다.이는 formula_156이므로 자명하다. 따라서 유클리드 기하학에는 제2 코사인 법칙이 존재하지 않는다. +기하학에서, 사인 법칙(-法則) 혹은 라미의 정리는 삼각형의 변의 길이와 각의 사인 사이의 관계를 나타내는 정리이다. 이에 따라 삼각형의 두 각의 크기와 한 변의 길이를 알 때 남은 두 변의 길이를 구할 수 있다.삼각형 formula_1의 각 formula_2을 마주보는 변을 formula_3라고 하자. 사인 법칙에 따르면 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_5은 삼각형 formula_1의 외접원의 반지름이다.삼각형의 넓이를 통한 증명.삼각형 formula_1의 변 formula_8 위의 높이를 formula_9라고 하자. 삼각법에 따라 formula_10이므로 삼각형 formula_1의 넓이 formula_12는 다음과 같다.자모를 치환하면 다음과 같은 등식을 얻는다.양변에 formula_15를 나누면 사인 법칙을 얻는다.외접원을 통한 증명.삼각형 formula_1의 외접원을 그리자. formula_18를 지나는 지름을 formula_19라고 하자. 따라서 formula_20는 직각 삼각형이며 빗변은 formula_21이다. 삼각법에 따라 다음이 성립한다.만약 formula_23가 예각일 경우 formula_23와 formula_25는 같은 호의 원주각이므로 formula_26이다. 따라서 다음이 성립한다.만약 formula_23가 직각일 경우 formula_29와 formula_25는 같은 점이므로 formula_31이며 formula_32이다. 따라서 역시 위와 같은 식이 성립한다. 만약 formula_23가 둔각일 경우 formula_23와 formula_25는 내접 사각형의 두 마주보는 각이므로 formula_36이다. 따라서 역시 위와 같은 식이 성립한다. 남은 두 각 formula_37에 대한 식 역시 마찬가지로 증명할 수 있다.코사인 법칙을 통한 증명.코사인 법칙에 따라 다음이 성립한다.결과가 formula_3에 대하여 대칭적이므로 변의 선택에 의존하지 않는다. 또한 세 변과 세 각의 사인은 모두 양수이므로 사인 법칙이 성립한다.단위 구면 위의 구면 삼각형 formula_1의 각 formula_2가 마주보는 변을 formula_3라고 하자. 구면 사인 법칙에 따르면 다음이 성립한다.구면 사인 법칙의 증명.구의 중심을 formula_44라고 하자. formula_45에서 아무 점 formula_46를 취하자. formula_46를 지나는 평면 formula_48의 수선을 formula_49라고 하자. formula_25를 지나는 직선 formula_51의 수선을 각각 formula_52라고 하자. 삼수선 정리에 따라 formula_53는 각각 formula_51와 수직이다. 삼각법에 따라 다음이 성립한다.두 식에서 formula_57를 소거하면 다음을 얻는다.남은 한 등식 역시 같은 방법으로 증명하면 구면 사인 법칙을 얻는다.구의 중심과 세 꼭짓점 formula_2를 잇는 벡터를 각각 formula_60라고 하자. 삼중곱의 정의에 따라 다음이 성립한다.따라서 다음이 성립한다.여기에 다음을 대입하면 구면 사인 법칙을 얻는다.구면 코사인 법칙을 통한 증명.제1 구면 코사인 법칙을 사용하여 구면 사인 법칙을 다음과 같이 증명할 수 있다.가우스 곡률이 -1인 쌍곡면 위의 쌍곡 삼각형 formula_1의 각 formula_2가 마주보는 변을 formula_3라고 하자. 쌍곡 사인 법칙에 따르면 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_73는 쌍곡 사인이다.쌍곡 사인 법칙의 증명.쌍곡 코사인 법칙을 통한 증명.제1 쌍곡 코사인 법칙을 사용하여 쌍곡 사인 법칙을 다음과 같이 증명할 수 있다. +선형대수학에서 벡터 공간 또는 선형 공간은 원소를 서로 더하거나 주어진 배수로 늘이거나 줄일 수 있는 공간이다. 체에 대한 가군의 특수한 경우다. 벡터 공간의 원소를 벡터라고 하며 이는 직관적으로 방향 및 길이의 비가 정의된 대상을 나타낸다. 그러나 노름이 주어지지 않은 일반적인 벡터 공간에서는 벡터의 길이 자체는 정의되지 않는다.체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간 formula_2은 formula_1에 대한 가군이다. 즉, 다음과 같은 튜플이다.이 데이터는 다음과 같은 공리들을 만족시켜야 한다.실수체 formula_30에 대한 벡터 공간을 실수 벡터 공간이라고 하며 복소수체 formula_31에 대한 벡터 공간을 복소수 벡터 공간이라고 한다.체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간 formula_4의 부분 집합 formula_34가 다음 조건을 만족시키면, formula_35가 formula_4의 부분 벡터 공간이라고 한다.즉 부분 벡터 공간은 formula_4의 연산들을 제한시켜 새로운 더 작은 벡터 공간을 이룰 수 있는 부분 집합이다.벡터 공간 formula_4의 부분 집합 formula_45에 대하여, formula_45의 생성 formula_47는 formula_45를 포함하는 모든 부분 공간들의 교집합이다. 만약 formula_45에서, formula_50인 원소 formula_51가 존재하지 않는다면, formula_45가 선형 독립 집합이라고 한다. 생성이 벡터 공간 전체인 선형 독립 집합을 기저라고 한다.선택 공리를 가정하면 모든 벡터 공간은 하나 이상의 기저를 가지며 모든 기저들은 항상 같은 크기를 갖는다. 벡터 공간 formula_4의 기저의 크기를 벡터 공간의 차원(次元 ) formula_54이라고 한다.두 벡터 공간 사이의 선형 변환은 벡터 덧셈과 스칼라 곱셈을 보존하는 사상이다. 만약 두 벡터 공간 사이에 가역 선형 변환이 존재한다면 그 두 벡터 공간이 서로 동형이라고 한다. 주어진 두 벡터 공간 사이의 선형 변환의 집합은 점별 벡터 덧셈과 점별 스칼라 곱셈에 의하여 벡터 공간을 이룬다. 두 유한 차원 벡터 공간 사이의 선형 변환은 주어진 기저에 대한 행렬로 나타낼 수 있다.선택 공리를 가정하자. 체 formula_1에 대한 벡터 공간 formula_4에 대하여 다음이 성립한다.즉, 주어진 체에 대한 벡터 공간은 그 차원에 따라서 완전히 분류된다. 이는 선택 공리를 필요로 하며, 선택 공리가 없으면 모든 벡터 공간이 차원을 갖는다는 것을 보일 수 없다. 여기서 formula_58는 formula_1의 formula_60개의 직합이며, formula_61인 경우 이는 곱집합과 다르다.같은 체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간들이 주어졌을 때 다음과 같은 연산들을 정의할 수 있다.체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간 formula_4와 그 임의의 부분 공간 formula_35가 주어졌다고 하자. 그렇다면 formula_4 위에 다음과 같은 동치 관계를 정의할 수 있다.이 동치 관계에 대한 동치류는 다음과 같다.몫공간 formula_69는 집합으로서 이 동치 관계에 대한 몫집합이다.그 위의 벡터 공간 연산은 다음과 같다.이 정의는 동치류의 대표원을 선택하는 방식과 무관하다. 또한, 이들 연산은 집합으로서의 연산과 일치하지 않는다.formula_1 위의 벡터 공간들의 집합 formula_74이 주어졌을 때 이들의 직접곱은 집합으로서 formula_76들의 곱집합이다. 이 위에는 자연스러운 formula_1-벡터 공간의 구조가 존재한다. 즉이는 벡터 공간의 범주에서의 곱이며 대수 구조로서의 직접곱이다. 즉 자연스러운 사영 사상이 존재하며 이는 선형 변환을 이룬다.formula_1 위의 벡터 공간들의 집합 formula_74이 주어졌을 때, 이들의 직합은 다음과 같다.즉 직접곱에서 오직 유한 개의 성분만 0이 아닌 원소들로 구성된 부분 집합이다. 이는 벡터 공간의 범주에서의 쌍대곱이며 가군의 직합의 특수한 경우이다. 즉 자연스러운 포함 사상가 존재하며 따라서 각 formula_76는 formula_86의 부분 공간을 이룬다.유한 직합은 직접곱과 같으나, 무한 직합은 일반적으로 직접곱의 부분 공간이다. 만약 formula_87가 formula_76의 기저라면,는 formula_86의 기저를 이룬다. 따라서,이다. 여기서 우변은 기수의 합이다.formula_1 위의 벡터 공간들의 집합 formula_74이 주어졌을 때, 이들의 텐서곱이 존재한다. 이는 자연스러운 다중 선형 사상을 가지며, 또한 임의의 다른 다중 선형 사상이 주어졌을 때 유일한 선형 사상가 존재한다. 텐서곱은 이 보편 성질로부터 유일하게 정의되며, 또 항상 존재한다. 그러나 무한 개의 벡터 공간들의 텐서곱은 직접 정의하기 힘들다.임의의 두 벡터 공간 formula_4 formula_35에 대하여 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_102은 기수의 곱셈이다.체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간 formula_1는 다음 성질들을 만족시킨다.즉, 체 위에서는 모든 가군이 자유 가군이 된다.체 formula_1 위의 벡터 공간 formula_4의 집합의 크기는 다음과 같다.벡터 공간에 성질을 추가하여 만든 구조로는 거리의 개념을 준 노름 공간 · 바나흐 공간, 각의 개념을 준 내적 공간 · 힐베르트 공간, 위상적 성질을 가진 위상 벡터 공간 · 국소 볼록 공간 · 프레셰 공간, 벡터 곱을 준 체 위의 대수 등이 있다.벡터 공간은 임의의 환 위의 가군의 개념의 특수한 경우이다. 그러나 일반적인 환 위의 일반적인 가군은 벡터 공간과 매우 다른 성질을 보인다. 벡터 공간과 비슷한 성질을 보이는 가군을 자유 가군이라고 한다. +펜로즈 삼각형는 불가능한 물체의 일종이다. 1934년 스웨덴의 화가 오스카르 레우테르스베르드가 처음 쓰기 시작했고, 1950년대에 영국의 수학자 로저 펜로즈가 그와는 독자적으로 고안하여, 널리 알렸다. 그 후에도 펜로즈 삼각형은 마우리츠 코르넬리스 에셔의 판화에서 쓰이기 시작하여, 그의 작품 속에 등장하는 불가능한 물체에 영향을 주었다.이 삼각형은 단면이 사각형인 입체인 것처럼 보이지만 2차원 그림으로만 가능하다. 왜냐하면 삼각형의 각 변을 이루는 평행한 면들은 각 꼭짓점에 이르면 서로 다른 위치에서 본 직각의 모서리이기 때문이다. 각 변을 이루는 막대는 모두 서로 직각을 이루며 그럼에도 불구하고 삼각형을 만든다.이 방법을 일반화 시켜서 펜로즈 다각형으로 확대할 수 있다. 하지만 펜로즈 사각형은 그 시각적 효과가 삼각형만큼 충격적이진 않다.펜로즈 삼각형처럼 보이는 입체를 만들 수는 있다. 하지만 이 때에 각 변은 꼬이거나 끊어져야 한다.정수론에서 수론적 함수(數論的函數 )는 모든 양의 정수에 대해 정의된 함수이며 복소수 함수값을 가질 수도 있다. 다시 말하면 수론적 함수는 복소수의 수열에 지나지 않는다.중요한 수론적 함수로 덧셈적 함수와 곱셈적 함수가 있으며, 수론적 함수 사이의 연산으로는 디리클레 합성곱이 중요하다.곱셈적 함수와 덧셈적 함수에 몇몇 수론적 함수의 예가 수록되어 있다. 아래 예들은 곱셈적이지도, 덧셈적이지도 않은 함수들이다.물리 상수는 물리학에 나오는 값이 변하지 않는 물리량을 말한다. 물리 상수는 실제적인 물리적 측정과는 관계없이 고정된 값을 갖는 수학 상수와 대비되어, 대부분이 그 값이 실험을 통한 측정을 통해 얻어진다.물리 상수들 중에 특히 유명한 것으로는 플랑크 상수, 중력 상수, 아보가드로 상수 등이 있다.물리 상수는 여러가지 양을 의미한다. 플랑크 길이는 자연의 기본적인 거리 광속은 가능한 최고 속력 미세 구조 상수는 차원이 없는 양으로 전자와 광자 사이의 상호작용의 정도를 각각 의미한다.유효자리는 굵게 표시했다.aPeter J. Mohr and Barry N. Taylor Vol. 72 No. 2 2000. +대수학의 기본 정리란 상수가 아닌 복소계수 다항식은 적어도 하나의 영점을 갖는다는 정리이다.즉, 복소계수 다항식에 대해 formula_2 인 복소수 formula_3 가 적어도 하나는 존재한다는 것이다.이 정리는 복소수체가 실수체와는 달리 대수적으로 닫힌 체임을 뜻한다.수학자들은 17세기에 이미 이 정리가 옳으리라 생각하였으나 증명에는 성공하지 못하였다. 복소수의 개념이 없던 당시에는 “모든 실계수 다항식은 실계수 일차식들과 실계수 이차식들의 곱으로 나타낼 수 있다”라는 예상이었다. 장 르 롱 달랑베르와 레온하르트 오일러 등이 증명하였으나 보충적인 정리의 증명을 필요로했으며 이러한 맥락에서 모두 불완전하였고, 보다 엄밀한 증명에 성공한 수학자는 19세기 초의 카를 프리드리히 가우스, 장-로버트 아르간드 등이였다. 그 이후 이 정리는 복소수 계수 다항식으로 확장되었다. 한편 가우스는 추후 생애 동안 몇 가지의 다른 증명을 발표했다. 또한 장-로버트 아르간드의 증명은 오귀스탱 루이 코시가 그의 저술 Cours d'Analyse(Cours d'Analyse de l’cole Royale Polytechnique; I.re Partie. Analyse algbrique)에서 이를 언급한바있다. 현재까지 순수하게 대수적인 증명은 아무도 발견하지 못했으며, 약간의 해석학 또는 위상수학을 도입해야 증명할 수 있다.다음은 복소해석학을 이용한 증명이다.가 영점을 갖지 않는다고 가정하자. 즉 모든 복소수 formula_5에 대해 formula_6 라고 가정하자. 그러면 formula_7 는 전해석함수이다. 이제 삼각 부등식을 이용하여를 얻고, formula_9라 하면, 양수 formula_10에 대해 formula_11이면이 성립하므로 식 로부터을 얻는다. 즉 formula_7 는 유계인 전해석함수이다. 따라서 리우빌 정리에 의해 formula_15는 상수함수이다. 그러나 가정에서 formula_16는 상수가 아니라고 하였으므로 formula_15 도 상수함수가 될 수 없다. 그러므로 formula_16 는 적어도 하나의 영점을 갖는다.대수학의 기본 정리로부터 다음의 유용한 따름정리를 얻을 수 있다. 이 따름정리를 대수학의 기본정리로 부르는 경우도 있다.모든 formula_19차 복소 다항식은 중근까지 고려하여 formula_19개의 근을 갖는다.따름정리는 다음과 같이 기술할 수 있다. 복소 다항식에 대해 복소수 formula_22이 존재하여와 같이 쓸 수 있다.대수학의 기본 정리에 의해 formula_24인 점 formula_25이 존재하므로와 같이 쓸 수 있다. 그런데 formula_27은 formula_28차의 다항식이므로, 다항식의 차수에 대한 귀납법을 사용하면 증명이 끝난다.실계수 다항식의 표현.실계수 formula_19차 다항식의 경우, 위의 따름정리를 적용하면 이 역시 복소수체 위에서 중근을 고려할 경우 formula_19개의 근을 갖는다. 이 표현 형식은 곱하는 순서를 고려하지 않을 경우 유일하므로, 만약 허수부가 0이 아닌 근을 갖는다면 실수체 위에서는 그 근을 표현할 수 없다. 즉 실수체 위에서는 반드시 formula_19개의 근을 갖지 않을 수도 있다.실수체 위에서 실계수 다항식을 기약다항식들로 인수분해할 때 기약다항식이 갖는 최대의 차수는 formula_32이다. 이는 실계수 다항식의 근이 갖는 켤레성 즉 formula_33가 실계수 다항식의 근이면 이의 복소켤레 formula_34도 그 다항식의 근이 되는 성질 때문이다. 두 개의 복소계수 일차식의 곱은와 같이 실계수 이차식으로 환원된다.실계수 다항식의 근의 켤레성.만일formula_37가 실계수 다항식의 복소수 근이면 즉, formula_39이면 formula_40이다.복소켤레 연산의 성질에 의해대수학의 기본정리에 의해 formula_19 차의 실계수 다항식은 반드시 복소수의 범위에서 formula_19개의 근을 가져야 한다. 그런데 실계수 다항식의 근의 켤레성에 의해 복소수 근을 갖지 않거나, 갖는다면 짝수개이어야 하므로 차수가 홀수인 다항식은 적어도 하나의 실근을 가져야함을 알 수 있다. +\; \exp\left(-\frac{\left^2}{2\sigma^2} \right) \!</math>확률론과 통계학에서 정규 분포 또는 가우스 분포는 연속 확률 분포의 하나이다. 정규분포는 수집된 자료의 분포를 근사하는 데에 자주 사용되며, 이것은 중심극한정리에 의하여 독립적인 확률변수들의 평균은 정규분포에 가까워지는 성질이 있기 때문이다.정규분포는 2개의 매개 변수 평균 formula_2과 표준편차 formula_10에 대해 모양이 결정되고 이때의 분포를 formula_11로 표기한다. 특히 평균이 0이고 표준편차가 1인 정규분포 formula_12을 표준 정규 분포라고 한다.정규분포는 아브라암 드무아브르가 1733년 쓴 글에서 특정 이항 분포의 formula_13이 클 때 그 분포의 근사치를 계산하는 것과 관련하여 처음 소개되었고 이 글은 그의 저서 《우연의 교의》(The Doctrine of Chances) 2판(1738년)에 다시 실렸다. 피에르시몽 라플라스는 그의 저서 《확률론의 해석이론》(Thorie analytique des probabilits)(1812년)에서 이 결과를 확장하였고 이는 오늘날 드무아브르-라플라스의 정리로 알려져있다.라플라스는 실험 오차를 분석하면서 정규분포를 사용했다. 1805년에는 아드리앵마리 르장드르가 매우 중요한 방법인 최소제곱법을 도입했다. 카를 프리드리히 가우스는 이 방법을 1794년부터 사용해왔다고 주장했는데 1809년에는 실험 오차가 정규분포를 따른다는 가정하에 최소제곱법을 이론적으로 엄밀히 정당화했다.위에서 첫 번째 적분은 홀함수의 적분으로 0이고 두 번째 적분은 가우스 적분으로 적분값이 formula_16로 잘 알려져 있다. 따라서 기댓값은 formula_2다.정규 분포 밀도 함수에서 formula_18를 통해 X를 Z로 정규화함으로써 평균이 0 표준편차가 1인 표준정규분포를 얻을 수 있다.z-분포라고도 부른다. z-분포로 하는 검정을 z검정이라고 한다.formula_19에서 k값이 변화함에 따라 구해지는 formula_20값을 불확실성(uncertainty)이라고 한다. 예를 들어 formula_21를 90% 불확실성, formula_22는 95% 불확실성, formula_23은 99% 불확실성이다. 특히, formula_24를 50% 불확실성이라고 하며, 확률오차(probable error)라고도 한다. 이는 관측값이 전체 관측값의 50%에 있을 확률을 의미한다. +공각기동대는 시로 마사무네의 만화에서 만들어진 같은 세계관을 공유하는 한 무리의 작품들을 가리킨다. 공각기동대는 극장판 영화, 텔레비전 애니메이션, 소설, 비디오 게임 등 다양한 매체로 만들어졌다.수론에서의 뫼비우스 반전 공식은 19세기 수학자 아우구스트 페르디난트 뫼비우스의 이름을 딴 공식이다."g" 과 "f"이 수론적 함수이며 1보다 큰 모든 formula_1에 대해 다음이 성립한다고 하자.이 때, 1보다 큰 모든 formula_1에 대해 다음이 성립한다.여기서 formula_5는 뫼비우스 함수이고 덧셈은 "n"의 양의 약수 "d" 전체에 대해 이루어진다.수론적 함수 formula_6는 formula_7의 누적으로 이루어지는데 역으로 formula_6를 통해 formula_7를 꺼내는 공식이므로 반전 공식이라 불린다."f"와 "g"가 자연수에서 어떤 아벨 군으로의 함수일 때에도 공식은 성립한다.디리클레 합성곱과의 관계.디리클레 합성곱을 사용하여 공식을 써 보면 다음과 같다.여기서 * 는 디리클레 합성곱이고, 1은 모든 formula_1에 대해 항상 1인 수론적 함수이다. 이 경우,가 성립한다. 즉 뫼비우스 함수는 모든 함수값이 1인 수론적 함수의 역원이기 때문이다. 당연하게도이 성립한다. 여기서 formula_14은 formula_15일 때만 1이고 나머지는 모두 0인 수론적 함수이다.다양한 수론적 함수의 계산의 예는 Apostol의 책을 참조하면 좋다.조합론에서 자주 쓰이는 동치의 진술은 다음과 같다."F"와 "G"가 구간 [1∞)에서 복소수로의 함수이고 1보다 크거나 같은 모든 formula_16에 대해을 만족하면, 1보다 크거나 같은 모든 formula_16에 대해여기서 합은 "x"보다 작거나 같은 모든 양의 정수 "n"에 대해서 이루어진다.수학에서 푸리에 급수는 주기 함수를 삼각함수의 가중치로 분해한 급수다. 대부분의 경우 급수의 계수는 본래 함수와 일대일로 대응한다.함수의 푸리에 계수는 본래 함수보다 다루기 쉽기 때문에 유용하게 쓰인다. 푸리에 급수는 전자 공학 진동 해석 음향학 광학 신호처리와 화상처리 데이터 압축 등에 쓰인다. 천문학에서는 분광기를 통해 별빛의 진동수를 분해하여 별을 이루는 화학 물질을 알아내는 데 쓰이고 통신 공학에서는 전송해야 하는 데이터 신호의 스펙트럼을 이용하여 통신 시스템 설계를 최적화하는 데 쓰인다.프랑스의 과학자이자 수학자인 조제프 푸리에가 열 방정식을 풀기 위하여 도입하였다.푸리에 급수는 주기함수를 기본적인 조화함수인 삼각함수 또는 복소 지수 함수의 급수로 나타낸 것이다. 주기함수 formula_1가 formula_2의 주기를 가진다고 하자. 즉라고 하자. 또한, formula_4가 모든 유한 구간에서 제곱적분 가능하다고 하자. 즉, 임의의 formula_5에 대하여,가 유한한 값으로 존재한다고 하자. 그렇다면 formula_4의 푸리에 계수 formula_8을 다음과 같이 정의한다.그렇다면 다음이 성립한다. 임의의 formula_10에 대하여 다음 식이 성립하지 않는 formula_11의 집합은 르베그 측도 0을 가진다.만약 formula_4가 연속미분가능 함수라면 formula_4의 푸리에 급수는 모든 formula_11에서 formula_18로 수렴한다. +가수는 목소리를 이용해서 음악을 만들고 부르는 사람을 말한다. 고전음악이나 오페라에서 목소리는 악기와 동일한 용법으로 사용되었다.수학에서 감마 함수는 계승 함수의 해석적 연속이다.감마 함수의 기호는 감마라는 그리스 대문자를 사용한다.양의 정수 n에 대하여 formula_1이 성립한다.감마 함수는 다음과 같이 여러 가지로 정의할 수 있으며, 이들은 모두 동치임을 보일 수 있다.감마 함수는 다음과 같은 적분으로 정의된다. 이 적분을 오일러 적분이라고 한다.오일러 적분은 상반평면 formula_3 인 영역에서 절대수렴한다. 여기에 해석적 연속을 사용해 이 함수의 정의역을 위의 단순극을 제외한 전 복소평면으로 확장할 수 있다. 이 확장된 함수를 감마 함수라 부른다.이 정의는 오일러의 이름을 따 오일러 극한 형태라고도 불리기도 한다.바이어슈트라스 무한곱.여기서 formula_6 는 오일러-마스케로니 상수이다. 이 정의는 카를 바이어슈트라스의 이름을 따 바이어슈트라스 무한곱 형태라고도 불리기도 한다.계승의 일반화에서 주의점.만약 감마함수를 자연수 formula_7에 대해을 만족하는 함수로 정의하면 감마 함수는 유일하지 않다. 예를 들어또한 위 성질을 만족함을 확인할 수 있다. 감마 함수는 이중 유일하게 formula_10가 양의 실수축상에서 볼록함수이다.감마 함수는 정의역에서 정칙 함수이다. 즉 다음이 성립한다.감마 함수는 복소평면에서 유리형 함수이며 양이 아닌 정수 formula_12에서 단순극을 가진다. 단순극 formula_13에서 유수의 값은 formula_14이다.감마 함수는 영점을 갖지 않는다. 즉 그 역수 formula_15는 전해석 함수이다.감마 함수는 다음과 같은 함수 방정식을 만족시킨다.두 번째 공식은 오일러 반사 공식이라고 불린다.특히, 이 정리의 특수한 경우로 다음과 같은 두 배 공식을 유도할 수 있다.감마 함수의 미분은 다음과 같이 폴리감마 함수 formula_20로 주어진다.특별히 양수 m에서의 감마 함수의 미분은 아래와 같이 오일러-마스케로니 상수 를 사용해 나타낼 수 있다.일반적으로 감마 함수의 n차 미분은 다음과 같다.감마 함수의 극, z가 음수인 경우에서의 유수의 값은 다음과 같다.반정수에서 감마 함수는 다음과 같다. 음이 아닌 정수 "n"에 대하여이 공식들은 formula_27로부터 수학적 귀납법으로 유도할 수 있다.몇몇 경우의 감마 함수의 값은 다음과 같다.감마 함수는 확률 분포를 비롯한 여러 확률과 통계, 조합론, 그 외 여러 공학 분야들에서 유용하게 사용된다.반지름이 formula_30인 formula_7차원 초구의 부피는 다음과 같이 주어진다.감마 함수의 피적분 함수를 감마 함수의 적분값으로 나눈 함수를 실수의 양수축에서 적분을 하면 1이 된다. 따라서 이를 이용해 새로운 분포를 정의할 수 있다. 이 분포를 감마분포라 하고, 그 확률 밀도 함수 formula_33는 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_35는 감마 함수의 매개 변수로 양수이다.큐-감마 함수는 감마 함수가 큐-아날로그화 된것이다. +아쿠타가와 류노스케는 일본의 근대 소설가이다. 호는 징강당주인이며 하이쿠 작가로서의 호는 가키이다.그의 작품은 대부분이 단편 소설이다. 「참마죽」, 「덤불 속」, 「지옥변」 등 주로 일본의 《곤자쿠 이야기집》·《우지슈이 이야기》 등 전통적인 고전들에서 제재를 취하였다. 또한 「거미줄(원제: 蜘蛛糸)」, 「두자춘(杜子春)」 등 어린이를 위한 작품도 남겼으며, 예수를 학대한 유대인이 예수가 세상에 다시 올 때까지 방황한다는 상상력을 발휘한 「방황하는 유대인」도 있다.1892년 3월 1일 도쿄에서 우유 판매업자였던 아버지 니하라 도시조와 어머니 후쿠 사이의 아들로 태어났다. 이때 태어난 시간이 공교롭게도 진년 진월 진일 진시였기 때문에 로 되어 있다.원래 류노스케의 위로는 하쓰와 히사라는 두 명의 누나가 있었는데, 큰누나였던 하쓰는 류노스케가 태어나기 1년 전에 여섯 살의 나이로 요절했고, 어머니는 그 충격으로 정신장애를 겪어서 류노스케를 양육할 수 없었다. 생후 7개월 된 류노스케는 도쿄시 혼죠구 고이즈미쵸에 있던 외가 아쿠타가와 집안에 맡겨졌고, 백모 후키가 양육을 맡았다. 11살 때인 1902년에 어머니가 끝내 사망하자 이듬해에 그는 외삼촌으로 도쿄시의 토목과장을 지내기도 했던 아쿠타가와 미치아키의 양자가 되어 아쿠타가와 성을 쓰게 된다. 아쿠타가와 집안은 에도 시대에는 사족으로서 대대로 도쿠가와 집안을 섬겨 다도와 관련된 업무를 담당하던 스키야호즈 집안이었고, 예술·연예를 애호하던 에도의 문인적 취미가 집안에 남아 있었다.도쿄부립 제3중학교를 졸업할 때는 성적우수자라는 상장을 받기도 했고 덕분에 제1고등학교는 시험 없이 입학할 수 있었다. 제1고등학교 제1부 을류에 입학한 류노스케의 동기 가운데는 기쿠치 간도 있었다. 2학년으로 오르면서 기숙사로 들어갔는데 기숙사 생활에 제대로 적응하지는 못했지만 그곳에서 한 방을 쓰던 이가와 쿄와는 평생의 친구가 된다.고등학교를 졸업하고 1913년 동경제국대학 영문과에 입학하였다. 대학 재학 중이던 1914년 2월에 고등학교 동창이던 기쿠치 간·구메 마사오 등과 함께 동인지 가 폐간될 때까지 그의 초기작 을 동잡지에 발표하는데, 이것이 그의 작가 활동의 시작이었다.1915년 10월 를 발간하고 있다.마이니치 신문 입사.1916년의 가을 의 동인으로서 친하게 지내던 고지마 마사지로의 알선으로 게이오기주쿠 대학 문학부 취직 제의를 받고 이력서도 제출했지만 실현되지는 않았다. 1917년 3월에 해군 기관 학교의 교직을 물러나 오사카 마이니치 신문사에 입사해 본격적인 창작 활동에 전념한다. 1916년부터 1917년까지 아쿠타가와는 가마쿠라의 유이가하마에서 하숙생활을 했으며 1918년부터 1919년까지 오오 정에 거주했다.1919년 3월 12일에 친구 야마모토 기요시의 조카이었던 쓰카모토 후미와 결혼하였고 이듬해 3월 30일에 장남 히로시가 태어났다. 1921년 2월에 요코스카카이 해군 대학교를 퇴직하고 기쿠치 간과 함께 오사카 마이니치의 객외 사원이 되어 본래 거주하던 가마쿠라에서 도쿄부 기타토시마 군 다키노가와초로 돌아온다. 동년 5월에는 기쿠치와 함께 나가사키를 여행했고 친구인 화가 곤도 고이치로로부터 극작가 나가미 도쿠타로를 소개받기도 했다.또한 이 해에 해외 특파원으로서 중화민국을 방문하였고, 베이징을 방문했을 때는 후스를 만나 그와 검열의 문제에 대해서 토론하기도 했다. 7월에 귀국한 그는 등으로 이어지게 된다.문화학원 문학부 강사.1925년경에 아쿠타가와는 문화학원 문학부 강사로 취임하였는데, 1926년부터 위궤양에 신경쇠약과 불면증이 다시 심해져 유가와라에서 요양해야 했다. 한편 아내 후미도 남동생 쓰카모토 핫슈(塚本八洲)와 함께 요양을 위해 구게누마(鵠沼)에 있던 친가 소유의 별장으로 이주했다. 2월 22일, 류노스케도 구게누마의 여관 아즈마야(東屋)에 머무르며 그곳으로 처자를 불러온다. 7월 12일에 3남 야스시(也寸志)가 태어났고, 20일에는 아즈마야의 대별장 「이-4호」를 빌려 아내와 새로 태어난 아들 야스시와 살았다(여름방학이 되면서는 히로시나 다카시도 불러왔다). 그 사이에 「집을 빌리고 나서(원제: 家借)」, 「구게누마 잡기(鵠沼雑記)」, 나아가 「점귀부(點鬼簿)」 등의 작품을 탈고하였고, 또한 구게누마의 개업 의사 후지 다카시(富士山)의 병원에 통원치료를 다녔다. 9월 20일에 류노스케 일가는 「이-4호」의 서쪽에 있던 '시산노 니카이케(柴二階家)'를 연말까지 빌려 옮긴다. 여기서 구게누마를 무대로 한 「유유장(悠々荘)」을 탈고한다. 이는 간토대지진이 있기 전에는 기시다 류세(岸田劉生)가 살았고 지진 후에 재건되어 시인 구니키다 도라오(国木田虎雄)가 빌리고 있던 대별장을 돌아봤을 때의 경험에서 힌트를 얻은 것으로 류노스케 일가가 구게누마에 정착하려는 의도가 있었다고도 생각할 수 있다. 또 이곳에 머무르는 동안 사이토 모키지(斎藤茂吉)나 쓰치야 분메이(土屋文明), 쓰네토 야스시(恒藤恭), 가와바타 야스나리, 기쿠치 간 등이 찾아오기도 했다. 연호가 쇼와로 바뀐 뒤 류노스케는 「이-4호」로 돌아왔다. 조카이자 문예평론가였던 구즈마키 요시토시(葛巻義敏)와 가마쿠라에서 섣달 그믐을 지새고 나서 처자가 가있던 다바타(田端)로 돌아오지만, 구게누마에서 살던 집은 4월까지 빌려두고서 때때로 방문하고 있다.1927년 1월, 의형 니시카와 유타카가 방화와 보험금 사기 혐의로 철도에 뛰어들어 자살하는 바람에 아쿠타가와는 니시카와가 남긴 빚이나 가족을 떠맡아야 했다. 4월부터 순수한 소설의 명수로서 시가 나오야를 칭찬했다.1927년 4월 7일, 부인의 동창생으로 아쿠타가와 자신의 비서로 있던 히라마쓰 마쓰코(平松麻素子)와 데이코쿠(帝國) 호텔에서 함께 동반 자살을 약속하였으나 여자가 변심하는 바람에 실패하였다.7월 24일 새벽, 「속(續) 서방의 사람(원제: 続西方人)」를 모두 쓴 뒤, 아쿠타가와 류노스케는 사이토 모키지로부터 받아온 치사량의 수면제를 먹고 자살했다. '막연한 불안(不安)'이 그가 밝힌 자살 이유였다. 그의 계명(戒名)은 의문원용지개일숭거사(懿文院龍之介日崇居士). 묘소는 지금의 도쿄 도 도시마구(豊島区) 스가모(巣鴨)에 있는 자안사(慈眼寺)이다. 그가 죽은 지 8년 후인 1935년 친구이며 문예춘추사 사주였던 기쿠치 간에 의해 그의 이름을 딴 아쿠타가와 상이 제정되었다. 이 상은 현재 일본의 가장 권위있는 문학상으로 신인 작가의 등용문이다.아쿠타가와의 초기 작품에서는 서양의 문학을 일역한 것도 존재하며(「발타자알」등) 영어과 출신의 특성으로서 번역문학 특유의 논리적으로 정리된 간결하고 공정한 영문학적인 필치가 특징이다. 작가의 생애 경험이 많이 드러나며 화자와 자신을 분리하지 않은 풍의 작품이 많다.그는 주로 단편소설을 썼으며 오늘날 아쿠타가와 류노스케의 걸작으로 알려진 작품 또한 대부분 단편소설이다. 그런 반면에 장편은 그렇게 많이 남아있지 않다. 또한 생활과 예술은 서로 반대되는 것이라고 생각하여 자연주의류의 자기 고백에 대해서 알몸뚱이를 사람 앞에 내놓는 것과 같다고 하여 멀리하고 진실한 자기는 허구의 세계에서만 분명히 할 수 있다고 생각했고 삶과 예술을 분리한다는 이상으로 작품을 집필했다고 한다. 다른 작가보다 표현이나 시점이 생생하다. 말년엔 시가 나오야의 는 심경소설을 긍정하고 스토리성이 있던 자신의 문학을 완전히 부인하였다.초기와 중기, 후기로 작품의 시기를 나누며, 각 시기에 따라 특성이 두드러진다. 대부분 초기의 작품이 좋은 평가를 얻고 있다. 중기 이후에는 아동용 작품의 집필이 늘어 폭넓은 장르의 작품을 다루었다. 후기, 특히 말년에는 사람의 생사에 대해 다룬 작품이 늘어나, 자살 직전 어떻게 죽음을 마주하며 집필했는지 알 수 있다. 등은 에서 제재를 얻었다. 또한 아포리즘의 제작이나 한문에도 뛰어났다.좌익 반군부적인 자기 주장을 펼쳤고 실제로 그런 작품도 다수 발표하고 있는데 군인의 계급 투쟁을 에서 아쿠타가와가 자신의 강사직 알선 및 협상에 어느 정도 역할을 맡았던 것을 적고 있다.작품에서 아마테라스 오미카미를 등장시킬 때는 별명인 "오히루메무치"(大日孁貴)을 이용했는데 이는 "아마테라스"라는 호칭이 당시 일본 천황가의 조상신이기도 했던 아마테라스를 그대로 글 속에 등장시키는 것이 되어 불경하다는 비판을 받을 수 있었기에 태양신 그것도 자연신의 성격을 가진 신으로써 "오히루메무치"를 이용해야 했기 때문이다.담배를 몹시 좋아해서 하루 180개피씩 피웠다고 하며, 에도 시키시마 종목의 담배가 등장한다.간토 대지진 조선인 학살 당시 조선인을 학살한 자경단으로 활동하였다. 그러나 무자비한 학살 첫날 밤 후 그 경험이 너무나도 잔인하고 공포스러워서 자경단 활동을 접었다고 한다. +장국영은 홍콩의 배우이자 가수이다.하카계의 중산층 집안에서 10남매 중 막내로 홍콩에서 출생하였으며, 한때 중국 광둥성 메이저우 시에서 잠시 유아기를 보낸 적도 있다. 영국 북부의 리즈 대학교에서 섬유직물관리학을 공부했으나 졸업하지는 못했다. 홍콩으로 귀국한 후 우연히 나간 노래 콘테스트에서 〈AMERICAN PIE〉를 불러 2위로 입상하며 데뷔했다.1970년대에 홍콩 RTV 에 가입하여, 이 엄청난 인기를 끌면서 이름을 알리기 시작했다.1976년 홍콩 ATV의 Asian Music Contest에서 2등상을 수상. 가수 활동으로 슈퍼스타가 된 후 TV 브라운관으로 시작해서 영화와 가요계를 넘나들어 활동했다. 그러다 1990년 고별콘서트를 끝으로 가수 생활을 은퇴하고 캐나다에서 1년간 휴식 후 귀국하여 영화배우 활동에만 전념하였다. 그 후로 영화속 O.S.T.제작 등에 한하여 음악활동을 해오다 1995년 앨범 총애 (寵愛)를 발매함으로 다시 가수로 재개 2000년까지 중화인민공화국 일본 싱가포르 말레이시아 등 여러 아시아 지역에서 콘서트를 개최했다. 그러나 2000년에 가수 분야에서 다시 은퇴하고 2003년 사망할 때까지 영화배우 활동에만 전념하였다.다음은 그의 앨범목록이다.지와의 인터뷰에서 양성애자라고 커밍아웃했다. 22세 쯤에 여배우 모순균과 교제했었으며 1981년 영화 를 촬영하면서 만난 여배우 예시배와도 2년 동안 교제한 바 있다1997년 콘서트에서 남자 애인 탕허더와 함께 나타났으며, 탕허더는 장국영이 죽을 때까지 관계를 지속했다.2003년 4월 1일 홍콩 만다린 오리엔탈 호텔 24층에서 투신 자살하여 향년 48세를 일기로 사망했다. 장국영이 투신한 이후 홍콩에서만 그의 팬 9명이 투신자살을 시도했고 이 중 6명이 사망했다. 4월 5일 열린 추도식에는 많은 팬들이 SARS의 위험에도 불구하고 세계 곳곳에서 홍콩으로 찾아와 화제가 되기도 했다. 영웅본색에 함께 출연했던 주윤발 성룡 유덕화 매염방 이연걸 등 동료 배우들 역시 장례식에 참석해 그의 죽음을 기렸다. 공교롭게도 장국영이 죽은 4월 1일은 만우절이었고 많은 사람들이 언론사들의 만우절 거짓말 이벤트라고 의심하기도 하였다.2004년 홍콩 문화의 거리에 그의 핸드프린팅 석판이 설치되었으나 설치 전 사망했기에 빈 석판으로 설치되었다.홍콩 경찰은 장국영이 24층에서 투신하여 자살하였다고 밝혔는데 여러가지 부분에서 논란이 있으며 가장 유력한 용의자로 장국영의 전 재산 460억을 상속받은 애인 당학덕이 지목된다. +통계학은 산술적 방법을 기초로 하여 주로 다량의 데이터를 관찰하고 정리 및 분석하는 방법을 연구하는 수학의 한 분야이다. 근대 과학으로서의 통계학은 19세기 중반 벨기에의 케틀레가 독일의 과 결합하여 수립한 학문에서 발전되었다.통계학은 관찰 및 조사로 얻을 수 있는 데이터로부터 응용 수학의 기법을 이용해 수치상의 성질 규칙성 또는 불규칙성을 찾아낸다. 통계적 기법은 실험 계획 데이터의 요약이나 해석을 실시하는데 있어서의 근거를 제공하는 학문이며 폭넓은 분야에서 응용되어 실생활에 적용되고 있다. 통계학은 실증적인 뿌리를 가지고 있으며 실질적 활용에 초점을 맞추고 있기 때문에 흔히 순수수학과는 다소 구분되는 응용수학의 일종으로 여겨진다. 통계학의 방법을 통해 실제의 수치들을 왜곡하여 해석하는 것을 막고 연구를 바탕으로 합리적인 의사결정을 할 수 있다.통계학은 과학 산업 또는 사회의 문제에 적용되며 모집단을 연구하는 과정이 우선시된다. 모집단은 와 같이 일정한 특성을 지닌 집단이면 어느 것이든 가능하다. 통계학자들은 전체인구(인구조사를 하는 기업)에 대한 데이터를 편집한다. 이것은 정부의 통계관련 법률요약집같은 조직화된 방법으로 수행될 수도 있다. 기술통계학은 모집단의 데이터를 요약하는데 사용된다. 도수 및 비율 (경주 등) 범주 형 데이터를 설명하는 측면에서 더 유용할 동안 수치 기술자는 연속적인 데이터 유형 (소득 등)에 대한 평균과 표준 편차를 포함한다. 데이터 분석 방법 엄청난 자료가 연구되는 현대 사회에서 경제지표연구 마케팅 여론조사 농업 생명과학 의료의 임상연구 등 다양한 분야에서 응용되고 있는 통계는 단연 우리 사회에서 가장 필요하고 실용적인 학문이라고 할 수 있다.수리통계학은 수학의 방법을 통계학에 적용한 것이다. 통계학은 원래 국가에 대한 과학으로 생각되었는데 즉 국가의 땅 경제 군력 인구 등에 관한 사실을 수집하고 분석하는 것이었다. 사용되는 수학적 방법은 해석학 선형 대수학 확률분석 미분 방정식과 측도 이론적 확률이론 등을 포함한다.영어의 스태티스틱스는 확률을 뜻하는 라틴어의 "statisticus" 또는 "statisticum", 이탈리아어의 "statista" 등에서 유래했다고 한다. 특히 국가라는 의미가 담긴 이탈리아 어 "statista"의 영향을 받아, 국가의 인력, 재력 등 국가적 자료를 비교 검토하는 학문을 의미하게 되었다. 근대에서의 통계학은 벨기에의 천문학자이자 사회학자이며 근대 통계학을 확립한 인물로 평가 받는 케틀레가 벨기에의 브뤼셀에서 통계학자들로 구성된 9개의 회의를 소집한 것을 기원으로 하고 있다.수집되고 분류된 숫자 데이터"라는 의미로 사용된 것은 1829년부터이고 약자로 stats가 처음 기록된 것은 1961년부터이다. 또 통계학자의 의미인 statistician이 사용된 것은 1825년부터이다.한자 문화권에서 사용되는 통계(統計)라는 단어의 기원은 명확하게 알려진 바는 없지만, 막부 말기에서 메이지 천황 초년에 걸쳐 양학자인 야나가와 슌친(柳川春三)이 현재의 의미로 이 단어를 처음 사용했다고 여겨진다. 그가 1869년에 편찬한 책자에서 통계가 현재의 용법으로 사용되었다는 기록이 남아있다. 그 후 1871년에는 대장성에 통계사(統計司)와 통계요(統計寮)가 설치되면서 통계라는 단어의 사용이 대중화되었다.매우 다양한 분야의 연구에서 주어진 문제에 대하여 적절한 정보를 수집하고 분석하여 해답을 구하는 과정은 아주 중요하다. 이런 방법을 연구하는 과학의 한 분야가 통계학이다. 통계학을 필요로 하는 연구분야는 농업, 생명과학, 환경과학, 산업연구, 품질보증, 시장조사 등 매우 많다. 또한 이러한 연구방식은 기업체와 정부의 의사결정과정에서 현저하게 나타난다. 주어진 문제에 대하여 필요한 자료의 형태, 자료를 수집하는 방법, 문제에 대한 최선의 답을 구하기 위한 분석방법을 결정하는 것이 통계학자의 역할이다.자료는 어떤 특정한 현상(주제, 사실)을 조사하기 위하여 설계하고 계획한 실험에서 나온다. 이런 종류의 자료, 즉 실험자료는 농업연구와 같은 분야에 흔히 있다. 통계학자들은 이미 나온 실험자료를 분석하는데만 관심이 있지않고, 자원을 효과적으로 사용하고 주어진 문제를 실험으로 해결하기 위하여 처음부터 실험을 계획하는데 관심이 있다.또 다른 형태의 자료를 관측으로부터 얻는다. 조사자들은 연구실 밖으로 나가서 실제로 존재하는 것을 조사한다. 이런 예로는 인구 및 주택센서스와 같은 전수조사, 여론조사, 교통량조사 등등이 있다. 이 경우 조사방법과 설문지 작성은 매우 중요한 문제가 된다.설문지 조사에 있어서 가장 핵심적인 부분은 설문지 작성 요령이다. 묻고자 하는 질문을 짧고 명확하게 물어야 하고 응답자가 고민을 하지 않고 바로 대답할 수 있도록 구성해야 한다. 설문지는 묻고자 하는 질문이면 무엇이든지 다 물을 수 있는 것이 아니라 문제의 핵심적 내용을 담고 있어야 한다.변인: 변수라고도 부르며, 연구의 대상이 되고 있는 일련의 개체를 말한다.실험의 기본적인 형태는 어떤 변인이 다른 어떤 변인에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지를 알아보고자 한다.조사대상을 기준으로하면 대상이 되는 통계 집단의 단위를 하나하나 전부 조사하는 관찰 방법인 전수조사와 모집단의 일부를 표본으로 추출하여 조사한 결과로써 모집단 전체의 성질을 추측하는 통계 조사 방법인 표본조사가 대표적인 조사 방법이다.이러한 조사를 통해 자료를 수집할 때에는 자료의 양질이 측정수준에 따라 분류된다. 자료의 측정수준은 다음과 같이 분류된다. 측정수준에 따라 통계에 이용해야 할 요약 통계량이나 통계 검정법이 다르게 된다.리커트법(Likert法) 또는 리커트 척도(Likert scale)는 1932년 리커트(Likert, R.)가 고안한 태도 측정법이다. 응답자가 동의나 반대의 정도를 나타내도록 질문을 하는 형태이다.조직적인 통계 조사가 이뤄지기 전까지는 질문서를 만들어 선정된 가구에 배포하는 방식을 이용했다. 실험계획은 자료수집전에 미리 어떻게 실험할것인지 계획하여 원하는 자료를 정확하게 수집하고 기록할 수 있도록 하는 과정이다. 자료 수집의 규모와 대상 할당 방법을 바르게 결정하고 정당한 자료를 수집할 수 있도록 검토한다. 설문지 작성법 등도 여기에 포함된다.설문지 작성은 실험계획의 일부이기도 하지만 대개 별개의 실습을 통해 체득하여야 한다. 설문지는 "앙케이트(Enquete)"라고도 하며 통계 자료에 필요한 자료를 수집하기 위해 필요한 질문들을 기록하는 하나의 서식이다. 이를 이용해 설문지 작성자 응답자들의 객관적인 생각 각자의 가치와 신념 태도 등과 같은 여러 정보를 수집할 수 있다. 설문지는 가능한 표준화 되도록 작성해야한다. 필요한 정보를 더욱 포괄적으로 획득하기 위해 설문지는 다섯 가지 요소 응답자에 대한 협조요청 식별자료 지시사항 설문문항 응답자의 분류를 위한 자료로 구성된다. 설문지는 여러 번 수정 검토 과정을 거쳐야 의도한 자료의 수집이 가능하다. 설문지를 이용한 통계자료 수집은 비교적 비용이 적게들고 큰 표본에도 쉽게 적용이 가능하다는 장점이 있다. 그러나 다른 자료수집 방법에 비해 무응답률이 높은 편이며 응답에 대한 보충설명의 기회가 주어지지 않는다는 단점이 있다.추론 통계는 기술통계로 어떤 모집단에서 구한 표본정보를 가지고 그 모집단의 특성 및 가능성 등을 추론해내는 통계적 방법이다. 보통 수집된 자료는 어떻게 분석해야 할지 미리 정해져 있기도 하지만, 대부분 획득한 자료을 가지고 여러 그래프를 그려보는 와중에 또다른 별개의 분석방법을 추가로 채택할 필요성을 느끼게 된다. 이러한 모집단에 대한 전체적 조감을 해보고 또다른 분석방향을 모색해 보는 과정에 해당한다. 추론 통계는 바탕인 기술 통계량이 있어야 한다. 이 추론 통계를 하는 이유는 모든 사람을 대상으로 검사를 하는 것은 비합리적이고 대규모 집단을 가지고 연구하는 것이 소수의 집단을 가지고 연구하는 것보다 훨씬 경제적이고 효율적이기 때문이다. 추론 통계는 기술 통계량의 정확성을 유지하는 작업으로서 사용한다. 보통 일반적인 추론은 실험 결과가 기존의 방식, 또는 다른 품종간 비교 등에서 차이점이 유의한지를 검증하는 것이다.기술통계는 측정이나 실험에서 수집한 자료의 정리, 표현, 요약, 해석 등을 통해 자료의 특성을 규명하는 통계적 방법이다. 기술통계에는 분석방향에 따라 여러가지가 있다. 단순한 평균 분산 등의 기초적인 분석 이외에, 모집단에서 어떤인자들이 있는지 뽑아내보는 인자분석과, 특정표본이 어떤모집단에 속하는지 판단하는 판별분석, 두 인자간의 상호관계에 대한 정준상관분석, 인자들의 숫자를 줄여 단순화 하는 주성분분석, 그 외 군집분석 등, 다양한 분석방법이 존재한다.통계분석 소프트웨어.다양한 통계분석을 할 수 있고 사회과학, 의학 등 전 분야에서 다양하게 쓰이는 프로그램이나 계산 속도가 느려 큰 규모의 자료를 다루기에는 편리하지 않다.통계학은 컴퓨터 과학 프로그래밍 언어 선형대수학 해석학 분포론 수치해석 확률론 등 여러 학문과 관련되어 있다.통계학과 사회과학의 발전에 따라 분산분석회귀분석 요인분석 등과 같은 평가모형들이 발전되고 이들이 정책평가에 응용됨으로써 정책영향의 평가에 공헌을 하고 있으며 아직도 계속 발전되어 가는 과정에 있다.특히 정보화사회와 빅데이터 시대를 맞아 다양한 사회정보의 수집분석활용을 담당하는 새로운 직종으로 기업 정당 지방자치단체 중앙정부 등 각종 단체의 시장조사 및 여론조사 등에 대한 계획을 수립하고 조사를 수행하며 그 결과를 체계적으로 분석 보고서를 작성하는 관련 학문이 필요하게 되어 사회조사분석학이 등장하게 된다.사회조사분석사란 기업이나 정당, 지자체, 중앙정부 등 각종 단체가 필요로 하는 조사를 수행해 분석, 보고하는 전문 인력군이다. 주로 경영, 조사기획, 자료분석, 마케팅 분야에서 일하므로 조사방법론, 사회통계, SPSS 통계분석 실무 등의 지식을 필요로 한다.현대에 들어와 데이터 과학자들로 구성된 통계 조직은 기관과 단체 그리고 기업의 수익에 영향을 미치는 다양한 데이터를 입체적으로 분석하고 결론을 얻어낸다. 미래를 예측해 더 나은 결과물을 처방한다. 수많은 데이터 가운데 의미 있는 데이터를 찾아냄으로써 더 나은 의사결정을 돕는 작업이 있는데 데이터 클리닝 데이터 마이닝 등이다.기업과 기관마다 부르는 이름은 다르지만, 생산·판매와 서비스 등 핵심 직무에서 영업력 개선과 사원 복지 등 전 영역에 걸쳐 이같은 데이터 과학 조직의 역할은 전방위로 확대되고 있다. 업계에서는 주요 데이터에 대한 분석과 통계가 이뤄지는 비즈니스인텔리전스 조직이라 부른다. 데이터 분석 조직을 운영하는 IT 조직은 시스템에서 나오는 각종 데이터를 분석해 기업의 핵심 영역에 가치를 더하는 조직으로 변모 중이다.전사자원관리고객관계관리생산관리시스템경영 정보 시스템전략적 기업 경영 등 각종 시스템에서 쏟아지는 수많은 데이터에 대한 분석능력이 미래를 예측하는 핵심 경쟁력인 시대, 이른바 `데이터 경영` 시대의 개막이 시작되었다. 이러한 시대를 기술의 시대라고 하는데 미국의 유명 경제 출판 및 미디어 기업인 포브스도 미래의 유망직업 중 하나로 를 선정하기도 했다.포브스에 의하면 빅 데이터 데이터 마이닝이란 기존 데이터베이스 관리도구의 데이터 수집·저장·관리·분석의 역량을 넘어서는 대량의 정형 또는 비정형 데이터 세트 및 이러한 데이터로부터 가치를 추출하고 결과를 분석하는 기술로되는 를 보완, 마케팅, 시청률조사, 경영 등으로부터 체계화해 분류, 예측, 연관분석 등의 데이터 마이닝을 거쳐 통계학적으로 결과를 도출해 내고 있다.대한민국에서는 2000년부터 정보통신부의 산하단체로 사단법인 한국BI데이터마이닝학회가 설립되어 데이터 마이닝에 관한 학술과 기술을 발전, 보급, 응용하고 있다. 또한 국내·외 통계분야에서 서서히 빅 데이터 활용에 대한 관심과 필요성이 커지고 있는 가운데 국가통계 업무를 계획하고 방대한 통계자료를 처리하는 국가기관인 통계청이 빅 데이터를 연구하고 활용방안을 모색하기 위한 '빅 데이터 연구회'를 발족하였다.하지만 업계에 따르면 미국과 영국 일본 등 선진국들은 이미 빅 데이터를 다각적으로 분석해 조직의 전략방향을 제시하는 데이터과학자 양성에 사활을 걸고 있다. 그러나 한국은 정부와 일부 기업이 데이터과학자 양성을 위한 프로그램을 진행 중에 있어 아직 걸음마 단계인 것으로 알려져 있다. +컴퓨터 과학 또는 전산학은 알고리즘 과정, 계산 기계 그리고 계산 자체에 대한 학문이다.컴퓨터 과학은 알고리즘, 계산 및 정보에 대한 이론적 연구에서부터 하드웨어와 소프트웨어의 계산 시스템 구현에 대한 실질적인 문제에 이르기까지 다양한 주제에 걸쳐 있다.전산 이론 및 시스템 설계를 다루는 전문가를 컴퓨터 과학자 또는 전산학자라 부른다.컴퓨터 과학의 분야는 이론적인 분야와 실용적인 분야로 나눌 수 있다. 예를 들어, 컴퓨터 그래픽스이나 계산 기하학은 보다 구체적인 응용을 강조하는 반면, 계산 이론은 추상적인 계산 모델과 그것들을 사용하여 해결할 수 있는 일반적인 종류의 문제에 관한 것이다. 알고리즘과 데이터 구조는 컴퓨터 과학의 심장이라고 불려왔다.프로그래밍 언어 이론은 계산 프로세스의 설명에 대한 접근 방식을 고려하는 반면, 컴퓨터 프로그래밍은 복잡한 시스템을 만들기 위해 그것들을 사용하는 것을 포함한다. 컴퓨터 구조는 컴퓨터 구성요소와 컴퓨터 작동원리를 설명한다. 인공지능은 인간과 동물에게서 발견되는 문제 해결, 의사결정, 환경 적응, 계획, 학습과 같은 목표 지향적인 과정을 종합하는 것을 목표로 한다. 디지털 컴퓨터는 다양한 정보 과정을 시뮬레이션할 수 있다. 컴퓨터 과학의 근본적인 관심사는 자동화할 수 있는 것과 없는 것을 결정하는 것이다. 컴퓨터 과학자들은 보통 학술 연구에 집중한다. 튜링상은 일반적으로 컴퓨터 과학에서 가장 뛰어난 상으로 인정받고 있다.컴퓨터 과학은 정보 및 전산의 이론적 기초와 그것의 구현 및 응용을 위한 실용적인 기술을 다룬다.1960년 전만 하더라도 컴퓨터는 이 세상에 존재하지 않았고 몇몇 선각자의 상상 속에서만 자리하고 있었다. 1946년 최초의 컴퓨터인 ENIAC이 출현한 이래 EDSAC·UNIVAC·MARK 등의 진보를 거쳐 작금에 이르러서는 정보화 사회·정보산업의 시대가 도래하였다. 폭발적인 수요확대로 초고속성장·진보를 거듭한 컴퓨터는 이용범위도 확대되어 산업사회의 다양한 분야에서 이용됨은 물론 일반 가정에서도 이용되고 있다. 제2차 대전 후 처음으로 산업에 이용되기 시작한 컴퓨터는 단순한 계산대체기능(計算代替機能)에서, 의사결정기능(意思決定機能)에 참여할 가능성을 보여주는 비약적인 발전을 보였고, 경영행동(經營行動)의 본질조차도 바꾸고 있다. 이러한 사실은 경영정보시스템(MIS) 지향(志向)의 많은 예에서 볼 수 있듯이, 기업에 있어서 컴퓨터 이용의 최종 목표로서의 전략적 의사결정으로의 효과적 이용을 다할 수 있는 가능성을 증대시키고 있음을 알 수 있다. 즉 커뮤니케이션 기술의 병행적 개발·이용의 진전과 더불어 컴퓨터는 직접 라인 업무의 일부로 되어 있고, 더욱이 수치제어(數値制御：numerical control) 등에서 실증되는 바와 같이 프로세스 제어의 활용분야를 확대하고 있다. 공정자동화, 사무자동화, 혁명으로 지칭되는 경영구조의 개선은 퍼스털 컴퓨터의 보급확대로 나타난 가정의 정보화와 연결되어 공공·금융·유통 서비스가 일체화된 사회·정보통신시스템을 구축하게 되어 원재료의 구매에서 판매시점에 이르는 총체적 관리와 EFTS(전자식 동시결제시스템)의 구축이 가능해진다. 이것은 프로그래밍의 개발의 가속화(加速化) 또는 문제 해결 기술의 진보로 컴퓨터가 기업경영에의 정착을 확고히 했다는 반증이다. 그러나 역시 계산기 개발상에서 애로가 되는 것은 소프트웨어(software)의 문제이며, 이와 같은 소프트웨어(software)·하드웨어(hardware) 또는 여러 인자간의 발전에 있어서 갭을 어떻게 메우느냐 하는 문제가 야기되어 결국 계산기를 독립적인 학문으로 연구·개발시키려는 계산기 과학이라는 새로운 학문이 태동되는 것이다.이 말은 새크먼(H. Sackman)에 의하면 '컴퓨터 과학이란 수학·논리학·언어분석·프로그래밍·컴퓨터디자인·정보시스템·시스템스 엔지니어링 등의 공헌과 컴퓨터 개발과 이것의 응용에 관한 이론적·응용적인 훈련교육(訓練敎育)을 중심으로 광범위하게 걸친 연구분야이다'라고 정의한다. 그는 제2차 세계대전 후의 컴퓨터에 상관되는 모든 활동은 '컴퓨터 과학'이라고 하는 인터디시플리너리(interdisciplinary)한 연구영역을 형성하고, 급속한 발전을 가져온 것이라 하고, 1964년에 애치슨(W. H. Atchison) 및 햄블렌(G.W. Hamblen) 등이 개발한 상관영역도(相關領域圖)를 소개하였다. 컴퓨터 과학이라는 하나의 체계의 학문적 인정은 별문제로 하고 그것이 나날이 기성과학에의 참획(參劃), 공헌을 확대하여 인터디스플리너리한 특질을 급속히 변화시키고 있는 것은 명백하다. 애치슨 및 햄블렌은 '컴퓨터 과학'에 대해서 미국·캐나다·멕시코의 93개 대학을 대상으로 해서 앙케트 조사를 하였다. 그 결과로서 거의 모든 대학이 '정보과학'이나 '시스템 엔지니어링'보다 '컴퓨터 과학'이라는 용어를 더 선호하는 것으로 나타났다. 또 1965년 미국의 컴퓨팅기기협회(Association of Computer Machinery)는 이 협회가 조직한 컴퓨터 과학에 관한 커리큘렴(curriculum) 위원회의 권고서(勸告書)를 공개하고 컴퓨터 과학이 단지 컴퓨팅 디바이스나 수치계산의 기술(art)이 아니고, 물리학이 에너지에 관련되는 것과 같은 의의 이상으로 정보문제를 보다 광의(廣義)로 다루는 과학체계임을 논증하고 있다. 이에 관해서 1965년 9월에 캐나다의 서(西)온트리오 대학이 주최한 '시스템과 컴퓨터 과학 콘퍼런스'가 열렸다. 여기서 캐나다의 모든 대학에서의 컴퓨터 과학교육의 방향을 설정하는 토론이 있었고, 새로운 과학의 정의를 비롯해서 경계영역·교수방법 등의 연구·개발결과가 발표되었다. 그 성과의 일단으로서 컴퓨터 과학이 수치분석·응용통계·OR·데이터 처리 등의 여러 영역에 있어서 순수연구보다는 오히려 응용과학으로서의 프레임워크제에 서서의 설정을 목표로 하는 것이 명백해졌다. 또 이러한 전제에서 정보과학(information science)과 컴퓨터 과학의 상관성(相關性)에 관한 이론적 분석, 또는 컴퓨터 연구에 있어서의 이론과 응용간의 불균형 문제가 논구되었다. 이 콘퍼런스는 세계적으로 최초의 시도인 것으로 생각되는데 캐나다의 대학교육에서 '컴퓨터 과학'의 커리큘럼에의 편입은 다른 나라에 앞서는 것으로 보인다.컴퓨터 과학의 정의의 문제점.컴퓨터가 미국의 산업 사회에서도 불가결한 존재로서 실제로 많이 쓰이고 있는 것은 부정할 수 없는 사실이지만 이라는 학문체계가 과연 존재하는가 존재한다면 그 본질은 어떠한 것인가에 대한 문제점이 거론된다.컴퓨터 과학의 본질.1967년 사이먼(H. A. Simon) 교수는 이와 같은 기본적 의문에 대해서 뉴웰(A. Newell)펠리스(A.G. Pelris)와의 연명으로 『사이언스』지의 공개장(公開狀)에서 다음과 같이 말했다. 그 내용을 요약하면 현상(現象)이 있는 곳에는 이 현상을 기술하는 과학이 존재한다. 예컨대 식물학이 식물연구의 과학이고 또 천문학이 별 연구를 목적으로 하는 과학인 것처럼 모든 과학은 현상에 의해서 창조된다. 따라서 컴퓨터가 있는 한 컴퓨터를 연구하는 과학으로서의 '컴퓨터 과학'이 있어야 할 것이다. 컴퓨터를 둘러싼 환경현상이 여러 갈래고 복잡하며 문제점이 다수 존재하는 오늘날 그런 것의 과학적인 추구의 중요성은 다른 모든 과학의 그것에 비해 다름이 없음을 명백히 하고 회의론자(懷疑論者)에 의해서 제기된 반론(反論)에 대해서 논리적인 6가지 점을 열거하여 과학으로서의 정당성을 주장하고 있다. 우선 자연현상만이 과학을 창조하며 컴퓨터는 인위(人爲) 인공적인 데다 그에 대한 불변의 법칙이 없다. 따라서 과학적인 논거가 불비하다는 반론에 대해서는 컴퓨터나 컴퓨터 프로그램은 나날이 발전하고 있고 또한 컴퓨터의 정의(定義)는 명확하지 않으며 그 뜻이 새로운 개발에 의해서 변화한다고 해도 과학의 현상 영역은 모두 항상 변화하는 것이며 컴퓨터 과학만이 그러한 것은 아니라고 하였다. 천문학도 당초에는 천체 사이의 가스는 그 영역 밖에 있었고 물리학에도 방사선이 포함되지 않았으며 심리학도 동물행동의 연구를 범위 외로 하였던 시대가 있었음을 지적하고 또 수학이 지난날에는 '수량의 과학'이라고 정의되었던 사실을 예증(例證)하고 있다. '컴퓨터 과학'은 어디까지나 컴퓨터를 둘러싼 현상의 연구를 하려는 과학이지 컴퓨터를 온도계와 같이 단지 기기(機器)로서 파악하는 것을 부정한다. 그리고 과학을 일렉트로닉스나 수학심리학 등의 분지과학(分枝科學)이라고 하는 반론에 대해서 컴퓨터의 연구에는 위에 든 기존과학의 연구도 필요하다는 것을 긍정하면서도 현상이 과학의 중심(中心)을 정의하고 타과학과의 경계를 정의하는 것이 아니며 그 예증(例證)으로서 생화학(生化學)이 동물학화학의 어느 것의 존재도 부정하는 것이 아니라는 것을 지적하고 있다. 또 컴퓨터가 엔지니어링에 귀속하며 과학의 대상이 될 수 없지 않은가라는 의문에 대해서는 전기가 물리학과 엔지니어링 식물(植物)이 식물학과 농학(農學)에 각각 상관되는 것과 같이 컴퓨터도 엔지니어링과 과학의 양자에 상관한다. '컴퓨터 과학'은 그것의 전문적인 과학으로서의 발전과정에서 더욱 더 분석(分析)과 가설(假設)과의 조합(組合) 순수연구와 애플리케이션 분석의 통합적(統合的) 그리고 상관적 전개를 통해서 학문적 체계의 특성을 명확히 할 필연성을 갖는다고 말하고 있다. 여하간 '컴퓨터 과학'이 생명력을 갖춘 컴퓨터의 추구를 목적으로 한 과학체계로서 발전할 것은 사실이며 컴퓨터 과학자의 과제는 여러 인접과학자와의 상관활동을 활발히 하고 '컴퓨터 과학'으로 하여금 인간사회 진보를 위해 유효한 과학체계로서 공헌할 수 있도록 하는 데 있다고 할 수 있다.컴퓨터 과학의 역사는 현대의 디지털 컴퓨터의 역사만을 가리키는 것이 아니다. 주판과 같이 계산을 수행하는 기계는 오래전부터 있었다. 1623년에는 최초의 계산기계가 만들어졌고, 찰스 배비지는 19세기 초에 차분기관을 만들었다. 1900년대에 들어서 IBM사가 펀치카드 시스템을 개발하여 회계에 관련된 일을 하도록 보급하였다. 하지만 이들 모두는 주어진 한 가지의 일만 수행할 수 있었다.1920년 이전까지 '컴퓨터'는 계산을 담당하는 사무관을 일컫는 용어였다. 쿠르트 괴델 알론조 처치 앨런 튜링과 같은 컴퓨터 과학 초기의 학자들은 계산 가능성 문제에 흥미를 느꼈다. 이러한 흥미는 계산이라고 하는 지겨울 수도 있고 오류율이 높은 작업을 자동화하고자 하는 욕구로부터 비롯되었다. 그들은 이리하여 한 가지의 종류의 작업만 수행할 수 있었던 기존의 기계들과는 다른 이론적으로 어떠한 계산도 가능한 기계를 만들고자 했다. 이러한 노력이 현대 컴퓨터 과학의 지평을 열었다.1940년대에 들어서자 더욱 강력한 기능을 지닌 계산기들이 등장했고, 이때부터 '컴퓨터'는 사람이 아닌 이들 기계를 부르는 용어로 굳어졌다. 컴퓨터가 단순한 숫자 계산보다 더 다양한 기능을 할 수 있는 것들이 알려지면서 컴퓨터 과학이라는 분야가 더욱 넓어지기 시작했다. 1960년대부터 여러 대학에 컴퓨터 과학 학과와 전공 과정이 생기면서 컴퓨터 과학이 학문으로 인정받기 시작하였으며, 학문의 쓰임새에 따라 세분되었다.미국의 컴퓨터 과학.컴퓨터는 이제 의 침투가 늦어지고 있는 이유로서는 경영과학의 응용성의 결여 인터디시플리너리한 어프로치에 있어서의 통합이론 또는 기술상의 미발달 등을 들 수 있다 다시 말해서 경영관리의 환경 적응성의 이론적 프레임워크의 설정 곤란 교육시스템의 개발 지체에 있는 것이다. 이 문제를 고려함에 있어 정보과학 또는 MIS의 발달과정을 정사하는 것도 중요하다. 즉 MIS의 조속한 이용을 기대한 경영자의 실망에 비추어 보아 컴퓨터 사이언스에 대한 의문이나 재고의식이 나온 것도 부정할 수 있다. 컴퓨터 과학을 둘러싼 논의가 활발해졌지만 그 전체로서 컴퓨터 과학이 경영관리의 혁신에 있어서 진실로 가치 있는 과학체계임을 명백히 할 필요가 있다. 따라서 캐나다의 컴퓨터 교육의 발전을 논하기 이전에 미국에서의 논쟁을 추적함으로써 그 본질과 방향에 대해 고찰하는 것도 중요한 일이 되겠다.다른 분야와의 관계.컴퓨터 과학은 오늘날 많은 사람들이 사용하는 컴퓨터라는 기계에 대한 학문으로 한정되지 않는다. 유명한 컴퓨터 과학자 에츠허르 데이크스트라는 라고 하였다.컴퓨터 과학 연구는 수학, 인지 과학, 물리학, 그리고 언어학과 같은 학문과 공생한다.많은 과학 분야와 비슷하게 컴퓨터 과학도 수학과 가장 밀접한 관계를 가지고 있을뿐만 아니라, 수학에 기초를 둔 과학의 한 분야이다. 컴퓨터 과학의 기초에 큰 영향을 미친 수학이 조지 불의 불 대수이다. 불 대수는 이진법을 기반으로 한 대수학으로, 그 외에 체론과 환론 또한 중요한 영향을 미쳤다. 초기의 컴퓨터 과학은 쿠르트 괴델과 앨런 튜링 등의 수학자들이 큰 영향을 끼쳤고, 수리논리학, 범주론, 도메인 이론, 대수학과 같은 수학 분류들은 컴퓨터 과학과 함께 발전하고 있다.스탠 켈리-부틀은 라고 말하였다. 이는 컴퓨터 과학이 과학의 특성을 충분히 갖지 않는다는 오해에 기인한다.컴퓨터 과학과 소프트웨어 공학의 관계에 대해서는 논란이 많다. 컴퓨터 과학과 소프트웨어 공학의 용어 정의가 많은 사람들에게 다소 모호하게 보이기 때문이다. 소프트웨어 공학은 컴퓨터 과학의 한 분야에 불과하다고 말하는 사람들이 있는 반면, 소프트웨어 공학은 다른 분야에 대한 응용이나 자원을 운용하는 방법 등 실용적인 특징에서 컴퓨터 과학의 다른 분야와 잘 구분된다.컴퓨터 과학과 경영 관리.사이먼은 컴퓨터와 사상의 관계에 대해서 '컴퓨터가 인간의 이미지에 따라서 조직되는 것이라면 컴퓨터는 명백히 인간행동에 대한 택일적 조직상의 가설에서 생기는 결과를 개발하는 기기이다'라고 말하고 인간행동의 깊은 이해를 얻기 위한 수단으로서의 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션의 중요한 역할과 의의를 밝히고 있다. 이 뜻을 경영관리의 향상이라는 관점에서 파악할 경우 맨머신 시스템의 원의가 밝혀질 것으로 생각되지만 컴퓨터의 본질과 적용분야의 과학적 추구를 적극화하고 컴퓨터에 대한 투자의 최적 효과의 창출에 체계적으로 노력함이 경영관리의 도전적 과제라고 이해할 수 있다. 또 이와 같은 방향설정이 긍정된다면 경영교육 커리큘럼 편성에 있어서의 '컴퓨터 과학'의 위치 설정도 명백해질 것으로 생각되지만 교육기간은 말할 것도 없고 기업조직에서 과학으로서의 컴퓨터 사고는 가속적 보편화를 이룰 것이 명확하다. 경영관리에 대한 컴퓨터의 임팩트의 본질적 이해와 대응책도 컴퓨터의 과학적 추구에 크게 의존할 것이라는 점을 강조함과 동시에 '컴퓨터 과학'이 경영학 혁신의 에이전트적 기능을 다할 것이라는 점을 지적해야 한다.컴퓨터 과학은 그 이론의 적용법에 따라 여러 분야로 나뉜다. 일반적인 분류는 다음과 같다. +위키백과(위키百科 ) 또는 위키피디아( )는 누구나 자유롭게 쓸 수 있는 다언어판 인터넷 백과사전이다. 2001년 1월 15일 지미 웨일스와 래리 생어가 창립하였으며 대표적인 집단 지성의 사례로 평가받고 있다.위키백과는 자유 저작물을 보유하고 상업적인 광고가 없으며 주로 기부금을 통해 지원을 받는 비영리 단체인 위키미디어 재단에 의해 소유되고 지원을 받고 있다. 2021년 기준으로 영어판 약 600만여 개 한국어판 개를 비롯하여 300여 언어판을 합하면 전체 위키백과의 일반 문서(넘겨주기와 막다른 문서 제외) 수는 5500만 개 이상이며 한 달 순수 방문자 수는 약 17억명이다. 위키백과의 저작권은 크리에이티브 커먼즈 라이선스(CCL)와 GNU 자유 문서(GFDL)의 2중 라이선스를 따른다. 두 라이선스 모두 자유 콘텐츠를 위한 것으로 일정한 요건을 갖추면 사용에 제약을 받지 않는다.위키백과 이전에도 온라인 백과사전을 운영하려는 여러 시도들이 있었으나 실패하였다. 위키백과 영어판은 전문가들이 작성했던 백과사전인 누피디아에서 비롯하였다. 누피디아는 웹 포털 회사인 보미스가 2000년 3월 9일에 개시하였다. 보미스의 CEO였던 지미 웨일스와 편집장 래리 생어는 누피디아의 글들을 오픈 콘텐츠로 제시하기로 하였고 리처드 스톨먼이 주도한 GNU 자유 문서 라이선스로 제공하였다. 누피디아는 그리 성공적이지 않았고 지미 웨일스와 래리 생어는 누구나 참여할 수 있는 백과사전으로 위키백과를 개설하였다. 생어는 모두의 백과사전이라는 목표를 분명히 하기 위해 이름에 위키를 넣었다. 2001년 1월 10일 생어는 누피디어 메일링 리스트를 통해 누피디아 프로젝트를 보완하기 위해 위키를 도입했다고 밝혔다.위키백과는 2001년 1월 15일 서비스를 개시하였다. 도메인은 www.wikipedia.com을 사용하였고 사용 언어는 영어 하나뿐이었다. 래리 생어는 위키백과의 출범 소식 역시 누피디아 메일링 리스트를 통하여 알렸다. 위키백과가 시작한지 한 달 안에 정책이 수립되었다. 이후 몇 가지 정책이 수립되면서 위키백과는 누피디아와는 별개인 서비스가 되었다. 애초에 보미스는 위키백과를 영리 목적으로 운영하려고 하였다.위키백과의 초기 편집자들은 누피디아, 슬래시닷, 그리고 웹 검색 엔진을 통해 유입되었다. 2001년 8월 8일 위키백과의 문서수는 약 8,000개가 되었다. 2001년 말이 되자 위키백과는 18개 언어판으로 늘었고, 문서 수는 2만여 개까지 늘어났다. 위키백과를 서비스 하는 언어는 2002년 말에는 26개, 2003년 말에는 46개, 2004년 말에는 161개로 늘어났다. 누피디아는 위키백과와 병립하여 운영되다가 컨텐츠를 위키백과로 넘기고 2003년 서버를 다운시켜 마감하였다.2002년 사용자 사이에서 위키백과의 광고 수주와 그에 따른 상업적 운용에 대한 우려가 커졌고 이에 따라 스페인어 위키백과 사용자들은 위키백과 소스를 포크하여 별도의 위키백과인 엔시클로페디아 리브레를 개설하였다. 이에 자극받은 지미 웨일스는 위키백과에 광고를 도입하지 않겠다고 선언하였고 도메인을 wikipedia.com에서 wikipedia.org로 변경하였다.영어 위키백과의 증대 속도는 2007년 초 정점을 찍었고, 2009년 8월 3백만 문서를 넘겼다. 위키백과 전체의 문서수는 2006년 가장 빠르게 늘어 매일 약 1,800 개의 문서가 새로 생겨났다. 그 뒤로 문서 증가 속도는 둔화되어 2013년의 경우 연평균으로 보았을 때 매일 약 800개의 문서가 새로 생겨났다. 위키백과의 성장 둔화 원인에 대해 팰로앨토 연구소는 프로젝트의 품질이 고급화되면서 변화에 대한 저항이 있다고 분석한 바 있다. 성장 둔화에 대한 다른 분석으로는 처럼 주제나 가치가 분명하여 쉽게 만들 수 있는 문서는 이미 다 만들어졌기 때문이라는 설명이 있다.2009년 11월 스페인 마드리드의 후안 카를로스 국왕 대학교의 연구자는 2009년 1분기 동안 영어 위키백과가 49,000여 명의 기여자를 잃었다는 분석을 내놓았다. 2008년의 같은 기간에 줄어든 기여자 수가 4,900여 명이었던 것에 비해 열 배나 더 많은 수치였다. 의 캐서린 워드는 “여섯 번째로 많이 사용되는 웹사이트인 위키백과가 내부 비판에 휩싸였다”는 기사를 내보냈다.2007년 1월 위키백과는 처음으로 가장 인기있는 웹사이트 리스트 Top10에 이름을 올렸다. 컴스코어는 위키백과의 연간 방문자를 4290만 명으로 집계하며 9위로 올렸고 는 10위로 올렸다. 애플은 11위로 집계하였다. 2006년도의 순위가 33위였던 것에 비하면 놀라운 부상이었다. 2015년 3월 위키백과는 5위를 기록하였다. 이 시기 순위는 알렉사 인터넷의 조사에 의한 것으로 위키백과는 2014년 내내 매 월 8억 이상의 페이지 뷰를 기록하였다.2012년 1월 영어 위키백과는 미국 의회의 온라인 저작권 침해 금지 법안와 지적 재산권 보호 법안의 제정 시도에 맞어 SOPA와 PIPA 반대 시위의 일환으로 24시간 블랙아웃 시위를 벌였다.2014년 1월 20일 수보드 바르마는 에 투고한 글을 통해 위키백과가 2012년 12월에서 2013년 12월 사이에 전체적으로 페이지 뷰가 10퍼센트에 달하는 2억 번 이상의 페이지뷰를 잃었다고 발표하였다. 주요 언어판에 따라 나누면 영어 위키백과의 페이지뷰 감소율은 12% 독일어가 17% 일본어는 9%였다. 바르마는 라고 반문하였다.2016년 12월 위키백과는 가장 인기있는 웹사이트 리스트에 5위로 기록되었다.위키백과의 가장 큰 특징은 누구나 편집과 관리에 참여할 수 있다는 점이다. 인터넷을 통해 누구나 글을 고칠 수 있는 체계인 위키로 만들어져 있어 집단 지성적 특성을 가진다. 개방성은 위키백과의 가장 큰 특징 가운데 하나로 원칙적으로 사용자들은 누구든 거의 모든 문서를 새로 만들고 수정할 수 있다. 하지만 장기인증 사용자만 편집하고 수정할 수 있는 문서도 있다.그러나 이러한 강점은 동시에 악의적인 문서의 훼손이나 부정확한 내용의 수록에 취약하다는 약점이 되기도 한다. 위키백과 커뮤니티는 이러한 약점을 보완하기 위해 편집 규칙을 정하고 일부 문서에 대한 생성과 편집을 규제하고 있다. 2009년 이후 여러 언어마다 위키백과 편집에 대한 커뮤니티의 규제가 강화되었다. 영어 위키백과는 대중적 관심이 높은 문서에 대한 편집을 위해서는 로그인이 필요하도록 하였고, 독일어 위키백과는 모든 문서에 대해 로그인 된 사용자만이 편집할 수 있도록 하였다.과도한 편집 규제는 위키백과 성장의 걸림돌이라는 지적이 있고, 위키백과 커뮤니티 내에서도 은 가운데 하나로 새로운 사용자를 포용하기 위해서라도 지켜져야 한다는 의견들이 있다.한편 위키백과 커뮤니티 내에 존재하는 편향으로 인해 여성을 비롯한 다양한 집단에 대한 개방이 부족하다는 지적도 있다. 2014년 8월 게이머게이트 논쟁에서 영어 위키백과의 가 내린 5명의 여성주의 운동가 차단 결정은 위키백과의 개방성에 대한 많은 논란을 불러오기도 하였다.위키백과의 문서들은 끊임없이 누군가에 의해 수정된다. 위키백과의 편집 시스템인 미디어위키는 다양한 방법으로 문서의 수정 사항을 사용자에게 알려주어 검토할 수 있도록 한다. 사용자는 문서의 역사를 확인하여 누가 언제 어떤 내용을 수정했는 지 확인할 수 있다. 만약 변경 내용이 악의적인 문서 훼손이라면 사용자는 이를 손쉽게 되돌릴 수 있다. 또한 사용자는 시스템이 제공하는 등의 기능을 통해 문서의 변경 사항을 쉽게 파악할 수 있다. 이러한 기능들은 위키백과가 으로부터 문서 훼손을 보호할 수 있도록 돕는다.위키백과는 시작과 함께 문서의 신뢰성에 대한 의문이 따라다녔다. 누군가 보다 전문가적인 입장에서 사용자의 편집을 검토하고 제한할 수 있어야 한다는 주장이 늘 있다. 위키백과의 공동창립자인 래리 생어는 결국 이 문제로 인해 위키백과를 떠나 전문가의 검토를 거치는 시티즌디움을 창립하였다. 위키백과 역시 몇 차례의 명백한 오류와 특정 집단의 의도적인 개입으로 완전한 개방 정책을 수정하지 않을 수 없었다. 오랫동안 의 편집장을 역임했던 존 시겐설러가 존 F. 케네디의 암살에 연루되었다는 거짓 정보가 위키백과에 올라온 사례는 오랫동안 위키백과 문서의 오류에 대한 사례로 거론되었고, 2016년 1월에는 스위스의 정보 기관 공무원이 수년에 걸쳐 약 5,500 건에 달하는 문서를 악의적으로 편집하였다가 아이피가 차단되는 일이 벌어지기도 하였다.위키백과의 문서 품질은 사용자들의 지속적인 수정과 검토에 의해서 유지되고 향상된다. 2003년 안드레 시포릴리는 위키백과 컨텐츠의 유지는 파괴적 활동보다 창조적 활동량이 훨씬 많기 때문에 가능한 것이라는 분석을 내놓았다. 그러나 교묘한 거짓 정보는 매우 오랫동안 검토되지 못하고 남아있기도 한다. 영어 위키백과에서는 2005년 1월 31일 등재된 연쇄 강간범 잭 로비쇼라는 문서가 완전히 허구의 인물을 서술한 것이라는 것을 2015년이 되어서야 발견한 일도 있었다. 이 문서는 2015년 9월 3일 삭제되었다.위키백과의 컨텐츠는 사용자들의 자발적인 참여로 이루어지기 때문에 사용자간의 소통이 매우 중요하다. 이를 위해 위키백과는 과 같은 커뮤니티 공간을 제공하고 있다. 또한 위키백과의 모든 문서에는 탭이 있어서 사용자들 사이에 문서 개선을 위한 토론이 이루어지도록 하고 있다.위키백과 사용자들은 와 같은 오프라인 모임을 통해 관심사를 공유하기도 한다. 위키백과를 운영하고 있는 위키미디어 재단은 매년 세계적인 컨퍼런스인 위키마니아 행사를 갖고 있다. 2016년 위키마니아는 이탈리아의 에시노라리오에서 열렸다. 위키마니아에서는 위키백과뿐만 아니라 위키미디어 재단이 운영하고 있는 위키미디어 공용 위키데이터 위키책 위키문헌 위키낱말사전과 같은 여러 자매 프로젝트의 주요 관심사도 함께 논의된다. 위키미디어 재단은 이들 여러 프로젝트의 활성화를 위해 세계 각지의 지부나 사용자 모임을 지원하는 사업도 하고 있다. 대한민국에서는 가 자발적 사용자 모임으로 활동중이다. 한국위키미디어협회는 2016년 1월 15일 위키백과 15주년 기념행사를 가졌다.위키백과 커뮤니티는 종종 컬트 문화적인 것으로 묘사되지만, 그것이 늘 부정적인 면을 부각하는 것은 아니다. 위키백과 사용자들은 훌륭한 활동에 대해 를 부여하여 서로의 동기 유발을 하기도 한다.위키백과는 사용자의 익명성을 보장한다. 다중이 익명으로 참여한다고 하더라도 커뮤니티가 활력을 띄면 정보의 질은 꾸준히 향상된다. 위키백과의 이러한 작업 방식은 크라우드 소싱이라는 이름으로 다른 분야에서도 시도되고 있다. 그러나, 실제로 위키백과에 정보를 추가하는 사람들은 전체 사용자 가운데 극히 소수라는 연구가 있고, 로그인 하지 않은 사용자에 대해서는 위키백과 커뮤니티가 이등시민 취급을 한다는 비판도 있다. 다트머스 대학교 연구진은 이를 검증하기 위한 2007년 연구에서 "로그인 하지 않은 익명의 편집자나 기여 횟수가 적은 편집자의 활동 역시 로그인 사용자와 동등한 신뢰성을 보인다"고 밝혔다. 2009년 의 편집인 헨리 블라젯은 위키백과 문서에 대한 표집 조사 결과 대다수의 문서가 "아웃사이더"에 의해 생성된 뒤 "인사이더"에 의해 완성된다고 분석하였다.몇몇 언어의 위키백과 커뮤니티는 자체적으로 문서들을 엮어서 출판물을 제작하기도 하는데, 독일어 위키백과의 경우 독일어 위키백과의 문서를 모아 2004년에 CD로, 2005년, 2006년에는 DVD와 책으로 제작하였다.위키백과의 내용은 처음에는 GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서 아래 배포되었으나 2009년 6월, 로 변경되었다.위키백과는 특별한 위계가 없는 사용자들의 집단 활동이라는 점에서 아나키즘의 요소를 갖는 민주주의 체계로 평가되기도 한다. 위키백과 내의 모든 문서는 직접 내용 편집에 참여한 사용자를 포함하여 어느 누구도 소유권을 주장할 수 없다. 위키백과의 이러한 은 커뮤니티가 공동으로 소유하는 가치에 대한 사적 이익 추구를 억제함으로써 공유지의 비극을 방지하고자 만들어졌다.위키백과의 관리는 의 정신과 이를 구현하기 위한 에 따라 이루어진다. 정책과 지침은 커뮤니티의 에 의해 수립되거나 수정된다. 총의의 개념은 2005년 찰스 메튜의 위키미디어 메일링 리스트 에서 설명된 바와 같이 단순한 만장일치가 아닌 현시점에서 커뮤니티가 내릴 수 있는 최선의 타협이다. 위키백과의 커뮤니티는 각각의 언어마다 독립되어 있기 때문에 언어판마다 총의는 다를 수 있다. 위키백과 초창기 가장 큰 논란은 문서의 중립성 확보였고 이에 따라 위키백과가 시작된지 한 달 만에 이 정책으로 지정되었다. 한국어 위키백과 역시 2004년 중립적 시각 정책을 도입하였다. 문서와 커뮤니티의 성장에 따라 지침이 필요한 다양한 사안이 발생하였기 때문에 위키백과의 정책과 지침 역시 이에 대응할 수 있도록 다양하게 늘어났다.위키백과 사용자들 사이의 논쟁 또는 분쟁은 모두 위키백과 커뮤니티 안에서 해결된다. 사용자들 사이의 문제는 서로간의 토론을 통해 해결하는 것이 가장 바람직하지만, 문서의 훼손이나 악의적인 행위 등으로부터 선의의 편집 활동을 보호하기 위한 조치도 필요하다. 문서를 삭제하거나 악의적인 사용자를 차단하는 것과 같은 활동은 커뮤니티 안에서 충분히 신뢰할 수 있다고 평가받아 로 선출 된 사용자가 실행한다. 한편 사용자 사이의 논쟁은 와 같은 기구를 통해 상호 조정을 이루기도 한다.위키백과는 위키미디어 재단이 운영하는 위키미디어 프로젝트 가운데 하나이다. 위키미디어 프로젝트에는 위키백과 외에도 위키낱말사전 위키책 위키미디어 공용 위키문헌 위키인용집 위키데이터 등이 있다. 모든 위키미디어 프로젝트는 자발적으로 참여하는 사용자들의 커뮤니티에 의해 운영되며 위키미디어 재단은 이들 프로젝트의 유지 소프트웨어와 하드웨어의 관리 사용자 커뮤니티에 대한 지원과 같은 일들을 담당한다.위키미디어 재단은 미국 캘리포니아주 샌프란시스코에 본부를 둔 비영리 기구로 위키백과를 비롯한 위키미디어 프로젝트의 유지를 위한 기금을 조성하고 호스팅하고 있다. 위키백과가 시작된 지 2년 후인 2003년 6월 20일 플로리다 주 법인으로 설립되었으며 2007년 본부를 샌프란시코로 이전하였다. 2013년 귀속분 국세청 신고서에 따르면 재단의 기금 수익은 3천9백7십만 달러이고 지출된 경비는 2천9백만 달러이다. 또한 총 자산은 3천7백2십만 달러로 이 가운데 부채는 230만 달러이다.2014년 5월 위키미디어 재단은 초대 사무국장 슈 가드너가 퇴임하고 2대 사무국장으로 라일라 트레티코프를 지명하였다. 은 2014년 5월 1일자 보도를 통해 새로운 사무국장의 취임을 소개하면서 트레티코프의 “정보는 공기와 같이 자유를 좋아한다.”는 말을 인용하였다. 2016년 6월 3대 사무국장으로 캐서린 마허가 취임하였다. 마허는 위키미디어 프로젝트의 운영 방향에 대해 커뮤니티 내에서 상호 공감을 형성하는 것이 무엇보다 중요하다는 입장을 밝혔다.위키백과의 운영 프로그램은 미디어위키이다. 오픈 소스로 배포되는 자유 소프트웨어인 미디어위키는 PHP 기반의 위키 소프트웨어로 MySQL 데이터베이스를 이용한다. 위키백과 초기에는 펄로 작성된 유스모드위키를 사용하였으나 2002년 1월에 마그누스 만스커가 개발한 PHP와 MySQL 기반의 위키가 도입되었고 다시 2002년 7월 리 다니엘 크로커가 개발한 미디어위키를 3세대 소프트웨어로 도입하였다. 미디어위키는 이후로도 여러차례 업데이트 되어 위키백과를 비롯한 여러 위키미디어 프로젝트를 운영하는 소프트웨어가 되었다.위키백과는 낮 시간을 기준으로 1초에 25,000~60,000페이지 요청을 수신한다. 페이지 요청은 먼저 스퀴드 캐시 서버의 프론트엔드 계층으로 내보낸다. 스퀴드 캐시가 처리할 수 없는 요청은 리눅스 가상 서버 소프트웨어를 실행하고 있는 부하 제어 서버로 내보낸다. 즉, 데이터베이스로부터 렌더링한 페이지를 보여 주기 위해 아파치 웹 서버들 가운데 하나로 요청을 내보낸다는 뜻이다. 웹 서버는 요청한 페이지를 전달하여 모든 언어판의 위키백과에 대한 페이지 렌더링을 수행한다. 속도를 더 빠르게 하기 위해 렌더링 된 페이지는 만료될 때까지 분산 메모리 캐시에 캐시 처리되며 이로써 대부분의 동일한 페이지 접근을 위해 페이지 렌더링을 완전히 생략할 수 있다.현재 사용되고 있는 위키백과의 서버는 주로 우분투로 이루어진 리눅스 서버들의 컴퓨터 클러스터로 운영되고 있다. 2009년을 기준으로 위키미디어 재단은 미국 플로리다주에 300대, 네덜란드 암스테르담에 44대의 서버를 운영하였다. 2013년 1월 22일 위키백과는 중요 데이터를 미국의 데이터 센터 공기업인 에퀴닉스로 이전하였다.위키백과에서는 단순 반복적인 활동을 위해 봇으로 불리는 프로그램이 운영된다. 봇은 자주 혼동되는 오탈자를 바로잡거나 자동으로 생성될 수 있는 반복적인 문구의 삽입과 같은 일을 담당한다. 봇 역시 위키백과 커뮤니티의 사용자들이 작성하여 운영하며 잘못된 사용을 막기 위해 별도의 등록 절차를 거친다.2005년에 영국의 네이처 지는 브리태니커 백과사전과 위키백과의 42가지 난해한 과학 기사를 비교한 평가 리뷰를 발표하였다. 그 결과는 위키백과의 정확도 수준이 브리태니커 백과사전에 근접한다는 것이었다. 다만 비평가들은 모든 범위의 기사에 대한 무작위 표본 추출을 하였거나 사회과학 또는 논쟁적인 사회 문제에 중점을 둔 유사한 연구의 경우에서는 그렇게 긍정적인 결과가 나오지 못하였을 수도 있다고 여겼다. 또 2006년 기사에서 타임 지는 위키백과는 누구나 편집할 수 있는 개방 정책을 갖고 있으며 이로써 위키백과가 세계에서 가장 큰 백과사전으로 만들어질 수 있도록 하고 지미 웨일즈의 비전을 실현한다고 밝혔다.위키백과는 누구나 참여할 수 있기 때문에 편집자의 시각에 따라 누군가가 악의적인 의도등으로 잘못된 정보를 입력할 수 있고 이에 따라 잘못된 정보가 퍼져나갈 수 있다는 문제점이 제기되어 왔다. 예를 들어 2005년 영어 위키백과에서는 존 시겐설러라는 미국의 전직 언론인이 존 F. 케네디 대통령의 암살에 관여했다는 잘못된 정보가 올려져 있었다는 점이 밝혀졌으며 한 익명 사용자가 신바드라는 미국의 코미디언이 사망했다는 거짓 정보를 올려 인터넷 전반에 잘못된 소문이 퍼지기도 했다.또한 위키백과는 미국 내의 보수주의자들로부터 자유주의적이라는 비판을 받아왔다. 이로 인해 컨서버피디아가 2006년에 개설되었다.미 연구팀에 의하면 영어판 위키백과에 등록된 문서 중 회사 관련 내용의 약 60% 정도가 잘못된 사실을 담고 있다는 연구결과가 나왔다. 연구팀의 교수는 이를 특정 회사들이 이미지를 긍정적으로 만들기 위해 위키백과에 회사에 유리한 내용을 삽입하기 때문인 것으로 추정하고 있다. +다음은 고대 그리스 신화와 고대 그리스 종교에 등장하는 신 반신으로 구성된 가계도이다.광자(光子 photon) 또는 빛알은 기본입자의 일종으로 가시광선을 포함한 모든 전자기파를 구성하는 양자이자 전자기력의 매개입자이다. 기호는 그리스 문자 formula_1이다. 전자기력의 효과는 미시적 거시적인 수준에서 쉽게 관찰할 수 있는데 광자가 질량을 가지지 않기 때문에 장거리에서의 상호작용이 가능하다. 다른 기본입자들과 같이 광자는 양자역학과 입자-파동 이중성 이론을 통해 가장 잘 설명된다. 하나의 현상임에도 파동과 양자라는 두 가지 관측 가능한 모습을 가진 광자의 진짜 성질은 어떤 역학적 모델로도 설명할 수 없다. 이러한 빛의 이중성의 묘사 전자기파에서의 에너지의 위상을 파악하는 것 또한 불가능하다. 전자기파의 양자의 위치는 공간적으로 국한되지 않기 때문이다.광자 한 개의 에너지는 플랑크 상수(formula_2)에 빛의 진동수(formula_3)를 곱한 값 즉 formula_4 이고 운동량은 formula_5(formula_6는 광속)이다.아이작 뉴턴은 빛이 입자로 이뤄져 있다고 주장하였다. 그러나 고전적인 입자론은 빛의 파동적인 성질, 특히 간섭을 설명하지 못한다. 따라서 18세기에 와서는 이중 슬릿 실험을 설명할 수 있는 토머스 영의 파동설이 우세하였고, 제임스 맥스웰의 고전전자기학의 완성으로 파동설은 정설로 인정되었다. 그러나 20세기 초에 와서 고전적인 파동설로 설명할 수 없는 현상이 발견되기 시작하였다. 자외선 파탄이 그중 한 예인데, 이에 따르면 열적 평형에 있고 유한한 온도를 가진 고전적 흑체는 무한한 양의 전자기파를 방출하여야 한다. 이 문제를 해결하기 위해, 막스 플랑크는 전자기파가 양자화 되었다는 가설을 도입하였다 . 그러나 그는 실제로 빛이 입자로 구성되었다기보다는, 어떤 알 수 없는 현상에 의해 파동의 에너지가 양자화 되었다고 해석하였다. 알베르트 아인슈타인은 힐베르트의 가설에서 시작하여, 빛이 실제로 입자로 구성되었다고 가정하면서 광전효과를 설명할 수 있다는 사실을 보였다 . 이후 양자역학의 발전과 양자전기역학의 도입으로, 빛이 양자화되었다는 사실을 이론적으로 설명할 수 있게 되었다.빨간색의 광자에너지는 formula_10이다. 따라서 단위물질량당 광자에너지는 +보손는 스핀이 정수고, 보스-아인슈타인 통계를 따르는 매개 입자다. 인도의 물리학자 사티엔드라 나트 보스의 이름을 땄다. 페르미온의 반대말이다. 모든 입자는 스핀이 정수이거나 반정수이다. 스핀-통계 법칙에 따라 전자의 경우는 보스-아인슈타인 통계를 따르고, 후자는 페르미-디랙 통계를 따른다. 전자를 보손, 후자를 "페르미온"이라고 부른다. 보손은 보스-아인슈타인 통계를 따르므로, 파울리 배타 원리를 따르지 않는다. 즉, 여러 입자가 동일한 상태에 있을 수 있다.예를 들면, 광자는 스핀이 1인 보손이다. 따라서, 들어온 빛을 완전히 흡수하는 흑체가 복사하는 전자기파의 파장 분포는 보스 통계를 따른다. 또 응집물질물리에 나오는 준입자 포논도 보스 통계를 따른다.현재 알려진 기본 입자 가운데 보손은 다음과 같다.초대칭이나 각종 대통일 이론 등 표준 모형을 확장하는 모형들은 대부분 추가 보손을 예측하나 이들은 아직 발견되지 않았다.짝수개의 페르미온으로 구성된 합성 보손이 구성될 수 있다. 예를 들어 중간자는 쿼크와 반쿼크로 구성된 합성 보손이다. 이 밖에도 보손들로도 합성 보손이 구성될 수 있다.양자장론의 스핀-통계 정리에 따라, 로런츠 대칭이 깨지지 않는 이상 모든 보손은 항상 정수의 스핀을 갖는다. 즉, 가능한 스핀은 0, 1, 2, … 따위다. 기본 보손의 경우, 와인버그-위튼 정리에 따라 보통 0, 1, 2만이 가능하다고 여겨지며, 스핀 2인 입자는 중력자, 스핀 1인 입자는 벡터 보손, 스핀 0인 입자는 스칼라 보손으로 불린다.페르미온과 달리, 보손은 파울리 배타 원리를 따르지 않는다. 즉, 한 양자 상태에 임의의 수의 보손이 존재할 수 있다. 따라서 보손은 낮은 온도에서 보스-아인슈타인 응축 등의 특이한 성질을 보인다.디리클레 합성곱(Dirichlet convolution) 혹은 디리클레 포갬은 수론적 함수(arithmetic function)의 집합에서 정의되는 이항연산(binary operation)으로 수론에서 중요하게 다뤄진다. 독일 수학자 르죈 디리클레의 이름에서 유래하였다.는 다음과 같이 정의되는 수론적 함수이다.여기서 덧셈은 에 대해 이루어진다.이 연산의 일반적인 성질을 몇가지 나열해 보면:덧셈과 디리클레 포갬으로 수론적 함수의 전체집합은 을 곱셈에 대한 항등원으로 하는 가환환을 이루고 이를 디리클레 환이라 부른다. 이 환의 unit은 ≠ 0 을 만족하는 f들이다.나아가, 곱셈적 함수의 집합은 디리클레 포갬과 을 항등원으로 하는 가환군을 이룬다.곱셈적 함수에서 몇가지 중요한 곱셈적 함수들간의 포갬에의한 관계식의 예를 찾아볼 수 있다.주어진 수론적 함수 formula_2에 대해 디리클레 합성곱을 연산으로 하는 역원 formula_3이 존재한다. 이 역원을 계산하는 계산식은 다음과 같다. 맨 첫 번째 항은 다음과 같다.그리고 formula_5일 경우는 다음과 같다.예를 들어, 모든 formula_7에 대해 1 인 수론적 함수의 역원은 뫼비우스 함수가 된다. 더 일반적인 관계는 뫼비우스 반전 공식에 의해 유도된다.디리클레 급수와의 관계.가 수론적 함수이면, L-급수는 다음과 같이 정의된다.급수가 수렴하는 복소수 s에 대해L-급수의 곱은 디리클레 포갬과 다음 관계가 있다.좌변이 존재하는 모든 s에 대해,위 관계식은 L-급수를 푸리에 변환과 비교해 보면, 포갬 정리과 긴밀하다.수론적 함수의 미분과의 관계.물론 수론적 함수는 연속함수가 아니므로 통상적인 의미로서의 미분은 불가능하다. 그러나 산술함수에서 따로 미분을 정의하여 디리클레 합성과 연계하여 사용한다.주어진 산술함수 formula_2의 미분은 다음과 같이 정의한다. 여기서 물론 formula_11는 망골트 함수이다.예를 들어 모든 formula_7에 대해 1 인 수론적 함수 formula_14이 있다고 할 때 관계식 formula_15 때문에 다음이 성립한다위와 같이 미분을 정의할 경우 다음과 같은 성질들이 성립한다. +수학에서, 동치관계는 논리적 동치와 비슷한 성질들을 만족시키는 이항관계이다.집합 formula_1 위의 동치관계 formula_2는 반사관계이자 대칭관계이자 추이관계인 이항관계이다. 즉, 다음 조건들이 성립하여야 한다.집합 formula_1 위에 동치관계 formula_2이 주어졌을 때, 원소 formula_3의, 동치관계 formula_2에 대한 동치류(同値類) formula_16는 그 원소와 동치인 원소들의 집합이다 즉,집합 formula_1의 formula_2에 대한 상집합 formula_20은 formula_2에 대한 동치류들의 집합이다. 즉집합 위의 동치관계로부터 표준사상을 구성할 수 있다. 즉 집합 formula_1 위의 동치관계 formula_2에 대하여 함수를 표준사상이라고 한다.반대로, 전사함수 formula_30에 대하여, 이항관계는 동치관계이며 그 상집합은집합 위의 동치관계와 그 집합의 분할 사이에는 자연적인 일대일 대응이 존재한다. 즉, 다음과 같다.집합 formula_1 위의 동치관계 formula_2에 대하여, 그 상집합 formula_20은 formula_1의 분할이다. 즉,반대로 집합 formula_1의 분할 formula_44에 대하여 이항관계는 서양의 과학 혁명을 집대성한 책의 하나이다. 줄여서 '프린키피아'라고 불리기도 한다. 1687년에 나온 아이작 뉴턴의 세 권짜리 저작으로, 라틴어로 썼다.이 책에서 뉴턴은 고전 역학의 바탕을 이루는 뉴턴의 운동 법칙과 만유인력의 법칙을 기술하고 있다. 당시 요하네스 케플러가 천체의 운동에 대한 자료를 바탕으로 알아낸 케플러의 행성운동법칙을 뉴턴은 자신의 위 두 법칙들로써 증명해 낸다. 그는 이러한 일련의 작업을 통해서 코페르니쿠스에서 시작되어 케플러 갈릴레오를 거치면서 이루어져 온 천문학의 혁명을 완성하는 한편 갈릴레오 이후 데카르트 하위헌스 등을 통해서 이루어져 온 근대 역학의 성공을 눈부시게 보여주고 있다.에드먼드 핼리도 이 책을 바탕으로 1530년 1607년 1682년에 나타났던 혜성들의 궤도를 계산해 이 혜성 모두가 동일한 하나의 천체일 가능성이 높다는 사실을 발견했고 일정한 주기에 따라 1750년대 말에 다시 나타나리라고 예견했다. 뉴턴도 핼리도 죽은 뒤인 1758년에 수수께끼 같은 천체가 발견되었는데 그것이 다름 아닌 핼리 혜성이다.제1편은 운동에 관한 일반적 명제를 논술하였고 제2편은 매질 속에서의 물체의 운동을 다루고 마지막 제3편은 코페르니쿠스의 지동설 케플러의 행성의 타원궤도 등의 행성의 운동을 증명하였다.뉴턴은 그의 이론을 기술하기 위해 미적분학을 역학에 적용하였지만 이 책에서는 주로 기하학적인 증명 방법을 사용하고 미적분을 거의 사용하지 않고 있는데 이는 당시의 사람들의 이해를 고려해서라고 한다.1687년에 초판, 1712년 증보 개정판, 그리고 1726년 제3판이 출간되었다.저항이 있는 공간 속에서 물질의 입자가 어떻게 운동하는지에 대한 문제를 취급하고 있다. 이 내용은 오늘날의 소위 우주관에 케플러의 행성 운동 법칙과 어울리지 않는다는 사실을 밝히기 위한 목적에 맞추어져 있다.가장 성과가 많은 부분이다. 태양과 다른 행성들의 질량이 추론되고 순전히 수량적인 방식을 이용해서 지구의 평평한 모습이 설명되며 조수의 이론 등이 상세히 제시되고 있다. +슈뢰딩거 방정식은 비상대론적 양자역학적 계의 시간에 따른 진화를 나타내는 선형 편미분 방정식이다. 오스트리아의 물리학자 에르빈 슈뢰딩거가 도입하였고 그가 발명한 파동역학의 기본 방정식이다.파동 함수 formula_1에 대한 슈뢰딩거 방정식은 다음과 같다.해밀토니언 연산자 formula_3는 고전적 해밀토니언에 해당하는 연산자로, 후자를 양자화하여 얻는다. formula_4는 폴 디랙의 브라-켓 표기를 사용해 나타낸, 슈뢰딩거 묘사에서의 힐베르트 공간의 상태 벡터이다. 이를 파동 함수 formula_5로 나타낼 수 있다. 해밀토니언 연산자 formula_6는 보통 미분 연산자이다. 예를 들어, 퍼텐셜 formula_7 속에 있는, 질량이 formula_8인 비상대론적 입자의 경우 해밀토니언은 다음과 같은 2차 미분 연산자이다.즉, 슈뢰딩거 방정식은 다음과 같은 2차 편미분 방정식이 된다.라그랑지언과 이차 양자화.슈뢰딩거 방정식은 다음과 같은 라그랑지언으로부터 유도할 수 있다.예를 들어, 퍼텐셜 formula_7 속에 있는, 질량이 formula_8인 비상대론적 입자의 경우 슈뢰딩거 라그랑지언은 다음과 같다.여기서 두 번째 표현은 전미분항을 무시하고 쓴 것이다.이 라그랑지언을 고전적 가환 또는 반가환 장의 라그랑지언으로 여겨 양자장론으로 이차 양자화시킬 수 있다. 이 경우 외부 배경장 속에서 움직이는 임의의 수의 비상대론적 보손 또는 페르미온을 나타내는 양자장론을 얻는다. 또한 이 경우 비선형 상호작용항을 추가할 수 있다. 예를 들어 그로스-피타옙스키 방정식이 이러한 꼴이다.1905년, 알베르트 아인슈타인은 광전 효과를 설명하기 위해서 광자의 에너지 E와 진동수 및 플랑크 상수 h 사이의 관계를로 나타내었다. 1924년 루이 드 브로이는 광자 뿐만 아니라 모든 입자가 대응되는 파동함수 formula_16를 가진다는 드 브로이 가설을 발표하고, 파동의 파장 와 입자의 운동량 p에 대해의 관계식을 제안했으며, 이 관계식이 특수상대론 및 위의 아인슈타인이 제안한 식과 일관됨을 보였다. 즉, E = h는 광자 뿐만 아니라 모든 입자에 대해 성립한다는 것이다.위 식들을 각진동수 formula_18와 파수 formula_19 및 formula_20를 이용해 표현하면p와 k를 벡터로 표현하면에르빈 슈뢰딩거는 슈뢰딩거 방정식을 1925년 발표하였다. 슈뢰딩거는 평면파의 위상을 복소 위상인자로 나타내었다.및 각 방향의 부분들을 더하면이 성립함을 알았다. 이제 이를 총 에너지 E와 질량 m 및 위치에너지에 대한 고전역학적 공식에 대입하여, 당시에 슈뢰딩거가 얻었던 위치에너지가 주어진 3차원 공간 상의 단일입자에 대한 공식에 도달한다.슈뢰딩거 방정식은 비상대론적이므로 특수상대론과 불합한다. 슈뢰딩거 방정식을 상대론적으로 일반화하면 스핀에 따라 클라인 고든 방정식이나 디랙 방정식 따위를 얻는다. 이들은 비상대론적인 극한에서 슈뢰딩거 방정식으로 수렴한다.또한, 슈뢰딩거 방정식에 비인 항을 추가할 수도 있다. 예를 들어, 응집물질물리학에서 보스-아인슈타인 응축을 나타내기 위해 사용하는 그로스-피타옙스키 방정식은 슈뢰딩거 방정식에 사승 상호작용을 추가한 것이다. +엔트로피는 열역학적 계의 유용하지 않은 에너지의 흐름을 설명할 때 이용되는 상태 함수다. 통계역학적으로, 주어진 거시적 상태에 대응하는 미시적 상태의 수의 로그로 생각할 수 있다. 엔트로피는 일반적으로 보존되지 않고, 열역학 제2법칙에 따라 시간에 따라 증가한다. 독일의 물리학자 루돌프 클라우지우스가 1850년대 초에 도입하였다. 대개 기호로 라틴 대문자 를 쓴다.엔트로피에는 열역학적 정의와 통계학적인 정의, 두 가지의 관련된 정의가 있다. 역사적으로, 고전 열역학적 정의가 먼저 발전하였다. 고전 열역학적인 관점에서, 그 이론은 원자나 분자 같은 수많은 성분들로 이루어져 있고, 학설의 안정성은 그러한 성분들의 평균적인 열특성으로 설명된다.이론을 구성하는 성분의 세부적인 성분들은 직접적으로 보이지 않는다. 그러나 그 특성은 온도 압력 엔트로피 열용량과 같은 눈으로 볼 수 있는 평균적인 지표들에 의해 설명된다. 그 이론의 특성에 관한 고전적인 정의는 평형 상태임을 가정하였다. 엔트로피의 고전 열역학적 정의는 최근 비평형 열역학의 영역으로까지 확대되었다. 이후 엔트로피를 포함한 열특성은 눈으로 볼 수 없는 미시세계에서의 움직임에 대한 정역학적인 관점에서 새롭게 정의되었다. 그 예로 처음에는 기체로 여겨졌지만 시간이 지난 후에 광자 음자 스핀과 같은 양자 역학적으로 생각되는 뉴턴 입자가 있다. 이 이론의 특성에 대한 통계학적 설명은 고전적인 열역학을 사용하여 이론의 특성을 정의하는 것이 몇몇 변수의 영향을 받는 이론의 최종적인 상태를 예측하는데 있어서 점점 신뢰할 수 없는 예측 기술이 되어감으로 인하여 필수적인 것이 되었다.고전적 열역학에서는 엔트로피 "S"의 절대적 값은 정의할 수 없고, 대신 그 상대적 변화만 정의한다. 열적 평형을 이뤄 온도가 formula_1인 계에 열 formula_2를 가하였다고 하자. 이 경우 엔트로피의 증가는 다음과 같이 정의한다.이 식을 적분하여 유한한 엔트로피 차이를 정의한다.엔트로피는 온도의 함수로써 주어진 열이 일로 전환될 수 있는 가능성을 나타낸다. 예를 들어 같은 크기의 열량이라도 고온의 계에 더해졌을 때보다 저온의 계에 더해졌을 경우에 계의 엔트로피가 크게 증가한다. 따라서 엔트로피가 최대일 때 열에너지가 일로 전환될 수 있는 가능성은 최소이고 반대로 엔트로피가 최소일 때 열에너지가 일로 전환될 수 있는 가능성이 최대가 된다.실제로 외부적인 일을 할 수 있는 에너지를 "유용한 에너지", 존재하지만 외부적인 일을 하는 데에 쓰일 수 없는 에너지를 "사용불가능한 에너지"라고 한다. 계의 총 에너지를 "유용한 에너지"와 "사용불가능한 에너지"의 합으로 정의 할 때, 엔트로피는 전체 에너지에서 차지하는 비율이 주어진 계의 절대 온도에 반비례하는 "사용불가능한 에너지"의 일종으로 볼 수 있다. 깁스 자유 에너지 또는 헬름홀츠 자유 에너지와의 관계식에서 "TS" 로 나타나는 것을 생각해 보라.엔트로피는 계의 자유 에너지를 결정짓는 요소 가운데 하나이다. 온도는 평형 상태에 있는 계에서만 정의되는 값이므로, 이와 같은 엔트로피의 열역학적인 정의는 오직 평형 상태에 있는 계에서만 성립한다. 반면 통계역학적인 엔트로피의 정의는 모든 계에 적용된다 . 따라서 엔트로피의 보다 근본적인 정의로는 통계역학적인 정의를 꼽을 수 있다. 엔트로피의 증가는 흔히 분자들의 무질서도의 증가로 정의되어 왔으며, 최근들어 엔트로피는 에너지의 으로 해석되고 있다.통계역학에서는 엔트로피의 차 뿐만 아니라 엔트로피의 절대적 값을 정의할 수 있다. 확률적 상태 분포를 가지는 어떤 계의 앙상블을 생각하자. 여기서 단일계의 상태 formula_5의 확률을 formula_6라고 하자. 이 경우 앙상블의 엔트로피는 다음과 같이 정의한다.고립된 계의 경우, 통상적으로 모든 미시적 상태의 확률이 같다고 가정한다. 즉 formula_8 (여기서 formula_9는 가능한 미시적 상태의 수)다. 이 경우다. 여기서 "k"B 는 볼츠만 상수다. 이 식은 루트비히 볼츠만이 처음 발견하였다.열저장고와 열적 평형을 이룬 계의 미시상태는 볼츠만 분포 formula_11를 따른다. 이 경우 엔트로피는 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_13는 분배함수다. formula_14를 헬름홀츠 자유 에너지로 정의하여 formula_15로 쓰기도 한다.양자역학적 앙상블은 밀도행렬 formula_16로 나타내어진다. 이 경우 폰노이만 엔트로피를 다음과 같이 정의한다.밀도행렬을 대각화하면 그 각 원소는 확률 formula_6가 되므로 이는 위의 통계역학적 정의와 동등하다. 이 정의는 존 폰 노이만이 발견하였다.블랙홀은 고전적으로 털없음 정리에 의하여 미시상태가 없다. 그러나 반고전으로 마치 어떤 유한한 엔트로피를 가진 것처럼 행동한다. 이 엔트로피는다. 여기서 formula_20는 블랙홀의 사건 지평선의 넓이다. 이를 베켄슈타인-호킹 엔트로피()라고 부른다. 이는 야콥 베켄슈타인( )이 가설을 세웠고 스티븐 호킹이 반고전적으로 유도하였다. 또한 특수한 경우 끈 이론이나 루프 양자 중력 등으로 미시적으로 유도할 수도 있다. 블랙홀을 포함하는 계의 경우 베켄슈타인-호킹 엔트로피를 무시하고 계산하면 일반적으로 열역학 제2법칙이 성립하지 않고 이를 포함하여 계산하여야만 성립한다.formula_21은 특정 온도 formula_22에서 시스템의 에너지 중에서 일로 변환할 수 없는 에너지를 나타낸다. 따라서 전체 에너지에서 formula_21를 뺀 양이 자유 에너지가 된다.열 엔트로피와 위치 엔트로피.엔트로피란 우주 내부 어떤 시스템에서 생기는 유용한 에너지가 무용한 에너지로 변화하는 량의 척도이다. 엔트로피를 계를 구성하는 성분들의 배열의 관점에서 바라보게 된다면, 위치 엔트로피와 열 엔트로피로 분류할 수 있다. 여기서 열 엔트로피는 분자들 사이에서의 에너지 양자의 분포들에 의한 구별가능한 배열을 기준으로 하여 계산된 엔트로피를 말한다.위와 같이 분류한 엔트로피를 계의 관점에서 본 알짜엔트로피 변화를 나타낼 때 이용할 수 있다.계와 주위가 갖는 엔트로피는 다음과 같이 표현할 수 있다여기서 열 엔트로피는 계와 주위 모두에 존재하지만 계를 제외한 모든 곳을 지칭하는 주위에서 위치 엔트로피의 변화는 너무 광범위하게 이루어지므로 그 변화를 무시할 수 있고 주위가 갖는 엔트로피 변화에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 것은 온도 즉 열 엔트로피이다. 이 때문에 주위의 엔트로피 변화를 열 엔트로피 변화라고 할 수 있다. 그리고 이와 같은 관점에서 계에서 열 엔트로피변화는 분명 존재하긴 하지만 위치 엔트로피의 변화가 더욱 계의 엔트로피변화에 큰 영향을 주기 때문에 계의 엔트로피 변화를 위치 엔트로피의 변화라 할 수 있다. +라플라스 방정식은 2차 편미분 방정식의 하나로, 고윳값이 0인 라플라스 연산자의 고유함수가 만족시키는 방정식이다. 전자기학, 천문학 등에서 전위 및 중력 퍼텐셜을 다룰 때 쓰인다. 피에르시몽 라플라스의 이름을 땄다. 라플라스 방정식의 해를 조화함수라고 한다.formula_1차원 리만 다양체에서 formula_2가 라플라스-벨트라미 연산자라고 하자. 그렇다면 라플라스 방정식은 다음과 같은 2차 편미분방정식이다.3차원 유클리드 공간에서는관련된 편미분 방정식.우변을 주어진 함수 formula_6로 바꾼 경우는 푸아송 방정식이라고 한다. 즉 라플라스 방정식은 formula_8인 푸아송 방정식의 특수한 경우다.우변을 다음과 같이 바꾸면헬름홀츠 방정식을 얻는다. 라플라스 방정식은 formula_10인 경우다.코시-리만 방정식의 해의 두 성분 모두 각각 라플라스 방정식을 만족한다. 라플라스 방정식의 디리클레 문제란 어떤 영역 formula_11의 경계에서의 가 특정 함수로 주어졌을 때, 영역 formula_11위의 해 를 구하는 것이다. 열전도에서 등장하는 라플라스 방정식을 빗대어 보면, 이 문제는 다음과 같이 해석할 수 있다. 경계면의 온도를 특정한 온도로 일정하게 유지하고 내부의 온도가 더 이상 변화하지 않을 때까지 기다린 후 내부의 온도 분포를 찾는 것이 디리클레 문제에 해당한다.라플라스 방정식의 노이만 경계 조건은 경계 D에서 함수 formula_13 자신이 아니라 법선 도함수를 조건으로 가진다. 물리학에서는 경계에서만 벡터장의 효과를 알고 있을 때 그 벡터장의 퍼텐셜을 구하는 데 사용한다.라플라스 방정식의 해를 조화 함수라고 한다. 조화 함수는 방정식의 해가 되는 영역에서는 항상 해석적이다. 만일 두 함수가 각각 라플라스 방정식의 해라면, 두 함수의 선형 결합도 해이다. 이 성질을 중첩의 원리라고 하며 복잡한 문제의 해를 간단한 해들로 나타낼 수 있기 때문에 유용하게 쓰인다.2차원 라플라스 방정식.2차원에서 라플라스 방정식은 두 개의 의존변수의 형태로 나타난다.2차원 라플라스 방정식의 차분방정식.formula_16는 격하게 푸아송 방정식의 차분방정식은 다음과 같다.복소 범위의 해석적 함수 formula_18의 실수부와 허수부는 모두 라플라스 방정식을 만족한다.formula_19이고라 하자. formula_21가 해석적이려면를 만족해야 한다. 여기서이다. 따라서 formula_24 는 라플라스 방정식을 만족한다. formula_25도 비슷한 방법으로 라플라스 방정식을 만족함을 보일 수 있다.2차원 라플라스 방정식과 푸리에 급수.극좌표계 formula_26에서 라플라스 연산자는 다음과 같다.따라서 그 일반해는 변수분리법으로 구할 수 있고 다음과 같다.이는 함수 formula_29의 푸리에 급수임을 알 수 있다. 이는으로 나타낼 수 있다. 즉, 푸리에 급수의 계수는 로랑 급수의 계수와 같다.3차원 라플라스 방정식.3차원 공간에서 구면좌표계 formula_31에서 변수분리법을 적용하면 라플라스 방정식의 일반해는 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_33는 구면 조화 함수이고 formula_34와 formula_35은 임의의 계수다. 물론 formula_18가 원점에서 연속적이려면 formula_37이다. +적분은 미적분학의 두 기본연산 중의 하나이다. 적분은 미분처럼 복잡한 함수를 보다 간단한 함수들로 분해하여 계산할 수는 없기 때문에 여러 함수에 대한 적분을 모아 놓은 적분표는 유용하게 사용된다.아래의 식들에서 는 적분 상수이다.아래 문서들에서 다양한 적분 공식들을 찾아볼 수 있다.어떤 함수의 적분은 원시 함수로 나타낼 수 없지만 특정 구간에서의 적분값을 계산할 수는 있다. 다음은 그들 중 유용한 몇 정적분이다.수학에서 삼각함수는 각의 크기를 삼각비로 나타내는 함수이다. 예각 삼각함수는 직각 삼각형의 예각에 직각 삼각형의 두 변의 길이의 비를 대응시킨다. 임의의 각의 삼각함수 역시 정의할 수 있다. 삼각함수는 복소수의 지수 함수의 실수 허수 부분이며 따라서 복소수를 다룰 때 핵심적인 역할을 한다. 가장 근본적인 주기 함수이며 각종 주기적 현상을 다룰 때 푸리에 급수의 형태로 등장한다.삼각함수에는 3개의 기본적인 함수가 있으며 이들은 사인 코사인 탄젠트라고 한다. 이들의 역수는 각각 코시컨트 시컨트 코탄젠트라고 한다.직각 삼각형을 통한 정의.C가 직각인 삼각형 ABC에서 각 A B C의 대변의 길이를 formula_7라고 할 때 사인 코사인 탄젠트의 정의는 다음과 같다.또한 코시컨트 시컨트 코탄젠트는 위 세 함수의 역수가 되며 다음과 같이 정의한다.단위원을 통한 정의.좌표평면에서 원점을 중심으로 하고 반지름 r의 길이가 1인 원을 단위원이라고 한다. 이 단위원 위의 점 A formula_14에 대해, formula_15축과 점 A와 원점을 잇는 직선간의 각을 formula_16 라고 하면, 다음과 같이 정의한다오일러의 공식 formula_23에 formula_24를 대입하면,formula_26를 대입하면,연립하여 풀면, 쌍곡선함수,사인 · 코사인 · 코시컨트 · 시컨트는 주기가 formula_31인 주기함수이다. 즉, 임의의 복소수 formula_32에 대하여,탄젠트 · 코탄젠트는 주기가 formula_37인 주기함수이다. 즉, 임의의 복소수 formula_32에 대하여,사인과 코사인은 실수선 위에서 해석함수이며, 복소 평면 위에서 정칙함수이다. 이들은 복소 무한대 formula_41에서 본질적 특이점을 갖는다.탄젠트는 실수선의 formula_42 에서 정의되지 않는다.특별한 각에서의 삼각 함수의 값은 다음과 같다.각 사분면에 따른 삼각함수의 부호는 다음과 같다.삼각함수 사이에는 많은 항등식이 존재한다. 그중 가장 자주 쓰이는 것은 피타고라스 항등식으로, 어떤 각에 대해서도 사인의 제곱과 코사인의 제곱의 합은 1이다. 이는 반지름의 길이가 formula_45인 빗변이고 밑변이 formula_46 각 formula_15의 대변인 높이 formula_48에 대하여 formula_49를 만족한다는 피타고라스의 정리로 설명할 수 있다. 이를 삼각함수로 나타내면 다음과 같다.이것은 다음과 같다.따라서 이것은 또한 단위원에서 다음과 같다.삼각함수의 덧셈정리.서로 다른 삼각함수의 관계는 삼각함수의 덧셈정리이다. 두 각의 합과 차의 사인과 코사인은 x y에 대한 사인과 코사인으로 구할 수 있다. 이는 제2 코사인 법칙과 두 점 사이의 거리 공식을 연립해 유도할 수 있고 제1 코사인 법칙과 사인 법칙을 연립해 유도할 수 있고 오일러의 공식을 이용해 유도할 수도 있다.두 각의 크기가 같을 경우에는 덧셈정리를 간단하게 배각공식을 이용할 수 있다.모든 삼각 함수는 다른 삼각 함수를 사용하여 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.다음은 6개의 기본 삼각함수에 대한 도함수와 부정적분이다.사인 법칙은 임의의 삼각형 ABC에서 각 A, B, C의 대변 "a", "b", "c"에 대해 다음과 같은 관계를 만족함을 나타낸다.도 성립한다. 여기서 은 삼각형의 외접원의 반지름의 길이를 나타낸다.코사인 법칙에는 총 두 가지의 법칙이 있다.코사인 제 1 법칙에 따르면양변의 길이와 알고자 하는 변 사이의 두 각의 크기를 알 경우, 다른 한 변의 길이를 알아낼 때 사용할 수 있다.코사인 제 2 법칙은 피타고라스의 정리를 확장한 것이다.가 성립하고, 위의 식을 변형하면와 같이 나타낼 수 있다.코사인법칙은 두 변의 길이와 끼인각의 크기를 알 때 삼각형의 나머지 한 변의 길이를 구할 때 유용하게 쓸 수 있다. 또한 모든 변의 길이를 알고 있을 때 각의 코사인값을 구할 때에도 사용할 수 있다.탄젠트법칙은 임의의 삼각형 ABC에서 각 A B의 대변 에 다음과 같은 식을 만족시킨다.기원전 2~1세기 그리스의 히파르코스와 프톨레마이오스 등은 각도에 대해 달라지는 현의 길이를 다룬 적이 있다.현재 쓰는 것과 같은 삼각함수의 원형은 굽타 시대 인도 천문학에서 찾아볼 수 있다. 기원후 4~5세기 인도의 천문학 책이 산스크리트어에서 아랍어를 통해 라틴어로 번역되면서 유럽에 전해졌다.삼각함수가 동아시아에 전해진 것은 16~17세기 때이다.영어 를 뜻하는 산스크리트어 를 음차한 것이다.는 뜻의 라틴어 에서 왔다. 각각 원에 접하는 선과 자르는 선에 빗대어 붙인 이름이다.코사인, 코탄젠트, 코시컨트의 ‘코’가 처음 쓰인 책으로는 의 이 있는데, ‘여각의 사인’을 ‘코사인’으로 줄여 부른 것이다.한자 문화권에서는 독일의 선교사과학자인 이 명나라에서 저술한 등의 책에서 사인코사인탄젠트를 각각 정현여현정절이라고 번역했다. 코탄젠트시컨트코시컨트는 각각 여절정할여할이라 한다. 이 이름은 근대화되기 전의 조선일본에서 쓰였고 지금도 중국에서 쓰인다. +르장드르 다항식() formula_1는 르장드르 미분 방정식()이라고 불리는 다음 미분 방정식의 해가 되는 함수들이다.스튀름-리우빌 형식으로 쓰면이다. 이 함수와 미분 방정식의 이름은 프랑스의 수학자 아드리앵마리 르장드르의 이름을 따 명명되었다. 이 상미분 방정식은 물리와 공학의 여러 분야에서 자주 등장한다. 특히 구면좌표계에서 라플라스 방정식을 풀 때 등장한다.구체적인 몇몇 르장드르 다항식의 형태는 다음과 같다.formula_4인 경우의 구간 사이에서의 르장드르 다항식의 그래프는 다음과 같다.르장드르 다항식에는 다음과 같은 몇몇 간단한 성질이 있다.르장드르 다항식 끼리 구간 에서 formula_13 내적을 취하면 다음과 같은 결과를 얻는다.여기서 formula_15은 크로네커 델타를 의미한다. 따라서 르장드르 다항식은 구간 에서 서로 수직함을 알 수 있다. 이는 르장드르 방정식이 스튀름-리우빌 문제에 속하기 때문이다. 즉 르장드르 미분 방정식을 다음과 같이 스튀름-리우빌 형식으로 놓을 수 있다.여기서 고윳값 formula_17이다. 스튀름-리우빌 문제의 해의 집합은 일반적으로 함수 공간의 정규 직교 기저를 이루므로 르장드르 다항식도 마찬가지로 직교 기저를 이룬다. 르장드르 다항식의 계산 및 표현.르장드르 다항식은 점화식이나 선적분 생성 함수 등 여러 방법으로 표현할 수 있다.로드리게스 공식은 르장드르 다항식의 일반식이며, 다음과 같다.르장드르 다항식은 다음과 같은 점화식을 만족한다.르장드르 다항식은 다음과 같은 생성 함수를 가진다.선적분을 통한 표현.르장드르 다항식은 유수적분을 통해 다음과 같은 적분 형태로 표현될 수 있다.여기서 적분 경로는 원점을 중심으로 하는 임의의 반시계방향의 폐곡선이다.소수에는 다음과 같은 뜻이 있다.로봇은 인간과 유사한 모습과 기능을 가진 기계 또는 한 개의 컴퓨터 프로그램으로 작동할 수 있고 자동적으로 복잡한 일련의 작업을 수행하는 기계적 장치를 말한다. 또한 제조공장에서 조립 용접 핸들링 등을 수행하는 자동화된 로봇을 산업용 로봇이라 하고 환경을 인식하고 스스로 판단하는 기능을 가진 로봇을 '지능형 로봇'이라 부른다. 사람과 닮은 모습을 한 로봇을 '안드로이드'라 부르기도 한다. 그리고 다른 뜻은 형태가 있으며 자신이 생각할 수 있는 능력을 가진 기계라고도 한다. 그리고 인공의 동력을 사용하는 로봇은 사람 대신 또는 사람과 함께 일을 하기도 한다. 통상 로봇은 제작자가 계획한 일을 하도록 설계된다. 로봇'이란 용어는 체코슬로바키아의 극작가 카렐 차페크가 1920년에 발표한 희곡 "R.U.R"에 쓴 것이 퍼져 일반적으로 사용되게 되었다. 또한 로봇의 어원은 체코어로 "노동"을 의미하는 "Robota"이다.Robot이라는 말은 1920년 체코슬로바키아의 극작가 카렐 차페크의 희곡 R.U.R.에서 처음 사용되었다. 로봇의 어원은 체코어의 노동을 의미하는 단어 에서 나왔다고 알려지고 있다. 차페크는 R.U.R.에서 모든 작업능력에서 인간과 동등하거나 그 이상이면서 인간적 을 가지고 있지 않은 로봇이라고 불리는 인조인간을 등장시키고 있다. 로봇은 언젠가 쇠조각으로 변하여 반항하는 정신을 발달시킴으로써 자신들의 창조주인 인간을 전부 죽여 버린다고 하는 비극을 인상적으로 나타내고 있다.로보틱스라는 말은 로봇의 활용과 로봇 공학을 의미한다. 이 말은 미국 과학자이면서 작가인 아이작 아시모프가 1942년에 발간한 단편 Runaround에서 최초로 사용하였다.명사로서 로봇은 다음의 의미를 지닌다.일할 수 있는 능력은 있어도 생각할 수 있는 능력이 없는 인간을 닮은 것.아이작 아시모프가 1950년 발간한 소설인 'I'Robot'에서 제안된 로봇의 행동에 관한 3가지 원칙이다.군사용 로봇이 공격의 기능을 갖출 경우 첫 번째 원칙에 위배되게 된다. 하지만 3원칙만 듣게되면 만약 예시로 로봇에게 지구에 있는 나무를 다 없애주라고 할 때 나무를 없애는 것이기 때문에 실행을 할 수가 있어 인간에게 위험할 수 있다. 그래서 몇몇 사람들은 이를 바꾸려고 한다.그동안 인간이 해 오던 많은 일들을 지금은 로봇이 대신하고 있다. 산업 현장에는 단조로운 반복 작업이나 따분한 작업 불쾌한 작업들이 많은데 이와 같은 작업은 특히 로봇에게 맡기기에 적합하다. 조립 공장에서 리벳 박는 일 용접 자동차 차체를 칠하는 일 등은 그 좋은 예이다. 이런 종류의 작업은 로봇 쪽이 인간보다 더 잘 해낼 수 있다. 왜냐하면 로봇은 언제나 일정한 수준의 정밀도와 정확도로 작업을 계속할 수 있으며 결코 지칠 줄 모르기 때문이다. 따라서 제품의 품질은 항상 일정하며 게다가 휴식을 취할 필요가 없기 때문에 많은 양의 제품을 만들 수 있다.또한 로봇은 위험한 작업을 대신할 수가 있다. 방호복을 입지 않고 원자력 공장에서 방사성 물질을 취급하거나 유독 화학 물질을 취급할 수가 있으며 인간에게는 너무 덥거나 추운 환경에서도 일할 수가 있다. 인간의 생명이 위험에 노출될 수 있는 곳에서도 로봇을 사용할 수 있다. 예를 들면 폭발물을 수색하거나 폭탄의 뇌관을 제거하는 일 그리고 우주 공간에서의 작업도 그중의 하나이다.로봇은 우주 공간에서의 작업에 특히 이상적이다. 지구를 돌고 있는 인공위성을 수리하거나 유지하는 데 사용되기도 하고, 보이저호와 같이 탐사와 발견을 목적으로 먼 천체까지 비행하는 데도 로봇이 사용된다.한편 가정에서도 점점 많은 로봇이 가사를 돕기 위해 사용되고 있다. 그리고 육체적인 장애를 가진 사람들을 돌보는 일에도 많이 이용될 것으로 기대된다. 로봇 간호보조자는 장애자나 노령으로 인해 체력이 약해진 사람들이 가족들에게서 독립하여 혼자서도 살 수 있도록 해주며 병원에 입원하지 않아도 될 수 있도록 도와 주게 될 것이다.로봇이 사용되는 분야의 예를 들면 다음과 같다.주로 힘이나 정밀도를 요하는 작업 담당수치 제어 공작 기계.공장에서 제품을 생산할 때 컴퓨터를 이용하면, 제품의 생산 계획이나 설계·제조·보관·출고에 이르기까지 거의 모든 일을 처리할 수 있다. 기계 공업에서 가장 많이 사용하는 공작 기계는 금속 등을 가공할 때 사용된다. 과거에는 이 기계를 사용하기 위해 고도의 숙련된 기술이 필요했다. 그러나 최근에는 수치 제어 공작 기계가 개발되어 기술이 없어도 금속을 가공할 수 있게 되었다. 수치 제어 공작 기계는 가공하는 작업의 순서와 내용을 수치 정보로 만들어 기계에 입력시키면 기계가 자동적으로 가공 작업을 하는 것이다. 이 수치 제어 공작 기계와 자료의 입력 관리를 맡는 컴퓨터가 결합하여 만들어진 것이 컴퓨터 수치 제어 공작 기계이다. 이 수치 제어 기계에서 더 발전하여 복잡한 가공을 할 수 있도록 만든 장치가 공작 로봇이다.주로 인내심을 요하는 작업 담당주로 위험한 환경에서의 작업 담당미국에서는 로봇이 생활에 도움을 주는 기계라기보다 앞으로 인류를 위협할지도 모른다는 생각이 있어서 주로 터미네이터 등 영화에서 로봇이 인류를 위협하는 존재로 나와 있다. 또 무인 조종 비행기 등 군사에서 쓰는 군사 로봇이 가장 잘 발달되어 있다.2015년 미국의 로봇 제조사인 한슨 로보틱스에서 일상을 위한 최신 인공지능 로봇 을 공개하였다. 한은 사람과 대화를 할 수 있는 건 물론 사람의 표정 성 나이 등을 캐치할 수 있다. 한의 가장 놀라운 점은 인간같은 표정을 지을 수 있다는 것이다.일본 에도 시대에는 가라쿠리 인형 같은 로봇이 있었다. 일본은 아시모등과 같은 휴머노이드형 로봇이나 소니의 AIBO와 같은 애완용 로봇 그리고 산업용 로봇 외에도 인간의 모습에 가까운 로봇 개발에 힘쓰고 있다. 아톰, 건담 같은 로봇 애니메이션이 대중적인 인기를 얻고 있다.중국에서는 로봇을 산업이나 가정에 도움을 주는 기계라보다는 사람이 조종하는 꼭두각시라고 생각한다. 그러나 중국은 미국과 일본 심지어는 대한민국까지도 로봇공학에 힘을 쏟고 있다는 것을 인식하자 이들에게 뒤떨어지지 않기 위해 2000년에 선행자라는 이름의 직립보행형 로봇을 개발하기도 했으나 선행자의 양 다리 사이에 설치된 파이프 모양의 부속으로 인하여 일본에서 '최종중화병기 선행자'라는 애니메이션이 발표되는 등 개그캐릭터로서 폭발적인 인기를 끌기도 했다.조선시대에 물의 힘으로 여러 인형이 작동하는 물시계 자격루와 옥루를 제작하였다. 한국은 초기에는 산업과 경제에 필요한 기계를 제작하였고, 근래에 들어서는 휴머노이드형 로봇 개발에 힘쓰고 있다. 로봇은 산업 뿐만 아니라 대회에서 인간을 대신하여 겨루는 용도로도 제작되고 있다. 또한 물리적인 움직임 없이 사람과 의사소통하며 감정을 교류하는 소셜 로봇도 있다. 예를 들면, 2015년 5월 글로벌 크라우드 펀딩 사이트인 인디고고를 통해 처음으로 세상에 소개된 뮤지오가 있다. +깊은 생각은 더글러스 애덤스의 과학소설 에 등장하는 상상의 컴퓨터이다.소설 속에서 깊은 생각은 '삶과 우주, 그리고 모든 것에 대한 궁극적인 답'을 찾기 위해 만들어졌다. 결국 컴퓨터는 750만 년 동안 계산을 한 결과 42라는 답을 계산해 내지만, 깊은 생각의 제작자들은 정작 이 답에 대한 질문이 무엇인지 모르고 있었다는 것을 깨닫는다. 깊은 생각 자신도 궁극의 질문이 무엇인지에 대한 대답은 내놓지 못한 채, 결국 42라는 답에 대한 질문이 무엇인지를 계산하기 위해 더욱 강력한 컴퓨터를 제작할 것을 제안한다. 천만 년 동안 계산을 하고 결과를 내어 놓기 5분을 남겨놓고 지구는 보곤 공병함대에 의해 파괴된다.원작 라디오 시리즈에선, Geoffrey McGivern이 그 목소리를 담당했고, 후의 LP 녹음과 TV 시리즈에선 Valentine Dyall가 목소리를 연기했다.체스 세계 챔피언 개리 카스파로프를 꺾었던 컴퓨터 딥 블루의 이전 모델도 이 소설 속의 컴퓨터의 이름을 따라 딥 소트라 명명되었다. 이후 세대 체스 컴퓨터들의 이름은 딥 프리츠 딥 주니어 등으로 이어진다.소립자 물리학의 표준 모형(標準模型)은 자연계의 기본 입자와, 중력을 제외한 그 상호작용 (강한 상호작용, 약한 상호작용, 전자기 상호작용)을 다루는 게이지 이론이다. 강력을 다루는 양자 색역학과, 약력과 전자기력을 다루는 와인버그-살람 이론으로 이루어진다. 표준 모형에 따르면, 전자와 중성미자 및 기타 렙톤은 기본 입자이나, 강입자는 쿼크로 이루어진다. 이들은 게이지 보손에 의하여 상호작용한다. 게이지 보손은 이론의 대칭을 나타낸다. 표준 모형의 대칭 가운데 강한 상호작용의 대칭은 색가둠으로 인하여 간접적으로만 관찰할 수 있고, 약한 상호작용의 대칭은 힉스 메커니즘으로 인하여 깨진다. 따라서 거시적으로는 전자기 상호작용의 대칭만 쉽게 관찰할 수 있다.표준 모형은 실험적으로 힉스 메커니즘을 제외하고 1980년대에 완성되었다. 힉스 메커니즘은 2010년대 초에 실험적인 증거가 발견되었다.표준 모형의 페르미온.표준 모형에서는 중성미자와 게이지 보손 힉스 보손을 제외한 모든 입자를 디랙 입자로 나타낸다. 이들 입자는 스핀 (즉 페르미온)을 가지며 질량과 전하를 가지고 그 반입자와 서로 다르다. 표준 모형은 이들 입자의 질량을 예측하지 못하나 대체로 세대가 높을 수록 더 무겁다. 표준 모형의 디랙 입자 중 강하게 상호작용하는 입자는 쿼크 그렇지 않는 입자는 중성미자와 함께 렙톤으로 분류한다. 쿼크는 ± 혹은 ±의 전하를 가지고 중성미자가 아닌 렙톤은 ±1의 전하를 가진다. 이들 입자는 힉스 메커니즘으로 질량을 얻는다. 중성미자는 바일 입자(손지기 페르미온)으로 나타낸다. 즉 스핀 (즉 페르미온)을 가지며 질량과 전하가 없고 그 반입자와 다른 손지기(chirality)를 가진다.6종의 쿼크 맛깔은 시간이 지나면서 서로 다른 맛깔의 쿼크로 변할 수 있는데 이를 쿼크 섞임이라고 한다. 쿼크가 섞이는 정도는 CKM행렬이라는 수학적 개체로 나타낸다. 이는 이탈리아의 니콜라 카비보(Nicola Cabbibo)와 일본의 고바야시 마코토와 마스카와 도시히데가 도입하였다. 예를 들어 중성자는 양성자로 붕괴할 수 있다 (베타 붕괴). 이 과정에서 아래 쿼크는 위 쿼크로 바뀐다. 쿼크 섞임 때문에 표준 모형은 CP 대칭을 보존하지 않는다.렙톤의 경우 표준 모형에서는 렙톤이 섞이지 않는다. 즉 표준모형은 세 종류의 렙톤 수 를 개별적으로 보존한다.표준모형의 페르미온은 다음과 같이 세 세대로 나뉜다. 각 세대의 서로 대응되는 입자는 질량을 제외하고는 정확히 같은 성질을 지닌다. 표준 모형은 왜 세대 구조가 존재하는지 설명하지 못한다.표준 모형의 게이지 보손.표준 모형은 게이지군이 SUC×SUW×UY인 게이지 이론이다. 이 중 강력은 SUC 약전자기력은 SUW×UY에 해당한다. 낮은 에너지에서 약전자기력의 대칭은 힉스 메커니즘에 의해 자발적으로 깨져 전자기력의 UEM만 남고 나머지는 약력을 이룬다. 이 과정으로 인해 힉스 보손과 약력의 게이지 보손은 질량을 얻는다. (여기서 UY와 UEM은 서로 다른 군이다.)강력의 게이지 보손은 글루온이다. SU가 8차원이므로, 글루온은 총 여덟가지의 색을 지닌다. 강력은 오직 쿼크에만 작용하고, 렙톤에는 작용하지 않는다. 쿼크는 세가지의 색을 지닌다. 이를 가시광선의 삼원색을 따서 통상적으로 빨강, 초록, 파랑으로 부른다. 이 때문에 강한 상호작용을 기술하는 양자장론을 양자 색역학이라고 일컫는다.글루온을 통하여 쿼크의 색이 바뀔 수 있다. 따라서 글루온의 색을 3가지의 색을 다른 색으로 바꾸는 조합 으로 볼 수 있다. 3가지의 색을 다른 3가지로 바꾸는 조합은 총 3×3=9가지이나, 그중 모든 색을 그대로 두는 변환을 제외하여 8가지의 색이 남는다.전약력의 게이지 보손은 SU×U이 4차원이므로 4종인데, 이는대칭 깨짐 이전의 W+ W- W0 (약한 아이소스핀 SU(2)) B (약한 초전하 U(1))에 해당한다.대칭 깨짐 이후, W0과 B는 광자와 Z보손으로 섞인다.전약력의 게이지 군 가운데 SU의 전하는 약한 아이소스핀, U의 전하는 약한 초전하이다. 대칭이 깨지면서, 약한 아이소스핀의 한 성분과 약한 초전하가 섞여 양자전기역학의 대칭군 U을 이룬다.표준 모형의 이론적 구성.표준 모형은 대부분의 양자장론처럼 많은 수의 대칭을 지닌다. 대칭은 다음과 같이 분류할 수 있다.자연계에서 약력은 C 대칭과 P 대칭을 최대로 깬다. 따라서 표준 모형은 이들을 따르지 않는다. 강력의 경우 이론적으로 C 대칭을 깰 수 있으나 이는 관측 불가능할 정도로 작다. 약력은 2세대 이하에서는 CP 대칭을 보존하지만 3세대 이상으로는 CP 대칭을 깬다 . 표준 모형은 다른 모든 특수상대론적 이론과 같이 푸앵카레 대칭을 따르므로 CPT 정리에 따라 CPT 대칭을 따른다. CPT는 이산대칭이기 때문에 뇌터 정리에 해당하지 않고연관된 보존량도 없다.표준 모형은 SU×SU×U의 대칭군을 가진 게이지 이론이다. 여기서 SU은 색력에 해당하고, SU×U은 전약력에 해당한다. SU를 약한 아이소스핀, U을 약한 초전하라고 부른다. 이 중 SU×U은 U으로 깨지게 된다. 여기서 깨진 후 남은 U은 전자기 대칭으로, 약한 초전하의 U과는 다르다. 이에 따라 표준 모형은 색전하, 약한 아이소스핀, 약한 초전하를 보존한다.표준 모형은 건드림이론 수준에서 네 가지의 전반적 우연대칭 을 가진다. 이는 쿼크 위상 회전, 전자 위상 회전, 뮤온 위상 회전, 타우온 위상 회전이다. 이에 따라, 표준 모형은 바리온 수, 전자 수, 뮤온 수, 타우온 수를 보존한다. 이들은 우연대칭이기 때문에, 대통일 이론에서 깨질 수 있다. 실제로 전자 수, 뮤온 수, 타우온 수의 개별적인 보존은 중성미자 진동에 의하여 반증되었다. 또한, 우연대칭은 건드림이론에서는 성립하지만 비건드림적인 효과로 인해 깨질 수 있다. 실제로 표준 모형에서는 비건드림적 효과로 인하여 바리온 수와 렙톤 수가 개별적으로 보존되지 않는다. 즉 은 비건드림적으로도 보존된다. 물론 모든 비건드림이론적 효과는 대부분의 경우 극히 미미하고, 빅뱅 초기 를 제외하고는 관측하기 힘들다. 이 밖에도, 표준 모형은 각종 근사적인 맛깔 대칭을 지닌다. 가장 기본적으로 아이소스핀의 SU와 이를 초전하로 확장한 SU이 있고, 이를 다른 쿼크를 도입하여 더 확장할 수 있다. 맛깔 대칭은 쿼크의 질량에 의하여 깨진다. 질량이 클 수록 깨지는 정도도 더 심하다.아래의 표는 표준 모형에 등장하는 모든 마당을 정리한 것이다. 이 가운데 페르미온 장 은 질량을 제외하고 모든 성질이 같은 두 개의 세대가 더 존재하지만 생략하였다.이 표는 왼손 바일 스피너 대신에 오른손 바일 스피너로 적을 수도 있다. 그렇게 하면, 모든 쿼크를 반쿼크로 바꾸어야 한다. 이는 약력은 전반성 대칭을 최대로 불복하기 때문이다. 또한, 표준 모형에서 중성미자는 오직 왼손만 존재한다. 즉 모든 중성미자는 왼손잡이며, 반중성미자는 오른손잡이다.페르미온의 경우 왼손 입자(formula_1 formula_2)는 SU(2)L의 기본표현(fundamental representation)을 따르나 왼손 반입자(formula_3 formula_4 formula_5)는 SU(2)L에 따라 변환하자 않는다. (반)쿼크(formula_1 formula_7 formula_8)는 SU(3)c의 (반)기본표현을 따르나 렙톤(formula_2 formula_5)은 SU(3)c에 따라 변환하지 않는다.게이지 장은 해당 게이지 대칭에 대하여 딸림표현을 따르고, 로렌츠 벡터이며, 다른 게이지 대칭에는 변환하지 않는다.표준 모형은 19개의 상수를 포함한다.표준 모형은 이론적으로 여러가지의 결함을 가지고 있고, 또 현상론적으로 관측된 일부 현상을 설명하지 못한다.이 때문에 학자들은 표준모형이 더 기본적인 이론을 근사하는 유효 이론이며, 더 높은 에너지에서는 표준모형이 다루지 않는 새 현상이 나타나리라고 기대한다. 거대 하드론 충돌기에서 행해지는 여러 실험은 표준모형의 한계를 드러낼 것이다.표준 모형은 이론적으로 여러 자연스러움 문제를 안고 있다. 이는 표준 모형에 등장하는 몇몇 상수가 너무나 큰 값 또는 작은 값을 가지는 것이다. 이런 문제를 해결하려면 대개 더 강력한 대칭을 도입하여 상수가 왜 그렇게 크거나 작은 값을 가지는지 설명해야한다. 이런 종류의 이론은 대통일 이론이나 초대칭 따위가 있다.또한 표준 모형은 여러가지로 임의적인 면이 있다. 표준 모형은 3세대로 구성되어 있지만 왜 3세대로 구성되었는지 설명하지 않는다. 2세대가 발견되었을 때 이지도어 아이작 라비는 라고 외칠 정도로 세대의 존재와 그 수는 언뜻 보면 불필요한 구조다.표준 모형은 전하의 양자화를 설명하지 않는다. 폴 디랙은 전하의 양자화를 설명하려면 자기 홀극이 필요하다는 사실을 보였으나 표준 모형은 자기 홀극을 포함하지 않는다.또한 표준 모형은 19개의 자유 변수를 가진다. 이 자유 변수의 수는 기본 이론이라고 보기에는 너무 많다.표준 모형은 입자 물리학의 거의 모든 실험 결과를 오차 범위 안으로 설명한다. 그러나 표준모형은 중력을 다루지 않는다. 또 표준 모형은 중성미자를 무질량 입자로 다루지만 실제로 중성미자는 아주 작지만 영이 아닌 질량을 가진다 . 이 질량이 어떤 종류인지 아직 확실하지 않다.또한 표준 모형은 아무런 암흑 물질 입자를 포함하지 않는다. 표준 모형에서 암흑 물질로 간주할 수 있는 입자는 중성미자밖에 없는데, 중성미자는 이론적으로 전체 암흑 물질 양의 소량만을 차지한다. +쿼크는 경입자와 더불어 물질을 이루는 가장 근본적인 입자다. 경입자가 아닌, 색전하를 띤 기본 페르미 입자이다. 중입자와 중간자를 이룬다. 이론 물리학자 머리 겔만은 자신이 발견한 우주의 기본 미립자를 '쿼크'로 명명했는데 이것은 제임스 조이스의 소설 12장 '신부선과 갈매기'에서 갈매기가 외치는 무의미한 조롱의 울음소리에서 따온 것이다. 우연의 일치로, 우주 속의 입자들을 구성하는 쿼크는 세 개씩 같이 다닌다.쿼크는 총 6가지의 종류가 있으며, 다음과 같다.각 쿼크에는 이에 대응되는 반입자인 반쿼크가 존재한다. 반쿼크는 대응하는 쿼크와 질량이 같지만 전하와 색전하가 반대다. 각 쿼크는 빨강, 초록, 파랑 세 개의 색깔을 가질 수 있다. 쿼크는 3세대가 있는데 1세대는 위·아래 쿼크, 2세대에 맵시·기묘 쿼크, 3세대에 꼭대기·바닥 쿼크로 나눈다.쿼크는 기본 전하의 − 또는 +의 전하를 갖는다. 기본 전하의 정수배가 아닌 전하를 가진 입자는 쿼크가 유일하다. 전하량 외에도 쿼크는 색전하란 물리량을 갖는데, 이 양은 의 색전하를 갖는다.(색전하는 가시광선의 색과는 아무런 관련이 없고, 단지 양자 색역학의 대칭군인 SU의 3차원 표현의 기저를 나타내는 통상적인 용어일 뿐이다.)양자 색역학의 색가둠 현상에 의하여, 일상적인 에너지에서 쿼크는 홀로 존재하지 않고 언제나 중간자나 중입자를 이룬다. 중간자는 쿼크와 반쿼크로 이루어진 입자이고, 중입자는 세 개의 쿼크로 이루어진 입자다. 중간자와 중입자를 통틀어 강입자라고 부른다. 이에 따라, 홑 쿼크는 관측할 수 없으며, 관측 가능한 강입자는 항상 기본 전하의 정수배의 전하를 가지고, 항상 무색이다. 쿼크를 따로 관측할 수 없으므로, 위 표의 쿼크 질량은 정확한 값이 아니라 참값이 놓여 있을 것으로 여겨지는 범위다.라는 이름은 제임스 조이스의 소설 에 나오는 다음 구절에서 인용한 것이다.여기서 는 액체의 단위인 쿼트를 변형한 것으로 등장 인물인 마크에게 술을 권하는 대목이다.중력 상수 만유인력 상수 또는 뉴턴 상수는 중력의 세기를 나타내는 기초 물리 상수다. 중력을 다루는 모든 이론 예를 들어 뉴턴의 만유인력의 법칙과 아인슈타인의 일반 상대성 이론에 등장한다. 과학 기술 데이터 위원회 2010년 자료에 따르면, 국제단위계에서의 값은 다음과 같다.그 밖에 국제 천문 연맹에서 제공하는 자료도 권위가 있다.만유인력의 법칙에 따르면, 두 물체 사이의 중력적 인력은 그 두 질량의 곱에 비례하며 거리의 제곱에 반비례한다. 식으로 쓰면 다음과 같다.이 식에서 비례 상수 formula_2를 중력 상수라고 일컫는다.중력은 자연의 다른 세 상호작용보다 상대적으로 약하다. 예를 들어 두 대의 3000 kg의 자동차가 각각의 질량 중심에 대해 3 m 떨어져 있을 때 두 자동차에 작용하는 중력은 약 67 N밖에 되지 않는다. 이는 모래 알갱이의 무게 정도의 힘에 해당한다.중력 상수는 헨리 캐번디시가 캐번디시 실험을 통해 정교하게 처음으로 측정하였다. 실험을 위해 막대의 양 끝에 납으로 된 공을 매달고 이를 줄에 매달아 수평 방향으로만 회전하게 한다. 막대의 관성 모멘트는 막대가 복원력에 의해 진동하는 주기를 측정하여 알아낼 수 있다. 막대의 한쪽 끝에 다른 공을 가까이 대면 중력에 의해 서로 끌어당기게 되고 막대가 회전한 각도를 측정하여 이 힘을 알아낼 수 있다. 중력 상수의 측정은 캐번디시의 실험 이후로 점차 정확도가 향상되어 왔다. 중력이 다른 기본 상호 작용에 대해 매우 약하고, 다른 물체의 영향을 없애기 어렵기 때문에 중력 상수 formula_3를 측정하는 것은 여러 모로 어렵다. 게다가 중력과 다른 상호 작용 사이에 알려진 상관 관계가 없기 때문에 간접적으로 이를 측정할 수 없다. 최근의 리뷰에 따르면, 중력 상수의 측정값은 크게 변해 왔고, 최근의 몇몇 측정값은 실제로는 서로 배타적이라고 한다.formula_4 곱 또는 표준 중력 변수는 여러가지 중력과 관계된 수식을 간단히 표현하는 데 자주 활용된다. 특히 태양계에 대해 중력 법칙을 이용할 때 매우 높은 정확도로 측정할 수 있기 때문에 빈번하게 사용된다. 중력 상수의 정확도가 높지 않은 데 반해 행성의 위치나 중력 가속도와 같은 양은 매우 정확하게 측정할 수 있다. 따라서 중력 상수와 질량의 곱은 매우 정확하게 알아낼 수 있다. 태양계에서의 중력을 계산할 때 거의 대부분의 계산에서 GM 값이 함께 붙어서 나오며, 대부분의 계산에서 이 둘을 따로 대입할 필요가 없어 정확도를 높일 수 있다. 표준 중력 변수의 값은 formula_5로도 표시하며 국제단위계에서 다음과 같은 값을 갖는다.천체 역학에서는 주로 국제단위계의 킬로그램보다 태양 질량을 기준으로 한 단위계를 사용하는 것이 계산에 편하다. 이 단위계로 쓴 중력 상수를 가우스 중력 상수 formula_7라 부르며,그 값은 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_9는 천문 단위 formula_10는 평균 태양일 그리고 formula_11는 태양의 질량이다.중력 상수를 플랑크 상수와 광속을 이용하여, 임의적인 기본 단위가 전혀 없는 단위계를 만들 수 있다. 이를 막스 플랑크의 이름을 따 플랑크 단위계라고 부른다. 플랑크 단위계에서 중력 상수는 플랑크 상수와 진공에서의 빛의 속도와 함께 모두 1로 맞추어진다. +변형력(變形力) 또는 스트레스()은 역학에서 단위면적당 작용하는 힘을 뜻한다. 응력(應力)이라고도 한다. 오귀스탱 루이 코시가 1822년 처음 고안했다.사실상 응력의 개념은 연속체라는 가정 아래 성립할 수 있다. 물체 내부의 경우, 가상의 단위부피를 설정해서 그 가상의 표면 바깥에 작용하는 힘을 계산하기 때문이다. 여기서 '가상의 힘'은 크게 두 종류가 있는데, 표면힘과 몸체힘이다. 표면힘은 표면에 평행한 힘이며, 몸체힘은 표면에 대하여 수직 방향인 힘이다.응력의 SI단위는 파스칼이다. 압력과 같은 단위지만 압력과 응력은 전혀 다른 개념이다.일반적인 단면봉(Prismatic Bar)의 경우 수직응력(Normal Stress)은 바깥쪽(Tension) 또는 안쪽(Compression)으로 작용한다. 변형률(Strain)과의 연관성 때문에 보통 바깥쪽 응력을 양으로 안쪽 응력을 음으로 본다. 이 경우 보통은 계산의 편리성을 위해 "모든 단면적에 고르게 힘이 작용한다"라고 가정하고 평균값을 사용하는 경우가 많다. 즉실제로는 모든 지점마다 작용하는 응력의 값이 다르다. 때문에 코시는 이를 표현하기 위해 텐서를 사용했다.이 방식은 축이 변할 경우 값이 어떻게 바뀌는지 계산하는 것이 힘들다는 단점을 가지고 있다. 이를 보완하기 위해 Mohr's Circle을 사용한다. 또한 코시 텐서는 작은 변형에 맞는 방식이기 때문에 큰 변형의 경우 다른 방식을 사용한다.응력은 물체가 외부 힘의 작용에 저항하여 원형을 지키려는 힘을 말하며 전단응력과 깊은 관계를 가지있으며 고체역학,유체역학과도 연관있다. 한편 응력은 원자, 분자 또는 이온 사이에 작용하여 고체나 액체 따위의 물체를 이루게 하는 서로 끌어당기는 힘을 통틀어 이르는 말로 응력과 연관있다.대수학은 일련의 공리들을 만족하는 수학적 구조들의 일반적인 성질을 연구하는 수학의 한 분야이다. 이렇게 일련의 추상적인 성질들로 정의되는 구조들을 대수 구조라고 하며, 그 예시로 반군, 군, 환, 가군, 체, 벡터 공간, 격자 등이 있다. 대수학은 취급하는 구조에 따라서 반군론, 군론, 환론, 선형대수학, 격자론, 정수론 등으로 분류된다.기하학, 해석학, 정수론과 함께 대수학은 수학의 대분야 중 하나로 볼 수 있다. 대수학이란 용어는 단순한 산술적 수학을 가리키기도 하나, 수학자들은 군, 환, 불변량 이론과 같이 수 체계 및 그 체계 내에서의 연산에 대한 추상적 연구에 대해서 "대수학"이라는 용어를 자주 사용한다.algebra라는 명칭은 페르시아의 저명한 수학자인 콰리즈미가 쓴 에서 비롯되었다. 책의 원 제목에 있는 는 묶는다는 뜻으로 이 책에서는 방정식에서 항들을 묶어서 소거하는 것을 부르는 말로 쓰였다.라는 번역어는 드 모르간의 에서 처음 쓰였다.고대의 대수학에 대한 주요 저서로는 에우클레이데스의 원론이나 구장산술 디오판토스의 등이 있다. 9세기에 페르시아의 수학자 콰리즈미는 란 제목으로 라틴어로 번역한 뒤 다섯 세기에 걸쳐서 유럽의 대학에서 사용되었다. 여기서 "알게브라"와 "알무카발라"는 해당하는 아랍어 단어를 음역한 것이다. 또한 콰리즈미의 저서인 "인도 수의 계산법"이 라틴어로 번역되면서 2차 방정식 사칙연산 십진법 0 등의 개념이 소개되었다.19세기 이후에는 에바리스트 갈루아가 대수 방정식을 연구하기 위해서 군이라는 대수적 구조를 도입하였고 조지 불은 논리학을 연구하기 위해서 불 대수라는 대수적 구조를 정의하였다. 이후 현대 수학에서는 다비트 힐베르트의 공리 주의나 니콜라 부르바키 스타일에서 찾아볼 수 있듯이 고전적인 대수학에서 상당히 거리가 추상화되어 있으며 방정식의 해법은 이라는 대수학의 일부분에 불과하다. +군론은 군에 대해 연구하는 대수학의 한 분야이다. 수학의 여러 분야의 기초가 되며, 대칭성을 다루는 특성 탓에 물리학이나 화학 분야에서도 응용된다.4차 방정식까지는 대수적인 풀이 즉 근의 공식이 존재한다는 것이 알려져 있었지만 5차 이상의 방정식의 근의 공식이 있는지는 밝혀지지 않고 있었다. 5차 방정식의 근의 공식이 존재하지 않는다는 것은 아벨에 의해 증명되었으나 어떤 경우에 방정식이 대수적으로 풀어지고 어떤 경우에 방정식이 대수적으로 풀어지지 않는지를 일반적으로 연구하는 것은 극히 어려운 문제였다. 군론은 이 물음에 대한 답을 하려는 과정에서 갈루아에 의해 도입된 접근방식이었다. 갈루아는 군론을 이용해서 다항 방정식의 대수적 해법에 대한 일반적인 관계를 증명하였다. 갈루아 이론으로 불리는 이 이론은 수학의 여러 분야 가운데에서도 극히 아름다운 이론으로 손꼽힌다.선형 결합 또는 일차 결합은 수학에서 각 항에 상수를 곱하고 결과를 추가함으로써 일련의 항으로 구성된 표현식이다. 선형 결합의 개념은 선형대수학과 수학 관련 분야의 중심이다. 이 글의 대부분은 체 위의 벡터 공간의 맥락에서 선형 결합을 다루며 글의 끝에 주어진 일부 일반화를 다룬다."V"를 체 "K" 위의 벡터 공간이 되도록 한다. 우리는 평소와 같이 "V" 벡터 공간의 원소를 부르고 "K" 스칼라의 원소를 부른다. 만약 v1...v"n"이 벡터이고 "a"1..."a""n"이 스칼라인 경우에는 해당 스칼라와 계수의 선형 결합은 formula_1이라고 표현한다."선형 결합"이라는 용어가 표현식을 참조하는지 또는 그 값을 참조하는지 여부에 대해서는 다소 애매한 점이 있다. 대부분의 경우 "v1...,v"n"은 항상 하위 공간을 형성한다"는 주장에서처럼 값이 강조된다. 그러나 "두 개의 서로 다른 선형 결합이 동일한 값을 가질 수 있다"고 말할 수 있으며 이 경우에는 표현식에 대한 참조가 된다. 이러한 용도들 사이의 미묘한 차이는 선형 종속 집합의 본질이다. 벡터족 "F"는 값으로서 "F"의 벡터의 선형 결합이 고유하게 식과 같은 경우 정확하게 선형 독립적이다. 어떤 경우든 표현식으로 볼 때조차 선형 결합에 대해 중요한 것은 각 v"i"의 계수 뿐이다. 항을 허용하거나 영점 계수를 갖는 항을 추가하는 것과 같은 사소한 수정은 뚜렷한 선형 결합을 생성하지 않는다.주어진 상황에서 "K"와 "V"는 명시적으로 지정되거나 문맥상 명백할 수 있다. 이 경우 우리는 종종 계수 v1...,v"n"의 선형 결합(반드시 "K"에 속해야 한다는 점 제외)을 언급한다. 또는 "S"가 "V"의 부분집합인 경우 벡터가 집합 "S"에 속해야 한다는 점을 제외하고 계수와 벡터가 모두 지정되지 않은 "S"에서 벡터의 선형 결합에 대해 말할 수 있다. 마지막으로 우리는 벡터가 "V"에 속해야 하고 계수가 "K"에 속해야 한다는 것을 제외하면 아무것도 지정되지 않은 선형 결합에 대해 간단히 말할 수 있다. 이 경우 "V"의 모든 벡터는 확실히 어떤 선형 결합의 값이기 때문에 한 가지는 아마도 식을 참조할 것이다.선형 결합은 정의상 매우 많은 벡터만 포함한다(아래와 같이 언급된 일반화인 경우는 제외). 그러나 벡터가 하나를 언급할 경우에는 추출된 집합 "S"는 여전히 무한할 수 있다. 각각의 개별 선형 결합은 단지 많은 벡터를 포함할 뿐이다. 또한 "n"이 0이 될 수 없는 이유는 없다. 이 경우 우리는 관례에 따라 선형 결합의 결과가 "V"의 제로 벡터(zero vector)라고 선언한다.임의의 체 을 벡터( 단위)로 설정합니다. 이러한 벡터의 모든 선형 결합 집합을 고려하는 것은 흥미로운 편이다. 이 집합을 벡터의 선형생성(예 })이라고 부른다. 우리는 의 생성 범위인 span() 또는 sp()를 다음과 같이 표현한다.일부 벡터 v1...v"n"의 경우 단일 벡터는 2 가지 다른 방법으로 선형 결합으로 쓸 수 있다.이와 마찬가지로 를 빼면 중요하지 않은 결합은 영점이 된다.이 경우 v1...v의 선형 종속 또는 독립에 대해 말할 수 있다."S"가 선형 독립적이고 "S"의 범위가 "V"와 같으면 "S"는 "V"의 기저가 된다.다양한 종류의 선형 결합.선형 결합에 사용되는 계수를 제한함으로써 아핀 결합 원뿔 결합 및 볼록 결합의 관련 개념과 이러한 연산에 따라 닫힌 집합의 관련 개념을 정의할 수 있다.이들은 보다 제한된 연산이기 때문에 더 많은 부분집합들이 그들 아래쪽에서 닫힐 것이기 때문에 아핀 부분집합, 볼록 원뿔, 볼록 집합은 벡터 하위 공간의 일반화이다. 또한 벡터 부분공간은 아핀 부분 공간, 볼록 원뿔, 볼록 집합이지만 볼록 집합은 벡터 하위 공간, 아핀 또는 볼록 원뿔일 필요가 없다.이러한 개념은 물체의 특정한 선형 결합을 취할 수 있을 때에 종종 발생하지만 어떤 것도 발생하지 않는다. 예를 들어 확률 분포는 볼록 결합에서는 닫히지만 원뿔 또는 아핀 결합에서는 닫히지 않으며 양의 측정은 원뿔 결합에서는 닫히지만 아핀 또는 선형은 되지 않는다. 따라서 하나의 정의라고 표현할 수 있는데 선형 폐쇄로 서명된 측정값을 나타냅니다.선형 및 아핀 결합은 모든 체에 대해 정의될 수 있지만 원뿔 및 볼록 결합은 "양수"의 개념을 필요로 하므로 정렬된 체, 일반적으로 실수에 대해서만 정의될 수 있다. 덧셈이 아니라 스칼라 곱셈만 허용하면 원뿔을 얻을 수 있다. 종종 양수인 스칼라에 의한 곱셈만 허용하도록 정의를 제한한다. 이러한 모든 개념은 일반적으로 독립적으로 공리화되기 보다는 주변 벡터 공간의 부분 집합으로 정의된다."V"가 위상 벡터 공간이라면 "V"의 위상수학을 사용하여 특정 무한 선형 결합을 이해할 수 있는 방법이 있을 수 있다. 예를 들어 우리는 "a"1v1 + "a"2v2 + "a"3v3 + ⋯가 영원하다고 말할 수 있다. 그러한 무한 선형 결합은 항상 이치에 맞는 것은 아니다. 우리는 이 결합을 융합이라고 부른다. 이 경우 더 많은 선형 결합을 허용하면 생성 선형 독립 및 기저의 다른 개념으로 이어질 수도 있다.만약 가군과 같은 공간을 부른다는 것이다. K가 비가환환인 경우에도 개념은 여전히 일반화되며 한 가지 주의 사항은 다음과 같다. 비가환환 위에 있는 모듈들은 왼쪽과 오른쪽 버전으로 나오기 때문에 선형 결합은 주어진 모듈에 적절한 어떤 것이든 이러한 버전들 가운데 하나에서도 나올 수 있다. 이는 단순히 스칼라 곱셈을 올바른 측면에서 수행하는 문제이다.더 복잡한 반전은 "V"가 "K"L과 "K"R 2개의 환 위에 있는 쌍가군일 때에 발생한다. 이 경우에 가장 일반적인 선형 결합은 다음과 같다. +물리학과 수학에서 파동 방정식은 일반적인 파동을 다루는 2차 편미분 방정식이다. 음파와 전자기파 수면파 등을 다루기 위하여 음향학 전자기학 유체역학 등 물리학의 여러 분야에 등장한다. 양자역학에서 위치 에너지가 없는 경우 파동 함수는 파동 방정식을 따른다.파동 방정식은 formula_1에 대한 선형 쌍곡 편미분 방정식으로, 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_3는 파동의 속도를 나타내는 매개변수다. 공기중을 진행하는 음파의 경우에는 대략 300 m/s이고, 이 속도를 음속이라 부른다. 현의 진동의 경우 formula_3는 다양한 값을 가질 수 있다.formula_1는 시각 formula_6, 위치 formula_7에서의 파동의 진폭을 나타내는 함수다. 음파의 경우 진폭은 그곳에서의 공기의 압력이며, 진동하는 현의 경우엔 기준 위치에서부터의 변위를 나타낸다. 파동의 종류에 따라 formula_8는 스칼라 또는 벡터일 수 있다. formula_9는 위치 formula_10에 대한 라플라스 연산자이다.기본적인 파동 방정식은 선형 미분 방정식이다. 따라서 서로 다른 두 파동의 결합은 단순히 두 파의 더한 것과 같다. 또한 파동을 분석하기 위해 파를 성분별로 나누어도 된다. 푸리에 변환을 이용해 파동은 사인함수들로 쪼개어질 수 있고, 이 방법은 파동방정식을 분석하는 데 유용하다.formula_10축 방향으로 늘어선 1차원 (현)의 경우, 위 식은 다음과 같다.2차원에선 다음과 같다.식의 상수를 주파수에 따른 변수로 생각해 더 복잡하고 실제적인 파동방정식을 만들 수 있다. 이때의 방정식은 비선형이 된다.현악기의 떨리는 현의 파동의 문제를 연구하기 위해 장 르 롱 달랑베르, 레온하르트 오일러, 다니엘 베르누이, 조제프루이 라그랑주 등이 연구하였다.비오-사바르 법칙은 전자기학에서 주어진 전류가 생성하는 자기장이 전류에 수직이고 전류에서의 거리의 역제곱에 비례한다는 물리 법칙이다. 또한 자기장이 전류의 세기 방향 길이에 연관이 있음을 알려준다. 비오-사바르 법칙은 전자기학에서 유효하며 앙페르 회로 법칙과 가우스 자기 법칙과 일맥상통한다. 이 법칙의 이름은 이 법칙을 발견한 장바티스트 비오와 펠릭스 사바르의 이름을 땄다.원점 formula_1에 전류 formula_2가 무한소의 길이의 전선 formula_3을 따라 흐른다고 하자. 그렇다면 이 무한소의 전선에 흐르는 전류에 의하여 발생하는 무한소의 자기장 formula_4은 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_6 은 양의 단위벡터이고 formula_7은 진공의 투자율이다.유한한 길이의 전선을 따라 흐르는 전류의 경우, 양변을 적분하면 전류로 인하여 발생하는 총 자기장을 알 수 있다.직선 전류에 의한 자기장과 솔레노이드 내부의 자기장은 앙페르 법칙을 이용해 구할 수 있고, 비오-사바르 법칙은 원형 전류 중심에서의 자기장의 세기를 구하는 데 이용된다.원형 도선 중심에서의 자기장원형 도선이 있을 때 전류 요소 Idl은 지면 앞으로 나오는 방향이고 r에 수직이다. 또 dB의 방향도 r에 수직인 방향이 된다.r2=x2+R2이므로 비오-사바르 법칙에서 다음과 같다.원형 전류의 각 전류 요소 Idl에 의한 자기장 dB를 그 회로에 따라 모두 합하면 회로축에 수직인 dB의 y성분은 상쇄되므로 dB의 x성분만 계산하면 된다.이므로 x=0일 때 formula_9 가 된다. +구골은 10의 100제곱을 가리키는 숫자이다. 즉 1 뒤에 0이 백 개 달린 수이다. 우주의 모든 소립자의 수가 대략 10의 80제곱 개이다.이 수의 이름은 1920년 미국의 수학자 에드워드 캐스너의 9살짜리 조카 밀턴 시로타에게서 지어졌다. 캐스너는 이 개념을 저서 에 수록했다.이 수의 학문적 중요성은 그리 크지 않고 주로 수학 수업에서 거론될 뿐이다. 캐스너는 이 수를 매우 큰 수와 무한대의 차이를 보이기 위해 고안했다. 칼 세이건은 그의 저서 '코스모스'에서 마치 무한대처럼 느껴지는 우주의 크기를 무한대와 비교하기 위하여 구골보다도 더 큰 수인 구골플렉스를 활용하여 "구골플렉스와 1이 무한대보다 작은 정도는 서로 정확히 같다."라고 했다.지금으로부터 formula_3년 후 우주는 마지막 남은 유일한 블랙홀이 호킹 복사로 증발한다.회사명 구글의 유래.인터넷 검색엔진 업체 구글(Google)은 처음에 구골(Googol)로 등록하려다가 실수로 사명을 잘못 표기한 것에서 구글로 등록하여 지금까지 쓰이고 있다.마운틴 뷰에 있는 구글 본사도 구골플렉스를 변형시켜 구글플렉스라고 부른다.구글 LLC는 전 세계의 정보를 체계화하여 모든 사용자가 편리하게 이용할 수 있도록 하는 것을 목표로 하는 미국의 다국적 기업이다. 검색 서비스 제공을 주력으로 한다. 구글 검색은 2018년 5월 기준 전 세계 검색량의 90%를 점유하고 있다. 2008년 웹 페이지 인덱스 수가 1조를 돌파했다.1998년에 백럽 이라는 이름으로 검색 서비스를 시작하였다. 이후 구글로 이름을 변경하였는데, 이는 10100을 뜻하는 구골 플랙스로 등록하려다 실수로 사명을 잘못 표기한 것에서 지금까지 쓰이고 있다. 또는 구골플랙스라는 이름이 너무 길어 하는 수 없이 유사한 구글로 바꿨다는 설도 있다. 매우 큰 유한수를 의미하는 이 단어는 '엄청난 규모의 검색엔진을 만들겠다!'는 설립자들의 목표와 맞아떨어졌으나 당시 이미 '구골'이라는 사이트가 존재하여 구글이 되었다.구글은 세계 최대의 검색엔진으로 현재 나스닥에 상장된 기업이다. 특히 영미권에서는 독보적인 점유율을 보인다.2006년, 구글은 YouTube라는 세계 최대의 동영상 공유 및 스트리밍 사이트를 인수합병했다. 같은 해 11월, 유튜브의 하루 방문자는 2,500만 명으로 추정되었다. 2007년, google은 최고의 디지털 마케팅 회사인 더블클릭을 인수했고, 같은해 더블클릭은 하루 170000개의 광고를 집행했다. 그리하여 구글은 2008년, 증권거래위원회에 보낸 공개문서에서 구글은 고 말했다. 230억 달러에 달하는 미국 온라인 광고 시장과 540억 달러에 달하는 전 세계 Online advertisement 시장의 40%를 독식했다.구글은 PDF 포스트스크립트 Micro software 어도비 플래시 문서들을 포함한 Web 문서 검색 Service를 제공한다. 이 외에 google 이미지 검색 Google news KOREA 구글 뉴스그룹 구글 웹 디렉토리 구글 비디오 Froogle 서비스에서 이름이 변경된 상품 검색 구글 맵 구글 어스 등의 주요 검색 서비스가 있다.또한 검색 서비스 외에 추가적인 서비스들을 제공하는데 이에는 2004년 시작된 이메일 서비스인 Gmail 과 YouTube, 피카사, Google 사전, Google 리더, iGoogle, 기업 사용자를 위해서 각종 웹 애플리케이션을 제공하는 구글 앱스 등이 있다.2010년 세계 포털 사이트에 야후(Yahoo)로 제쳤고 구글에 앞질렀다.2011년 모토로라 인코퍼레이티드는 휴대전화사업과 본사의 사업부분이 불안정적으로 운영됨에 대한 걱정과 사업부 실적의 부진으로 인해 사업부가 모토로라 인코퍼레이티드의 자회사로 분리하기로 결정하였다.2011년 모토로라는 더 발전적이고 공격적인 사업을 위해 새로운 모기업을 찾게 되고 대상기업이 된 구글은 인수할때 각 주당 63%의 경영권 프리미엄을 얹어 총 125억 달러에 인수하기로 하였다. 구글의 인수에도 불구하고 모토로라는 여전히 기존 장치의 안드로이드 버전 업그레이드 서비스와 신제품을 출시하기 위해 노력하고 있다.2014년 구글은 모토로라의 분리된 사업부 중 '스마트폰 제조분야'를 매각하기로 결정하였고 레노버에게 총 29억 1천만 달러를 매각하기로 결정하였다.닌텐도와 구글이 콜라보로 슈퍼마리오 런을 게발했다구글봇이라는 이름의 웹 크롤러는 사용자가 검색하기 전에 수천억 개에 달하는 웹페이지에서 정보를 모아 이를 검색 색인에 정리한다.웹 크롤러는 조직적 자동화된 방법으로 월드 와이드 웹을 탐색하는 컴퓨터 프로그램이다. 크롤러는 과거 크롤링으로 만들어진 웹 주소 목록과 웹사이트 소유자가 제공한 사이트맵에서 크롤링을 시작한다. 웹사이트를 방문한 크롤러는 사이트에 있는 링크를 사용하여 다른 Page를 찾는다. Crawling하는 동안 새로운 사이트 기존 사이트의 변경사항 깨진 링크를 주의 깊게 살핀다. 크롤링할 사이트 크롤링 횟수 및 각 사이트에서 가져올 페이지 수는 컴퓨터 프로그램이 결정한다. 검색 엔진과 같은 여러 사이트에서는 데이터의 최신 상태 유지를 위해 웹 크롤링한다. 웹 크롤러는 대체로 방문한 사이트의 모든 페이지의 복사본을 생성하는 데 사용되며 검색 엔진은 이렇게 생성된 페이지를 보다 빠른 검색을 위해 인덱싱한다. 또한 크롤러는 링크 체크나 HTML 코드 검증과 같은 웹 사이트의 자동 유지 관리 작업을 위해 사용되기도 하며 자동 이메일 수집과 같은 웹 페이지의 특정 형태의 정보를 수집하는 데도 사용된다.웹 크롤러는 봇이나 소프트웨어 에이전트의 한 형태이다. 웹 크롤러는 대개 시드라고 불리는 URL 리스트에서부터 시작하는데 페이지의 모든 하이퍼링크를 인식하여 URL 리스트를 갱신한다. 갱신된 URL 리스트는 재귀적으로 다시 방문한다.사용자에게 수십억 개의 웹페이지가 아닌 질문에 대한 답을 제공하기 위해 구글의 검색 알고리즘은 크게 여섯 가지 방법을 활용한다. 검색어의 의미를 이해하기 위해 단어를 분석하기 검색어와 일치하는 정보가 포함된 웹페이지를 검색하기 페이지의 유용성을 평가하여 순위를 매기기 사용자의 위치나 이전 검색 기록과 같은 맥락을 고려하여 사용자에게 알맞은 검색 결과를 제공하기 검색 결과가 사용자의 검색 유형에 유용한지 고려하여 최상의 결과를 제공한다.구글은 광고주에게 구글 애즈 프로그램을 제공한다. 이 프로그램을 통해 입찰함으로써 검색 결과 옆에 뜨는 텍스트 광고를 구매할 수 있다. 희소성이 높은 키워드는 클릭당 광고비가 더 비싸게 책정된다.애드센스를 통해서 광고를 하고 싶어하는 회사와 관련 사이트를 연결하는 역할을 한다. 애드워즈와 유사한 자동화 프로그램을 통해 둘을 연결해 준다.구글은 클릭당 지불 데이터를 가지고 해당 광고를 클릭할 때만 비용을 내도록 한다.구글 애널리틱스(Google Analytics)는 광고주에게 해당 광고의 효과를 즉시 확인 할 수 있는 무료 툴을 제공한다. 이 프로그램은 매시간 클릭수와 판매량, 해당 키워드의 트래픽, 클릭이 판매로 이어진 비율 등 광고 효과를 즉각 확인 할 수 있게 해준다.미디어 업체로 하여금 광고 판매에 들어가는 비용을 줄임으로써 롱테일(long tail)이라는 형태로 변화하도록 한다. 그렇게 한다면 기존에는 광고를 잘 하지 않던 이들까지도 타킷팅이 잘 된 저렴한 광고를 구매하도록 끌어들일 수 있다는 것이다.구글은 사용자들에게 신문이나 책, 잡지를 자유롭게 검색하도록 권장한다. 해당 발행물들 역시 검색 트래픽을 활용해서 무료로 자신들을 홍보하고 광고를 판매해 수익을 창출한다. TV 방송사나 영화사들은 유튜브를 홍보 채널 겸 온라인 배급시스템으로 활용하도록 권장한다. 광고주들에게는 구글이 2007년에 인수한 디지털 광고 서비스 업체 더블클릭(Doubleclick)을 통해 온라인 광고를 하도록 권한다.구글의 수입은 2004년 32억 달러이던 것이 2007년에는 166억 달러로 뛰었다. 세계적 불황을 비웃기라도 하듯, 구글은 2008년에 42억 달러의 수익을 거두었고 매출은 218억 달러로 상승했다. 그리고 그 가운데 97%가 광고 수입이었다.2008년, 구글의 광고 수입은 5개 방송사(CBS, NBC, ABC, FOX, CW)의 광고 수입을 합한 것에 맞먹었다. 2011년에 이르면 미국 내 웹 광고는 600억 달러(전체 13%)에 달할 것으로 전망된다. 게다가 구글은 TV, 라디오, 신문에 광고를 판매함으로써 시장점유율을 가일층 확대할 사업구상을 이미 개시했다.사용자가 텍스트 광고를 클릭할 때만 광고료를 부과해서 광고주들 중에서 우군을 확보했고 무료이자 2009년 초반까지 광고가 붙지 않았던 구글 뉴스로 뉴스독자들 중에서 우군을 확보했으며 광고 수익과 신규 고객을 발생시켜 줌으로써 웹사이트와 소규모 사업자들 중에서 우군을 확보했다. 구글은 두 번째 경매 프로그램 애드센스 때부터 수입의 20%만 자기 주머니에 넣고 나머지는 웹사이트들에게 돌려 주었다. 2008년에 구글은 총 50억 달러가 넘는 돈을 수십만에 달하는 에게 제공했다.G메일 구글 뉴스 구글 어스 구글 맵스 구글 비디오 구글 번역 피카사 구글 클래스룸 구글 북스 구글 트렌드 오컷 여기에 데스크톱이나 문서도구 구글 플레이같은 응용 프로그램까지 제공한다.구글에서 사용하는 컴퓨터는 보통 PC들로 구성된 컴퓨터 클러스터들인데 이 클러스터들은 일을 병렬적으로 처리하여 방대한 양의 데이터베이스를 처리한다. 특히 여러 대의 PC를 운영하면서 계속적인 데이터베이스를 처리하기 위해 한 컴퓨터에 오류가 났을 경우 그 컴퓨터는 꺼지고 다른 컴퓨터가 일을 계속 처리하도록 한다. 구글은 이러한 방식이 거대하고 비싼 컴퓨터(서버)를 대신하는 대안이 될 수 있음을 증명했고 이러한 방식을 지금도 사용하고 있다.최근에는 인공지능 사업에도 투자를 하여 알파고나 무인자동차의 영역에서 활발히 활동하고 있다.구글의 철학은 이다. 에 의해, 구글은 빅브라더 상의 후보가 되기도 했다.구글은 형식을 따지지 않는 자유롭고 재미있는 기업 문화로 잘 알려져 있다. 2007, 2008 구글은 가장 일하기 좋은 장소로 뽑혔다.구글 엔지니어들은 '직감'으로 결정을 내리지 않는다. 인간관계나 판단력 같은 것은 정량화 할 수 없기 때문이다. 그들은 경험보다는 효율을 중시한다. 그들은 사실과 베타 테스트와 수학적 논리를 추구한다.구글은 지구 온난화 문제에도 관심을 보인다. 구글은 사옥 지붕에 미국 기업 캠퍼스 가운데 가장 큰 태양광 패널을 설치하여 1천 가구에 전력을 공급할 만한 전기를 생산한다. 외부 주차장에 태양발전소를 두어 하이브리드 자동차를 충전할 수 있게 했고 연비가 좋은 하이브리드 자동차를 구매하는 직원에게는 장려금 을 제공한다. 구글은 수익의 1%를 때어내 자선사업 부문인 구글 파운데이션에 보낸다. 넓은 캠퍼스 부지 내에서의 건물 간 이동을 위해 신청에 의해 차량을 제공하기도 하지만 온실가스 배출을 최소화하고 직원들의 건강에도 이바지하기 위해 구글이 제공하는 자전거가 도처에 배치되어 있다.구글이 1999년 8월 처음 구글플렉스로 이주했을때, 거기에는 는 결의가 반영되어 있었다. 구글플렉스에는 2~3층짜리 나지막한 건물이 모여있고, 건물 밖에는 야외테이블과 벤치, 울창한 나무들, 채소 정원, 사람과 자전거로 활기 넘치는 산책로가 있다. 직원들은 무료 식사와 다과를 즐기고 (매년 구글은 여기에만 7천만 달러 정도를 쓴다), 트레이너가 대기하는 체육관과 마사지실이 붙어 있는 건물들 사이로 이동할 자전거를 지급받는다. 직원들은 커다란 카페테리아 탁자에서 식사하고, 당구대와 에스프레소 기계가 있는 라운지에서 쉰다. 세차나 오일 교환 때문에 캠퍼스를 떠날 필요도 없다. 목요일이면 검진 차량이 찾아오고 뿐만 아니라 이발사, 세탁업자, 보모, 애완동물 도우미, 치과의사, 그리고 무료 검진 담당의도 5명이나 있다. 편안한 좌석에 무선인터넷이 완비된 바이오 디젤 통근 버스가 직원들을 멀게는 샌프란시스코까지 늦은 밤까지 실어 나른다. 노트북 컴퓨터도 살 필요가 없다. 그저 마음에 드는 모델을 고르기만 하면 된다. 여성은 출산 휴가를 5개월간 유급으로 낼 수 있고, 신생아 아빠는 마찬가지로 유급으로 7주 휴가를 낼 수 있다.모든 구글 엔지니어들은 업무 시간중 20%(주 5일 근무 기준으로 일주일중 하루)를 그들이 흥미로워하는 프로젝트에 사용하도록 권장된다. 몇몇 구글의 새로운 서비스들, 예를 들어 Gmail, 구글 뉴스, Orkut, AdSense는 이러한 직원들의 독립적인 프로젝트들에 의해서 시작되었다. 구글의 검색 제품 및 고객 경험 파트의 부사장인 매리싸 마이어는 스탠퍼드 대학에서의 연설에서 새로 론칭되는 서비스의 50%가 이러한 20% 시간을 통해 시작되었다고 말한 바 있다.간단히 요약하면 돈을 벌때 나쁜일이 아닌 좋은 일을 통해 돈을 벌자는 의미이다.구글 코리아()는 2003년 3월부터 한국 시장에 진출하기 시작했다. 2005년에 한국 진출을 선언하였고 2006년에 설립한 기업이다.구글은 한국의 포털사이트인 다음, 네이버와 다르게 고객센터를 두고 있지 않다. 따라서, 구글직원과 직접 연락하는 방법은 없다. 그러나 포럼을 통하여 google employee와 의견 공유가 가능하다.블로그 카페 웹페이지에서 적었던 글은 구글로봇이 수집하여 보관한다. 이를 삭제하려면 웹마스터도구를 이용해야 하는데 구글의 삭제조건에 들지 않으면 삭제되지 않는다. 하지만 최근 유럽연합에서 잊힐수 있는 권리에 대해서 인정함에 따라 이에 맞추어 구글도 지울 수 있도록 구글로봇을 수정하고 있다.블로그 검색을 통해 블로거의 글을 검색할 수 있다. 다만 블로그를 폐쇄했어도 자신이 작성했던 글에 대해선 계속 검색이 되어 삭제할 방법이 없다. 설사 웹마스터를 통해 삭제를 했어도 블로그 검색에 있던 글은 영구적으로 삭제가 불가능하며 글을 재발행하는 방법밖엔 없다.정보통신망 이용촉진 및 정보보호 등에 관한 법률 위반.2014년 3월 20일 구글 메인페이지에 이와 관련한 내용이 게시되었다. 이에 따르면 구글은 2009년 10월 5일부터 2010년 5월 10일까지 스트리트 뷰 서비스와 관련하여 사용자의 동의 없이 개인정보를 수집하였다고 한다. 이는 정보통신망 이용촉진 및 정보보호 등에 관한 법률을 위반한 것으로 방송통신위원회로부터 시정명령을 받았다.나치의 학살 행위인 홀로코스트 희화화 논란.한국어판 구글 어시스턴트에서 재밌는 얘기를 해달라고 하자 나치의 만행인 홀로코스트를 재밌는 이야기랍시고 유머로서 소비하여 국내에서 논란이 일기도 했다. 홀로코스트가 뭔지 알면 누구나 개그로 하기에는 부적절하다는 건 잘 알테다.이에 분노한 네티즌들은 한국어 어시스턴트를 설계한 담당자를 당장 구글로부터 해고하라는 등의 분노를 표출 했으며 트위터나 여러 SNS에선 구글 어시스턴트 삭제 인증을 하거나 아예 사용도 안 했으며 더 나아가 아예 안드로이드 스마트폰을 쓰지 말고 아이폰을 쓰자며 불매운동까지 일어났다.결국 이 사건은 독일을 비롯한 해외에도 퍼졌으며 당장 시정하고 사과할 것을 구글에 요구했다. 다행히도 문제가 되는 회화는 어시스턴트에서 지워졌으나 이에 대한 해명은 하지 않았다.구글 계정 연령 조건.구글 계정 나이 요구 사항.구글에 가입하려면 대부분의 국가에서는 13세 이상이어야 한다. 다만 대한민국 스페인에서는 14세 이상 베트남에서는 15세 이상 네덜란드에서는 16세 이상 가입할 수 있다.제품별 연령 요구 사항.일부 구글 서비스는 특정 연령 요건이 있다. +코리올리 효과는 전향력 또는 코리올리 힘이라고도 하며, 회전하는 계에서 느껴지는 관성력으로, 1835년 프랑스의 과학자 코리올리가 처음 설명해 냈다.굵은 글꼴은 그 물리량이 벡터라는 점을 나타내고 m은 질량 v는 물체의 계에서의 속도를 는 계가 돌고 있는 각속도를 나타낸다.코리올리 힘의 발생원인은 각운동량 보존법칙에 의해 발생한다. 각운동량 보존법칙은 각운동량이 시간에 대해 일정하다는 것을 말한다.만약 어떤 원점을 기준으로 계에 돌림힘이 작용하지 않으면이 되어 각운동량이 보존되게 된다. 이를 각운동량 보존법칙 또는 간단히 각운동량보존이라고 부른다.회전하는 좌표계 내에서 물체가 운동을 하는 경우 회전축에 대해 반지름이 줄어드는 경우에는 줄어드는 반지름에 대해 속도가 변화하게 된다. 이 결과 회전좌표계는 코리올리힘과, 가로힘이 발생한다.좌표계 x, y, z와 좌표계 x을 보자 두 좌표계의 원점은 같다. 각각의 경우에 대해 벡터 formula_4.은 두 좌표계에서 다음과 같이 표시된다.formula_5. formula_6. 벡터의 내적을 이용해 x, y, z를 , , 으로 표현할 수 있다. 내적의 방법은 다음과 같다.formula_10.formula_11.formula_12.으로 표현되는 것을 확인할 수 있다.회전하는 벡터의 속도.벡터 formula_13.가 축 ox를 기준으로 formula_14.의 각속도로 회전하고 있다고 하자.그런경우 벡터 formula_13.의 속도 formula_16. 는 다음과 같이 표현된다.회전하는 좌표계에서 벡터의 속도와 가속도.회전하는 좌표계에서 벡터의 속도.회전좌표계의 경우에는 원점을 기준으로 좌표축 x 이 회전하는 것으로 생각할 수 있다. 좌표계가 서로 다른 경우 두 좌표계에서 상대적인 속도는 다음과 같다.이를 바탕으로 회전좌표계에서 x 의 단위벡터의 회전을 적용하여 표현하면 다음과 같다.회전하는 좌표계에서 벡터의 가속도.축의 회전에 따른 속도는 formula_25이다. 이를 한번 더 시간에 대해 미분을 하면 다음과 같다.코리올리 정리 및 코리올리 힘.뉴턴의 운동방정식이 x y z 좌표계에서 성립한다고 가정하면 x' y' z' 좌표계에서 아래의 식을 만족한다.우변의 둘째 셋째 그리고 넷째 항을 왼쪽으로 옮기면 뉴턴의 운동 방정식과 비슷한 꼴의 운동방정식이 된다.오른쪽 둘째 항은 코리올리 힘이라고 부른다. 그리고 오른쪽 셋째 항은 원심력이라고 한다. 마지막 항은 가로 힘이며 회전 각속도가 일정하지 않은 경우에만 나타난다. 원심력과 코리올리 힘을 도입한다면, 회전하고 있는 좌표계에 대한 운동방정식은 고정된 좌표계에 대해서 같다. 그리고 원심력과 코리올리 힘은 실제 힘이 아니라 회전하고 있는 좌표계에서 나타나는 가상의 힘이다.북반구에서의 바람의 우측편향.적도에서 북풍이 부는 경우에도 바람은 코리올리 힘을 받게 된다. 코리올리 힘은 다음과 같은 공식에 의해 계산된다.지구는 자전 축을 중심으로 formula_33의 각속도로 회전하고 있고, 바람은 formula_34 북쪽으로 이동한다고 할 수 있지만 실제 지구는 둥글기 때문에 기울어져서 고위도쪽을 향하게 된다. 이때 코리올리 정리를 통해 바람이 받는 힘의 방향을 알 수 있다. 이 때의 코리올리 힘의 방향은 동쪽을 향하게 된다. 즉 운동방향에 대해 오른쪽으로 편향하게 된다는 것을 확인할 수 있다. 수식의 결과가 아니라 각운동량 보존법칙을 적용해보아도 쉽게 우측편향된다는 것을 확인할 수 있다. 적도를 중심으로 바람이 고위도 쪽으로 바람이 부는 경우 지구가 타원형이기 때문에 고위도쪽으로 이동할수록 자전축에 대해 거리가 줄어들게 된다. 이 때에도 각운동량은 보존되어야 한다. 회전축을 중심으로 거리가 줄어들었기 때문에 각속도가 그만큼 증가해야 할 것이다. 이렇게 생각한다면 고위도로 바람이 불면 불수록 반지름이 더더욱 줄어들기 때문에 상대적으로 각속도는 증가하게 된다. 그결과 바람은 우측편향하여 불게 된다.코리올리의 힘이 적용되는 또 다른 예는 푸코의 진자이다. 푸코의 진자는 어떤 수직면에서 자유롭게 흔들리는 줄에 매단 추이다. 진자는 정확한 수직면에서 흔들리기 시작하는데 진동하는 수직축에 대해 몇 시간의 주기 동안 천천히 옆돌기를 한다. 진자가 긴 시간의 주기동안에 자유로이 계속하여 흔들릴 수 있도록 추는 무거운 것으로 하고 줄은 아주 길게 한다.질량 m인 흔들이 추의 운동의 중심을 원점으로 택하고 이때 벡터 formula_35은 진자의 작은 진동에 대해 거의 수평이다. 북반구에서formula_33는 수직과 예각을 이룬다. 줄의 장력을 formula_37 라고 쓰고, 회전좌표계에서 발생하는 원심력과 중력을 formula_38 라고 생각하면 추의 운동방정식은 다음과 같이 전개 된다.코리올리 힘에 의해 진자는 수평방향으로 일정한 각속도formula_40로 진동을 하게 된다. 그리고 formula_41 을 회전축을 삼고 formula_40로 회전하는 좌표계를 새로 도입하면 이 계에 대한 시간 도함수는 formula_43 로 나타날 것이다. 그러므로 formula_44를 formula_45로 나타낸 것은 다음과 같다.이를 추의 운동방정식에 적용하면 다음과 같은 식이 된다.각속도formula_40로 회전을 하는 좌표계를 중심으로 나타내면 다음과 같다.위의 식에서 오른쪽에 있는 모든 벡터는 마지막 항을 빼고는 진자가 있는 수직면에 있다. 하지만 작은 진동에 대해 formula_52 이 실제로 수평이므로, formula_53를 수평으로 만들어 마지막 항도 이 수직면에 있도록 할 수 있다.formula_56 는 돌고있는 지구의 각속도이고 formula_40 는 지구에 대해 돌고있는 좌표계의 각속도이다. formula_58 는 지구 축과 수직사이의 각이다. 수직은 formula_59 방향을 따른다.위의 식을 보면 결과적으로 지구에서 푸코의 진자는 각속도 formula_40 로 옆으로 회전한다는 것을 말한다. 북반구에서 내려다 볼 때 그 회전은 시계방향이 된다. +선형대수학에서, 벡터곱 또는 가위곱은 수학에서 3차원 공간의 벡터들간의 이항연산의 일종이다. 연산의 결과가 스칼라인 스칼라곱과는 달리 연산의 결과가 벡터이다. 물리학의 각운동량, 로런츠 힘등의 공식에 등장한다.두 벡터 formula_1 와 formula_2의 벡터곱은 formula_3라 쓰고, 다음과 같이 정의된다.식에서 formula_6는 formula_1와 formula_2가 이루는 각을 나타내며, formula_9은 formula_1와 formula_2에 공통으로 수직인 단위벡터를 나타낸다.위 정의에서의 문제점은 formula_1와 formula_2에 공통으로 수직인 방향이 두개라는 점이다. 즉 formula_14이 수직이면 formula_15도 수직이다.어느 것을 두 벡터의 벡터곱으로 할 것인가는 벡터 공간의 방향에 따라 달라진다. 오른손 좌표계에서는 formula_3는, formula_17가 오른손 좌표계 방향을 따르도록 정의되고, 왼손좌표계에선 마찬가지로 이 순서의 세 벡터가 왼손 좌표계 방향을 따르도록 정의된다. 이와 같이 좌표계의 방향성에 의존하기 때문에, 두 벡터의 벡터곱은 참 벡터가 아니라 유사벡터다. 벡터곱을 그림으로 표현해 보면, 다음과 같다.a, b, c ∈ R3, ∈ R이라 하자.벡터곱은 벡터 미분 연산인 회전 의 정의에 등장하고 자기장에서 움직이는 전하가 받는 힘을 기술하는 로런츠 힘의 공식에 등장하며 돌림힘과 각운동량의 정의에도 나온다.고차원에서의 벡터곱.7차원 벡터 공간의 벡터곱도 사원수의 방법을 팔원수에 적용하여 얻어질 수 있다.7차원 공간의 벡터곱은 다음과 같은 성질을 3차원 공간의 벡터곱과 공유한다.빅토르 로베르토비치 초이는 소련의 록 가수이자 싱어송라이터 겸 영화배우이며 소련 록 음악 밴드 키노의 리더였다.빅토르 초이는 1962년 6월 21일 소련 레닌그라드에서 아버지 로베르트 막시모비치 초이(최동열)와 우크라이나계 러시아인 출신 어머니 사이에서 슬하 무녀독남 외동아들로 출생하였다. 친조부 막심 초이(최승준)는 본래 대한제국 함경북도 성진 출생이었고 후일 일제 강점기 초기에 러시아 제국으로 건너간 고려인 출신이었다. 소련 레닌그라드에서 출생하였으며 지난날 한 때 소련 카자흐스탄 사회주의 자치공화국 키질로르다에서 잠시 유아기를 보낸 적이 있는 그는 17세 때부터 노래를 작곡하기 시작했으며 초기 곡들은 레닌그라드 거리에서의 삶 사랑과 친구들과의 어울림 등을 다루고 있다. 노래의 주인공은 주로 한정된 기회만이 주어진 채 각박한 세상을 살아나가려는 젊은이였다. 이 시기에 록은 레닌그라드에서만 태동하고 있던 언더그라운드의 한 움직임이었으며 음악 차트 등의 대중 매체들은 모스크바의 팝 스타들이 장악하고 있었다. 소련 정부는 자신들의 입맛에 맞는 가수들에게만 허가를 내 주었고 집과 녹음실 등 성공이 필요한 많은 것들을 제공하여 길들였다. 그러나 록 음악은 그 당시 소련 정부에게 너무도 마땅치 않은 음악이었다. 록은 자본주의 진영의 록 그룹의 영향을 받았다는 것 외에도 젊은이들을 반항적으로 만들었으며 의사 표현의 자유 등 표현 관련 가치를 중시했다. 따라서 록 밴드들은 정부로부터 거의 원조를 받지 못했고 관영 매체에 의해 마약 중독자나 부랑자라는 편견으로 그려지는 수준이었다.빅토르 초이는 레닌그라드에 있는 세로프 미술전문학교에 입학였으나, 결국 낮은 성적 때문에 1977년에 퇴학 처분을 받았다. 그 후 레닌그라드 기술전문학교에서 목공업을 공부하였으나, 적성에 맞지 않아 또 중퇴하였다(). 그러나 그는 이럼에도 불구하고 계속 록 음악에 열성적으로 참여한다. 이 시기에 이르러 그는 보일러 수리공으로 일을 하면서 파티 등의 장소에서 자신이 만든 곡을 연주하기 시작한다. 그러던 중 한 연주를 록 그룹 아쿠아리움의 멤버였던 보리스 그레벤시코프가 보게 되어, 그레벤시코프의 도움으로 그는 자신의 밴드를 시작하게 된다.레닌그라드의 록 클럽은 록 밴드들이 연주할 수 있던 소수 장소에 속했다. 이곳의 연중 록 콘서트에서 빅토르 초이는 처음 무대에 데뷔하게 된다. 그는 두 명의 아쿠아리움의 멤버들이 연주를 맡은 가운데 솔로로 연주한다. 그의 혁신적인 가사와 음악은 청중을 사로잡았다. 그가 유명해지기 전에 그는 음악하는 사람들이 도전하려고 하지 않는다고 말했다. 그는 아무도 하지 않았던 새로운 것을 창조하기 위해 실험적으로 가사와 음악을 만들었다. 이런 시도는 성공을 거두고 데뷰이후 얼마 지나지 않아 멤버들을 모아 키노를 결성한다. 그들은 빅토르 초이의 아파트에서 데모 테이프를 만들고 이 테입은 처음엔 레닌그라드 그리고 나중에는 전국의 록 매니아들에게 퍼지게 된다.1982년 키노는 첫 앨범인 45를 발표한다. 이 앨범의 이름이 45로 정해진 것은, 이 앨범의 재생시간이 총 45분이었기 때문이다. (후에 46라는 앨범도 냈다.) 이 앨범에서 빅토르 초이는 음악에 정치적 목소리를 내려는 의지를 내비친다. "엘렉트리치카"이란 노래는 원치 않은 곳으로 가는 전차에 끼여 끌려가고 있는 사람의 이야기를 다룬다. 이런 가사는 분명히 당시의 소련에서의 삶을 은유한 것이었으며, 이 노래는 공연이 금지된다. 이 노래의 메시지로 노래는 반항운동을 하던 젊은이들 사이에 유명해지며 키노와 빅토르 초이는 그들의 우상으로 떠오른다. 제2회 레닌그라드 록 클럽 콘서트에서 키노는 자신의 정치색을 더욱 분명히 드러낸다. 키노는 빅토르 초이의 반전음악 작품인 "내 집을 비핵화지대로 선포한다."으로 1등을 차지하고, 이 노래는 당시 수만의 소련 젊은이들의 목숨을 빼앗고 있던 소련의 아프가니스탄 침공으로 더욱 더 유명해진다.1987년은 키노의 해였다. 7집 앨범 의 주연으로 영화배우 데뷔를 하기도 하였다. 이후 몇 년간 그는 몇 편의 성공적인 영화를 찍었으며 영화제에 그의 영화를 홍보하기 위해 미국을 다녀오기도 했다.이후 몇 개의 앨범이 더 나왔으며, 대부분이 정치적 메시지를 담았으며 밴드는 인기를 유지했다. 그는 당시 소련 젊은이 모두의 우상이었지만, 그런 것에 비하여 그는 소위 비교적 보통 수준의 삶을 살았다. 그는 계속 아파트 빌딩의 보일러 실에서 살며 일했다. 그는 자신의 직업을 즐기고 있으며 정부의 보조를 받지 못하고 있고, 자신들의 앨범은 공짜로 복제되어 퍼지기 때문에 밴드를 유지하기 위하여서라도 금액이 필요하다고 밝혔다. 이런 소박한 삶의 방식은 대중들이 그와 더욱 친밀감을 느끼기에 매우 충분했다.갑작스러운 사망 그리고 음모론.1990년 키노는 모스크바의 레닌 스타디움에서 콘서트를 열어 6만 2천의 팬들을 모았다. 1990년 8월 14일 다음 앨범의 녹음을 마쳤으며, 레닌그라드에서 다른 멤버들이 녹음을 위해 기다리고 있었다. 그러나 8월 15일 아침 소련 라트비아 소비에트 사회주의 공화국 투쿰스에서 빅토르 초이가 운전하던 차가 마주오던 트럭과 충돌하였고 그 사고로 죽고 말았다. 그가 운전하였던 차는 형체를 알아볼 수 없도록 망가졌으며, 타이어 하나는 결국 찾지 못했다.음모론에 따르면, KGB가 의도적으로 초이를 살해했다고 한다. 평소 반전과 평화 사상을 주장하던 초이가 러시아 권력자들의 눈 밖에 났다는 것이다. 실제로 트럭 기사가 종적을 감추고, 초이에게 유리한 목격자들의 증언이 기각되었으며(초이는 졸지도 운전 규칙을 어기지도 않았으며, 오히려 트럭 기사가 그에게 돌진했다는 사실), 시체가 봉인된 관에 담겨 서둘러 매장되었다는 사실 등 의문스러운 점이 한두 곳이 아니지만, 현재 러시아 경찰과 정부는 27년 동안 이 사안에 대해 철저히 침묵하고 있다.1990년 8월 17일 소련의 유력 잡지인 콤소몰스카야 프라우다는 다음과 같이 그의 의미를 간추린다.놀랍게도 교통사고에서 온전하게 건질 수 있었던 유일한 것은 다음 앨범에 쓰일 그의 목소리를 담은 테이프이었다. 목소리는 남은 멤버들의 나머지 녹음과 합쳐져 현재는 으로 불리는 앨범으로 남아 있다. 이 유작 앨범은 밴드의 가장 인기있는 작품이며 러시아 록 역사에 있어서 키노의 자리를 확고하게 했으며 빅토르 초이를 최고의 영웅이자 전설로 만들었다.키노가 소비에트 음악과 사회에 미친 영향은 지대하다. 그들은 이전의 다른 어떤 그룹도 시도조차 하지 않았던 음악과 가사로 노래를 만들었다. 키노는 모던 러시아 록에게 문을 열어주었다. 키노는 아직도 러시아 전역에서 흔적을 남기고 있다. 레닌그라드 벽에는 그들에 대한 그라피티가 그려지고 있으며, 모스크바의 아르바트 가에는 한 벽 전체가 그들에게 헌정되었으며, 그곳에는 그를 기리기 위한 팬들이 모인다. 사망 10주기였던 2000년에는 러시아의 록 밴드들이 모여 빅토르 초이의 38번째 생일을 맞아 빅토르 초이의 헌정 음반을 만들었다.2010년 8월 16일은 그의 20주기로써 러시아 곳곳에서 추도식이 있었다고 보도되었다. 또한 2018년에는 그와 그 주변의 일대기를 다룬 영화인 《레토》가 개봉하였으며 대한민국에는 2019년 1월 개봉하였다. 《레토》는 칸 영화제에서 사운드트랙 필름어워드 상을 수상하는 등 쾌거를 거두었으며 감독 키릴 세레브렌니코프가 가택 연금 중 만든 작품이라는 특징이 있다. +무리수(無理數 irrational number)는 두 정수의 비의 형태로 나타낼 수 없는 실수를 말한다. 즉 분수로 나타낼 수 없는 소수이다.이에 반해 두 정수의 비에 의해 나타낼 수 있는 수를 유리수라 한다. 이것도 소수이다.유리수의 집합은 formula_1로 정의하고무리수의 집합은 formula_2로 정의한다.무리수는 소수점 이하로 같은 수의 배열이 반복적으로 나타나지 않는 무한소수이다.무리수는 다시 formula_3와 같은 대수적 수와 formula_4 등의 초월수로 나뉜다.무리수가 존재한다는 것을 처음 증명한 것은 고대 그리스 피타고라스 학파로 전해진다. 히파소스는 이등변 직각삼각형의 밑변과 빗변의 비는 정수의 비율로 표현할 수 없다는 것을 증명했다. 이는 우주가 완벽하여 모든 것이 정수의 비로 표현될 수 있다고 믿었던 피타고라스 학파에 충격을 주었다. 전설에 따르면 피타고라스 학파의 동료들이 ‘우주의 섭리에 거스르는 요소를 만들어낸’ 히파소스를 살해했다고 하며, 죽이진 않고 추방했다는 이야기도 있다.에우클레이데스의 원론 10권을 포함한 고대 그리스 수학책에서는 유리수를 비로 나타낼 수 있는 길이를 길이라고 불렀다. 알로고스는 글자 그대로 로고스가 없다는 뜻의 단어로, 말 없음·이성 없음 등을 뜻한다. 이것이 라틴어 로 번역되어 지금에 이른다.몇 가지 무리수의 증명.특수한 로그 꼴의 수.가장 간단히 무리수임이 증명되는 수는 formula_5과 같은 꼴의 수일 것이다. 증명은 귀류법을 사용하며 다음과 같다무리수를 최초로 발견한 것은 일반적으로, 2의 제곱근이 유리수가 아님을 발견한 피타고라스와 그 제자들로 알려져 있다.이에 대한 증명의 한 가지 방법은 다음처럼 귀류법을 사용하는 것이다.이 방법을 일반화하여, 제곱수가 아닌 자연수의 제곱근은 무리수임을 증명할 수 있다.1761년 요한 람베르트는 탄젠트 함수를 다음과 같은 연분수로 나타낼 수 있음을 증명했다.또한 formula_36가 0이 아닌 유리수일 때 위 연분수는 무리수가 된다는 것도 증명했다. 그런데 tan = 1 이므로 /4 는 무리수가 된다. 따라서 는 무리수라는 것이 증명된다.다른 수학자들의 증명은 이 문서에 나와 있다. +플랑크 상수는 입자의 에너지와 드브로이 진동수의 비 이다. 양자역학의 기본 상수 중 하나다. 이 상수를 도입한 물리학자 막스 플랑크의 이름을 땄다. 기호는 라틴 문자 "formula_2"이다. 유니코드 기호 가 있다.2018년 11월 16일 제26차 국제도량형총회에서 아래의 값으로 정의되었다.새로운 정의는 2019년 5월 20일 세계 측정의 날부터 발효되었다.formula_2외에, 다음과 같이 정의되는 formula_5가 대신 쓰이기도 한다. 식에서 formula_8는 원주율을 나타낸다. 이 기호는 영어에서는 독일어에서는 ")로 읽는다. 이 상수 formula_5는 폴 디랙의 이름을 따 디랙 상수라고 부른다. 유니코드 기호 가 있다.formula_5는 각운동량의 양자이다. 계의 임의의 축에 대한 각운동량은 언제나 formula_11의 정수배의 값으로 양자화한다.formula_5는 또 불확정성 원리를 기술하는 식에도 등장한다.그래서 formula_5가 formula_2보다 더 기본적이라고 주장하기도 한다.그 밖에 formula_5는 플랑크 단위의 정의에 사용된다.처음에 고전물리는 뉴턴의 역학 이론에서 시작되었지만 재능있는 수많은 학자들이 물리에 뛰어들어 그 영역을 전자기까지 확장을 시켜 모든 영역에서 승승장구하였었다. 막스 플랑크가 물리를 하던 19세기 후반, 물리는 더 이상 발전이 없을 것이며 소소한 몇몇 문제만 해결되면 완벽한 학문이 될 것이라는 의견이 매우 팽배하였다. 하지만 고전물리는 흑체 복사와 관련된 부분에서 문제에 부딪히게 되었다. 그것은 고전물리가 예측하는 결과와 흑체 복사의 실험 결과가 일치하지 않는 문제가 발생한 것이다. 긴 파장에서는 잘 일치하지만 짧은 파장에서는 일치하지 않는 문제가 생긴 것이다. 이에 대한 사고 실험은 다음과 같다.아주 잘 밀폐된(외부와 에너지 교류가 없는) 한 용기 안에 흑체와 한 줄기 빛을 집어넣고 용기를 다시 밀폐한다고 하자. 이 경우 흑체는 빛을 흡수하여 파장의 형태로 다시 방출을 하게 되는데 고전물리의 등분배법칙에 의하면 흑체가 방출하는 에너지는 모든 파장에 골고루 나뉘어야 한다. 이 말은 아주 작은 빛을 넣게 되더라도 상자를 열게 되면 엑스선이나 감마선이 나오게 되는 현실에서는 불가능한 모순이 생기게 된다.이러한 문제를 해결하기 위해 몇몇의 물리학자들이 매달리게 되었다. 막스 플랑크는 이러한 문제를 해결하기 위해 다음과 같은 혁명적인 착상을 하였다. 그것은 라는 가정이었다. 즉 에너지가 양자화되어 있다는 것이었다. 이 가정에서 에너지와 주파수를 연결해주는 비례상수가 formula_5 인 것이다. 물론 플랑크는 가정을 통해서 흑체 복사에 관한 문제를 정리하였고 그 식은 실험과 잘 일치하는 결과를 가지고 왔다. 하지만 플랑크는 저 식에 대해서 큰 의미를 두기보다는 실험결과와 일치시키기 위해 어쩔수 없이 도입시킨 것이라는 입장을 취하였다.역사적으로 CODATA 플랑크 상수 권장값은 지수부를 제외하고 다음과 같다. CODATA 권장값은 새로운 측정 결과를 반영하여 몇 년마다 개정된다. +막스 카를 에른스트 루트비히 플랑크 는 에너지 양자의 발견으로 1918년 노벨 물리학상을 수상한 독일의 이론물리학자이다.플랑크는 이론 물리학에 상당히 많은 기여를 했지만 물리학자로서의 명성은 주로 양자 이론의 창시자로서의 역할에 있다. 이는 원자 및 아원자 과정에 대한 인간의 이해에 혁명을 일으켰다. 1948년 독일의 과학 기관인 카이저 빌헬름 협회는 막스 플랑크 협회로 이름이 변경되었다. 이 협회에는 현재 광범위한 과학적 동향을 나타내는 83개의 기관이 포함되어 있다.플랑크는 전통적이고 지적인 가족 출신이다. 그의 부계 증조부와 할아버지는 모두 괴팅겐의 신학 교수였다. 그의 아버지는 킬 대학교와 뮌헨 대학교의 법학 교수였다. 그의 삼촌 중 한 명은 판사였다.플랑크는 1858년 홀슈타인의 킬에서 요한 율리우스 빌헬름 플랑크Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck와 그의 두 번째 부인 엠마 파치히Emma Patzig 사이에서 태어났다. 그는 카를 에른스트 루트비히 마르크스 플랑크Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck라는 이름으로 세례를 받았다. 그의 이름 중 마르크스Marx는 "명칭 이름"으로 표시되었다. 그러나 10살이 되었을 때 그는 막스라는 이름으로 서명하고 그후 이것을 평생동안 사용했다.그의 형제 중 두 명이 아버지의 첫 번째 결혼에서 태어났지만 그는 가족의 6번째였다. 전쟁은 플랑크의 초기 몇 년 동안 일반적이었고 그의 가장 초기 기억 중 하나는 1864년 제2차 슐레스비히 전쟁 동안 킬로의 프로이센과 오스트리아 군대의 행군이었다. 1867년 가족은 뮌헨으로 이사했고 플랑크는 막시밀리안 김나지움(Maximilians gymnasium)에 등록했고 그곳에서 그는 젊은이들에게 관심을 가진 수학자 헤르만 뮐러Hermann Mller는 그에게 수학뿐만 아니라 천문학과 역학을 가르쳤다. 플랑크가 에너지 보존의 원리를 처음 배운 것은 뮐러로부터였다. 플랑크는 17세에 일찍 졸업했다. 이것이 플랑크가 물리학 분야와 처음 접한 방법이다.플랑크는 음악에 재능이 있었다. 그는 노래 수업을 듣고 피아노, 오르간, 첼로를 연주하고 노래와 오페라를 작곡했다. 그러나 그는 음악 대신 물리학을 선택했다.뮌헨의 물리학 교수인 필립 폰 욜리Philipp von Jolly는 플랑크에게 이라며 플랑크에게 물리학에 입문하지 말라고 조언했다. 플랑크는 새로운 것을 발견하기를 바라는 것이 아니라 그 분야의 알려진 기초를 이해하기를 원한다고 대답했고 1874년 뮌헨 대학교에서 연구를 시작했다. 욜리의 감독하에 플랑크는 가열된 백금을 통한 수소의 확산을 연구하는 그의 과학 경력의 유일한 실험을 수행했지만 이론물리학으로 옮겼다.1877년 그는 베를린의 프리드리히 빌헬름 대학교에서 물리학자 헤르만 폰 헬름홀츠 구스타프 키르히호프 수학자 카를 바이어슈트라스Karl Weierstrass와 함께 1년 동안 연구했다. 그는 헬름홀츠는 준비가 제대로 된 적이 없고 천천히 말하고 끝없이 잘못 계산되어 청중을 지루하게 하는 반면 키르히호프는 주의깊게 준비되었지만 건조하고 단조로운 강의를 했다고 썼다. 그는 곧 헬름홀츠와 가까운 친구가 되었다. 그곳에 있는 동안 그는 클라우지우스의 저작에 대한 대부분의 독학 프로그램에 수행하여서 열역학을 자신의 분야로 선택하도록 되었다.1878년 10월에 플랑크는 자격 시험에 합격했고 1879년 2월에 자신의 학위논문인 "열역학 제2법칙에 관하여"를 방어했다. 그는 잠시 뮌헨에 있는 이전 학교에서 수학과 물리학을 가르쳤다.1880년까지 플랑크는 유럽에서 제공되는 가장 높은 두 개의 학위를 취득했다. 첫 번째는 열역학 연구와 이론을 자세히 설명하는 논문을 마친 후 박사학위였다. 그런 다음 그는 라는 논문을 발표하여 하빌리타치온을 획득했다.그의 하빌리타치온 논문이 완성되자 플랑크는 뮌헨에서 무급 프리바트도첸트Privatdozent가 되어 학업 제안을 받을 때까지 기다렸다. 처음에는 학계에서 무시 당했지만 열 이론 분야에서 그의 작업을 더욱 발전시켜 기브스와 같은 열역학적 형식론을 자신도 모르게 차례로 발견했다. 엔트로피에 대한 클라우지우스의 아이디어는 그의 작업에서 중심적인 역할을 했다.1885년 4월 킬 대학교는 플랑크를 이론물리학 부교수로 임명했다. 특히 물리화학에 적용되는 엔트로피와 그 처리에 대한 추가 연구가 뒤따랐다. 그는 1897년에 "열역학에 관한 논문"을 출판했다. 그는 스반테 아레니우스의 전해질 해리 이론에 대한 열역학적 기초를 제안했다.1889년에 그는 베를린 프리드리히-빌헬름스-대학교에서 키르히호프의 직위를 계승하는 사람으로 임명되었으며 - 아마도 헬름홀츠의 중재 덕분에 - 1892년에는 정교수가 되었다. 1907년 플랑크는 빈에서 볼츠만의 자리를 제안받았으나 베를린에 남으려고 거절했다. 1909년에 베를린 대학교 교수로 재직하면서 뉴욕시 컬럼비아 대학교 이론물리학의 어니스트 켐프턴 아담스 강사로 초빙되었다. 그의 강의 시리즈는 컬럼비아 대학교 교수 A. P. 윌리스A. P. Wills에 의해 번역 및 공동 출판되었다. 1926년 1월 10일 베를린에서 은퇴했고 에르빈 슈뢰딩거가 그의 뒤를 이었다.1887년 3월 플랑크는 학교 친구의 여동생인 마리 머르크Marie Merck(1861-1909)와 결혼하여 키엘에 있는 작은 아파트로 이사했다. 그들은 카를Karl(1888~1916), 쌍둥이 엠마Emma(1889~1919)와 그레테Grete(1889~1917), 에르빈Erwin(1893~1945) 등 5명의 자녀를 두었다.베를린에 있는 아파트 이후, 플랑크 가족은 반겐하임 거리 21의베를린-그루네발트에 있는 빌라에서 살았다. 베를린 대학교의 다른 여러 교수가 근처에 살았으며 그 중에는 플랑크의 절친한 친구가 된 신학자 아돌프 폰 하르낙Adolf von Harnack도 있었다. 곧 플랑크의 집은 사회적 문화적 중심지가 되었다. 알베르트 아인슈타인 오토 한 리제 마이트너와 같은 수많은 저명한 과학자들이 자주 방문했다. 공동 연주 음악의 전통은 이미 헬름홀츠의 고향에서 확립되었다.행복한 몇 년 후인 1909년 7월에 마리 플랑크는 아마도 결핵으로 사망했다. 1911년 3월 플랑크는 두 번째 부인인 마르가 폰 회슬린Marga von Hoesslin과 결혼했다. 12월에는 다섯 번째 아이 헤르만Hermann이 태어났다.제1차 세계대전 중 플랑크의 차남 에르빈은 1914년 프랑스군에게 포로로 잡혀갔고, 그의 장남 카를은 베르됭 전투에서 전사했다. 그레테는 1917년 첫 아이를 낳다가 세상을 떠났다. 그녀의 여동생인 엠마는 그레테의 홀아비와 결혼했는데 2년 후 같은 방식으로 사망했다. 두 손녀 모두 생존했으며 어머니의 이름을 따서 명명되었다. 플랑크는 이러한 상해들을 꿋꿋하게 견뎌냈다.1945년 1월, 그가 특히 가까웠던 에르빈은 1944년 7월 히틀러 암살 시도 실패에 가담했다는 이유로 나치 인민법정에 의해 사형을 선고받았다. 에르빈은 1945년 1월 23일 처형되었다.베를린 대학교의 교수.베를린의 프리드리히 빌헬름스 대학교(Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitt) 교수로서 플랑크는 지역 물리학회에 가입했다. 그는 나중에 이 시기에 대해 쓰기를 그의 이니셔티브 덕분에 독일의 다양한 지역 물리 학회들이 1898년에 통합되어 독일 물리학회(Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft DPG)를 형성했으며 1905년부터 1909년까지 플랑크는 회장이었다.플랑크는 리제 마이트너에 따르면 "건조하고 다소 비인간적인" 영국 참가자인 제임스 R. 파팅톤James R. Partington에 의하면 "노트를 사용하지 않고 실수하지 않고 흔들리지 않는 그는 내가 들어본 최고의 강사"라는 6학기 이론물리학 강의를 시작햤으며 R. 파팅톤은 계속하기를 "강의실 주변에는 항상 많은 사람들이 서 있었다. 강의실은 난방이 잘 되고 다소 가까웠기 때문에 청취자 중 일부가 때때로 바닥에 쓰러지기도 했지만 강의에 방해가 되지는 않았다." 플랑크는 실제 "학파"를 설립하지 않았다. 그의 대학원생 수는 약 20명에 불과했지만 아래와 같은 이들이 포함되어 있다.1894년 플랑크는 흑체 복사 문제에 관심을 돌렸다. 문제는 1859년 키르히호프에 의해 언급되었다. "흑체에서 방출되는 전자기 복사의 강도는 복사의 주파수 와 그 물체의 온도에 의존하는가?"라는 질문은 실험적으로 탐구되었지만 실험 값과 일치하는 이론적 취급은 없었다. 빌헬름 빈은 빈의 법칙을 제안했는데, 이는 고주파에서는 거동을 정확하게 예측했지만 저주파에서는 실패했다. 문제에 대한 또 다른 접근 방식인 레일리–진스 법칙은 저주파에서의 실험 결과에 일치했지만 나중에 고주파에서 "자외선 파탄"으로 알려진 현상을 만들었다. 그러나 많은 교과서와 달리, 이것이 플랑크를 위한 동기는 아니었다.1899년 플랑크가 이 문제에 대해 처음으로 제안한 해법은 플랑크가 "기본 무질서의 원리"라고 부른 것에서 따랐는데, 이를 통해 그는 이상적인 진동자의 엔트로피에 대한 여러 가정으로부터 빈의 법칙을 유도하여 빈-플랑크 법칙이라고 하는 것을 만들었다. 곧 실험적 증거가 새로운 법칙을 전혀 확인하지 못했다는 것이 발견되어 플랑크는 좌절했다. 플랑크는 접근 방식을 수정하여, 실험적으로 관찰된 흑체 스펙트럼을 잘 설명하는 유명한 플랑크 흑체 복사 법칙의 첫 번째 버전을 유도했다. 그것은 1900년 10월 19일 물리학회(DPG) 회의에서 처음 제안되었고 1901년에 출판되었다. 이 첫 번째 유도는 에너지 양자화를 포함하지 않았으며 통계 역학을 사용하지 않았기 때문에, 그는 그것을 거부했다. 1900년 11월 플랑크는 열역학 제2법칙에 대한 볼츠만의 통계적 해석에 의거하여 이 첫 번째 접근 방식을 수정했다. 플랑크는 볼츠만의 접근 방식에 대한 그러한 해석의 철학적, 물리적 의미에 대해 깊은 의심을 품고 있었기 때문에, 나중에 그가 말했듯이 "그것은 절망의 행위 ... 나는 물리학에 대한 나의 이전 신념을 희생할 준비가 되어 있었다."1900년 12월 14일 물리학회에 제출된 그의 새로운 유도의 중심 가정은 이제 플랑크 가설로 알려진 가정은 전자기 에너지가 양자화된 형태로만 방출될 수 있다는 것으로 다시 말해 에너지는 기본 단위의 배수일 뿐으로여기서 "h" 는 플랑크 상수이며 플랑크의 작용 양자라고도 하며 , "" 는 복사의 주파수이다. 여기서 논의된 에너지의 기본 단위는 단순히 "" 가 아니라 "h" 로 표시된다. 물리학자들은 이제 이러한 양자 광자를 부르고 주파수 "" 의 광자는 고유한 에너지를 갖는다. 그러면 해당 주파수의 총 에너지는 해당 주파수의 광자 수를 곱한 "h" 와 같다.처음에 플랑크는 양자화가 "순전히 형식적인 가정으로 ... 실제로는 그것에 대해 많이 생각하지 않았다 ..."라고 생각하였지만 오늘날 고전 물리학과 양립할 수 없는 이 가정은 양자 물리학의 탄생이자 플랑크 경력의 가장 위대한 지적 성취로 간주된다 (루트비히 볼츠만은 1877년 이론 논문에서 물리 시스템의 에너지 상태가 이산적일 수 있다는 가능성에 대해 논의했다.). 플랑크 상수의 발견으로 그는 양자 이론의 대부분이 기반으로 하는 기본적인 물리적 상수를 기반으로 하는 새로운 보편적인 물리적 단위 집합(플랑크 길이 및 플랑크 질량과 같은)을 정의할 수 있었다. 플랑크는 새로운 물리학 분야에 대한 근본적인 공헌을 인정받아 1918년에 노벨 물리학상을 수상했다 (실제로는 1919년에 수상했다).그 후 플랑크는 에너지 양자의 의미를 파악하려고 노력했지만 소용이 없었다. "행동 양자를 고전 이론으로 어떻게든 재통합하려는 나의 무익한 시도는 몇 년에 걸쳐 연장되었고 나에게 많은 문제를 일으켰다." 몇 년 후에도 존 레일리 제임스 진스 헨드릭 로런츠와 같은 다른 물리학자들은 고전 물리학에 맞추기 위해 플랑크 상수를 0으로 설정했지만 플랑크는 이 상수가 0이 아닌 정확한 값을 갖는다는 것을 잘 알고 있었다. "나는 진스의 완고함을 이해할 수 없다. 그는 결코 존재해서는 안 되는 이론가의 한 예이다. 헤겔이 철학에 대해 그랬었다. 사실들이 맞지 않으면 그것들은 더욱 나빠진다."막스 보른은 플랑크에 대해 쓰기를: "그는, 천성이, 보수적인 마음이며; 그는 전혀 혁명적아지 않았고 사색에 대해서는 철저히 회의적이었다. 그런데도 사실로부터 논리적 추론의 설득력 있는 힘에 대한 그의 믿음이 너무나 강해서 물리학을 뒤흔든 가장 혁명적인 아이디어를 발표하는 데 주저하지 않았다."아인슈타인과 상대성 이론.1905년 알베르트 아인슈타인의 세 편의 획기적인 논문이 저널에 발표되었다. 플랑크는 특수 상대성이론의 중요성을 즉시 인식한 몇 안 되는 사람 중 하나였다. 그의 영향 덕분에 이 이론은 곧 독일에서 널리 받아들여졌다. 플랑크는 또한 특수 상대성이론을 확장하는 데 상당한 기여를 했다. 예를 들어 그는 고전적 작용의 관점에서 이론을 재구성한다.광전 효과에 대한 하인리히 헤르츠의 1887년 발견에 기반한 아인슈타인의 빛 양자 가설은 처음에 플랑크에 의해 거부되었다. 그는 맥스웰의 전자기학 이론을 완전히 폐기하는 것을 꺼려했다. "빛의 이론은 수십 년이 아니라 수 세기에 걸쳐 크리스티안 하위헌스가 감히 아이작 뉴턴의 강력한 방출 이론에 맞서 싸웠던 시대로 되돌아갈 것이다..."1910년에 아인슈타인은 고전 물리학으로는 설명할 수 없는 현상의 또 다른 예로서 저온에서 비열용량의 변칙적 거동을 지적했다. 플랑크와 네른스트는 커지는 모순들을 명확히 하기 위해 제1차 솔베이 회의를 조직했다 . 이 회의에서 아인슈타인은 플랑크를 설득할 수 있었다.한편, 플랑크는 베를린 대학의 학장으로 임명되어 아인슈타인을 베를린으로 불러 새로운 교수직을 만들 수 있었다 . 곧 두 과학자는 가까운 친구가 되었고 함께 음악을 연주하기 위해 자주 만났다.제1차 세계대전이 시작되자 플랑크는 대중의 일반적인 흥분을 다음과 같이 썼다. "끔찍한 것 외에도 예기치 않게 위대하고 아름다운 것 모든 정당의 통합 ... 선하고 고귀한 모든 것에 대한 찬사와 같은 것도 많다." 플랑크는 또한 논쟁적인 전쟁 선전의 소책자인 악명 높은 "93인의 성명서"에 서명했다 .1915년 이탈리아가 아직 중립국이었던 때에 그는 이탈리아에서 과학 논문에 기고를 했는데 이 논문은 플랑크가 네명의 영구 회장 중 한 명으로 있던 프로이센 과학 아카데미에서 상을 받았다.전후 그리고 바이마르 공화국.격동의 전후 몇 년 동안 현재 독일 물리학의 최고 권위자인 플랑크는 동료들에게 "인내하고 계속 일하라"는 슬로건을 발표했다.1920년 10월, 그와 프리츠 하버는 과학 연구를 위한 재정 지원을 제공하기 위해 독일 과학 비상기구를 설립했다. 조직이 분배할 자금의 상당 부분은 해외에서 모금되었다.또한 플랑크는 베를린 대학교 프로이센 과학 아카데미 독일 물리학회 및 카이저 빌헬름 협회에서 주요 직책을 역임했다. 이 기간 동안 독일의 경제 상황은 그가 연구를 거의 수행할 수 없는 상황이었다. 1926년 플랑크는 네덜란드 왕립 예술 과학 아카데미의 외국인 회원이 되었다.전후 기간 동안 플랑크는 노벨 평화상 수상자 구스타프 슈트레제만의 정당인 독일 인민당의 당원이 되었으며 이 당은 국내 정책에 대한 자유주의적 목표와 전 세계 정치에 대한 수정주의적 목표를 열망했다.플랑크는 보통선거의 도입에 동의하지 않았으며 나중에 나치 독재가 "대중 지배의 상승"에서 비롯되었다는 견해를 표명했다.1920년대 말 보어, 하이젠베르크와 파울리는 양자역학에 대한 코펜하겐 해석을 수행했지만 플랑크와 슈뢰딩거, 라우에, 아인슈타인도 이를 거부했다. 플랑크는 파동역학이 곧 양자 이론-자신의 아이-을 불필요하게 만들 것이라고 예상했다. 그러나 이것은 사실이 아니었다. 그와 아인슈타인의 철학적 반감에도 불구하고 더 이상의 작업은 양자 이론을 확고히 했을 뿐이다. 플랑크는 젊은 시절에 오래된 견해와 투쟁하면서 는 자신의 초기 관찰의 진리를 경험했다.나치 독재와 제2차 세계대전.1933년 나치가 집권했을 때 플랑크는 74세였다. 그는 많은 유대인 친구와 동료들이 직위에서 추방되어 굴욕을 당하는 것을 목격했으며 수백 명의 과학자들이 나치 독일에서 이주하는 것을 목격했다. 그는 다시 "인내하고 계속 일하려고" 노력했고, 이민을 고려하고 있는 과학자들에게 독일에 남을 것을 요청했다. 그럼에도 불구하고 그는 조카인 경제학자 헤르만 크라놀트Hermann Kranold가 체포된 후 런던으로 이주하는 것을 도왔다. 그는 위기가 곧 진정되고 정치적 상황이 개선되기를 희망했다.오토 한은 플랑크에게 유태인 교수 처우에 대한 공개 선언을 하기 위해 독일의 저명한 교수들을 모아달라고 요청했지만 플랑크는 "오늘 그런 신사 30명을 모을 수 있다면 내일 150명이 와서 반대할 것이다. 그들은 다른 사람들의 지위를 물려받기를 열망하기 때문이다." 플랑크의 지도하에 카이저 빌헬름 협회는 유대인 프리츠 하버에 관한 것 외에는 나치 정권과의 공개적인 충돌을 피했다. 플랑크는 최근에 임명된 독일 총리 아돌프 히틀러와 이 문제를 논의하려고 했지만 실패적이었는데 히틀러에게 "유대인은 모두 공산주의자이고 이들은 나의 적"이기 때문이었다. 이듬해인 1934년에 하버는 망명 중에 사망했다.1년 후 1930년부터 협회(KWG)의 회장을 맡은 플랑크는 다소 도발적인 스타일로 하버에 대한 공식 기념 회의를 조직했다. 그는 또한 비밀리에 많은 유대인 과학자들이 협회(KWG) 연구소에서 몇 년 동안 계속 일할 수 있도록 하는 데 성공했다. 1936년에 그의 협회(KWG) 회장 임기가 끝났고 나치 정부는 그에게 연임하지 않도록 압력을 가했다.독일의 정치 환경이 점차 더 적대적으로 변하면서 도이치 물리학의 저명한 대표자인 요하네스 슈타르크는 플랑크 조머펠트 하이젠베르크가 아인슈타인의 이론을 계속 가르친다고 공격하며 그들을 "백인 유대인"이라고 불렀다. "나치 과학 정부 사무소"는 플랑크가 "1/16 유태인"이라고 주장하면서 플랑크의 가계에 대한 조사를 시작했지만 플랑크 자신은 이를 부인했다.1938년 플랑크는 80세 생일을 맞았다. 물리학회는 축하 행사를 열었고 이 기간 동안 막스 플랑크 메달이 프랑스 물리학자 루이 드 브로이에게 수여되었다. 1938년 말 프로이센 아카데미는 남아 있던 독립성을 상실하고 나치에 의해 인수되었다. 플랑크는 회장직을 사임하면서 항의했다. 그는 계속해서 자주 여행을 다니며 종교와 과학에 관한 연설을 비롯한 수많은 공개 강연을 했으며 5년후에 그는 알프스의 3000미터 봉우리들을 오를 정도로 충분히 건강했다.제2차 세계대전 중에 베를린에 대한 연합군의 폭격 임무가 늘어나면서 플랑크와 그의 아내는 일시적으로 도시를 떠나 시골에 살게 되었다. 1942년에 그는 고 기록하였다. 1944년 2월 베를린에 있는 그의 집은 공습으로 완전히 파괴되어 그의 모든 과학 기록과 서신이 소실되었다. 그의 시골 은퇴는 양측에서 연합군의 급속한 진격으로 위협을 받았다.1944년 플랑크의 아들 에르빈은 7월 20일 히틀러 암살을 시도한 7·20 음모로 게슈타포에 의해 체포되어 재판을 받고 1944년 10월 인민법정에서 사형을 선고받았다. 에르빈은 1945년 1월 베를린의 플로트젠제Pltzensee 감옥에서 교수형을 당했다. 그의 아들의 죽음으로 플랑크는 삶에 대한 의지를 상당부분 상실했다. 전쟁이 끝난 후 플랑크의 두 번째 아내와 그의 아들은 괴팅겐에 있는 친척에게 갔는데 플랑크는 1947년 10월 4일 그곳에서 사망했다. 그의 무덤은 괴팅겐의 에 있다.플랑크는 독일 루터교 교인이었다. 그는 대안적인 견해와 종교에 대해 매우 관대했다. 1937년 이라는 제목의 강의에서 그는 이러한 상징과 의식의 중요성은 신자가 하나님을 예배할 수 있는 능력과 직접적으로 관련되나 상징은 신성의 불완전성을 제공한다는 점을 명심해야 한다고 제안했다. 그는 무신론이 그러한 상징에 대한 조롱에 초점을 맞추고 있다고 비판했으며 한편 신자들이 그러한 상징의 중요성을 과대 평가한다고 경고했다.플랑크는 모든 종교에 관대하고 호의적이었다. 그는 루터교에 남아 있었지만 기독교나 성경적 견해를 옹호하지 않았다. 그는 "기적에 대한 믿음은 과학의 사실이 꾸준하고 확고하게 전진하기 전에 단계적으로 양보해야 하며, 그 완전한 패배는 의심할바 없이 시간 문제이다."라고 믿었다."종교와 자연과학"에서 플랑크는 신이 어디에나 존재한다는 견해를 표현했으며 "이해할 수 없는 신격의 거룩함은 상징의 거룩함으로 전달된다"고 주장했다. 그는 무신론자들이 단순한 상징에 너무 많은 중요성을 부여한다고 생각했다. 그는 1920년부터 죽을 때까지 교회 관리인이었고 전능하고 전지전능하며 자비로운 하나님을 (반드시 인격적인 신은 아니더라도) 믿었다. 과학과 종교는 모두 "신을 향하여!"라는 목표를 가지고 "회의론과 독단주의 불신과 미신에 대한 지칠 줄 모르는 싸움"을 벌이고 있다.1944년 플랑크는 "가장 명석한 과학 즉 물질 연구에 평생을 바친 사람으로서 원자에 대한 연구 결과를 다음과 같이 말할 수 있다. 물질은 없다. 모든 물질은 원자 입자를 진동시키고 원자의 이 가장 미세한 태양계를 하나로 묶는 힘에 의해서만 발생하고 존재한다. 우리는 이 힘 뒤에 의식적이고 지적인 정신geist이 존재한다고 가정해야 한다. 이 정신은 모든 물질의 모체이다."플랑크는 신의 개념이 종교와 과학 모두에 중요하지만 다른 방식으로 다음과 같이 주장했다. "종교와 과학 모두 신에 대한 믿음을 요구한다. 신자들에게 신은 시작에 있고 물리학자들에게는 신이 모든 것의 고려의 끝에 있다. ... 전자에게 그분은 기초가 되고 후자에게 모든 일반화된 세계관의 구성체의 왕관이 된다."나아가 플랑크는 이렇게 썼다...."믿는다"는 것은 "진리로 인식하는" 것을 의미하며, 의심의 여지 없이 안전한 길로 계속하여 발전하는 자연에 대한 지식은, 자연 과학에 대하여 어느 정도 훈련을 받은 사람이, 자연의 법칙과 모순되는 이례적인 사건과, 종교적 교리에 대한 필수적인 뒷받침과 확인으로 여전히 일반적으로 간주되며 이전에는 의심이나 비판 없이 순수하고 단순한 사실로 받아들여졌던 기적에 관한 다수의 보고가, 사실에 기초한 것으로 인정하는 것을 절대적으로 불가능하게 만들었다. 기적에 대한 믿음은 중단없이 믿음직스럽게 진보하는 과학 앞에서 점차적으로 물러나야 하며, 우리는 이것이 조만간 완전히 사라질 것이라는 것을 의심할 수 없다.저명한 과학사가 존 L. 하일브론John L. Heilbron은 신에 대한 플랑크의 견해를 이신론적이라고 규정했다. 하일브론은 나아가 자신의 종교적 계열에 대해 물었을 때 플랑크는 자신이 항상 깊이 종교적이었지만 "기독교 신은 말할 것도 없고 인격적 신"은 믿지 않는다고 대답했던 것을 관련짓는다. +포인팅 벡터()는 전자기장이 가진 에너지와 운동량을 나타내는 벡터로, 전기장과 자기장의 벡터곱이다.영국의 존 헨리 포인팅이 1883년에 유도하였다.포인팅 벡터 S는 국제단위계에서 다음과 같다.CGS 단위계에서는 formula_2 대신 formula_3를 쓴다.포인팅 벡터의 크기는 전자기장의 에너지 선속 밀도( 단위 시간 및 단위 면적 당 에너지)의 크기와 같다. 포인팅 벡터의 방향은 에너지가 전달되는 방향과 같으며 항상 전기장 및 자기장과 수직이다.전자기장의 운동량과 각운동량.포인팅 벡터는 전자기장의 에너지뿐만 아니라 운동량 formula_4와 각운동량 formula_5과도 다음과 같이 연관되어 있다.포인팅 정리()는 전자기장을 포함한 계에서의 에너지 보존 법칙이다. 즉 전자기장이 한 일의 양은 전자기장이 잃게 되는 에너지의 양과 같다는 정리다. 식으로 쓰면 다음과 같다.우변의 첫 번째 적분은 부피 안에 저장된 전자기장의 에너지이며 두 번째 적분은 표면의 수직 방향의 전자기파로 방출되는 에너지다. 즉 포인팅 정리에 따르면 전자기력에 의하여 전하가 받은 일의 양은 전자기장에 저장된 에너지의 양의 감소량과 표면의 수직 방향의 전자기파로 방출되는 에너지량과 같다.역학적 에너지 밀도, 전자기장의 에너지 밀도 식을 이용하여 포인팅 정리 식과 발산정리를 이용하면 포인팅 정리의 미분형을 얻을 수 있다.미세 구조 상수 또는 조머펠트 미세 구조 상수는 전자기력의 세기를 나타내는 물리상수다. 원자물리학과 입자물리학에서 자주 나타난다. 1916년 아르놀트 조머펠트가 발견하였다. 원래 조머펠트가 원자 방출 스펙트럼의 미세 구조를 연구할 때 발견하였으므로 이런 이름이 붙었다.2020년 4월에 130억 광년 떨어진 곳에서 미세구조상수가 다른 곳이 관측되었다는 논문이 발표되었다. 이는 전자기법칙이 전 우주에서 같지는 않을 수 있다는 점을 시사한다.미세 구조 상수 formula_1는 국제단위계에서는 다음과 같이 정의한다.여기서 formula_3는 기본 전하 formula_4는 원주율 formula_5는 디랙 상수 formula_6는 빛의 속도 formula_7은 진공의 유전율이다. 이 값은 두 전자가 formula_8의 거리를 두고 떨어져 있을 때 그 전기적 위치 에너지와 전자의 정지 에너지 formula_9의 비로 해석할 수 있다.CGS 단위계에서는 formula_10 인자가 전하량에 포함되므로 식이 다음과 같이 바뀐다.formula_1는 차원이 없는 상수이기 때문에 그 값은 단위계에 상관없이 같다. 여기에 들어가는 기본 상수값을 대입해보면이 나온다. 이 값은 실제 측정값과는 차이가 있다. 여기에 양자 전기역학에서 예견하는 전자들의 상호작용을 통한 보정을 고려할 수 있다. 이는 전자의 자기 모멘트와 미세 구조 상수와의 관계를 통해 구해진 것으로, 다음과 같다. +선형대수학에서, 크라메르 공식(Cramer公式) 또는 크래머 공식은 유일한 해를 가지며 변수와 방정식의 수가 같은 연립 일차 방정식의 해를 구하는 공식이다. 계수 행렬과 그 한 열을 상수항으로 대신하여 얻는 행렬들의 행렬식의 비를 통해 해를 나타낸다. 둘 또는 셋 이상의 방정식으로 이루어진 연립 일차 방정식의 경우, 크라메르 공식에 의한 알고리즘은 가우스 소거법에 의한 알고리즘보다 훨씬 비효율적이다.에서, formula_2가 정사각 행렬이며, 행렬식이 0이 아니라고 하자. 그렇다면, 그 유일한 해는 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있으며, 이를 크라메르 공식이라고 한다.여기서 formula_4는 formula_2의 formula_6번째 열을 formula_7로 대신하여 얻는 행렬이다.의 계수 행렬 formula_2의 formula_13-여인자를 formula_14라고 하자. 그렇다면 라플라스 전개에 따라 다음이 성립한다.이에 따라 각 formula_17번째 방정식에 formula_14을 곱한 뒤 모두 합하면를 얻는다. formula_20이므로, 양변을 formula_21로 나누면2개의 방정식의 경우.이 유일한 해를 갖는다면, 그 해는 다음과 같다.3개의 방정식의 경우.이 유일한 해를 갖는다면 그 해는 다음과 같다.크라메르 공식은 미분기하학에서 매우 유용하다. 두 개의 방정식 formula_30 formula_31이라 가정한다. 여기서 u와 v는 독립 변수이고 formula_32 formula_33라 정의한다.여기서 formula_34의 방정식을 찾는 것은 크라메르 공식으로 해결할 수 있다.먼저, F,G,x,y의 미분을 계산한다.dF dG에 dx와 dy를 대입하면u와 v는 독립적이므로 du와 dv의 계수는 0이다. 따라서 계수에 대한 방정식을 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있다.따라서 크라메르 공식을 적용하면 다음과 같다.이것은 두 개의 야코비안 항이다.유사하게 formula_47, formula_48, formula_49의 공식들도 유도할 수 있다.스위스 수학자 가브리엘 크라메르에게서 유래한다. +선형대수학에서 행렬식은 정사각 행렬에 스칼라를 대응시키는 함수의 하나이다. 실수 정사각 행렬의 행렬식의 절댓값은 그 행렬이 나타내는 선형 변환이 초부피를 확대시키는 배수를 나타내며 행렬식의 부호는 방향 보존 여부를 나타낸다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_3의 행렬식 formula_4는으로 표기하며 다음 방법들을 통하여 정의할 수 있다.다중 선형 형식을 통한 정의.행렬식은 행 또는 열에 대한 표준적인 교대 다중 선형 형식으로 정의할 수 있다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬의 formula_1-가군을 행벡터를 통하여 다음과 같이 나타내자.즉 행렬 formula_11은 행벡터 formula_12의 튜플 formula_13으로 여기자.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬의 formula_1-가군 formula_17 위의 행렬식 formula_18는 단위 행렬에서의 값이 1인 유일한 교대 formula_1-다중 선형 형식이다. 즉 다음 세 조건을 만족시키는 유일한 함수이다.조건 ㈀ 아래 조건 ㈁은 다음 조건을 함의하며 만약 formula_1가 표수가 2가 아닌 체일 경우 조건 ㈁은 이 조건과 동치이다.조건 ㈁’은 formula_36 대신 formula_37 를 사용한 조건과 동치이다. 또한 조건 ㈁ 아래 조건 ㈀은 그 formula_39인 경우와 동치이다.마찬가지로 행렬식은 열벡터를 사용하여 같은 조건으로 정의할 수 있으며 이는 위 정의와 동치이다.행렬식은 행렬의 성분에 대한 특수한 다항식으로서 정의할 수 있다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_3의 행렬식은 다음과 같다 (라이프니츠 공식 ).등식의 우변은 formula_48개 항을 갖는 formula_49차 동차 다항식이며 formula_50일 경우 반은 더하는 항 반은 빼는 항이다.행렬식은 행 또는 열에 대한 라플라스 전개를 통해 작은 크기의 행렬부터 시작하여 재귀적으로 정의할 수 있다.가환환 formula_1 위의 정사각 행렬 formula_3에 대하여, formula_11의 formula_54번째 행과 formula_55번째 열을 제거한 부분 행렬을 formula_56로 표기하자.가환환 formula_1 위의 정사각 행렬 formula_3의 행렬식은 다음과 같다.이는 모든 행 formula_21에 대하여 같은 함수를 정의하며, 다른 정의들과 동치이다. 마찬가지로, 열 formula_62에 대한 라플라스 전개를 사용하여 정의할 수도 있다.가우스 소거법은 정사각행렬을 일련의 기본행연산을 통해 상삼각행렬로 변환한다. 행렬식의 선형성과 교대성에 따라, 기본행연산은 행렬식을 보고 알아낼 수 있는 배수만큼 변화시킨다. 또한, 상삼각행렬의 행렬식은 자명하게 모든 대각항의 곱이다. 따라서, 가우스 소거법을 통해 행렬식을 계산할 수 있다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_65에 대하여 다음 항등식들이 성립한다.특히 행렬식 formula_18는 환 준동형이며 일반적으로 formula_1-결합 대수 준동형이 아니다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_3 및 행의 집합 formula_80에 대하여 행렬식은 다음과 같은 점화식을 갖는다.마찬가지로, 열의 집합 formula_82에 대한 점화식은 다음과 같다.가환환 formula_1에 대하여, 교대 다중 선형 형식 formula_85의 집합은 1차원 formula_1-자유 가군을 이루며, 행렬식은 이 formula_1-자유 가군의 한 기저를 이룬다. 즉, 모든 교대 다중 선형 형식 formula_85는 다음과 같은 꼴로 유일하게 나타낼 수 있다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_3에 대하여 가역 행렬은 행렬식이 formula_1의 가역원인 것과 동치이다. 특히 만약 formula_1가 체일 경우 가역 행렬은 행렬식이 0이 아닌 것과 동치이다.가환환 formula_1 위의 formula_2 정사각 행렬 formula_3에 대하여, 연립 일차 방정식 formula_99의 해 formula_100은을 만족시킨다. (여기서 formula_102는 formula_11의 formula_55번째 열이다.) 특히 만약 formula_11이 가역 행렬일 경우 그 유일한 해는체 formula_1 위의 정사각 행렬 formula_3의 행렬식은 모든 고윳값의 곱이자 특성 다항식의 상수항이다.실수 정사각 행렬 formula_110에 대하여, 실수 선형 변환가 가측 집합 formula_113의 초부피를 확대시키는 배수는 행렬식의 절댓값 formula_114이다.보다 일반적으로, 실수 행렬 formula_115에 대하여, 실수 선형 변환가 가측 집합 formula_113의 formula_49차원 초부피를 확대시키는 배수는0×0 1×1 2×2 3×3 4×4 행렬의 행렬식은 각각 1 1 2 6 24개의 항을 갖는 다항식으로 나타낼 수 있으며 이는 다음과 같다.3×3 행렬의 행렬식 공식은 사뤼스 도식()을 통해 기억할 수 있다. 즉, 3×3 행렬의 행렬식은 첫 번째와 두 번째 열을 행렬의 오른쪽에 옮겨 적었을 때, 첫 행의 세 성분을 지나는 대각선의 위의 원소의 곱의 합과 마지막 행의 세 성분을 지나는 대각선 위의 원소의 곱의 합 사이의 차와 같다. 그러나 이는 4×4 이상의 행렬에서 더 이상 성립하지 않는다.실수 3×3 행렬의 행렬식은 그 행벡터 또는 열벡터의 스칼라 삼중곱과 같다. 즉, 이는 행벡터 또는 열벡터로 구성된 평행 육면체의 부피를 절댓값으로 하며, 방향을 보존할 경우 양수, 반전시킬 경우 음수가 된다. 반대로, 실수 3차원 벡터의 스칼라 삼중곱은 정규 직교 기저에 대한 좌표 성분에 대한 3×3행렬식과 같다.가환환 formula_1 위의 삼각 행렬 formula_3의 행렬식은 대각 성분들의 곱이다.특히 대각 행렬의 행렬식은 대각 성분들의 곱이다.가환환 formula_1 위의 방데르몽드 행렬역사적으로 행렬식은 행렬보다 앞서 등장하였다. 행렬식은 원래는 연립 선형방정식의 성질을 결정하기 위해 정의되었고 행렬식의 영어 이름 에서 유래하였다. 행렬식이 0이 아닌지 여부는 연립방정식이 유일한 해를 갖는지를 결정한다. 16세기에 지롤라모 카르다노가 formula_132 행렬식을 17세기에는 고트프리트 라이프니츠가 일반적인 행렬식의 크기를 정의하였다. +수론에서 리만 제타 함수 formula_1는 소수들의 정수론적 성질을 해석적으로 내포하는 유리형 함수이다. 해석적 수론에서 소수의 분포를 연구할 때 핵심적인 역할을 하며 또한 L-함수 이론의 모태이다.리만 제타 함수는 실수부가 1보다 큰 임의의 복소수 formula_2에 대해, 다음과 같은 디리클레 수열로 정의된다.이 무한급수는 formula_4의 영역에서 수렴하고 위 식은 정칙함수를 정의한다. 리만은 제타 함수가 ≠ 1인 모든 점에서 정의된 유리형 함수로 유일하게 해석적 연속이 가능하다는 것을 알았으며 리만 가설에 등장하는 제타 함수는 확장된 리만 제타 함수를 뜻한다.해석적 연속과 함수 방정식.자이 함수(formula_8 function)를 얻을 수 있다.오른쪽의 적분은 모든 복소수 formula_9에 대하여 수렴하지 않으나, 다음 식의 적분은 모든 formula_9에 대하여 수렴한다.한편 여기서 세타 함수의 성질이로부터 제타 함수의 해석적 연속과 함수 방정식다음은 작은 수에 대한 제타 함수의 값이다.현재 리만 제타 함수가 실수부가 짝수인 실수에서는 formula_30의 유리수배, 즉 초월수임이 알려졌다. 홀수일 때에는 3의 제타 함수 값은 무리수이며, 5, 7, 9, 11의 제타 함수 값 중 적어도 하나가 무리수라는 것만이 알려져 있다.오일러 곱셈과 디리클레 덧셈.레온하르트 오일러는 리만 제타 함수가 소수와 다음과 같은 관계가 있다는 것을 알아냈다.위와 같은 절차를 거쳐서 우변의 모든 소수의 배수를 없애주면특정 합성수는 항상 소수의 곱으로써 나타낼 수 있다는 산술의 기본 정리에 따라서 분모가 합성수 또는 소수인 수가 모두 사라지고마지막에는 1만이 남는다. 즉이것은 디리클레 급수이다.리만 제타 함수는 규칙적으로 모든 자연수에 대한 무한급수로 정의되어 있기 때문에 많은 방법으로 성질을 탐구할 수 있다. 그리고 이 리만 제타 함수는 오일러 곱을 통해 소수와 연결된다. 따라서 이 식을 이용하면 소수의 비밀을 수학적으로 파헤칠 수 있으며 그렇기 때문에 이 식은 중요하게 이용된다.즉 리만 제타 함수는 모든 소수 formula_39에 대해 위와 같은 무한 곱으로 나타낼 수 있다. 위 식은 오일러의 곱셈 공식이라 불리며, 등비급수의 식과 산술의 기본 정리로부터 유도해낼 수 있다. 그 간단한 증명은 다음과 같다.우변의 분모에서 2의 배수가 모두 사라지는 것을 관찰할 수 있다. 또한 계속해서 반복하면동일한 절차로 우변의 분모에서 3의 배수가 모두 사라진다.함수 방정식에 따라 리만 제타 함수는 음의 짝수 formula_48에서 영점을 가진다. 이 영점들을 자명한 영점이라고 한다. 리만 제타 함수의 자명하지 않은 영점들은 다음과 같은 임계 구역에 존재한다.임계 구역에서 다음과 같은 부분집합을 임계 직선이라고 한다.임계 직선 위에는 무한히 많은 영점들이 존재한다는 사실이 알려져 있다. 현재까지 계산된 모든 비자명 영점들은 임계 직선 위에 존재하고 있지만 모든 영점들이 실제로 임계 직선 위에 있는지 여부는 아직 증명되거나 반증되지 못했다. 이는 리만 가설로 일컬어지는 문제로 현대 수학의 주요 난제로 꼽힌다.리만 제타 함수의 영점들은 해석적 수론에서 소수의 분포에 대한 연구에 대해 매우 중요한 역할을 한다. 예를 들어 소수 정리는 리만 제타 함수의 영점들에 대한 동치인 명제로 바뀌어 증명될 수 있다.리만 제타 함수를 일반화한 몇 가지 제타 함수가 있다. 그중 가장 간단한 것은 후르비츠 제타 함수이며 다음과 같이 정의된다.이 함수는 formula_52일 때 리만 제타 함수가 된다. +좌표계 혹은 자리표계는 유클리드 공간과 같은 다양체의 점이나 기타 기하학적 요소를 고유하게 결정하기 위해 하나 이상의 숫자인 좌표를 사용하는 체계이다. 스칼라 튜플을 이용해 n차원 공간의 각 지점을 표현하는 방법을 말한다. 여기서 스칼라는 보통 실수 경우에 따라서는 복소수나 다른 일반적인 환의 원소를 말하기도 한다. 복잡한 우주에서 스칼라는 우주 전체에 대해 효과적인 좌표계를 산출하지 못하기도 한다. 이 경우 그래프로 이 좌표계를 우주 지도 책에 함께 수집하여 둔다. 좌표를 나타내는 방법 중 하나인 직교좌표계는 프랑스의 철학자이자 수학자인 르네 데카르트가 발명했다. 그는 천장에 붙어 있는 파리의 위치를 나타내는 방법에 대해 고민하다가 직교좌표계를 발명해 냈다고 한다.함수해석학에서, 힐베르트 공간(Hilbert空間)은 모든 코시 열의 극한이 존재하는 내적 공간이다. 유클리드 공간을 일반화한 개념이다.formula_1가 formula_2 또는 formula_3라고 하자. formula_1-힐베르트 공간 formula_5은 완비 거리 공간을 이루는 formula_1-내적 공간이다. 내적 공간으로서 힐베르트 공간은 표준적인 위상 공간 및 거리 공간 및 벡터 공간 및 노름 공간의 구조를 갖는다.이와 동치로, formula_1-힐베르트 공간을 다음과 같은 평행사변형 항등식을 만족시키는 formula_1-바나흐 공간 formula_9으로 정의할 수 있다.이 경우, 내적 구조는힐베르트 공간 formula_12의 정규 직교 기저 formula_13는 다음과 같은 두 성질을 만족시키는 부분집합이다.초른의 보조정리에 의하여, 모든 힐베르트 공간은 정규 직교 기저를 갖는다. 주어진 힐베르트 공간 formula_12의 모든 정규 직교 기저의 크기는 항상 같은 기수임을 보일 수 있으며, 이 기수를 힐베르트 공간의 차원 formula_17이라고 한다.일반적으로 힐베르트 공간의 정규 직교 기저는 벡터 공간의 기저를 이루지 않으며 힐베르트 공간의 차원은 벡터 공간으로서의 차원보다 작거나 같다. 이는 벡터 공간의 경우 formula_18를 필요로 하지만 힐베르트 공간의 경우 formula_19가 오직 조밀 집합임이 족하기 때문이다.두 formula_1-힐베르트 공간 formula_12, formula_22 사이에 다음 두 조건이 서로 동치이다.따라서, 힐베르트 공간들은 차원에 따라 완전히 분류된다. 또한, formula_1-힐베르트 공간 formula_12에 대하여 다음 두 조건이 서로 동치이다.즉, 분해 가능 힐베르트 공간의 차원은 음이 아닌 정수이거나 아니면 가산 무한 formula_31이다.리스 표현 정리에 따라서, 힐베르트 공간 formula_12는 스스로의 연속 쌍대 공간 formula_33와 동형이며, 만약 formula_34일 경우 이는 표준적() 동형이다.formula_1가 formula_2 또는 formula_3라고 하고, formula_38가 측도 공간이라고 하자. 그렇다면 그렇다면 L2 공간 formula_39는 formula_1-힐베르트 공간을 이룬다.만약 formula_41가 셈측도가 부여된 집합이라면는 formula_39의 정규 직교 기저를 이룬다.만약 formula_46가 분해가능 시그마 대수이며 또한 formula_41가 시그마 유한 공간이라면 formula_39는 분해 가능 공간이다.힐베르트 공간은 해석학의 다양한 분야에 응용되며, 특히 편미분 방정식 이론에서 널리 쓰인다. 힐베르트 공간 중 하나인 소볼레프 공간이 편미분 방정식을 다룰 때 주로 등장한다.푸리에 해석이 힐베르트 공간에서 이뤄진다.양자역학에서 양자계의 상태 공간은 분해 가능 힐베르트 공간으로 나타내어진다.1907년에 리스 프리제시와 Ernst Sigismund Fischer가 독립적으로 힐베르트 공간 중 하나인 가 완비 거리 공간임을 증명하였다. 1907년에 힐베르트 공간론에서 핵심적 정리 중 하나인 리스 표현 정리가 증명되었다.1908년에 다비트 힐베르트와 에르하르트 슈미트가 발표한 적분방정식에 대한 논문에서 제곱 적분 가능한 두 함수의 내적 formula_50이 등장한다. 이 공간은 힐베르트 공간인 formula_51공간이 된다.다비트 힐베르트가 1912년에 힐베르트 공간 formula_52을 정의하였다. 이는 유클리드 공간이 아닌 최초의 힐베르트 공간으로 여겨진다. 이후 1929년에 존 폰 노이만 이 힐베르트 공간을 추상적으로 정의하였다. +양자역학은 분자, 원자, 전자, 소립자와 미시적인 계의 현상을 다루는 즉, 작은 크기를 갖는 계의 현상을 연구하는 물리학의 분야이다. 또는 아원자 입자 및 입자 집단을 다루는 현대 물리학의 기초 이론이다. '아무리 기이하고 터무니없는 사건이라 해도, 발생 확률이 0이 아닌 이상 반드시 일어난다'는 물리학적 아이디어에 기초한다. 현대 물리학의 기초인 양자역학은 컴퓨터의 주요 부품인 반도체의 원리를 설명해 주는 등 과학기술, 철학, 문학, 예술 등 다방면에 중요한 영향을 미쳐 20세기 과학사에서 빼놓을 수 없는 중요한 이론으로 평가된다.19세기 중반까지의 실험은 뉴턴의 고전역학으로 설명할 수 있었다. 그러나, 19세기 후반부터 20세기 초반까지 이루어진 전자, 양성자, 중성자 등의 아원자 입자와 관련된 실험들의 결과는 고전역학으로 설명을 시도할 경우 모순이 발생하여 이를 해결하기 위한 새로운 역학 체계가 필요하게 되었다. 이 양자역학은 플랑크의 양자 가설을 계기로 하여 슈뢰딩거, 하이젠베르크, 디랙 등에 의해 만들어진 전적으로 20세기에 이루어진 학문이다. 양자역학에서 플랑크 상수를 0으로 극한을 취하면 양자역학이 고전역학으로 수렴하는데, 이를 대응 원리라 한다.양자역학은 기본적으로 불연속적인 물리량을 다루는 미시세계를 탐구하는 학문이다. 이와는 반대로 고전역학은 주로 연속적인 물리량을 다루는 거시세계에서 탐구가 이루어졌다. 이는 관찰 기준의 차이이다. 이해를 돕기 위한 간단한 비유로 우리가 모래사장을 멀리서 바라본다고 하면 이는 우리가 물리현상을 거시세계에서 보는 것이라고 할 수 있다. 이 관찰에서 모래사장의 표면은 연속적으로 보인다. 이는 거시세계에서 우리가 관찰하는 물리현상에서 물리량이 연속적으로 관찰된다는 것에 비유된다. 만약 우리가 점점 모래사장에 가까이 다가가 모래사장을 관찰한다면 이는 거시세계에서 미시세계로 관찰의 단위를 줄인 것이다. 모래사장 가까이서 모래사장을 관찰한다면 모래사장의 표면은 불연속적으로 관찰 될 것이다. 이는 미시세계에서 물리현상에 물리량이 불연속적으로 관찰 된다는 것과 비슷하다.즉 '거시세계에서 특정 물리량을 관찰하면 그 물리량의 불연속성이 미시세계의 관찰 기준에 비해 너무 미세해 마치 그것이 연속적인 것처럼 보이지만 관찰 단위가 거시세계보다 작은 미시세계에서 대상을 관찰하면 그 불연속성이 보이더라'라는 것이다.양자역학은 모든 역학 전자기학을 포함하는 고전 이론을 일반화한다. 양자역학은 고전역학으로 설명되지 않는 현상에 대한 정확한 설명을 제공한다. 양자역학의 효과는 거시적으로는 관측이 어렵지만 고체의 성질을 연구하는 과정에서 양자역학 개념이 필수적이다. 예를 들어 드하스-판알펜 효과는 양자역학을 통해서만 설명이 가능하다. 물론 원자 또는 그보다 작은 영역에서는 분명해진다.양자역학이라는 용어는 독일의 물리학자 막스 보른이 처음 제시했다. 독일어 'Quantenmechanik'이 영어 'Quantum mechanics'로 번역되었고 일본에서 이를‘量子力學’라 번역했는데 이것이 한국에 그대로 들어와 ‘양자역학'이라 부르게 되었다.양자역학이란 말을 이해하려면 의 이론이다. 이렇듯 양자역학이란 띄엄띄엄 떨어진 양으로 있는 것이 이러저러한 힘을 받으면 어떤 운동을 하게 되는지 밝히는 이론이라고 할 수 있다.제1차 세계 대전의 종료와 평화의 회복과 더불어 물리학의 발전이 시작되었다. 1918년도의 노벨상은 패전국 독일의 물리학자인 막스 플랑크에게 수여되었으며 독일을 중심으로 하여 양자론이 진전되었다. 그 주요 중심지는 1921년 이론물리학 연구소가 개설된 코펜하겐을 비롯하여 뮌헨 괴팅겐 레이던이며 그 밖에 취리히의 에르빈 슈뢰딩거 베를린의 알베르트 아인슈타인이 가담하였다. 이 형성기는 또한 젊은 세대의 활약이 특징적이었다.양자역학 형성의 길은 두 갈래로 되어 있다. 한쪽은 보어의 원자 모형에서 출발하여 대응원리에서 행렬 역학으로 통한 길이다. 또 한쪽은 아인슈타인의 광자로 비롯하며, 루이 드브로이의 물질파를 거쳐서 도달하는 파동역학의 길이었다. 이 둘은 그 형성과정이나 수립된 이론이 전혀 달랐지만 얼마 안 가서 실은 같은 내용이라는 것이 판명되고, 통일체로서의 양자학으로 간추려졌다. 그리하여 양자역학의 형성이 일단락될 무렵, 물리학은 재차 새로운 단계에 이르렀다.행렬역학과 파동역학은 다른 관점에서 출발하였고, 전혀 다른 형태를 갖추고 형성되었으나, 그 이룩한 결과는 일치했다. 이것을 우연이 아니라고 생각한 에르빈 슈뢰딩거는 파동역학에서 행렬역학의 유도를 시도하여 양자의 동등성(同等性)을 증명하는 데 성공하였다. 폴 디랙과 파스쿠알 요르단()은 변환이론(變換理論)을 수립하였으며, 이것으로 두 개의 이론은 하나로 통합되어 1926년경에는 양자역학이 성립되었다.양자역학의 형식은 성립되었어도, 그 물리적 해석에는 아직도 많은 문제가 남아 있었다. 예컨대 파동의 개념에 대하여서도 파동역학의 창시자 슈뢰딩거는 이것을 실재하는 것으로 보았지만 아인슈타인의 반론을 받고, 보른의 확률해석이 이에 대체되었으나, 마침내 이것도 불충분하여 많은 모순으로 유도되는 것이 판명되었다. 이리하여 결국 낡은 물리학의 사고방식으로는 양자론의 개념은 어떻게도 설명할 수 없음이 차차 확실해졌고, 드디어 1927년에 베르너 하이젠베르크의 불확정성 원리가 등장하였다. 파와 입자의 두개의 상을 결부시킴으로써 발생하는 이 관계는, 미시적 세계에서는 일상경험에서 만들어진 관념은 이미 통용되지 않는다는 것을 강조하는 것이다. 보어는 이 생각을 다시 자연인식 일반에 펼쳐 양자역학의 일관된 해석을 수립하려고 하여, 같은 해 상호보완성 원리를 제창하였다. 현상의 시공적인 기술과 인과적 관계와는 서로 보충하는 동시, 서로 배제한다는 것이 골자이다.아인슈타인은 이와 같은 새로운 양자론의 해석에 찬성하지 않고 일관하여 EPR 역설 등 의문을 계속 제출하였지만 한편으로는 기묘한 양자역학의 주장은 당시의 사상계에도 큰 영향을 주어 물질의 부정이나 주관주의실증주의 경향의 세력이 증가하는 기초가 되기도 하였다.양자역학(量子力學)의 결론들은 당시 과학자(및 일반인)들의 직관으로는 이해하기 힘든 것이었기에, 이 이론이 실재에 대해서 무엇을 말해주는지에 대해 많은 해석과 철학적 논쟁이 있었다.많은 수의 물리학자들은 보어 등이 개발한 코펜하겐 해석을 받아들이고 있다. 이 해석에서 양자역학의 확률적 측면들은 우리의 지식의 부족함을 말해주는 것이 아닌 실재 그 자체이며 따라서 결정론적 이론에 의해 설명될 수 없다.양자역학을 개발한 이들 중 한 명인 아인슈타인은 이 이론의 무작위성을 좋아하지 않았고, 양자역학의 현상인 도깨비 원격현상등을 강력히 부정하면서 "신은 주사위놀이를 하지 않는다"라고 말했다. 그는 양자역학의 근본에는 보다 깊은 국소적 숨은 변수 이론이 있을 거라고 주장했다. 아인슈타인은 양자역학에 대해 여러 가지 반박을 제시했는데, 그중 가장 유명한 것은 EPR 역설이라 불린다. 벨은 EPR 역설을 이용해, 조건법적 명확성을 가정한 경우 양자역학과 국소적 이론 사이에 실험적으로 확인 가능한 차이가 있음을 증명했다. 실험을 통해서, 실제 세계는 조건법적으로 명확하지 않거나 비국소적이라는 것이 증명되었다.영문학 교수이자 작가인 루이스는 비결정론이 그의 철학적 신념에 어긋난다는 이유로 양자역학을 불완전한 이론으로 보았다. 그는 하이젠베르크의 불확정성 원리가 존재론적 비결정성이 아닌 인식론적 한계를 보여줄 뿐이라고 생각했으며, 다른 많은 이들과 마찬가지로 이런 이유에서 숨은 변수 이론을 지지했다. 코펜하겐 해석을 둘러싼 보어-아인슈타인 논쟁은 당시의 양자역학을 둘러싼 논쟁 중에서 가장 대표적인 것이었다.현재 표준적인 양자역학의 해석은 코펜하겐 해석이나 그 외에도 다음과 같은 해석들이 존재한다.파동함수·불확정성 원리 등장- 앎의 한계 지적양자역학이라는 새 이론은 원자와 관련된 거의 모든 것을 설명할 수 있는 탁월한 이론이었다. 학자들은 이 이론을 토대로 점점 더 많은 문제들을 풀어나갔다. 하지만 또 한편으로 이 새로운 이론은 ‘우리가 안다는 것은 도대체 무엇인가’라는 아주 근본적이고 철학적인 문제를 새로 꺼내기 시작했다.를 발표한 하이젠베르크. <출처 German Federal Archive>원자와 관련된 것을 설명하기 위해 양자역학은 ‘파동함수6)’라고도 하고 ‘상태함수’라고도 하는 수학적인 장치를 사용한다. 양자역학이 제안된 초창기부터 많은 물리학자들은 파동함수의 의미를 둘러싸고 논쟁을 벌였다. 이로 인해 파동함수가 정확히 무엇인지 도무지 알 수 없는 상황이 돼 버렸다. 그전까지 물리학에서는 대체로 수학을 이용해 방정식이나 공식을 만들면, 그 의미를 모두 알고 있다고 생각해 왔다. 물론 세부적으로는 어려운 점도 많았지만, 결코 알 수 없는 것을 방정식이나 공식에 담지는 않았던 것이다. 그런데 양자역학에서는 가장 핵심이 되는 파동함수가 정확히 무엇인지 아무도 제대로 대답할 수 없는 듯 보였다. 게다가 하이젠베르크는 이 양자역학이라는 이론 안에 소위 ‘불확정성 원리7)’가 있음을 밝혔는데, 이 또한 우리가 무엇인가를 안다는 것에 근본적인 한계가 있음을 말해 주었다. 실용적으로 물리현상을 아주 잘 설명해 주는 이론이 있는데, 정작 그 이론은 우리가 안다는 것에 대해 회의적인 관점을 제시하고 있었던 셈이었다. 그보다 불과 100여 년 전에 프랑스의 피에르 라플라스(Pierre Simon de Laplace, 1749~1827)는 물리학을 통해 세상의 모든 것을 다 알 수 있다고 자신했지만, 파동함수와 불확정성 원리의 등장으로 인해 우리가 원자에 대해 무엇을 알고 있는지, 그 개념마저 흔들리기 시작했다.프랑크와 보어의 초기 양자역학은 전자의 궤도가 점프하는 현상을 강조한 반면 후기의 슈뢰딩거 하이젠베르크의 이론은 전자의 위치가 확률적 분포로밖에 알 수 없다는 점을 강조했다고 볼 수 있다. 초기의 양자역학은 원자폭탄 반도체 등에 이론적 배경을 제공했고 후기의 양자역학은 물질에 대한 인간의 인식에 큰 변화를 주었다는 것에 큰 의의가 있다. 특히 후기 양자역학은 인간의 인식의 한계성을 인정함으로써 현대철학에도 큰 영향을 주었다.한편으로는 19세기 말부터 20세기 초반까지의 실험가능한 물리학의 혁명적 발전이 실험이 불가능한 한계에 다다랐다는 점을 내포하기도 했다. 물리학은 실제로 20세기 후반부터 지금의 21세기 초반까지 끈 이론 통일장 이론 등 여러 이론을 내놓았으나 실험이 불가능한 가설에 그치는 경우가 많았다. +양자역학의 수학적 공식화는 양자역학에 등장하는 개념들과 공식을 수학적으로 엄밀하게 서술하는 것이다. C* 대수 이론, 스튀름-리우빌 이론 등이 쓰일 수 있지만, 보통은 힐베르트 공간중 하나인 L2 공간에 작용하는 선형 연산자를 통해 기술한다. 이는 존 폰 노이만이 1930년대에 완성한 것으로, 20세기 이전에 개발된 물리학의 수학적 모형들과는 큰 차이를 보인다.여기에 나타나는 구조들 중 상당수는 함수해석학에서 나온 것이다. 에너지와 운동량 등의 물리적 관측량은 더이상 위상 공간상의 함수의 값이 아닌 선형 연산자의 고윳값으로 다루어진다.편의상 브라-켓 표기법과 슈뢰딩거 묘사를 쓰자. 양자역학의 공준은 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_16는 플랑크 상수다. 이를 슈뢰딩거 방정식이라고 부른다. 대신 밀도 연산자 formula_4를 쓰면 그 시간 변화는 다음과 같다.이 수학적 틀에서 베르너 하이젠베르크의 불확정성 원리는 비가환 연산자에 대한 정리가 된다.베르너 카를 하이젠베르크( 1901년 12월 5일 ~ 1976년 2월 1일)는 독일의 이론물리학자이자 양자역학의 주요 선구자 중 하나이다. 그는 1925년에 획기적인 논문을 발표했다. 막스 보른과 파스쿠알 요르단과 함께 쓴 후속 논문애서는 양자역학의 행렬역학이 더욱 정교해졌다. 그는 1927년에 발표한 불확정성 원리로 유명하다. 하이젠베르크는 1932년 "양자역학의 창안에 대한 공로로" 노벨 물리학상을 받았다.하이젠베르크는 또한 난류의 유체동역학 이론, 원자핵, 강자성, 우주선, 그리고 아원자 입자에 중요한 공헌을 했다. 그는 제2차 세게대전 동안 독일의 핵무기 프로그램의 대표 과학자였다. 그는 또한 1957년 뮌헨의 연구용 원자로와 함께 카를스루에에 최초의 원자로를 계획하는데 도움을 주었다.제2차 세계대전 후, 그는 카이저 빌헬름 협회의 소장으로 임명되어, 1958년 뮌헨으로 옮겨지기 전까지 그 연구소의 소장이었다. 그리고 나서 그는 1960년부터 1970년까지 막스 플랑크 물리학 맟 천체물리학 연구소의 소장이 되었다.하이젠베르크는 또한 독일 연구협회의 회장, 원자력 물리학 위원 위원장, 핵 물리학 연구 그룹의 의장, 그리고 알렉산더 폰 훔볼트 재단의 회장이었다.베르너 하이젠베르크는 독일 뷔르츠부르크에서 카스파 에른스트 아우구스트 하이젠베르크Kaspar Ernst August Heisenberg와 아내인 애니 베클레인Annie Wecklein 사이에서 태어났다. 그의 아버지는 대학 시스템에서 중세와 현대 그리스어 연구에 대한 독일의 유일한 오르덴틀리헤르ordentlicher 교수 (일반 교수)가 된 고전 언어의 중등학교 교사였다.하이젠베르크는 루터교 기독교인으로 자랐다. 하이젠베르크는 십대 후반에 바이에른 알프스에서 하이킹을 하면서 플라톤의 를 읽었다. 그는 뮌헨 괴팅겐 및 코펜하겐에서 과학 교육을 받는 동안 동료 학생 및 교사와 원자 이해에 대한 철학적 대화를 나누었다. 하이젠베르크는 나중에 라고 표명했다.하이젠베르크는 1년 전 수립된 바이에른 평의회 공화국과 싸우기 위해 1919년 자유군단의 일원으로 뮌헨에 도착했다. 50년 후 그는 그 시절을 과 같은 젊음의 즐거움으로 회상했다.1920년부터 1923년까지 그는 루트비히-막시밀리안 뮌헨 대학교에서 아르놀트 조머펠트와 빌헬름 빈에게, 게오르그-아우구스트 괴팅겐 대학교에서 막스 보른과 제임스 프랑크에게 물리학과 수학을 그라고 다비트 힐베르트에게 수학을 공부했다. 1923년 뮌헨에서 좀머펠트 밑에서 박사학위를 받았다.괴팅겐에서 보른 아래에서 그는 1924년에 변칙적인 제이만 효과에 대한 하빌리타치온슈라프트Habilitationsschrift로 그의 하빌리타치온을 완료했다.1922년 6월 조머팰트는 하이젠베르크를 괴팅겐으로 데려가 '보어 축제'에 참가했는데, 조머펠트는 그의 학생들에게 진지한 관심을 가지고 있었고 원자 물리학에 대한 닐스 보어의 이론에 대한 하이젠베르크의 흥미를 알고 있었기 때문이었다. 그 행사에서 보어는 객원 강사였고 양자 원자 물리학에 대한 일련의 포괄적인 강의를 했으며 그리고 하이젠베르크는 보어를 처음으로 만났는데, 이는 그에게 지속적인 영향을 미쳤다.조머펠트 제안한 주제인 하이젠베르크의 박사학위 논문은 난류에 관한 것이었는데; 그 논문은 층류의 안정성 과 난류의 성질 둘다를 논의했다. 안정성 문제는 층류로부터의 작은 교란을 위하여 4차 선형 미분방정식인 오르-조머팰트Orr-Sommerfeld 방정식을 사용하여 조사되었다. 그는 제2차 세계대전 후에 잠시 이 주제로 돌아왔다.그는 젊은 시절에 독일 스카우트 협회이자 독일 청년 운동의 일원인 '노이파드핀데르'의 회원이자 스카우트 리더였다.1923년 8월 로베르트 혼젤Robert Honsell과 하이젠베르크는 뮌헨에서 이 협회의 스카우트 그룹과 함께 핀란드 여행을 계획했다.하이젠베르크는 클래식 음악을 즐겼고 뛰어난 피아니스트였다. 음악에 대한 그의 관심은 미래의 아내를 만나는 것으로 이어졌다. 1937년 1월 하이젠베르크는 개인 음악 발표회에서 엘리자베스 슈마허Elisabeth Schumacher 를 만났다. 엘리자베트는 유명한 베를린 경제학 교수의 딸이었고 그녀의 오빠는 의 저자인 경제학자 에른스트 프리드리히 슈마허였다. 하이젠베르크는 4월 29일 그녀와 결혼했다. 1938년 1월에 이란성 쌍둥이 마리아Maria와 볼프강Wolfgang이 태어났으며 이에 따라 볼프강 파울리는 하이젠베르크의 -기본 입자 물리학에서 쌍생성의 과정에 대한 단어 놀이-를 축하했다. 그들은 이후 12년 동안 다섯 명의 자녀를 더 두었는데 바바라Barbara 크리스틴Christine 요헨Jochen 마르틴Martin 베레나Verena. 1936년 그는 독일 남부 우르펠트 암 발첸제에 가족을 위한 여름 별장을 구입했다.괴팅겐, 코펜하겐, 라이프치히.하이젠베르크는 1924년부터 1927년까지 괴팅겐의 프리바트도젠트Privatdogent였는데, 이것은 그가 교수직이 없이 독립적으로 가르칠 자격이 있다는 것을 의미한다. 1924년 9월 17일부터 1925년 5월 1일까지, 국제 교육 위원회 록펠러 재단 연구비로써, 그는 코펜하겐 대학교의 이론물리학 연구소 소장인 닐스 보어와 연구하러 갔다. 1925년 9월 그의 세미나 논문인 "ber quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen"이 출판되었다. 그는 괴팅겐으로 돌아와 막스 보른과 파스쿠알 요르단과 함께 약 6개월에 걸쳐 양자역학의 행렬 역학을 개발했다. 1926년 5월 1일, 하이젠베르크는 코펜하겐에서 대학 강사와 보어의 조교가 되었다. 1927년 코펜하겐에서 하이젠베르크는 양자역학의 수학적 기초를 연구하면서 불확정성 원리를 발전시켰다. 2월 23일, 하이젠베르크는 동료 물리학자 볼프강 파울리에게 편지를 써서 처음으로 그의 새로운 원리를 설명했다. 하이젠베르크는 그 논문에서는 불확정성이 아닌 "Ungenauigkeit"이라는 단어를 사용했다.1927년, 하이젠베르크는 라이프치히 대학교의 이론물리학 일반 교수이자 물리학부의 학부장으로 임명되었고; 1928년 2월 1일 그곳에서 취임 강의를 했다. 라이프치히에서 출판된 그의 첫 번째 논문에서 하이젠베르크는 강자성의 수수께끼를 풀기 위해 파울리 배타 원리를 이용했다. 재임 기간 동안, 그와 함께 공부하고 일했던 박사과정 학생들과 대학원생 맟 연구 동료들의 높은 자질은 후에 찬사를 받는다. 여러 기간 동안에 그들은 에리히 바게Erich Bagge, 펠릭스 블로흐, 우고 파노Ugo Fano, 지그프리드 플뤼게Siegfried Flgge, 윌리엄 버밀리언 휴스턴William Vermillion Houston, 프리드리히 훈트, 로버트 멀리컨, 루돌프 파이얼스, 조지 플라제크George Placzek, 이지도어 아이작 라비, 프리츠 자우터Fritz Sauter, 존 C. 슬레이터John C. Slater, 에드워드 텔러, 존 해즈브룩 밴블렉, 빅토어 바이스코프, 카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커, 그레고르 벤첼Gregor Wentzel, 그리고 클라렌스 제너Clarence Zener를 포함했다.1929년 초, 하이젠베르크와 파울리는 상대론적 양자장론의 기초를 닦는 두 논문 중 첫 번째 논문을 제출했다. 또한 1929년에 하이젠르크는 중국, 일본, 인도, 미국을 순회 강연했다. 1929년 봄, 그는 시카고 대학교의 객원강사으며, 거기서 양자역학을 강의했다.1928년 영국의 수리물리학자 폴 디랙이 양자역학의 상대론적 파동 방정식을 도출했는데 이것은 양극의 전자의 존재를 암시했고 나중에 양전자로 명명되었다. 1932년 우주선의 안개 상자 사진을 통해 미국의 물리학자 칼 데이비드 앤더슨은 양전자에 의해 만들어진 자취track임을 확인했다. 1933년 중반 하이젠베르크는 양전자 이론을 발표했다. 디랙의 이론과 그 이론의 추가 전개에 대한 그의 생각은 두 개의 논문에 제시되었다. 첫 번째인 "Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons"은 1934년에 두 번째인 "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons는 1936년에 출판되었다. 그는 디랙 방정식을 비-교환자를 포함하는 양자화 조건에 따라 스핀 /2의 모든 점 입자에 대해서 "고전적" 장 방정식으로 재해석한 최초의 사람이었다. 이와같이 하이젠베르크는 그것을 전자들을 정확하게 기술하는 장 방정식으로 재해석하여 물질을 입자 생성과 파괴의 가능성을 허용하는 상대론적 양자 장 방정식에 의해 기술되는 전자기학과 같은 기초 위에 놓았다. 행렬 역학과 노벨상.양자역학을 확립한 하이젠베르크의 논문은 물리학자와 역사가들에게는 수수께끼였다. 그의 방법은 독자가 크라머르스-하이젠베르크 전이 확률 계산에 친숙하다고 가정한다. 주요 새로운 아이디어인 비가환 행렬은 관찰할 수 없는 양을 거부함으로써 정당화된다. 그가 당시에 행렬 수학적 이론에 익숙하지 않았음에도 불구하고 대응 원리에 기초한 물리적 추론에 의한 행렬의 '비-가환 곱셈'을 도입한다. 이러한 결과로 이어지는 경로는 1977년 매키논MacKinnon에서 재구성되었으며 자세한 계산은 아이치슨Aitchison 등에서 수행되었다.코펜하겐에서 하이젠베르크와 헨드릭 크라머르스는 원자보다 파장이 큰 복사선 원자의 분산 혹은 산란에 관한 논문을 공동으로 작성했다. 그들은 이전에 크라머르스가 개발한 성공적인 공식이 보어 궤도를 기반으로 할 수 없다는 것을 보여주었다. 그 이유는 전이 주파수가 일정하지 않은 레벨 간격을 기반으로 하기 때문이다. 대조적으로 정확한 고전 궤도의 푸리에 변환에서 발생하는 주파수는 동일한 간격이다. 그러나 이 결과는 들어오는 복사선이 원자가 또는 외곽애서는 전자를 붕괴되는 가상 상태로 들뜨게 하는 반semi-고전적 가상 상태 모형에 의해서 설명될 수 있었다. 후속 논문에서 하이젠베르크는 이 가상 진동자 모형이 형광 복사의 편광도 설명할 수 있음을 보여주었다.이 두 성공과 보어-조머펠트 모형이 비정상적인 지만 효과의 뛰어난 문제를 설명하는 데에서의 계속적 실패는 하이젠베르크로 하여금 가상 진동자 모형을 사용하여 스펙트럼 주파수를 계산하도록 했다. 하지만 이 방법은 현실적인 문제에 즉시 적용하기에는 너무 어려워서 그는 더 간단한 예인 비조화 진동자로 방향을 바꾸었다.쌍극자 진동자는 외부 전하와 같은 외력에 의해 섭동을 일으키는 스프링 상의 하전 입자로 생각되는 단순 조화 진동자로 구성된다. 진동하는 전하의 운동은 그 진동자의 주파수에서 푸리에 급수로 표현될 수 있다. 하이젠베르크는 두 가지 다른 방법으로 양자 거동을 해결했다. 첫째 그는 가상 진동자 방법으로 시스템을 처리하여 외부 소스에 의해 생성될 레벨 간의 전환을 계산했다.그리고 그는 비조화anharmonic 포텐셜 항을 조화 진동자에 대한 섭동으로 취급하여 그와 보른이 개발한 섭동 방법을 사용하여 동일한 문제를 해결했다. 두 방법 모두 1차 및 매우 복잡한 2차 수정 항에 대해 동일한 결과를 가져왔다. 이것은 매우 복잡한 계산 뒤에 한 일관된 설계가 있음을 시사했다.그래서 하이젠베르크는 가상 진동자 모형에 대한 명시적인 의존 없이 이러한 결과를 공식화하기 시작했다. 이를 위해서 그는 공간 좌표에 대한 푸리에 확장을 가상 진동자 방법의 전이 계수에 해당하는 행렬로 대체했다. 그는 양자역학은 관찰 가능한 것으로 제한되어야 한다는 보어의 대응 원리와 양자역학은 관측 가능한 것으로 제한되어야 한다는 파울리의 학설doctrine에 호소함으로써 이러한 대체를 정당화했다.7월 9일, 하이젠베르크는 보른에게 이 논문을 검토를 위해 주었고 또한 출판을 위해 제출했다. 보른이 그 논문을 읽었을 때, 그는 공식이 그가 브레슬라우 대학교의 수학자 야콥 로자네스Jakob Rosanes에게 배운 행렬의 체계적인 언어로 옮겨지고 확장될 수 있는 공식임을 알았다. 보른은 그의 조수이자 전 학생이었던 파스쿠알 요르단의 도움으로 즉시 전사 및 전개을 시작했고 출판을 위해서 결과를 제출했는데; 이 논문은 하이젠배르크의 논문이 발표된 지 60일 만에 접수되었다. 3명의 저자 모두가 연내 발표를 위해서 후속follow-on 논문을 제출했다.이때까지 물리학자들은 행렬을 거의 사용하지 않았다. 그들은 순수수학의 영역에 속하는 것으로 간주되었다. 구스타프 미에Gustav Mie는 1912년 전기역학에 관한 논문에서 그것들을 사용했고 보른은 1921년 결정의 격자 이론에 관한 연구에서 그것들을 사용했다. 이러한 경우에 행렬이 사용되었지만 행렬의 곱셈이 있는 행렬의 대수학은 양자 역학의 매트릭스 공식화에서 같은 묘사picture에는 들어가지 않았다.1928년 알베르트 아인슈타인은 하이젠베르크 보른 요르단을 노벨 물리학상 후보로 지명했다. 1932년 노벨 물리학상 발표는 그해 11월로 연기되었다. 하이젠베르크가 "양자역학 그중에서도inter alia 수소의 동소체allotropic 형태의 발견으로 인도한 그 적용의 양자역학의 창안으로" 1932년 수상자로 발표된 것은 그 때였다.양자역학의 발전과 무엇이 접근access은 결코 가질 수 없는 에 대해서만 말할 수 있다고 주장하기를우리는 더 이상 관찰 과정과 독립적으로 입자의 거동에 대해 말할 수 없다. 최종 결과로 양자 이론에서 수학적으로 공식화된 자연 법칙은 더 이상 기본 입자 자체가 아니라 기본 입자에 대한 우리의 지식을 다루고 있다. 이 입자들이 시공간에 존재하는지 객관적으로 묻는 것도 더 이상 불가능하다... 우리 시대의 엄밀한 과학에서 자연의 그림을 말할 때 우리는 자연의 그림을 말하는 것이 아니라 을 말한다. ... 과학은 더 이상 객관적인 관찰자로서 자연을 대면하지 않고 인간과 자연 사이의 이러한 상호 작용에서 스스로를 행위자로 본다. 분석하고 설명하고 및 분류하는 과학적 방법은 개입에 의해 조사 대상을 변경하고 재창조한다는 사실에서 발생하는 한계를 인식하게 되었다. 다른 말로 방법과 객체는 더 이상 분리될 수 없다.1932년 제임스 채드윅이 중성자를 발견한 직후, 하이젠베르크는 핵의 중성자-양성자 모형에 대한 세 개의 논문 중 첫 번째 논문을 제출했다. 1933년 아돌프 히틀러가 집권한 후 하이젠베르크는 언론에서 "백인 유대인" 이라는 공격을 받았다. '도이체 물리학' 또는 아리안 물리학의 지지자들은 아르놀트 조머펠트와 하이젠베르크를 포함한 주요 이론 물리학자들에 대한 악의적인 공격을 시작했다. 1930년대 초반부터 반-유대주의 및 반-이론물리학 운동인 '도이체 물리학'은 양자역학과 상대성이론에 관심을 기울였다. 대학 환경에서 적용되었듯이, 가장 두드러진 두 지자가 노벨 물리학상 수상자 필리프 레나르트와 요하네스 슈타르크였음에도 불구하고 정치적 요인이 학문적 능력보다 우선했다.하이젠베르크를 많은 독일 대학의 교수로 임명하려는 시도는 여러 번 실패했다. 아르놀트 조머펠트의 후계자로 임명받으려는 그의 시도는 의 지지자들 사이의 학문적 정치적 차이로 인해서 그 과정은 오래 걸렸다.1935년 뮌헨 교수단 이론물리학의 일반 교수이자 뮌헨 대학의 이론물리학 연구소 소장인 조머펠트를 대신할 후보자 목록을 작성했다. 세 명의 후보자는 모두 조머펠트의 이전 학생이었는데 노벨 물리학상을 수상한 하이젠베르크 1936년 노벨 화학상을 수상한 피터 디바이 그리고 리처드 베커Richard Becker였다. 뮌헨 교수단은 이 후보자들을 확고하게 지원했으며 하이젠베르크가 첫 번째 선택이었다. 그러나 의 지지자들의 맹렬한 공격을 받았다. 한 공격은 하인리히 힘러가 이끄는 친위대의 신문인 에 실렸다. 여기서 하이젠베르크는 이라고 불렸다. 유대인들이 폭력적인 공격을 받고 투옥됨에 따라서 이러한 공격은 심각하게 받아들여졌다. 하이젠베르크는 문제를 해결하고 명예를 되찾기 위해 한 사설과 히믈러에게 보내는 편지와 더불어 반격했다.어느 순간, 하이젠베르크의 어머니는 힘러의 어머니를 방문하였다. 두 여성은 하이젠베르크의 외할아버지와 힘러의 아버지가 바이에른 하이킹 클럽의 목사이자 회원이었기 때문에 서로를 알고 있었다. 결국, 히믈러는 1938년 7월 21일 친위대 집단지도자 라인하르트 하이드리히와 하이젠베르크에게 두 통의 편지를 보내서 하이젠베르크 사건을 진정시켰다. 하이드리히에게 보낸 편지에서 힘러는 하이젠베르크가 한 세대의 과학자들을 가르치는데 유용하기 때문에 독일은 그를 잃거나 침묵시킬 여유가 없다고 말했다. 히믈러는 하이젠베르크에게 이 편지가 가족의 추천으로 보내졌다며 하이젠베르크에게 전문적인 물리학 연구 결과와 관련 과학자들의 개인적아고 정치적 태도를 구별하라고 경고했다.빌헬름 뮐러Wilhelm Mller는 루트비히-막시밀리안 뮌헨 대학교에서 조머펠트의 자리를 대체했다. 뮐러는 이론물리학자도 아니었고, 물리학 저널에도 발표되지 않았으며, 독일 물리학회 회원도 아니었다. 그의 임명은 조롱거리로 여겨졌고 이론물리학자들을 교육하는데 해로웠다.하이젠베르크의 SS 수사를 이끈 세 명의 조사관은 물리학 교육을 받았다. 실제로 하이젠베르크는 라이프치히 대학교에서 그들 중 한 명의 박사 시험에 참여했었다. 세 명 중 가장 영향력 있는 사람은 요하네스 줄프스Johannes Juilfs였다. 그들은 하이젠베르크뿐만 아니라 이론물리학 및 학계에서 '도이체 물리학' 운동의 이념 정책에 반대하는 그의 입장의 지자자가 되었다.독일 핵무기 프로그램.1933년 아돌프 히틀러가 집권하자 유대인 물리학자들의 업적을 인정하고 가르치던 하이젠베르크는 독일 물리학계와 SS의 비판을 받았다. 하이젠베르크는 본인의 명예와 안전을 지키기 위해 사설을 쓰는 등 적극적으로 본인을 충실한 독일 시민으로 포장했다.1939년에 핵분열의 발견 후, 하이젠베르크는 독일의 원자력 프로젝트에서 중심적인 역할을 했다. 1941년 9월 15일부터 22일까지, 하이젠베르크는 독일 지배하에 있던 코펜하겐을 방문해서 닐스 보어와 이론 물리와 핵 물리학을 논했다. 이 만남에서 무슨 말이 오갔는지와 하이젠베르크와 나치의 사람들의 관계는 수십 년간 과학사학자들의 관심을 끌었다. 이 만남은 마이클 프레인의 연극 의 주제가 되기도 했다.전쟁전 물리학 연구.1936년 중반, 하이젠베르크는 두 개의 논문에서 우주선의 샤워 이론을 발표했다. 그 후 2년 동안 4편의 논문이 더 나왔다.1938년 12월 독일의 화학자 오토 한과 프리츠 슈트라스만은 《자연과학(The Science of Nature)》에 우라늄에 중성자들로 충돌시킨bombarding 후에 바륨 원소를 검출했고 오토 한은 우라늄의 '폭발bursting'로 결론짓는 원고를 보냈고 동시에 그해 7월에 네덜란드로 피신하여 그후 스웨덴으로 간 친구 리제 마이트너에게 이 결과들을 연락했다. 마이트너와 조카 오토 로버트 프리쉬Otto Robert Frisch는 한과 슈트라스만의 결과를 핵분열로 올바르게 해석했다. 프리쉬는 1939년 1월 13일 실험적으로 이것을 확인했다.1939년 6월과 7월에 하이젠베르크는 앤아버에 있는 미시간 대학교에서 사무엘 구드스미트Samuel Goudsmit를 방문하기 위하여 미국으로 여행했다. 그렇지만 하이젠베르크는 미국으로 이주하는 초청을 거절했다. 그는 6년 후 구드스미트가 제2차 세계대전 끝무렵에 알소스 작전의 수석 과학 조언자가 될 때까지 그를 다시 보지 못했다.우란베라인의 멤버쉽.'우란베라인(Uranverein)(HWA 육군 병기청)는 (REM 제국 교육부)에서 (RFR 제국 연구위원회)를 짜내어 군사 후원 하에 공식적인 독일 원자력 프로젝트를 시작했다. 이 프로젝트는 1939년 9월 16일 첫 회의를 가졌다. 이번 회의는 쿠르트 디브너Kurt Diebner HWA 고문이 주관하고 베를린에서 열렸다. 초청인으로는 발터 보테 지크프리트 플뤼게Siegfried Flgge 한스 가이거 오토 한 폴 하텍Paul Harteck 게르하르트 호프만Gerhard Hoffmann 요제프 마타우치Josef Mattauch 게오르그 슈테터Georg Stetter가 포함되었다. 곧이어 하이젠베르크 클라우스 클라우시우스Klaus Clusius 로베르트 되펠Robert Dpel 카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커 등이 두 번째 회의를 열었다. 베를린-달렘(Dahlem)에 위치한 카이저-빌헬름 물리학 연구소(KWIP)는 다이브너가 관리소장이 되어 HWA의 권한에 속하게 되었고 핵 연구에 대한 군사 통제가 시작되었다. 디브너가 HWA 프로그램 하에서 KWIP를 관리하던 시기에 디브너와 카를 비츠Karl Wirtz와 카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커를 포함한 하이젠베르크의 내부 서클 사이에 상당한 개인적 직업적 적대감이 발전하였다.1942년 2월 26~28일 카이저 빌헬름 물리학 연구소에서 열린 육군 무기 사무국이 소집한 과학 회의에서 하이젠베르크는 독일 제국 관리들에게 핵분열을 통한 에너지 획득에 관한 강의를 했다. 하이젠베르크는 핵분열의 엄청난 에너지 잠재력에 대해 강의하면서 원자핵의 분열을 통해 2억 5천만 전자볼트가 방출될 수 있다고 말했다. 하이젠베르크는 연쇄 반응을 달성하기 위해 순수한 U-235를 얻어야 한다고 강조했다. 그는 동위원소 를 순수한 형태로 얻는 우라늄 농축과 기계 속에서 일반 우라늄과 감속재의 대체 적층 방법 및 포함한 다양한 방법을 탐구했다. 그는 이 기계가 차량, 선박 및 잠수함에 연료를 공급하는 데 실용적인 방법으로 사용될 수 있다고 언급했다. 하이젠베르크는 이러한 과학적 노력에 대한 육군 무기 사무소의 재정적, 물질적 지원의 중요성을 강조했다. 두 번째 과학 회의가 이어졌다. 국방과 경제에 결정적으로 중요한 현대물리학의 문제들에 대한 강의가 들렸다. 회의에는 베른하르트 루스트 제국 과학교육문화부 장관이 참석했다. 회의에서 루스트 장관은 카이저 빌헬름 협회에서 핵개발 계획을 철회하기로 결정했다. 제국 연구위원회가 그 프로젝트를 맡기로 되었다. 1942년 4월, 육군은 물리학 연구소를 카이저 빌헬름 협회에 반환하고, 하이젠베르크를 연구소장으로 임명했다. KWIP에서 이 직책을 맡으면서 하이젠베르크는 첫 번째 교수직을 얻었다. 피터 디바이는 여전히 연구소의 소장이었지만, HWA가 KWIP의 관리권을 장악했을 때 독일 시민이 되는 것을 거부한 후 미국으로 떠났다. 하이젠베르크는 또한 아직 라이프치히 대학교에 로베르트 되펠Robert Dpel과 그의 아내 클라라 되펠Klara Dpel에 의해 우란베라인을 위한 연구를 수행해온 그의 물리학과를 갖고 있었다.1942년 6월 4일, 하이젠베르크는 독일의 군부수 장관인 알베르트 슈페어에게 우란베라인 연구룰 핵무기 개발로 전환할 가능성에 대해 보고하도록 소환되었다. 회의에서 하이젠베르크는 슈페어에게 상당한 자금력과 인력을 필요로 하기 때문에 1945년 이전에는 폭탄을 만들 수 없다고 말했다.우란베라인 프로젝트는 제국 연구회의 지도 하에 배치된 후 원자력 생산에 중점을 두어 '전쟁의 중요성' 지위를 유지했고; 따라서 출자는 군대에서 계속되었다. 원자력 프로젝트는 우라늄 및 중수 생산, 우라늄 동위원소 분리 및 원자로의 주요 영역으로 분류되었다. 그 후 프로젝트는 본질적으로 여러 연구소로 나뉘었고, 이 곳에서는 감독이 연구를 주도하고 자신의 연구 의제를 설정했다. 군대가 독일 핵무기 프로그램에 대한 통제를 포기한 1942년의 시점은 인원수로는 프로젝트의 절정이었다. 약 70명의 과학자가 이 프로그램을 위해 일했으며 약 40명의 과학자는 시간의 절반 이상을 핵분열 연구에 할애했다. 1942년 이후, 응용 핵분열을 연구하는 과학자의 수는 극적으로 감소했다. 주요 연구소와 함께 일하지 않는 많은 과학자들은 핵분열 연구를 중단하고 보다 시급한 전쟁 관련 연구에 노력을 기울였다.1942년 9월 하이젠베르크는 가본 입자 물리학의 산란 행렬 또는 S-행렬에 대한 3부작 시리즈의 첫 번째 논문을 제출했다. 처음 두 개의 논문은 1943년에 출판되었고 세 번째 논문은 1944년에 출판되었다. S-행렬은 충돌 과정에서 입사 입자의 상태 충돌에서 나오는 입자의 상태 및 안정적인 경계 상태만을 설명하고 간섭 상태에 대한 참조는 없을 것이다. 이것은 그가 1925년에 관찰 가능한 것들만을 사용하여 양자역학의 행렬 공식화의 기초가 된 것으로 판명된 것과 같은 선례였다.1943년 2월 하이젠베르크는 프리드리히-빌헬름스-대학교의 이론물리학 의장으로 임명되었다. 4월에는 프로이센 과학 아카데미의 선출이 승인되었다. 같은 달 그는 베를린에서 연합군의 폭격이 증가함에 따라 가족을 우르패트에 있는 은신처로 옮겼다. 여름에 그는 같은 이유로 카이저 빌헬름 물리학 연구소의 첫 번째 직원을 헤칭겐과 슈바르츠발트 가장자리에 있는 그 이웃 마을인 하이겔로흐로 파견했다. 10월 18일부터 26일까지 그는 독일이 점령한 네덜란드를 여행했다. 1943년 12월 하이젠베르크는 독일이 점령한 폴란드를 방문했다.1944년 1월 24일부터 2월 4일까지 하이젠베르크는 독일군이 보어의 이론물리학 연구소를 몰수한 후 점령된 코펜하겐으로 여행했다. 그는 4월에 짧은 귀국 여행을 했다. 12월에 하이젠베르크는 중립국 스위스에서 강의했다. 미국 전략사무국은 모 버그 요원Moe Berg을 보내 권총을 갖고 강의에 참석하도록 했으며 강의에서 독일이 원자폭탄 완성에 가까워졌다는 내용이 나오면 하이젠베르크를 사살하라는 명령을 내렸다.1945년 1월 하이젠베르크는 나머지 직원 대부분과 함께 카이저 빌헬름 물리학 연구소에서 슈바르트발트 내의 시설로 이사했다.2차 세계대전 이후.1945: 알소스 임무.알소스 임무는 독일이 원자폭탄 프로그램을 가지고 있는지 확인하고, 미국의 이익을 위해 독일의 원자 관련 시설, 연구, 물자, 과학 인력을 이용하려는 연합군의 노력이었다. 이 작전에 투입된 병력은 일반적으로 연합군의 통제 하에 있던 지역으로 이동했지만, 때로는 여전히 독일군의 통제 하에 있는 지역에서 작전을 수행하기도 했다. 베를린은 많은 독일 과학 연구 시설의 위치였다. 사상자와 장비의 손실을 줄이기 위해, 전쟁 말기에 이 시설들 중 다수는 다른 지역으로 분산되었다. 카이저 빌헬름 물리학 연구소는 1943년과 1944년에 대부분 슈바르츠발트 끝자락에 있는 헤칭겐과 그 인근 마을인 하이겔로흐로 옮겨졌고, 결국 프랑스 점령 지역에 포함되었다. 이를 통해 알소스 임무의 미국 특수부대는 핵 연구와 관련된 많은 독일 과학자들을 구금할 수 있었다.3월 30일 알로스 임무단은 하이델베르크에 도착하여 발터 보테 리하르트 쿤 필리프 레나르트 볼프강 거트너를 포함한 중요한 과학자들을 붙잡았다.조사 결과 오토 한은 테일핑겐에 있는 그의 실험실에 있었고 하이젠베르크와 막스 폰 라우에는 헤칭겐의 하이젠베르크의 실험실에 있었으며 하이젠베르크 팀이 베를린에 건설한 천연 우라늄 원자로는 하이겔로흐로 옮겨졌다. 이후 알소스 임무의 주요 초점은 뷔르템베르크 지역의 핵 시설에 있었다. 하이젠베르크는 1945년 5월 3일 우르펠트에서 독일군이 장악하고 있는 영토에서 산악 작전을 벌이다 붙잡혀 체포되었다. 그는 하이델베르크로 옮겨져 1939년 앤아버 방문 이후 처음으로 5월 5일 구드스미트를 만났다. 독일은 이틀 만에 항복했다. 하이젠베르크는 프랑스와 벨기에를 가로질러 1945년 7월 3일 영국으로 이동하면서 8개월 동안 가족을 다시 보지 못했다.1945 히로시마에 대한 반응.우란베라인의 일원으로 핵물리 연구보고서에 보고서를 발표한 저명한 독일 과학자 중 9명은 알소스 작전에 의해 체포되어 엡실론 작전아래 영국에서 투옥되었다. 하이젠베르크를 비롯한 10명의 독일 과학자들이 영국의 팜 홀(Farm Hall에 억류되었다. 그 시설은 영국의 해외 정보국 MI6의 안전가옥이였다. 구금된 동안 그들의 대화는 녹음되었다. 지적 가치가 있다고 생각되는 대화는 전사되어 영어로 번역되었다. 녹취록은 1992년에 발표되었다. 1945년 8월 6일 팜 홀의 과학자들은 언론 보도를 통해 미국이 일본 히로시마에 원자폭탄을 떨어뜨렸다는 사실을 알게 되었다. 처음에는 폭탄이 만들어지고 떨어졌다는 사실이 믿기지 않았다. 그 후 몇 주 동안 독일 과학자들은 미국이 어떻게 폭탄을 만들 수 있었는지 논의했다.팜 홀 기록에 따르면 하이젠베르크는 오토 한과 카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커를 포함하여 팜 홀에 억류된 다른 물리학자들과 함께 연합군이 제2차 세계대전에서 승리한 것을 기뻐했다고 한다. 하이젠베르크는 다른 과학자들에게 자신은 폭탄을 생각해 본 적이 없으며 에너지를 생산하는 원자 파일만 생각했다고 말했다. 나치를 위한 폭탄 제작의 도덕성도 논의되었다. 소수의 과학자들만이 핵무기의 가능성에 대해 진정한 공포를 표했고 하이젠베르크 자신도 이 문제에 대해 논의하는 데 신중했다. 독일의 핵무기 프로그램이 원자폭탄 제작에 실패하자 하이젠베르크는 "우리는 1942년 봄에 정부에게 원자폭탄을 건설하기 위해서 120000명을 고용해야 한다고 권고할 도덕적 용기가 없었을 것이다."라고 언급했다.독일 연구 기관의 임원 직위.1946년 1월 3일, 10명의 엡실론 작전 억류자들이 독일의 알스웨데로 이송되었다. 하이젠베르크는 연합군이 점령한 독일의 영국 지역인 괴팅겐에 정착했다. 하이젠베르크는 즉시 독일에서 과학 연구를 촉진하기 시작했다. 연합군 통제 위원회에 의해 카이저 빌헬름 협회가 폐지되고 영국 지역에 막스 플랑크 협회가 설립된 후 하이젠베르크는 막스 플랑크 물리학 연구소의 소장이 되었다. 막스 폰 라우에가 부소장으로 임명되었고 칼 비르츠Karl Wirtz, 카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커, 루트비히 비어르만Ludwig Biermann이 합류하여 하이젠베르크의 연구소 설립을 도왔다. 이였다. 연구소는 매주 토요일 오전에 콜로키움을 개최했다.하이젠베르크는 헤르만 라인Hermann Rei과 함께 포르슝스라트Forschungsrat을 설립하는 데 중요한 역할을 했다. 하이젠베르크는 새로 설립된 으로 이름을 바꾸었다. 합병에 이어서 하이젠베르크는 회장으로 임명되었다.1958년에 [[w:Max Planck Institute for Physics|막스 플랑크 물리학 연구소(Max Planck Institute for Physics)]]는 뮌헨으로 이전되어 확장되었으며 [[w:Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics|막스 플랑크 물리학 및 천체 물리학 연구소(Max-Planck-Institut fr Physik und Astrophysik)]](MPIFA)로 이름이 변경되었다. 그 사이에 하이젠베르크와 천체물리학자 [[w:Ludwig Biermann|루트비히 비어르만Ludwig Biermann]]은 MPIFA의 공동 책임자였다. 하이젠베르크는 또한 [[뮌헨 대학교|루트비히 막시밀리안 뮌헨 대학]]의 정교수가 되었다. 하이젠베르크는 1960년부터 1970년까지 MPIFA의 단독 책임자였다. 하이젠베르크는 1970년 12월 31일에 MPIFA의 책임자직을 사임했다.국제 과학 협력 촉진.1951년 하이젠베르크는 유럽의 핵물리학 연구소 설립을 목표로 을 설립하는 협약에 서명했다. CERN의 창립 과학 책임자가 되어 달라는 요청을 받았지만 그는 거절했다. 대신 그는 CERN의 과학 정책 위원회 의장으로 임명되었고 CERN에서 과학 프로그램을 결정했다.1946년에 와 함께였다.제2차 세계 대전 직후의 기간에 하이젠베르크는 박사학위 논문의 주제인 기류로 잠시 돌아왔습다. 1948년에 3편의 논문과 1950년에 1편이 출판되었다. 전후 기간에 하이젠베르크는 중간자 다중 생성에 대한 고려와 함께 우주선 샤워showers에 대한 그의 관심을 계속했다. 그는 1949년에 3편의 논문, 1952년에 2편의 논문, 1955년에 1편의 논문을 발표했다.1955년 말에서 1956년 초 사이에 하이젠베르크는 스코틀랜드의 [[세인트 앤드류스 대학교]]에서 물리학의 [[정신사|지적 역사]]에 대해 [[기포드 강연]]을 했다. 강의는 나중에 《물리학과 철학 현대 과학의 혁명 (Physics and Philosophy Revolution in Modern Science)》로 출판되었다. 1956년과 1957년 동안 하이젠베르크는 독일 원자력 위원회(Deutsche Atomkommission DAtK)의 위원회 II "연구와 성장"(Fachkommission II "Forschung und Nachwuchs")의 핵물리학 실무그룹(Arbeitskreis Kernphysik) 의장이었다. 1956년과 1957년에 원자력 물리학 실무그룹의 다른 구성원은 다음과 같다 [[발터 보테]] [[wHans Kopfermann|한스 코퍼만Hans Kopfermann]] (부의장) [[wFriedrich Bopp|프리츠 보프Fritz Bopp]] [[wWolfgang Gentner|볼프강 겐트너Wolfgang Gentner]] [[wOtto Haxel|오토 학셀Otto Haxel]] [[wWillibald Jentschke|빌리발트 연트쉬케Willibald Jentschke]] [[wHeinz Maier-Leibnitz|하인츠 마리-라이프니츠Heinz Maier-Leibnitz]] [[wJosef Mattauch|요세프 마트아우흐Josef Mattauch]] 볼프강 리즐러Wolfgang Riezler [[wWilhelm Walcher|빌헬름 발허Wilhelm Walcher]] 및 [[카를 프리드리히 폰 바이츠제커]]. [[볼프강 파울]]도 1957년 이 그룹의 멤버였다.1957년, 하이젠베르크는 에 서명했다. 과학자들와 정치인들 사이에 공개 토론이 이어졌다. 저명한 정치인, 작가, 사교계 명사들이 핵무기에 대한 논쟁에 참여하자 각서 서명자들은 "전업적 지적 불순응주의자들nonconformists"에 반대하는 입장을 취했다.1957년부터 Heisenberg는 의 서명자 8명 중 하나였다.1973년 하이젠베르크는 [[하버드 대학교]]에서 [[양자역학|양자 이론]] 개념의 역사적 발전에 대해 강의했다. 1973년 3월 24일 하이젠베르크는 바바리아 가톨릭 아카데미(The Catholic Academy of Bavaria) 앞에서 연설을 하여 로마노 과르디니 상(Romano Guardini Prize)을 수상했다. 그의 연설을 영어로 번역한 것은 《과학적 및 종교적 진실 (Scientific and Religious Truth)》이라는 제목으로 출판되었으며 그 인용문은 이 기사의 뒷부분에 나온다.하이젠베르크는 와 대화한 후 고 말하기까지 했다.를 싫어했지만 은 매우 좋아했다.독실한 기독교인인 하이젠베르크가 알베르트 아인슈타인에게 보내는 마직막 편지에서 쓰기를 "우리는 선하신 주 하나님이 아원자 입자의 위치를 알고 계셔서 인과관계 원리가 계속 타당성을 가지도록 하신다고 스스로를 위로할 수 있다."라고 했다. 아인슈타인은 우주가 근본적인 수준에서 불확실하다는 것을 암시하기 때문에 양자 물리학은 불완전함에 틀림없다고 계속 주장했다.하이젠베르크가 1974년 상을 받았을 때 그는 연설을 했고 나중에 라는 제목으로 출판했다. 그는 곰곰이 생각하기를:과학의 역사에서 유명한 이후로, 과학적 진리는 세상의 종교적 해석과 조화될 수 없다고 반복해서 주장되어 왔다. 나는 이제 과학적 진리가 그 자신의 분야에서 공격할 수 없다고 확신하지만, 종교적 사고의 내용을 단순히 인류 의식의 시대에 뒤떨어진 단계의 일부, 우리가 포기해야 할 부분으로 일축할 수 있다는 것을 결코 발견하지 못했다. 지금. 따라서 나는 살아오면서 이 두 사고 영역의 관계에 대해 반복적으로 숙고하지 않을 수 없었다. 왜냐하면 그것들이 가리키는 것의 실재성을 결코 의심할 수 없었기 때문이다.— 하이젠베르크 1974, 213[[파일:Hund Heisenberg Born 1966 Gttingen.jpg|섬네일|upright=1.2|프리드리히 훈트, 베르너 하이젠베르크와 막스 보른 괴팅겐 1966년]] +하이젠베르크의 아들인 마르틴 하이젠베르크는 [[뷔르츠부르크 대학교]]의 [[wNeuroscientist|신경생물학자]]가 되었으며 그의 아들인 요헨 하이젠베르크는 [[뉴햄프셔 대학교]]의 물리학 교수가 되었다.60대 후반에 하이젠베르크는 대중 시장mass market을 위해 자서전을 썼다. 1969년에 이 책은 독일에서 출판되었고 1971년 초에는 영어로 출판되었고 그 후 몇 년 동안 다른 언어로 출판되었다. 하이젠베르크는 1966년 그의 공개 강의가 철학과 종교의 주제로 점차 바뀌면서 이 프로젝트를 시작했다. 하이젠베르크는 출판을 위해 히르젤 베를라그와 에 관한 교과서의 원고를 보냈다. 그가 출판사 중 한 사람에게 쓴 이 원고는 그의 자서전을 위한 준비 작업이었다. 그는 자서전을 구성하기를 1) 정확한 과학의 목표 2) 원자 물리학에서 언어의 문제 3) 수학과 과학에서의 추상화 4) 물질의 가분성 또는 칸트의 이율배반 5) 기본 대칭 6) 과학과 종교 등으로 하였다.하이젠베르크는 회고록을 일련의 대화 형식으로 썼고, 그의 생애를 망라했다. 이 책은 대중적인 성공을 거두었지만 과학사가들에게는 골칫거리로 여겨졌다. 서문에서 하이젠베르크는 역사적 사건을 더 간결하게 만들기 위해 요약했다고 썼다. 출판 당시 : 만남과 대화 》라는 제목으로 출판되었다.하이젠베르크는 1976년 2월 1일 자택에서 신장암으로 사망했다. 다음날 저녁 그의 동료와 친구들은 물리학 연구소에서 그의 집까지 추모하기 위해 걸어가서 촛불을 켜고 그의 문 앞에 두었다. 하이젠베르크는 에 묻혔다.1980년 그의 미망인 엘리자베트 하이젠베르크는 을 출판했다. 그 책에서 그녀는 하이젠베르크를 "무엇보다도 자발적인 사람 그 다음은 뛰어난 과학자 그 다음은 매우 재능 있는 예술가 그리고 네 번째로 의무감으로부터의 호모 폴리티쿠스homo politicus"로 묘사했다.하이젠베르크는 많은 서훈을 받았다:핵물리학에 대한 연구 보고서.다음 보고서는 독일 에서 볼 수 있다.하이젠베르크의 성은 케이블 TV채널 으로 사용된다.하이젠베르크는 실제 사건을 바탕으로 한 영화 《의 암살 표적이었습니다.하이젠베르크는 [[필립 K. 딕]]의 소설 《[[높은 성의 사나이]]》를 각색한 아마존 프라임(Amazon Prime) TV시리즈에서 액시스Axis가 사용한 원자폭탄을 만든 공로를 인정받는다. 이 우주에 있는 원자폭탄은 하이젠베르크 장치라고 불린다.하이젠베르크는 게임 의 2차 적대자 칼 하이젠베르크과 동명이다. 하이젠베르크의 강자성에 대한 연구는 캐릭터의 자기 능력에 대한 영감으로 공헌했다. +[[분류:양자역학]][[분류독일의 노벨상 수상자]][[분류:20세기의 자유군단 관련자]][[분류:유체역학자]]중국의 역사에 대한 최초의 기록은 기원전 1250년 무정의 통치기인 상나라로 거슬러 올라간다. 황하 문명은 여러 다른 문명의 영향을 받았으며 중국 본토에서는 하나라 은나라 주나라 이래 약 5000년 동안 수많은 민족들이 건국한 왕조가 흥망을 반복해 왔다. 한나라 때 중화민족의 대부분을 차지하는 한족이라는 말이 성립되었다.한나라의 멸망 이후 위진남북조시대가 시작되었으며 그에 따라 변방의 이민족들이 중국 화북 지역을 정복했고 한족들은 장강 이남으로 내려가 나라를 세우며 땅을 개척하게 된다. 수나라 때는 400년 간 분열됐던 중국 대륙이 재통일되었으며 이후 수나라가 멸망하고 당나라가 통일왕조를 이어간다. 당나라가 멸망한 뒤 또다른 분열기인 오대십국 시대가 시작되었으나 송나라가 중국을 다시 통일한다. 송나라는 몽골족의 왕조인 원나라에 의해 멸망해 사라지고 만다.원나라는 한족들의 반란에 의해 북쪽으로 쫓겨났으며 명나라가 중국 대륙을 다시 차지해 통일하게 된다. 명나라는 청나라에 의해 멸망했으며 중국 대륙은 청나라에 의해 정복되고 통일된다. 그러나 19세기에 들어서 제1차 아편 전쟁과 제2차 아편 전쟁에서 청나라가 영국에 패배한 이후, 중국 본토는 "아시아의 병자" 서구 열강의 반식민지로 전락하고 말았고 대만과 만주는 일본 제국에 지배당하고 중국 한족의 남조의 수도로서 상징적이던 난징은 이민족에게 유린당했던 것처럼 현대에는 일본 제국에 의해 난징 대학살과 강간으로 유린당한다. 홍콩은 영국이 지배했으며 마카오는 포르투갈이 지배하였다.만주족이 건국한 청나라의 무능에 반발하여 태평 천국 운동이 일어났으나 진압되었다. 그 후 한족의 개혁파들에 의해 양무 운동과 변법 자강 운동이 차례로 일어났으나 반식민지로 전락한 중국은 힘이 없었고 열강의 지배와 간섭으로 실패했다. 한편 서태후 등 보수파의 사주로 반외세 운동인 의화단 운동을 일으켰으나 진압되었다. 그 후 신해혁명이 일어나 1912년에는 아시아 최초의 공화제 국가 중화민국이 탄생했다. 하지만 일본 제국에 의해 포섭되기도 하는 각지의 군벌에 의해 수많은 내전이 일어났고 몽골 티베트의 독립 운동 등으로 말미암아 중화민국은 혼란에 싸여 분열되었다. 또한 일본 제국의 침략에 의해 중국 동부 지역을 잃고 난징이 유린을 당하며 중국 자체가 지배당할 뻔한 위험한 시기를 보냈다. 이 때 일본의 중국 정복에 대항하기 위해 러시아와 가까워졌으나 러시아 또한 중국에 조계지를 설치하고 중국 영토로 남하하며 영향력을 행사하였다. 1930년대에는 국공 내전과 중일 전쟁이 발발하여 중국 각지가 전장이 되었다. 이 시기에는 중앙 정부가 2개 이상인 때에도 있었다.많은 중국인 가난한 농민 소작농 계급들로 구성된 중국 공산당은 소련의 영향 아래에서 힘을 키웠고 그 후 중일 전쟁 중에 일본의 세력 아래에 있던 군벌들을 견제하기 위하여 소련의 영향력 아래에서 세력을 늘려 온 중국 공산당은 계속되는 오랜 내전으로 군인들에 의해 반복되던 민간인에 대한 살인과 강간 방화에 지친 중국인들의 민심을 얻었다. 1945년에 일본이 미국에 패망하고 나서 중국 공산당은 중국 내에서 일어나던 국공 내전에서 승리를 거두고 1949년 10월 1일 중화인민공화국 정부를 세웠다. 중화인민공화국에서는 매년 10월 1일을 국경절로 정하고 이를 기념한다.삼황오제는 중국 신화에 나오는 고대의 전설적 제왕들이다. 삼황은 복희씨 신농씨 여와씨를 말하며 오제는 황제헌원 전욱고양 제곡고신 제요방훈 제순중화를 지칭한다.진나라 이전의 시기.중국에서는 이 시기를 라고도 한다. 하 의 경우 논란의 여지는 남아 있으나, 대체로 실존했던 국가로 받아들여지고 있다. 하를 무너뜨리고 세운 상 은 은허로 수도를 옮긴 이후에 은이라고도 부르며, 한때 신화로 알려졌었다. 하지만, 은허의 유적 발굴 이후 실존했던 국가로 인정되었다.주 는 본래 상나라의 제후국이었으나 상나라 말기 주왕의 폭압으로 상나라를 무너뜨리고 패권을 잡은 나라다. 이 때 주의 왕을 처음으로 ‘천자’라고 불렀다. 주의 패권은 춘추 전국 시대 가 되면서 약해지기 시작한다. 춘추 시대에는 여러 주나라의 제후국들이 주의 천자를 존중하고 각자의 세력을 다투던 시기로 세력이 강한 제후국들 중에 주 왕실의 이름으로 제-환공 진-문공 초-장왕 오-합려 월-구천의 5제후를 춘추 오패라고 부른다. 전국 시대로 들어서면서 천자에 대한 충성마저 약화되기 시작한 시기로 진 한 제 위 조 연 초라는 전국 칠웅이 차례로 왕을 칭하고 오로지 천하 통일을 위해 질주하였다.진(秦) (기원전 221년 - 기원전 207년)은 한(韓) 제(齊) 위(魏) 조(趙) 연(燕) 초(楚)를 무너뜨리고 중국 본토를 통일하였다. 진은 이어 모든 제후국을 폐지하고 조정에서 직접 다스리는 군현제를 처음 실시하였다. 이어 진왕 영정은 처음으로 ‘황제’(皇帝)의 칭호를 사용하였다. 진(秦)나라의 무리한 통치와 폭압으로 각지에서 반란이 일어났다. 진나라는 진 이세황제의 치세에 몰락하여 그 뒤 멸망하였고 초한전을 거쳐 한나라가 중원을 통일한다. 한나라는 200년 넘게 유지된 중앙집권적 국가로 서양에 최초로 이름이 알려진 나라이기도 하다. 전한(前漢) (기원전 206년 - 서기 9년)은 한나라(전한)의 외척이었던 왕망이 황위를 찬탈하여 세운 신(新) (9년 - 23년)에 의해 잠시 명맥이 끊기나 신나라는 급격한 개혁이 민중의 호응을 얻지 못하고 각지의 반란으로 망하였고 한나라(전한)를 계승한 국가인 후한(後漢) (25년 - 220년)이 다시 통일 국가를 이루었으나 무제 이후의 황권은 환관들과 외척들로 인하여 크게 약화되었다. 위에게 멸망당했다.대한민국에서는 삼국 시대 라고 하지만 중화민국과 중화인민공화국에서는 남북조 시대 까지 포괄하여 위진 남북조 시기라고 한다.위(魏)는 조비가 후한의 황제로부터 직접 제위를 물려받은 국가로 중원 지역을 차지하였다. 촉(蜀) 후한 황실의 후예인 유비가 계승하였으나 세력권은 서남 지방에 한정되었다. 한편 손권의 오(吳)는 독자적인 세력으로 장강 이남을 차지하였다. 위는 사마염의 서진(西晉) (265년 - 316년)에게 승계되며 서진이 삼국을 통일하게 되나 초기부터 황실 분란인 팔왕의 난 등으로 혼란스럽다가 흉노족의 전조에게 멸망당한다. 서진의 멸망 이후 서진이 있던 자리에 16개의 국가가 들어서 패권을 겨뤘으니 이를 십육국 시대(十六國時代) (316년 - 439년)라 한다. 비한족 국가인 전조(前趙)후조전연(前燕)후연 남연 관중(關中)에 있던 전진(前秦)후진서진 및 하투(河套)의 하(夏) 사천(四川)의 성한(成漢) 하서(河西)의 후량북량남량과 한족 국가인 북연 하서(河西)의 전량(前涼) 서량이 있었으며 전조 후조 전진 등이 한때 큰 세력권을 과시했으나 결국 북조의 북위로 통합된다. 북위(北魏)는 선비족 탁발씨의 국가로 3대 태무제의 시기에 화북을 통일하였다. 그러나 북위는 곧 동위(東魏)와 서위(西魏)로 분리되고 동위는 북제(北齊) 서위는 북주(北周)로 이어진다. 북제는 이후 북주에 흡수되고 북주는 왕실 외척인 양견에 의해 수(隋)로 국호를 바꾸게 된다.한편 서진 황실의 계승을 천명한 동진은 서진의 영토를 되찾으려 여러 차례 노력했으나 모두 실패한다. 세력권은 주로 장강 이남으로 한정되었다. 동진을 계승한 국가들이 이어진 왕조를 남조라고 하며 송=유송 제=남제 양 진이 있다. 수나라에게 멸망당한다.수나라 당나라 시대.수 는 북주의 외척인 양견에 의해 건국된 나라로, 남조의 진을 멸망시키고 통일하나, 무리한 원정과 과도한 세금 징수로 인해 건국한지 얼마 지나지 않아 멸망하였고, 당 으로 이어진다.한편 당나라의 황후이던 측천무후가 조정을 장악하고 아들인 당의 황제를 황태자로 격하시키고 국호를 잠시 주 로 바꾼다. 측천무후의 반대파에 대한 대대적인 숙청으로 공포 정치를 펼쳤으나, 인재 중심의 정치 역시 펼쳐서 백성들의 삶이 어느 정도 안정되었다. 측천무후 이후 다시 국호를 당으로 바꾸게 된다. 후량에게 멸망당한다.오대십국 시대 는 화북의 정권을 다투던 5개의 대국과 나머지 10개의 소국이 혼재했던 시기이다. 5대 10국의 혼란을 수습하고 송 이 다시 중원을 통일하였다. 세계 최초로 지폐를 발행하였으며, 중국 역사상 최초로 상비 해군을 창설하였다. 또한 문화 정치를 펼친 왕조이기도 하다. 이 시기에는 쌀과 보리의 이모작이 확대되었으며, 예술, 사상 및 각종 실용기술의 발달이 두드러져, 문화적으로 풍요롭던 시기였다. 그러나 내몽골 지역과 만주 지역을 차지한 거란족이 세운 국가인 요 에 의해 베이징 이북의 많은 지역을 정복당하고, 요나라와 서하에 사실상의 조공을 납부하며 별 위세를 떨치지 못하다가, 요나라의 지배하에 있던 여진족이 요나라를 정복하고 세운 금 에게 화북 지방을 빼앗기고 멸망한다. 이 때까지를 북송시대라고 하고, 이후 북송의 황실을 계승한 왕조를 남송이라고 한다. 남송은 몽골 제국을 계승한 원나라에 의해 멸망한다.원 은 몽골 제국의 적장자인 쿠빌라이 칸이 중국을 정복하고 세운 국가로 몽골 울루스라고 부른다. 한족이 건국한 남송까지 전부 멸망시키고 중국 본토를 유린하여 장악하게 된다. 당시 신분 차별로 핍박받던 한족의 주원장이 원나라를 몽골 고원으로 몰아내고 명 이라는 한족 왕조를 건국한다. 초기에는 외국과 교류하며 선진 문물을 과시했으나 후기로 갈수록 임진왜란 등 외부 원정의 부담과 문화 침체로 쇠퇴하다가 사르후에서의 패배와 숭정제의 실책으로 멸망한다. 명나라의 몰락을 틈타 금나라의 후예인 만주족이 후금을 세워 중국을 다시 통일하였다. 청 은 후금을 계승한 왕조로 한족을 정책적으로 신분적으로 차별하였다. 양무 운동을 통해 근대 국가 진입을 시도하였으나 실패하고 서구 열강 세력들의 이권침탈이 심화되면서 더욱 더 쇠퇴하고 1912년에 신해 혁명으로 멸망한다. 청나라 소조정이 1912년부터 1924년까지 유지되었지만 결국 붕괴되었다. 그 사이에 청나라 복벽사건이 일어나서 1917년 7월 1일부터 청 황조가 복벽되었으나 1917년 7월 12일에 끝을 맺었다.한편 남명 은 멸망당한 명나라의 왕실을 계승한 나라로 명의 부흥을 기도하였으나 청나라에 망하였다. 남명의 신하였던 정성공은 타이난으로 건너가 정씨왕국을 설립하여 청나라에 대항하지만 3대째에 복속당한다.중화민국 은 신해혁명의 성공으로 수립된/ 아시아 최초의 공화제 국가이다. 이후 각 지방의 실력자들이 군벌로 등장하였다. 특히 위안스카이는 자신이 거느리는 북양 군벌을 이끌고 쑨원으로부터 대총통 자리를 넘겨받았다. 위안스카이가 1916년 사망하자, 이후 그의 부하들이 할거했는데, 대표적으로 안휘파의 돤치루이, 직예파의 펑궈장, 차오쿤, 오패부, 봉천파의 장쭤린, 산시파의 옌시산 등이 중국 각지에서 할거하였다. 한편 중화민국 최초의 공화정 체제인 북양 정부는 1928년까지 존속했다. 그 후 북벌이 재개되고 모든 세력이 장제스가 이끄는 중국 국민당 수중으로 들어왔다. 이로써 난징을 수도로 하는 중국 국민당 주도의 국민 정부가 집권하게 되었다.한편 천두슈와 마오쩌둥을 주축으로 하는 중국 공산당이 농민들 사이에서 지지를 얻고 있었다. 중국 국민당은 중국 공산당과 제1차 국공 합작을 이루어냈으나 북벌 과정에서 분열이 일어나 국공 내전이 시작되었다. 국민 정부는 1931년 만주사변 이래 일본의 침략에 무저항주의를 택하고 오로지 '공산당 타도'에 중점을 두는 정책을 폈으나 시안 사건을 계기로 제2차 국공합작이 성립되어 항일 민족 통일전선이 결성되었다. 중일전쟁 중에 수도 난징이 점령당하고 충칭을 임시 수도로 정해 옮겼지만 끝내 일본 제국이 패망하자 난징으로 복귀하게 된다. 하지만 전후 처리 과정에서 내분이 생겨 제2차 국공 내전이 발발하였다. 한편 국공 내전 중에 정부는 새로운 중화민국 헌법을 통과시켜 국민 정부를 헌정 체제로 격상시킨다. 1949년 4월에 중국 인민해방군이 수도 난징을 점령하면서 중국 공산당이 사실상 유리한 고지에 서게 된다. 기세를 몰아 중국 공산당은 중국 대륙을 석권한 이후 공식적으로 중화인민공화국을 건국한다. 이 과정에서 중화민국 정부는 패닉 상태에 빠져 국민당에 내분이 일어나 공산당 밑으로 들어가거나 타이완 영국령 홍콩 또는 국외 등지로 피난하는 국민당 관계자도 속출했다. 한편 중국 국민당은 장제스의 지도하에 현재의 타이베이 시로 정부를 이전하여 지금까지 중화민국의 법통이 계승되고 있다. 냉전 시대에 한국 전쟁 덕분에 중화민국은 영토의 대부분을 잃었어도 국제적 위상이 거의 변함없었다. 그러나 점차 탈냉전 시대에 들어서게 되면서 실리 외교를 선호하는 세계 다수의 국가들은 중화인민공화국 쪽으로 기울었다. 현재 중화민국을 중국의 합법 정부로 승인하고 있는 나라 수는 대폭 감소했지만 서로 중국의 정통성을 계승하는 유일한 합법 정부임을 자처하며 하나의 중국 원칙을 내세우고 있기 때문에 ‘두 개의 중국’으로 정부가 병립된 분단 국가로서 동아시아의 정치외교적인 문제로 확대되고 있다.한편 일본 제국이 세운 괴뢰 정부로 왕징웨이 정권 몽강연합자치정부 만주국이 있으나 국민 정부에 통합된다.국공 내전으로 1949년 10월 중국 공산당의 주도로 중국 대륙에 사회주의 국가인 중화인민공화국 이 건국되었다. 소비에트 연방과의 유대 관계를 통해 여러가지 경제 개혁을 시도하였으나 실패하였고 국경 분쟁을 일으키는 등 소련과의 관계도 소원해진다. 1971년 유엔 총회 결의 제2758호를 통해 중화민국을 제치고 유엔에 입성하였으며 국제 사회로부터 널리 인정받게 된다. 1971년 '핑퐁외교'로 불리던 리처드 닉슨의 베이징 방문을 계기로 마침내 1979년 중화민국의 강력한 후원국이던 미국과도 수교하게 된다. 덩샤오핑 이후 비약적인 경제 성장을 통해 경제 대국 반열에 진입하였다. 1990년대에 영국으로부터 홍콩을 포르투갈로부터 마카오를 차례로 편입하였다. 2008년에는 베이징 하계 올림픽이 2010년에는 상하이 엑스포가 개최되으며 2022년에는 베이징 동계 올림픽이 개최될 예정이다.아래의 데이터는 양학통의 에 의한다. +브라-켓 표기법은 양자역학에서 양자 상태를 표현하는 표준 표기법으로 추상적인 벡터와 선형 범함수를 표현하는 데 사용된다.이 표기법은 꺾쇠괄호 '⟨', '⟩'와 ,수직선 '|' 을 사용하여 표기한다.오른꺾쇠괄호로 표기한 것을 켓이라고 하며, 주로 열벡터를 나타내고 다음과 같이 쓰인다.왼꺾쇠괄호로 표기한 것을 브라라고 하며, 주로 행벡터를 나타내고, 다음과 같이 쓰인다.여기에서 는 '켓-'로 읽고, 는 '브라-'로 읽는다.유한차원벡터공간에 포함된 브라와 켓에 대하여 일반적으로 다음이 성립한다.이때 은 의 켤레 복소수이다.브라와 켓, 그리고 연산자의 조합은 행렬 곱셈을 표현하는데 사용된다.브라-켓 표기법은 복소벡터공간에서 벡터의 스칼라곱 또는 벡터 위로의 선형 범함수의 작용을 나타내기 위해 사용된다.내적이나 작용은 브라-켓 표기법으로 다음과 같이 표현된다.같은 레이블인(같은 내용물을 가진)브라와 켓은 서로에게 에르미트 수반이다.쌍대공간의 각 브라 벡터에는 꼭 한 개의 켓벡터가 대응된다는 리스 표현 정리에 의해 〈〉 와 대응되며 잘 정의되어 있다.브라-켓 표기법은 1939년에 폴 디랙에 의해 소개되었기 때문에 디랙 표기법이라고도 한다.브라-켓 표기법이 생겨나기 100년 전쯤에 헤르만 그라스만이 내적을으로 표기한 전례가 있다.브라-켓 표기법은 선형 대수학의 표기법으로, 특히 유한/무한 차원의 복소 벡터 공간에서의 벡터, 내적, 선형 연산자, 에르미트 수반, 쌍대공간에 초점이 맞추어져있으며, 특히 양자역학에서 자주 사용되는 연산들을 쉽게 하기 위해 설계되었다.양자역학에서 브라-켓 표기법은 매우 광범위하게 사용되고 있다. 또한 양자역학으로 설명되는 많은 현상들이 브라-켓 표기법을 사용하여 표현된다.표기법에 대해 간단히 설명하자면, 켓 은 열벡터이며, 같은 레이블의 브라 의 켤레 전치이다. 그리고 브라, 켓, 선형 연산자를 나란히 쓰는 것은 행렬 곱셈을 의미한다. 그러나, 켓은 열벡터로 쓰여지기 어려운 불가산 무한차원 벡터 공간에서 나타날 수도 있다. 또한, 숫자들의 목록으로 열벡터를 쓰는기 위해서는 기저가 필요한데, 이에 반해 로 표현될 때도 있다.일부 물리학자들이 선호하는 내적에 대한 표준 수학적 표기법은 다음의 관계로 브라-켓 표기법과 정확히 같은 뜻을 나타낸다.브라와 켓은 또한 다른 방법으로 구성되어 등의 다른 뜻을 나타낼 수도 있다. 다음의 구성은 외적을 나타낸다.또한 행렬 곱셈을 나타낼 수도 있다.만약 켓이 벡터공간의 한 원소일 경우, 대응되는 브라는 쌍대공간의 원소이다. — 리스 표현 정리를 참고하라.벡터와 켓의 차이점.수학에서 라는 용어는 대부분 실세계의 세 차원과 직접적으로 연관되어있는 세 요소를 가지고 있는 물리량들을 일컫는 데에만 사용된다. 이러한 벡터는 일반적으로 화살표를 위에 표시하거나또는 굵게 표시하여 쓰여진다.양자역학에서 양자 상태는 일반적으로 추상복소벡터공간의 원소로 표현되는데, 예를 들어 모든 가능한 파동함수의 유한 차원 벡터 공간 등이 있다. 그러나 으로 불리게 되고 켓 표기법을 사용하여 표기하게 되었다.디랙이 발명한 켓 표기법은 수직선과 꺽쇠괄호를 사용한다. 켓 표기법이 사용된 것들은 "켓"이라고 불리며, 는 "켓-A"로 읽는다. 이러한 켓들은 선형대수학의 일반적인 법칙을 통해 만들어질 수 있다. 다음의 수식은 그 예시이다.참고로, 어떠한 기호, 문자, 숫자, 심지어 단어라도 레이블로 적절하다면 무엇이든지 켓 안에 레이블로 쓰일 수 있다. 예를 들어, 위 수식의 마지막 줄은 각 실수 마다 있는 무한히 많은 켓들을 조합해서 만들어진다. 다시 말해서 기호"는 " 자체의 의미와 관계 없이 구체적이고도 보편적인 수학적 의미를 가지고 있다. 예를 들어, 는 일 수도 있고, 아닐 수도 있다. 그러나 이해를 돕기 위해서 켓 안의 레이블은 논리적으로 일관성 있게 붙여진다. 예를 들어, 양자역학에서 에너지 고유켓은 일반적이고 관습적으로 양자수를 나열한 것으로 붙여진다.내적은 일반화된 스칼라곱으로, 두 벡터의 내적은 스칼라이다. 중성 표기법에서, 내적은 으로 쓰일 수 있다. 여기에서 와 는 모두 추상벡터공간의 원소, 즉, 둘 다 켓이다.와 의 내적은 브라–켓 표기법으로 다음과 같이 표기할 수 있다.브라–켓 표기법은 "브래킷(괄호) 두 부분으로 나눌 수 있다.여기에서 는 브라로 불리며, "브라-A"로 읽고, 는 위에서와 같이 켓이다.내적을 브라와 켓으로 로 의미가 있으며 내적 밖의 다른 맥락에서 사용될 수 있기 때문이다. 브라와 켓을 분리하는 의미는 크게 두가지가 있지만 표현 는 아래에 있는 두번째 해석 즉 선형 범함수의 작용으로 해석된다.브라와 켓을 행벡터와 열벡터로 해석.고정된 정규 직교 기저를 사용하는 유한차원 벡터공간에서, 내적은 다음과 같이 행벡터와 열벡터의 행렬 곱셈으로 쓰일 수 있다.이를 바탕으로 하면, 브라와 켓은 다음과 같이 정의될 수 있다.그리고 이러한 정의에서는 브라 옆에 켓을 놓는것이 행렬 곱셈의 의미를 갖는다는 것을 암시한다.브라의 켤레 전치는 켓과 일치하고, 그 반대의 경우도 마찬가지이다.왜냐하면 다음과 같은 브라가 있을 때 켤레 복소수를 취하고 행렬을 전치하면 다음과 같은 켓이 되기 때문이다.브라를 선형범함수로 해석.무한차원공간으로 일반화하기에 더 쉬운 동치의 추상적인 정의는 브라를 켓의 공간에서의 선형 범함수로 즉 켓을 입력으로 하고 복소수를 출력하는 선형 변환으로 정의하는 것이다. 브라로 표현되는 선형 범함수는 내적과 똑같이 정의된다. 따라서 만약 가 리스 표현 정리 아래에서 와 상응하는 선형 범함수라면 다음과 같이 함수로 표시할 수 있다.즉, 이것 또한 내적과 똑같은 복소수를 만들어낸다. 우변의 표현은 여전히 두개의 켓을 포함하지만 "내적이 아니다". 이러한 내용이 혼란스러울 수는 있지만, 결국 같은 숫자가 만들어지므로 내적으로 계산해도 큰 문제는 없다.수학 용어에서, 브라의 벡터 공간은 켓의 벡터공간의 쌍대 공간이며, 상응하는 브라와 켓은 리스 표현 정리에 따라 연관되어있다.규격화 불가능 상태와 비힐베르트 공간에서의 브라-켓 표기법.브라–켓 표기법은 힐베르트 공간이 아닌 벡터 공간에서도 사용될 수 있다.양자역학에서 무한의 노름을 가지고 있는 켓 즉 규격화 불가능 파동함수들은 관습적으로 쓰이고 있다. 예시로는 디랙 델타 함수나 무한 평면파가 파동 함수로 사용되는 상태 등이 있다. 기술적으로 이러한 상태는 힐베르트 공간에 속하지 않는다. 그러나 의 정의는 이러한 상태들을 포함하도록 확장될 수 있다. 브라–켓 표기법은 이러한 넓은 맥락에서도 비유적으로 사용될 수 있다.바나흐 공간은 힐베르트공간의 다른 정규화이다. 바나흐 공간 에서, 벡터는 켓으로, 선형 범함수는 브라로 표기될 수 있다. 사실, 위상 공간이 아닌 어떠한 벡터공간에서도 벡터를 켓으로 선형 범함수를 브라로 표기하는 것이 가능하다. 이러한 더 일반적인 맥락에서 꺾쇠괄호는 리스 표현 정리가 적용될 수 없기 때문에 더 이상 내적의 의미를 가질 수 없다.양자역학에서의 사용.양자역학의 수학적 구조들의 대부분은 선형대수학을 기반으로 한다.벡터와 선형 연산자를 포함한 양자역학의 모든 계산은 사실상 브라-켓 표기법으로 표기될 수 있다. 아래는 그에 대한 몇가지 예시이다.스핀이 없는 위치공간 파동함수.스핀-0 점입자의 힐베르트 공간은 위에 펼쳐져있으며, 이때 레이블 은 모든 점들의 위치 공간의 집합으로 확장된다. 이 레이블은 몇몇 기저 상태에서 작용하는 위치 연산자의 고유값, formula_19이다. 불가산 무한한 수의 벡터의 원소는 기저에 있는, 이것은 불가산 무한 차원 힐베르트 공간. 힐베르트 공간의 차원 그리고 위치 공간은 섞이지 않는다.이러한 힐베르트 공간에서 시작하는 어느 켓 에 대해 다음과 같이 파동함수로도 알려져 있는 스칼라 함수 을 정의할 수 있다.왼쪽의 은 공간상의 어느 점으로부터 복소수로의 대응이며 오른쪽의 는 켓이다.그 다음에는 관습적으로 파동함수에 작용하는 선형 연산자를 다음과 같은 방법으로 정의한다.예를 들어 운동량 연산자 는 다음과 같은 형태이다.간혹 다음과 같은 표현을 만나게 될 때도 있다.하지만 이것은 표기법의 남용이다. 미분 연산자는 반드시 위치기저에 사영되는, 켓에 작용하는, 파동함수를 미분하는 효과를 가진 추상적인 연산자로 이해되어야한다.그럼에도 불구하고, 운동량 기저에서, 연산자는 와 같이 단순한 곱셈 연산자에 해당한다.양자 역학에서 식 은 일반적으로 상태가 상태 으로 붕괴할 확률 진폭으로 해석된다. 수학적으로는 가 으로 사영될 때의 계수를 의미한다. 또한 그것은 상태 의 상태 로의 사영을 의미하기도 한다.스핀- 입자에 대한 기저 변환.정적인 스핀- 입자는 이차원 힐베르트 공간을 가진다. 그 공간의 정규 직교 기저 가운데 하나는 다음과 같다.여기에서 가 각운동량 연산자 의 값이 확실히 인 상태이고 는 각운동량 연산자 의 값이 확실히 인 상태이다.이러한 기저를 통해 입자의 "어떠한" 양자 상태도 두 기저의 선형결합으로 다음과 같이 표현할 수 있다.이때 "a" 와 "b" 는 복소수이다.다음처럼 같은 힐베르트 공간에 대한 "다른" 기저도 존재한다.이 상태들은 대신 의 관점에서 정의된 것이다.또한 입자의 상태도 위의 두 기저의 선형 결합으로 다음과 같이 표현할 수 있다.어떠한 기저를 사용하는지에 따라 다음과 같이 다른 벡터형식으로 다음과 같이 쓰일 수 있다.다시 말해서, 벡터의 "좌표"는 사용된 기저에 의존한다.이것은 와 의 수학적 관계이다. 자세한 내용은 기저 변환을 참고하라.표기법의 몇가지 관례와 오용이 물리학계에서 일반적으로 받아들여지고 있지만 이러한 표기법은 혼동을 일으킬 여지가 있다.같은 방정식에서 "레이블"과 상수로 같은 기호를 사용하는 것은 일반적이다. 예를 들어, formula_30에서 기호 formula_31는 동시에 "연산자의 이름" , "고유벡터" 그리고 연관된 "고유값" 로 사용되었다.벡터의 요소를 표기할 때 이와 비슷한 일이 발생한다. 동 는 전통적으로 파동함수와 연관되었고 는 같은 맥락에서 파동함수 또는 복소상수 레이블을 표시하는데 사용되며 아래첨자에 의해서만 구분된다.주된 남용은 벡터 레이블 안에 연산을 포함하는 것이다. 이러한 남용은 벡터의 크기변환을 빠르게 표기하기 위해 사용된다. 즉, 만약 벡터 가 배 크기변환될 때, 이것을 으로 표시하는 셈이다. 그러나 이러한 표기법은 말이 되지 않는다. 왜냐하면 가 함수나 숫자가 아닌 레이블(이름)이기 때문에 연산을 수행할 수 없기 때문이다.이러한 오용은 와 같이 벡터를 텐서곱으로 표현할 때 레이블의 일부가 표기법의 바깥으로 나가는 경우가 일반적이다. 여기에서, 서로 다른 뜻을 갖고있는 세 벡터의 레이블의 일부분이 아래첨자 1, 2와 같이 켓의 바깥으로 이동했다. 그리고 가 첫번째 벡터의 노름을 의미하는 것으로 오용되었다.켓에 작용하는 선형 연산자.켓을 입력으로 하고 켓을 출력으로 하는 선형 연산자를 맵이라고 한다. 다시 말해서, 만약 가 선형 연산자이고 가 켓일 때, 은 또다른 켓이다.-차원 힐베르트 공간에서, 는 열벡터로 쓰일 수 있으며, 는 복소수 항목을 포함한 행렬로 쓰일 수 있다. 켓 는 일반적인 행렬 곱셈으로 계산될 수 있다.선형 연산자는 양자역학 이론의 어떠한 부분에도 존재한다. 예를 들어, 에너지나 운동량 같은 관측가능량은 자기 수반 연산자로 표현되며, 변화 과정은 회전이나 시간의 진행과 같은 유니터리 선형 연산자로 표현된다.브라에 작용하는 선형 연산자.연산자는 브라의 에서 작용하는 것으로 표기된다. 특히 만약 가 선형 연산자이고 가 브라이면 는 규칙에 따라 다음과 같이 정의되는 또 다른 브라이다.-차원 힐베르트 공간에서 는 행벡터로 쓰일 수 있고(이전 단락에서와 같은) 는 행렬으로 쓰일 수 있다. 그러고 나면 브라 는 일반적인 행렬 곱셈으로 계산될 수 있다.만약 같은 상태 벡터가 다음과 같이 브라와 켓쪽에 둘다 나타나면이 표현은 상태 에 있는 물리학 계에 대해 관측 가능한 표현 연산자 의 기대값 또는 평균을 나타낸다.힐베르트 공간 에서 선형 연산자를 정의하는 편리한 방법은 외적으로 정의하는 것이다. 만약 가 브라이고 이 켓이면 외적은 다음과 같은 규칙에 따라 계급-1 연산자를 나타낸다.유한차원 벡터 공간에 대해 외적은 간단한 행렬 곱셈으로 이해할 수 있다.이때 외적은 선형 연산자로 볼 수 있는 행렬이다.외적의 사용 용도 가운데 하나는 사영작용소를 구성하는 것이다. 노름이 1인 주어진 켓 에 대해 에 펼쳐진 하위공간으로의 직교사영은 다음과 같다.에르미트 수반 연산자.브라와 켓이 서로 변환될 수 있는 것 처럼, 에 상응하는 쌍대공간의 원소는 이다. 이때 는 연산자 의 에르미트 수반이다. 다시말해,만약 가 행렬로 표현된다면 는 의 켤레전치이다.인 자기수반연산자는 양자역학에서 중요한 역할을 한다. 예를 들어, 관측가능량은 항상 자기수반연산자로 표현된다. 만약 가 자기수반연산자이면, 는 항상 실수이다. 이것은 관측가능량의 기댓값이 실수임을 의미한다.브라-켓 표기법은 선형대수 표현의 조작을 쉽게하기 위해 고안되었다. 여기에는 조작을 쉽게 하는 몇몇 특성들을 목록으로 정리해두었다. 무엇을 다음과 같이, 과 는 임의의 복소수이고, 는 의 켤레 복소수를 의미하며, 와 는 임의의 선형 연산자를 나타내고, 이러한 특성은 브라와 켓 어느것을 골라도 적용된다.브라-켓 표기법으로 쓰여진 복소수 브라 켓 내적 외적 선형 범함수와 연관된 모든 주어진 식에서 괄호로 묶는것은 어떠한 문제도 되지 않는다. 예를 들어등과 같다. 식의 오른쪽과 표현은 중의적이지만 표현되는것이 허용된다. 왼쪽의 표현과 같기 때문이다. 참고로 결합성은 물리의 비선형 시간 역전 연산자와 같은 비선형 연산자 표현까지 적용되지는 않는다.브라–켓 표기법은 특히 에르미트 수반의 표현입니다. 공식적인 규칙은 다음과 같다이러한 규칙은 어떠한 표현에 대해서라도 에르미트 수반을 구하기에 충분하다. 아래는 몇가지 예시이다.두 힐베르트 공간 와 는 텐서곱을 통해 또다른 공간 을 형성할 수 있는데 이것은 양자역학에서 복합계를 설명하는데 사용된다. 만약 계가 각각 와 로 설명되는 두개의 부분계의 합성인 경우 전체 계의 힐베르트 공간은 두 공간의 텐서곱이다. 만약 가 에 속한 켓이고 는 에 속한 켓일 때 두 켓의 직접 곱은 에 속한 켓이다. 이것은 다음과 같이 다양한 표기법으로 쓰여진다.이러한 곱의 적용은 양자 얽힘 과 EPR 역설을 참고하라.인 노름이 내적인 힐베르트 공간를 고려하자.기초적인 함수해석에서, 어떠한 켓 는 다음과 같이 쓰일 수 있다는 것은 알려진 사실이다.이때 은 힐베르트 공간 위에서의 내적이다.이것은 켓의 스칼라의 교환법칙에 따라 다음의.는 반드시 각 벡터를 자기 자신으로 보내는 '항등 연산자'여야 한다.수학자들에 의해 사용된 표기법.브라-켓 표기법을 사용할 때 물리학자가 고려하는 대상은 힐베르트 공간 이다.를 힐베르트 공간이라고 하고 를 안의 벡터라고 하자. 물리학자들이 로 나타내고 싶은 것은 벡터 그 자체이다. 즉를 의 쌍대 공간이라고 하자. 이것은 위에서의 선형 범함수의 공간이다. 위상 동형 는 정의된 모든 에 대해 으로 정의된다.이때, , , , 그리고, 는 단지 힐베츠트 공간의 두 원소 사이의 내적을 표현하는 다른 표기법일 뿐이다.표기의 혼동은 와 를 각각 식별하는데에서 발생한다. 이것은 문자 그대로 상징적 대체이기 때문이다. 라고 하고 라고 하자. 이러한 가정은 다음과 같은 식을 제공한다괄호를 무시하고 두개의 세로선을 제거한 식을 얻게 된다. +대한민국은 동아시아의 한반도 남단에 자리한 민주공화국이다. 서쪽으로 중화인민공화국과 황해를 사이에 두고 동쪽으로 일본과 동해를 사이에 두고 북쪽으로 조선민주주의인민공화국과 한반도 군사 분계선을 사이에 두고 맞닿아 있다.대한민국의 국기는 대한민국 국기법에 따라 태극기, 국가는 관습상 애국가, 국화는 관습상 무궁화이다. 공용어는 한국어와 한국 수어이다. 수도는 서울이다. 인구는 약 5,100만 100명으로, 전체 인구 중 절반 정도가 수도권에 살고 있다.대한민국은 헌법에 따라 1919년 3.1 운동에 영향을 받은 대한민국 임시정부의 법통을 계승한다. 1945년 8월 15일 일본 제국으로부터 해방되었으며, 1948년 5월 10일 총선거를 통해 제헌국회를 구성하였고, 8월 15일에 대한민국 정부를 수립하였다.대한민국은 한국 전쟁 이래 일명 ‘한강의 기적’으로 상징되는 빠른 속도의 대규모 경제 성장을 이루었다. 그 과정에서 1990년대 말 외환 위기 등의 부침이 있기도 했다. 대한민국의 2019년 1인당 국민 총소득은 명목 3만 1,430달러로 세계은행의 분류상 고소득 국가이고, 2016년 유엔의 인간 개발 지수 조사에서 세계 18위로 ‘매우 높음’을 기록하였으며, 국제 통화 기금의 분류에서 선진 경제국이다. 다만 높은 자살률, 장시간 근로 문화와 높은 산업 재해 사망률, 저출산 등의 사회 문제가 이 같은 성과와 병존하고 있다.대한민국은 이코노미스트에서 발표하는 민주주의 지수 조사에서 2019년 기준 23위의 8.0점을 기록한 바와 같이 아시아에서 민주주의 수준이 가장 높은 국가 가운데 하나이다. 또한 대한민국은 주요 20개국, 경제 협력 개발 기구, 개발 원조 위원회, 파리 클럽 등의 회원국이다.대한민국이란 국호 중 대한의 어원은 좁게 보면 고대 한반도 남부 일대에 존재했던 나라의 이름인 한에서 유래한다. 마한, 진한, 변한을 합쳐 삼한이라고 불렀다. 넓게 볼 때는 고구려, 백제, 신라를 합쳐 삼한이라 부르기도 하였다. 한이라는 말은 종교적 의미와 정치적 의미가 복합적으로 이루어져 고대부터 내려오던 낱말로서, , '칸 등 여러 해석이 있다.근대 국가의 국호로서 으로 결정했다고 전한다.광복 후 1948년 제헌 국회에서 이 국호를 계승하여 헌법에 명시하였고 다시 1950년 1월 16일 국무원 고시 제7호 "국호 및 일부 지방명과 지도색 사용에 관한 건"에 의해 확정하였다. 이에 20세기 전반까지도 널리 사용되던 지명으로서의 "조선"이라는 이름은 "대한"이나 "한국", "한"으로 대체하여 현재 대한민국 내에서는 거의 쓰이지 않는다. 이에 따라 대한민국의 국민은 자국의 국호를 "대한민국", "한국" 등으로 부르며, 자국을 호칭할 때는 흔히 "우리나라"라고 한다. "대한"이라는 칭호를 사용하기도 하며, 한반도 북부에 자리한 조선민주주의인민공화국과 대비해 한반도 남부에 있다 하여 "남한"으로도 불리는데 특히 대한민국 한반도 북부를 점거하고 있는 조선민주주의인민공화국은 한국을 남조선이라고 부른다.대한민국 내에서는 대한민국을 간단히 한국(韓國) 또는 남한(南韓) 등으로도 부른다. 조선민주주의인민공화국은 대한민국을 반국가단체로 보기 때문에 대한민국이라는 정식 명칭 대신에 남조선(南朝鮮)으로 부른다. 대한민국은 과거엔 구한국(舊韓國) 대한제국과 구별하여 신한국(新韓國)이라고 부르기도 하였다. 국제사회에서는 관습상 대한민국을 간단히 '코리아'(Korea)라 부르며 이 이름은 동아시아의 고대 국가인 고려에서 유래하였다.코리아란 영문 국호의 어원은 동아시아의 중세 국가인 고려에서 유래하였다.고구려가 5세기 장수왕 때 국호를 고려로 변경한 것을 918년 건국된 중세 왕조 고려가 계승하여 로 불린다.대한제국 시절 공식 문서에는 'Corea' 또는 'Korea'가 혼용되어 사용되었고 1900년대 초기부터 영어권에서는 'Korea'의 사용 빈도가 높았다. 1892년 외국인이 자주 보는 잡지 〈"The Korean Repository"〉 5월 호에는 “미국 국무부와 영국의 왕립지리학회는 우리가 차용한 이 땅의 이름을 아주 조리 있게 Korea로 표기하기 시작했던 것”이라는 내용이 나온다. 다만 일제강점기에 들어서는 일본의 한 지방이 된 것으로부터 Chosen이라는 일본식 명칭을 사용하기도 했다.일본 중화인민공화국 중화민국 베트남 등 주로 동아시아에 있는 한자 문화권 국가들에서도 일상에서 대한민국을 간단히 한국이라 부른다. 다만 여전히 한반도 전체를 부를 때는 조선이라는 명칭을 사용한다.대한민국은 동해를 사이에 두고 일본 열도와 황해를 사이에 두고 중화인민공화국과 마주하며 육지로는 군사 분계선을 사이에 두고 조선민주주의인민공화국과 맞닿아 있다.한반도는 제3기 마이오세 이후에 일어난 단층과 요곡운동의 결과 동쪽으로는 높은 산지가 급경사로 동해안에 임박하고 서쪽으로는 서서히 고도가 낮아진다. 이를 동고서저의 경동지형이라 한다. 높은 산들은 대부분 동부 지방에 치우쳐서 한반도의 등줄기라 불리는 태백산맥에 자리한다. 태백산맥의 대표적인 산이 설악산이다. 태백산맥의 남서쪽으로 소백산맥이 이어지며 그중에는 지리산이 유명하다. 제주도에는 대한민국에서 가장 높은 산이자 사화산인 한라산이 있다.하천의 유량은 극히 불규칙하여 여름에는 집중 호우로 연 강수량의 약 60% 이상이 홍수로 유출되며, 갈수기에는 강바닥을 거의 드러내는 하천이 많다. 대표적인 강은 위쪽부터 반시계 방향으로 한강, 금강, 영산강, 섬진강, 낙동강 등이다. 대다수의 강이 산지가 많은 동쪽에서 평평하고 낮은 구릉이 대부분인 서쪽으로 흐르며 중하류에 비교적 넓은 충적평야가 전개된다.산맥은 교통에 적지 않은 제약을 주어, 산맥을 경계로 지역의 문화나 풍습이 크게 차이가 나기도 한다. 산맥으로 가로막힌 지방은 고개를 넘어 왕래했는데 영서 지방과 영동 지방을 연결하는 태백산맥의 대관령·한계령·진부령·미시령, 중서부와 영남 지방을 연결하는 소백산맥의 죽령·이화령·추풍령·육십령 등이 산맥을 넘는 주요한 교통로로 사용된다.한반도의 서쪽은 황해 동쪽은 동해 남쪽은 남해와 맞닿아 있어 삼면이 바다로 둘러싸인 반도형이며 가장 큰 부속 도서인 제주도 남쪽으로는 동중국해와 접한다. 황해와 남해 연안은 해안선이 복잡한 리아스식 해안으로 조수 간만의 차가 클 뿐만 아니라 해안 지형도 꽤 평탄하여 넓은 간석지가 전개된다. 또한 수많은 섬이 있어서 다도해라고도 불린다. 반면에 동해 연안은 대부분 해안선이 단조롭고 수심이 깊으며 간만의 차가 적다. 해안 근처에는 사구석호 등이 형성되어 있고 먼 해상에 화산섬인 울릉도가 있으며 그보다 동쪽으로 약 87.4km 거리에 대한민국 최동단인 독도가 위치한다. 서쪽에는 평지가 발달됐다.북위 33도~38도, 동경 126~132도에 걸쳐 있어 냉대 동계 소우 기후와 온대 하우 기후, 온난 습윤 기후가 나타난다. 겨울에 북부 지역은 편서풍으로 인해 시베리아와 몽골 고원의 영향을 받아 대륙성 기후를 띠어서 건조하고 무척 추우나 남부 지역은 이런 영향을 적게 받아 상대적으로 온난한 편이다. 여름에는 태평양의 영향을 받아 해양성 기후의 특색을 보여서 고온다습하다. 계절은 사계절이 뚜렷이 나타나며 대체로 북부 지역은 여름과 겨울이 길고 남부 지역은 봄과 가을이 길다.3월 초에서 5월 초에 걸쳐 포근한 봄 날씨 5월경에서 8월 초에는 무더운 여름이 8월 말에서 10월 말까지는 화창하고 건조한 가을 날씨가 이어지고 11월에 기온과 습도가 점차 낮아지기 시작하여 12월에서 2월까지는 춥고 건조한 겨울 날씨를 보인다. 중부 산간 지방을 제외하고 대체로 연 평균 기온은 10 ~ 16℃이며 가장 무더운 달인 8월은 23 ~ 36℃ 5월은 16 ~ 19℃ 10월은 11 ~ 19℃ 가장 추운 달인 1월은 -6 ~ 3℃이다.비는 주로 여름에 많이 내리는데 연 강수량의 50 ~ 60%가 이때 집중된다. 이를 장마라고 하며 특히 6월 말에서 7월 중순까지를 장마철이라 한다. 각 지역의 연 평균 강수량은 중부 지방이 1100 ~ 1400mm 남부 지방이 1000 ~ 1800mm 경북 지역이 1000 ~ 1200mm이다. 경상남도 해안 지역은 약 1800mm이며 제주도는 1450 ~ 1850mm이다.습도는 7월과 8월이 높아서 전국에 걸쳐 80% 정도이고 9월과 10월은 70% 내외이다. 태풍은 북태평양 서부에서 연평균 28개 정도가 발생하여 이 중 두세 개가 영향을 미친다.본래 4계절이 뚜렷한 기후 환경이었으나 지구 온난화 등의 영향으로 봄 가을의 기간이 급격히 줄어들며 게릴라성 폭우로 특징되는 열대성 호우가 잦아 아열대화가 진행되면서 어업이나 농업에 변화가 있다.한반도 전역에 동식물 10만 여 종이 분포한다. 호랑이 중에서 가장 큰 종인 시베리아호랑이가 과거 살았었으나 현재는 보이지 않는다. 그 밖의 맹수로는 반달곰과 표범이 있으며 소수 개체군이 생존한다. 그 밖에도 멧돼지, 고라니, 너구리 등의 포유류와 까치, 꿩, 참새, 비둘기를 비롯한 텃새, 두루미, 기러기 같은 철새가 서식하며 지네나 거미, 수많은 곤충류도 서식한다. 삼면이 바다여서 난류와 한류에 서식하는 다양한 어패류와 고래도 존재한다. 또 최근에는 지구 온난화로 한류성 어류가 감소하고 불가사리나 해파리가 급증해서 큰 문제가 되고 있다.산삼이나 진달래, 소나무 등 많은 식물은 약용이나 기타 여러 용도로 쓰인다. 제주도에는 열대림과 비슷한 야자수가 번육하며 지리산이나 태백산맥에는 북방계형의 특산 식물들이 자생한다. 백두산에는 시베리아나 만주에서만 볼 수 있는 침엽수림과 같은 북방계 식물류가 자란다. 중부 지방에는 높은 산지로 말미암아 고산형 식물과 약용 식물 여러 종이 자생한다.시멘트 공업과 석회공업의 원료인 석회암은 한국의 주요 자원으로 각지에 대량 분포한다. 다른 자원은 양이 적거나 품질이 낮아 채산성이 맞지 않으므로 거의 생산하지 않는다. 다만 21세기에 와서 국제 원자재 가격의 상승과 기술의 발전으로 재개장하는 광산이 있다. 석탄은 무연탄만이 있으며 삼척 태백 일대에 주로 분포한다. 철광석은 양양 충주 등지에서 주로 캤다. 텅스텐은 매장량이 매우 많으며 특히 영월에 대규모의 광산이 있다.울산 앞바다에 천연가스층을 발견하고 개발중이며, 독도 부근 해저에서 메테인 하이드레이트 대규모 매장량을 발견했다. 석유는 제주도 남방 해역 대륙붕 제7광구에 천연가스와 함께 매장 가능성을 언급하나 실제로 탐사하지 않았다. 이곳은 1974년에 체결한 한일 대륙붕 협정에 따라 2028년까지 한일이 공동 관리한다.한반도에 두 발로 걷고 도구를 이용하는 사람들이 살기 시작한 시기는 기원전 약 70만 년 이전으로 추정되며, 현생인류는 후기 구석기 시대인 약 2만 5천 년 전부터 해안과 강가를 중심으로 거주하기 시작한 것으로 보인다. 인골 화석으로는 충청북도 단양군 상시굴과 두루봉동굴, 제천시 점말굴 등에서 현생인류로 추정되는 사람 뼈 화석이 발견된 바 있다. 이후 중석기 시대와 신석기 시대를 거치면서 여러 빗살무늬 토기인, 무문토기인 등 여러 인종의 유입과 주변 세력들과의 상호작용을 통해 문명이 발전했다. 다만 초기 구성원들의 이동과 외부 세력 유입의 구체적 모습은 확실하지 않다.한반도 일대의 최초의 국가는 고조선이다. 일연의 에서 그 시기를 기원전 2333년이라 하였다. 날짜는 대종교에서 임의로 음력 10월 3일로 약속하고 개천절이라 불렀는데 대한민국 정부에서 그 날을 양력으로 고쳐 국경일로 지정하였다. 고조선 멸망을 전후하여 부여 옥저 동예 진국 삼한 등 여러 나라가 생겨났고 이후 고구려 백제 신라의 삼국 시대로 이어졌으며 이 중 신라가 삼국을 부분적으로 통일하는 한편 북쪽의 발해와 함께 남북국 시대를 형성했다. 10세기 고려가 등장하면서 한민족 단일 국가의 시대를 시작했고 14세기 조선이 이를 계승했다.근대 한국의 뿌리는 1897년에 수립된 대한제국이다. 고종 황제는 나라 이름을 조선(朝鮮)에서 대한(大韓)으로 고치고 연호를 광무(光武)라 정하고 스스로 황제의 자리에 올랐다. 최초의 근대적 헌법인 대한국 국제를 반포하였고 미국 영국 독일 프랑스 이탈리아 러시아 일본 청나라 등과 수교하였다. 광무개혁을 단행하여 신식군대를 설치하고 근대적 사법토지 제도를 도입하고 상공업을 진흥하고 근대적 병원과 학교 및 은행 등을 설립하였다. 해외에 유학생을 파견하여 근대 산업기술을 습득하게 하고 제조철도운수 등 여러 분야에서 근대적 기업과 공장을 설립하였다. 그러나 대한제국의 자주적 근대화 노력은 1895년 청일 전쟁으로 일본의 영향력이 커진 이래 간섭을 받아왔으며 1904년에는 러일전쟁에서 일본이 승리한 뒤로 일본의 한국 병합이 본격화되었다. 1905년 을사조약을 무력으로 체결하여 외교권을 박탈하고 1907년 고종 황제를 폐위하고 1910년 한일 병합 조약을 통해 국권을 빼앗기며 일제 강점기로 전환 근대적 자주국가라는 목표는 사라지고 말았다.1919년 3월 1일 한국인들은 민족대표 33인의 독립선언서 낭독을 시작으로 독립을 위한 31운동을 펼쳤다. 이 운동은 대체로 각 지역에서 정기적으로 열리던 장의 개장일에 맞추어 전국으로 퍼져 나갔다. 일본은 시위를 무력으로 진압하였으나 폭압 통치 방식의 한계를 느껴 헌병 경찰 통치에서 문화 통치로 전환하였다. 이는 국내외 독립운동의 새로운 전환점을 마련하게 된다.4월 11일, 3·1운동의 정신을 이어받아 중화민국 상하이에서 대한민국 임시정부가 수립되었다. 임시정부는 대한민국 임시 헌법을 제정하여 대통령제와 3권 분립을 채택하고 한국의 독립을 위하여 외교·군사적으로 노력했다. 그러나 독립운동 노선의 갈등으로 여러 인사들이 빠져나가면서 국무령 중심의 집단지도체제로 전환하고, 일제의 방해까지 겹쳐 온갖 고난과 어려움을 겪었다. 1930년대 일본의 중국 침탈이 가속화되자 내륙으로 청사를 이전하여 중일전쟁이 한창이던 1940년에는 충칭에 정착하였다.이후 김구를 주축으로 주석중심제로 재정비하고 조소앙의 삼균주의를 건국강령으로 채택하였다. 한국 광복군도 조직하여 1941년 12월 태평양 전쟁을 일으킨 일본에 선전포고하고 1942년 2월에는 대독 선전포고까지 하여 연합군의 일원으로 참전하고자 하였다. 1942년에는 좌파 계열인 조선민족혁명당의 김규식, 김원봉 세력과 김성숙, 유림 등의 무정부주의자들이 임시정부에 합류하여 민족통일전선 형성의 기틀이 마련되었다. 1943년 버마 전선의 영국군과 연합작전을 전개하고자 공작대를 파견하여 일본군 포로 취조 및 암호 번역, 선전 전단 작성, 대적 회유 방송 등을 하였다. 미국 OSS와도 연계하여 1945년 9월을 기한으로 국내 진공 작전을 준비했으나, 8월 15일 일본이 항복하여 성사되지 못했다. 현행 대한민국 헌법 전문에는 대한국민이 3·1운동에 따라 건립된 대한민국 임시 정부의 법통을 계승한다는 문구가 삽입되었다.군정기와 해방 정국.1945년 8월 15일, 일본제국이 미국에 무조건 항복함으로써 대한민국은 일제 치하로부터 벗어나 광복을 맞이하였다. 그날이 바로 광복절이다. 그러나 광복 이후 한반도는 얄타회담에서 이루어진 비공식적 합의에 따라 소련과 미국의 신탁 통치하에 들어갔다. 1945년 9월에는 한반도의 북위 38도선을 경계로 남쪽은 미군이, 북쪽은 구 소련군이 포고령을 선포하여 각각 군정을 실시하면서 한반도는 남과 북으로 분단되었다.광복 이후 여운형, 안재홍 등은 1944년 설립한 지하조직인 건국동맹을 모태로 조선건국준비위원회를 개최하였고, 9월 여운형, 박헌영 등에 의해 조선인민공화국 내각이 수립되었다. 그러나 1945년 11월 중화민국 쓰촨성 충칭에서 개인 자격으로 귀국한 대한민국임시정부 요인들과 문제로 갈등이 벌어졌고, 미군정은 맥아더 포고령에 따라 인공 내각과 임시정부를 승인하지 않음으로써 인공 내각은 해산되었다.1945년 12월에 모스크바 3상 회의에서 신탁통치안 문제를 놓고 한반도 내에는 좌 우익 세력간 대립이 격화되었다. 곧이어 1946년 5월에는 미소공위가 개최되었으나 양측의 주장이 엇갈려 결렬되었다. 이때 김규식 여운형 안재홍 등은 통일 임시정부 수립을 위해 좌우합작운동을 개시하여 미소공위를 재개하고자 하였지만 한민당과 남로당 등 좌우익세력간에 불참으로 중도파 세력만의 운동으로 축소되었다. 1945년 12월 송진우 암살 1947년 7월에 여운형 암살 등 해방정국의 잇단 사건으로 좌우합작운동은 실패로 끝났다.대한민국 정부 수립.미군정청이 1946년 7월 서울지역 1만여 명에게 실시한 '어떤 정부 형태를 원하는가'에 대한 여론조사에서 70%가 "사회주의를 지지한다"라고 밝힌 상황에서 화순탄광 노동자들의 생존권 보장을 요구하며 벌인 봉기에 대한 유혈 진압과 사회주의적인 인민 공화국을 인정하지 않고 자신의 뜻을 관철하고자 했던 미 군정은 온건파인 김규식, 안재홍, 여운형을 통해 좌우 합작과 협상을 주도하게 했다. 그러나 헤게모니 장악에서 제외된 것에 불만을 품은 이승만, 김구, 윤치영, 박헌영, 허헌 등의 반발에 봉착하게 되었다. 이후 제2차 미소공위 마저 결렬되어버리자 미국은 한반도 문제를 UN 총회로 이관했고, 총회에서 남한 내 단독정부 수립이 결정되었다. 이에 김규식, 조소앙, 김구 등은 통일 정부를 수립하기 위해 남북협상 등을 추진하여 노력하였으나 수포로 돌아가고, 남한에서도 선거 가능한 지역에 한한 정부 수립론이 제기되면서 (정읍 발언) 사실상 남북 단일 정부 수립은 불가능한 모양새가 되었다.1948년 1월부터 한반도의 정국은 단독 정부 수립론과 남북 협상을 통한 정부 수립론을 놓고 의견이 갈라서게 되었다. 그러나 1948년 2월 38선 이북에서는 북조선인민위원회를 구성하고, 조선인민군을 창건하면서 분단은 사실상 불가피하게 되었다. 5월 10일 38도선 이남에서만 제헌 의원 총선거가 실시되어 제헌 국회가 탄생하였고, 같은 해 7월 17일에는 초대 헌법인 대한민국 제헌 헌법이 구성되었다. 7월 22일에는 국회의 간접 선거로 이승만이 초대 대통령, 이시영이 초대 부통령으로 선출되었고, 8월 15일에는 대한민국 정부 수립이 선포되었다.12월 12일 "유엔 총회 결의 195 한국의 독립 문제"에서 대한민국이 "한반도에서 유일하게 그러한 정부"임을 선언하였다. 여기서 '그러한'은 대한민국이 임시위원단의 감시 하에서 주민들 대다수의 자유 의사에 따라 수립되었고, 선거가 가능했던 그 지역에 대한 유효한 지배권과 관할권을 가진 합법정부임을 뜻한다. 이미 48년 9월 9일에 한반도 이북에서는 조선민주주의인민공화국이 선포되었음에 미루어 그 해 12월의 결의는 대한민국만을 한반도에서 유일한 합법정부로 인정한 것이다. 이명박 정부에서 만든 새 교육과정에서 교과서 집필진이 학회에 자문한 결과 "1948년 12월 유엔 결의에서 대한민국은 ‘유엔한국임시위원단의 감시가 가능한 지역에서 수립된 유일한 합법 정부’로 인정됐으며, 남북한이 1991년 유엔에 동시 가입했기 때문에 ‘한반도 유일의 합법 정부’라 명시하는 것은 시비의 소지가 있다"고 하면서 '유일한 합법정부는 1948년 정부에 한정'되어 시비의 대상이 될 수 있는 '유일한 합법 정부'를 제외했으나 정부 측의 요구로 포함시켰는데 2019년 5월 2일 공개된 중·고교 역사교과서의 집필기준 시안에서 대한민국이 ‘한반도의 유일한 합법정부’라는 표현이 빠졌다.조선민주주의인민공화국의 김일성은 남침을 기도하여 공산주의화 하려는 야망을 실현하고자 준비하였다. 소련의 지도자인 이오시프 스탈린의 승인을 받자, 1950년 6월 25일 새벽 4시에 소련에서 지원받은 수십대의 소련제 탱크를 앞세워 대한민국을 침공했다. 당시 대한민국에는 탱크의 공세를 막을 수 있는 방어책이 전혀 없었고 야포와 전투기 등 모든 것이 압도적으로 열세였기 때문에 총만 가진 거의 맨 몸의 한국군은 순식간에 밀려날 수 밖에 없었다. 그렇게 대한민국은 조선인민군이 침략한 3일만에 수도인 서울을 인민군에게 빼앗기게 된다. 치밀하게 계획하고 무장한 인민군을 상대하는 것이 계란으로 바위치기였던 한국군은 결국 밀려나 낙동강 방어선을 최후의 배수진으로 정하고 버티었다. 이 과정에서 수많은 어린 학생들이 무고하게 죽어나갔으며 많은 사상자와 인명피해가 초래되었다.하지만 유엔군이 파병으로 지원하고 유엔군 총사령관 더글러스 맥아더가 9.15일 인천 상륙 작전을 벌여 조선인민군에 반격을 시작하자 얼마 지나지 않아 대한민국은 9월 27일에 서울을 탈환해냈다. 10월 1일에는 38도선까지 수복해서 원점으로 돌아갔다. 이 때 유엔 내부에서 맺어진 새로운 결의로 유엔군의 목적이 조선민주주의인민공화국을 완전히 공략하려는 목적으로 변경되었다. 이후 한국과 유엔군은 거듭해서 10월 26일에는 압록강까지 올라갔으나 곧 이어 중화인민공화국이 인해전술을 펼치며 참전하고 소련이 군사를 지원하여 전세가 다시 역전되었고 전쟁은 장기화되었다. 이후 38도선 인근 중부 지방에서 교착을 거듭하던 1953년 7월 27일에 휴전협정이 오전 10시에 체결된 후에 효력이 발생한 22시에 완전히 전투가 종료되고 군사 분계선이 형성되면서 오늘날까지 휴전 상태가 이어지고 있다.6.25 전쟁으로 20만 명이 과부가 되었고 10만여 명 이상이 고아가 되었으며 1천만여 명 이상이 이산 가족 신세가 되었다. 한반도 내 45%에 이르는 공업 시설이 파괴된 탓에 경제적, 사회적 암흑기가 도래하여 한국과 북한의 경제 수준이 떨어졌다. 무엇보다도 이 전쟁으로 인해 남북 간에 서로에 대한 적대적 감정이 극도로 팽배하게 되어 한국의 분단이 더욱 고착화되면서, 분단한 지 70여년에 이르고 있다.한국 전쟁이 휴전 협정을 맺은 후 1950년대는 미국으로부터 지원을 받아 전후복구사업을 실시하는 가운데 경제원조체제가 성립되던 시기였다. 제1공화국 정권의 고위 관료는 부패해 국민의 불만을 샀다. 의원 내각제였던 제1대 내각에서 재선이 불가능하다 판단한 이승만은 이범석과 장택상을 비롯한 측근들과 족청계, 백골단, 땃벌떼 등을 동원하여 부산정치파동, 사사오입 개헌을 일으키고 장기집권을 추진했다. 그러나 이범석, 장택상 등의 성장을 두려워한 이승만은 이들을 제거하고 이기붕 계열을 등용한다. 이기붕 계열은 또한 친 자유당 성향의 이정재, 임화수, 유지광 등의 정치깡패들을 활용하여 야당 의원의 집회를 탄압, 제1공화국 후반기는 혼란을 거듭했다.그 와중에 부통령 장면의 피격 사건과 조봉암 사법살인 등의 조치까지 겸해졌고 언론의 자유마저 통제당했다. 1959년의 한일회담이 끝나자 곳곳에서 정부의 독재에 저항하는 집회가 시작, 1960년 3월 15일 부통령 선거의 부정을 계기로 국민들의 불만은 극에 달해 4·19 혁명이 발생했고, 마산 앞바다에서 며칠 전 실종되었던 김주열의 주검이 떠오르면서 시위는 격화되었다. 4월 26일 이승만 대통령이 하야를 선언하여 제1공화국은 붕괴했다.419 혁명 이후 허정 과도 내각을 거쳐 장면을 수상으로 하는 제2공화국이 수립됐다. 제2공화국은 3차 개헌을 통해 내각책임제와 양원제를 구성했고 언론 자유와 혁신계 정치활동을 허용했다. 제2공화국 당시 각계 각층의 통일 운동과 민주화 요구가 분출되기도 했는데 집권 여당인 민주당 사이에서 신파와 구파가 나뉘어버려서 개혁 의지가 미약한 탓에 이러한 요구들을 수용하지 못했다. 곳곳에서 데모가 연이어 벌어졌고 장면이 단호한 조치를 계획하던 중 1961년 5월 16일 새벽 516 쿠데타로 내각 각료들이 체포되면서 장면 내각은 1년 남짓밖에 집권하지 못하고 무너졌다.그 뒤 윤보선은 형식적인 민정을 실시하였으나 군사정변 세력에게 구정치인 정화법(1962)으로 정치활동을 정지당하자 여기에 불만을 품고 사퇴(1962.3.22)함으로써 1962년 3월부터 1963년 12월까지 516 군사정변 세력이 설립한 국가재건최고회의가 사법권행정권입법권을 모두 장악하고 군정을 실시했다.1963년 12월 516 군사 정변을 주도한 박정희 등에 의해 제3공화국이 수립됐다. 야당 후보인 윤보선과의 두 차례의 선거전에서 10만 표 안팎의 근소한 차로 집권하였다. 재임 초반 한일 협정을 추진하는 과정에서 공분을 사 일어난 시위를 무력 진압하며 강행했다. 1960년대 개발 독재의 일환으로 정부는 경공업 중심의 수출 주도형 발전과 한일협정베트남 전쟁 파병 등을 통한 외화 획득으로 경제 발전을 꾀했다. 1970년대에는 중화학 공업과 전자산업을 집중적으로 육성했다. 하지만 도시와 농촌의 소득 격차 저임금 노동과 빈부격차와 같은 문제도 남겼다.이후 박정희 정부는 3선 개헌을 통과시키고 1971년 대선에서 3선에 성공한다. 그런데 대선에서 야당 후보가 돌풍을 일으키고 같은 해 총선에서 야당의 의석수가 2배로 늘어나는 선전을 이룬 데다가 제1차 석유 파동 등으로 경제성장도 한계를 보이기 시작하면서 정권 유지에 위기를 느낀 박정희 정부는 1972년 유신 헌법을 통과시키고 제4공화국을 선포하였다.1971년 대통령 선거에서 야당의 돌풍으로 불안감을 느낀 박정희는 1972년 74 남북공동성명을 발표하고 통일을 준비한다는 명목으로 10월 유신을 선포해 유신체제를 수립했다. 이를 통해 대통령의 임기를 6년 연임제로 수정하는가 하면 국회의원을 대통령이 임명하게 할 수 있는 법안까지 통과시키는 등 대통령의 권한을 비정상적으로 확대시켰다. 이에 노동운동계 재야와 학생 세력 등이 민주화를 요구하지만 정부는 잇따른 긴급조치를 통해 억눌렀다. 하지만 민주화 운동 세력 및 노동운동가의 반발은 계속되었다. 미국이 한국의 '인권 침해'를 비판하기 시작하자 한미 간 외교적 마찰이 일어났다. 제2차 석유 파동까지 겪으면서 경제위기와 내부 혼란이 크게 가중되었다. 김영삼 의원 제명 파동과 YH 사건 부마 항쟁 등의 사회적 저항이 지속되었다. 이러한 일들은 권력 내부의 분열을 초래하였으며 1979년 박정희가 중앙정보부장 김재규에게 암살되면서 박정희의 17년 장기 집권은 막을 내렸다.1026 사건 이후 유신 체제 하에서 국무총리 최규하가 이끄는 정부가 출범했다. 유신 헌법 폐지를 통해 민주화를 추진하려는 움직임이 나타나던 시기 최규하 정부는 긴급조치를 해제함으로써 일부 정치적 억압을 완화했고 1979년 12월과 1980년 2월 1980년 4월에 대사면령을 단행하였다. 그러나 전두환을 비롯한 이들이 12월 12일에 군사반란을 일으켜 실권을 장악하였고 급기야 최규하 대통령에게 간섭하기 시작했다. 이들은 1980년 쿠데타를 일으키면서 최규하 정부는 1980년 8월 최규하 대통령의 사임으로 붕괴되고 말았다.전두환과 하나회를 중심으로 한 신군부는 12·12 군사 반란을 일으켜 계엄 사령관을 체포하고 군부를 장악하여 실세로 떠올랐고, 민주화 일정을 지체시켰다. 1980년 초부터 국회와 정부는 유신 헌법을 철폐하기 위한 개헌 논의를 진행했고, 대학생과 재야 세력도 정치 일정 제시와 전두환 퇴진 요구를 바탕으로 민주화 시위를 벌였다. 이에 신군부는 5월 17일 비상계엄을 전국확대하면서, 이른바 등을 선포하고 군병력을 동원해 국회를 폐쇄했다. 이 과정에서 신군부는 5·17 쿠데타에 항거한 광주 민주화 운동을 공수부대 및 특전여단을 투입해 유혈진압을 하고, 5월 27일 국가보위비상대책위원회를 만들어 정국을 주도했다. 10월 27일에는 7년 단임의 대통령제를 골자로 한 제5공화국 헌법이 공포되고 이듬해 제5공화국이 출범했다.제5공화국은 경제 안정에 매진하는 한편, 1981년에는 1986년 아시안 게임, 1988년 서울 올림픽 등을 유치하기도 했다. 또한 야간통행금지 해제 및 교복 자율화 등의 유화 조치를 내걸어 국민들의 불만을 잠재우기도 했다. 한편으로 임기 중반부터 3저호황으로 인한 수출 흑자를 기록했다. 그러나 다른 한편으로는 권위주의적인 독재체제를 성립하고 민주주의 탄압 및 고문·정치사찰·용공조작으로 대변되는 인권 유린행위를 자행했으며, 정경유착·부정축재·친인척 비리가 빈발했다.1987년 1월 박종철이 고문으로 치사하는 사건이 터지자 정부 퇴진과 민주화 요구의 목소리는 더욱 커졌다. 이에 정부는 호헌조치를 취하며 을 내세웠고, 국민들의 민주화 요구는 더욱 빗발쳐 6월 항쟁으로 이어졌다. 마침내 전두환 대통령은 민정당 총재 노태우를 통해 6·29 선언을 발표하면서 국민의 개헌 요구를 수용했다. 개정된 헌법에 따라 치러진 제13대 대통령 선거에서는 여당 노태우가 당선되었고, 1988년 2월 취임식과 함께 제5공화국은 막을 내린다.노태우 정부와 문민정부.1987년 6월 29일 당시 민주정의당 총재이자 대통령 후보였던 노태우가 대통령 직선제 등을 주 내용으로 하는 629 선언을 발표했다. 이후 여야가 합의하여 대통령 직선제 등을 골자로 한 개헌이 성사되었다. 이로써 야권의 정치 참여가 허용되었으며 1988년 치러진 제13대 총선에서는 사상 최초의 "여소야대" 국회가 나왔다. 민주정의당은 불리한 여론을 극복하는 돌파구로 3당 합당을 추진해 민주자유당을 탄생시켰다. 또한 전두환 측근에 대한 사법조치를 단행(국정감사)하고 민간인들을 정계에 대폭 고용하기도 했다(과거와의 단절). 외교 면에서 노태우 정부는 북방정책을 추진해 구 소련을 비롯한 공산권 국가들과의 수교 등 관계 개선에 주력했다. 1991년 9월 유엔의 가맹국이 되었으며 이어서 12월에는 남북기본합의서를 채택했다. 또한 1992년에는 지방 자치 제도를 실시하게 되었다.그러나 노태우도 전두환처럼 군인 출신이었고 1212 사태를 주도하고 5공 성립 과정에 깊숙히 관여한 인물이라는 한계가 있었다. 노태우 정부도 정경유착은 물론 비자금 형성민간인 사찰고문 등 5공의 파쇼 정치를 그대로 답습했다. 이는 결국 민주화 시위(1991) 등으로 이어졌고 노태우는 이른바 "6공 황태자"로 불리던 박철언을 후계자로 지명했지만 여당 내에서도 불만이 터져나왔으며 끝내 김영삼을 후계자로 택할 수밖에 없었다. 1993년 문민정부가 출범함으로써 노태우 정부는 막을 내렸다.1992년 치러진 제14대 대선에서 민주자유당의 김영삼 후보가 당선되어 1993년에 취임하면서 대한민국은 이른바 문민정부 시대로 접어들었다. 이로써 윤보선 정부 이후 30여년만에 민간인 정부로 회귀했다. 문민정부는 하나회 군부 숙청 금융실명제 표현의 자유 허용 역사 바로 세우기 운동 지방자치 단체장 선거 부활 OECD 가입 등의 업적을 남겼다. 특히 군사 정변을 주도할 위험이 있는 군 내 사조직을 숙청하고 12.12 관련자 및 5.18 관련 정치군인들을 처벌하기도 했다. 하지만 대한항공기 괌 추락 사고 우암상가아파트 성수대교 와 삼풍백화점 붕괴 사고 등의 대형 사고가 일어나 사회적인 혼란을 겪기도 했다. 또한 자유방임적 시장경제와 세계화를 추구하면서 준비없는 대규모 개방을 강행했고 외환관리에 실패해 IMF 구제금융사건을 초래하였다. 결국 국민들의 높아진 요구를 충족시키지 못한 채 야당에게 정권을 이양할 수밖에 없었다.국민의 정부와 참여정부.1997년 제15대 대선에서 새정치국민회의의 김대중 후보가 당선되면서 헌정 사상 최초의 평화적인 정권교체가 실현되었다. 국민의 정부가 들어서면서 당면한 가장 큰 과제는 IMF 위기의 극복이었다. 국민의 정부는 경제정책 추진과 금모으기 운동 등을 통해 2001년까지 외채를 조기 상환해 IMF 관리 체제에서 벗어났으며 국제 기준에 맞춘 자율적인 구조조정 체제를 도입해 기업의 체질 개선 등을 단행했다. 국민의 정부는 한반도의 평화와 인권 신장에 기여했다. 특히 대북관계에 있어서 햇볕정책을 추진하기 위해 분단 이후 처음으로 평양을 방문 김정일 국방위원장과 남북정상회담을 하였다. 그러나 남북정상회담을 위해 2000억 원에 달하는 현금을 북한 정권에게 불법 송금했다는 혐의가 사후 드러나 큰 비판을 받았다. 대북유화책을 추진했지만 연평해전 핵실험 등 북한의 지속적인 도발이 계속되어 햇볕정책의 실효성에 의문이 제기되었다. 또한 IMF 위기 극복을 위해 국민의 정부가 추진했었던 신자유주의 정책은 승자 독식의 기형적 사회구조를 구축했다는 비판이 있으며 지나친 구조조정과 기업 매각 등으로 대량의 실업자를 양산했다는 부정적 평가가 일부 존재한다.2002년 제16대 대선에서는 새천년민주당의 노무현 후보가 당선되면서 참여정부가 출범하였다. 2004년 대통령 탄핵 소추를 겪으며 위기를 맞았으나, 여론의 반발과 헌법재판소의 탄핵 기각 결정으로 마무리되었다. 같은해 열린 총선에서 여당인 열린우리당이 탄핵역풍을 맞은 야당을 누르고 과반수 의석을 차지하면서 국정 탄력을 받았다. 참여정부는 권위주의 타파, 균형 발전 등 개혁적이고 진보적인 정책을 수립했다. 진실 화해를 위한 과거사 정리위원회 설치를 통한 과거사 정리, 세종특별자치시 추진으로 균형 발전을 꾀했다는 평가를 받았다. 하지만, 참여정부는 보수진영의 반발이라는 현실을 고려하지 않은 이상주의적 개혁과 대통령의 과격한 발언 등으로 보수층과 중도층의 반발을 불러왔고, 노무현 대통령의 형인 노건평 씨의 측근 비리 등 각종 악재로 인하여 임기 중반에 지지율이 하락하기도 하였다. 진보진영에서 선출된 대통령이었지만 신자유주의와 친미 외교정책을 펼치는 등, 진영논리에 따른 정부가 아닌 보수, 진보를 넘어 합리적이고 실용적인 정치를 추구하였다.이명박 정부와 박근혜 정부.2007년 제17대 대선에서는 한나라당의 이명박 후보가 대통령에 당선되면서 보수진영의 정권교체가 이뤄졌다. 이명박 정부는 선진화 원년과 747 공약을 내세워 경제 활성화를 추구하였으나, 2008년 미국발 세계 금융 위기의 여파로 인한 경제적 위기와, 한미 FTA 체결 과정에서 광우병소 수입 반대 촛불집회로 인한 정치적 위기를 동시에 겪었다. 고환율정책으로 금융위기의 안정적 극복을 이뤄냈으며, 2010년 G20 서울 정상회의 개최, 2011년 평창동계올림픽 유치, 2012년 핵안보정상회의 개최로 대표되는 외교적 성과를 거뒀다. 그러나 4대강 사업과 자원외교의 비리 의혹, 국정원 여론조작과 미디어법 개정으로 인한 언론 장악 논란, 세종시 수정안 등 재임 기간 동안 사회적으로 많은 비판과 논란을 불러일으키기도 했다.2012년 제18대 대선에서는 새누리당의 박근혜 후보가 대통령에 당선되었다. 국정원 선거 개입 의혹으로 출범부터 논란에 휩싸였고 이어 잇따른 인사 실패로 국정운영에 어려움을 겪었다. 더구나 2014년 4월 세월호 참사와 2015년 메르스 사태 등 국가적 재난 대책에 미숙한 모습을 드러내었으며 창조경제와 노동개혁 국정교과서 추진 한일 위안부 합의 등 여러 정책에 대해 사회적 비판과 갈등을 겪었다. 2016년 제20대 총선에서 여소야대 국면에 처하면서 정치적 난관에 처한 박근혜 정부는 같은해 10월 민간인 신분인 최순실 씨의 국정 농단 사태가 폭로됨에 따라 박근혜 대통령 퇴진 운동이 시작되었고 국회가 박근혜 대통령 탄핵 소추안을 가결시키며 박근혜 대통령의 권한이 정지 황교안 대통령 권한대행 체제가 확립되었다. 2017년 3월 10일 헌법재판소의 탄핵 인용으로 박근혜 대통령은 헌정 사상 최초로 파면된 대통령이 되었다.2017년 전임 대통령의 파면으로 조기에 치러진 제19대 대선에서는 더불어민주당의 문재인 후보가 대통령으로 당선되며 진보진영으로의 정권교체가 이뤄졌다. 문재인 정부는 탈권위주의 정책 및 적폐 청산 노선으로 임기 초 높은 지지율을 누리는 한편으로, 코리아 패싱과 한반도 긴장 고조로 인한 외교적 난관 속에서도 경색된 남북관계를 전환시키고자 노력하였다. 2018년 평창 동계올림픽의 성공적 개최와 맞물려 전개된 남북관계 화해 국면에 따라 판문점 회담과 평양 회담을 여는 동시에 북미회담을 통한 비핵화 협상 주선에 힘썼다. 이와 더불어 2020년 코로나19 유행의 방역에서 선방하면서 긍정적 평가를 받았고, 국정농단의 여파로 인한 야당의 입지 약화와 함께 2018년 지방선거와 2020년 총선에서 여당의 유례없는 압도적 승리라는 정치적 안정을 이루는 계기가 되었다.문재인 정부는 소득주도성장론을 내세우며 최저임금 인상, 근로시간 단축을 추진하고 탈원전 추구, 가상화폐 규제 등의 경제정책을 펼쳐나가는 과정 속에서 사회적 찬반론을 불러일으켰으며, 계속되는 경기불황과 부동산 대책 실패로 비판 여론을 받았다. 또 2017년 더불어민주당원 댓글 조작 사건과 2018년 여권 인사의 미투 운동 연루, 2019년 조국 법무부장관 임명 논란 등 정부와 여당의 도덕성 논란이 부정적 평가에 일조함과 동시에, 2018년 남북 단일팀 추진과 대북 석탄 밀수 사건, 2020년 남북공동연락사무소 폭파로 인한 남북관계 경색 등에 있어서도 반발 여론이 끊이지 않았다.대한민국의 정치 구조는 대통령제를 바탕으로 의원내각제적 요소가 혼합된 모습이다. 대통령이 임명하는 국무총리가 존재하며 국회의원이 국무총리 및 국무위원의 직을 겸직할 수 있는 사실은 이에 기인한다. 대한민국 정부는 입법권을 갖는 대한민국 국회와 행정권을 갖는 대한민국 행정부, 사법권을 갖는 대한민국 법원으로 구성되며 이는 권력기관의 상호 견제로 국민의 자유와 권리를 보장하기 위함이다.대한민국의 정치는 대한민국의 현대사와 밀접한 연관을 맺고 있다. 한국은 1945년 8월 15일 일본으로부터 독립하여 미국과 소련에 의해 남북으로 분단되었다. 1948년 5월 10일 남한의 단독 총선으로 제헌 국회가 구성되었고 제헌 국회에 의해 7월 17일 대한민국 제헌 헌법이 제정되었다. 동년 8월 15일에 대한민국 임시정부의 법통을 계승하는 대한민국 정부가 공식적으로 출범하였다.대한민국 헌법 제1호로서 대한민국 제헌 헌법은 대한민국 제헌 국회에 의해 1948년 7월 17일 공포되었다. 이후 수차례의 군사 독재 및 민주화 운동을 수반하는 정치적 변화로 9차례의 개헌이 이루어졌다. 현행 헌법은 1987년 6월 항쟁의 성과로서, 5년 단임제의 대통령 직선제를 근간으로 삼권 분립을 실현하고 국민의 자유와 권리를 보장하는 자유민주주의를 실현하고 있다.대한민국에서는 헌법 제8조에 의해 자유롭게 정당을 결성할 수 있으며, 복수정당제를 보장한다. 대한민국의 정당 정치는 비교적 정당의 수명이 짧고 정당 간 합당이나 분당이 자주 일어나는 특징이 있다.최근에 21대 국회가 2020년 5월 30일 개원하였다. 21대 국회는 문재인 정부 여당이자 현재 원내 제1당인 더불어민주당과 제1야당으로 더불어민주당과 동일한 원내 교섭단체를 구성하는 국민의힘이 있다. 비교섭단체 정당으로는 정의당 국민의당 열린민주당 기본소득당 시대전환이 있다. 교섭단체는 국회의원 20인 이상이 모여 결성하는 단체로 20석 이상을 확보한 정당은 교섭단체의 지위에 오른다. 국회에 의석이 없는 정당은 노동당 녹색당 민생당 진보당 등이 있다. 제21대 총선 당시에 개정된 공직선거법의 영향으로 여야 위성정당을 구성하였고 더불어민주당과 더불어시민당(위성정당) 180석 미래통합당과 미래한국당(위성정당) 103석 정의당 6석 국민의당 3석 열린민주당 3석을 얻어 더불어민주당이 원내 제1당을 유지하였다.입법부의 주축을 이루고 있는 대한민국 국회는 현재 총 300석의 단원제로 구성되어 있다. 대한민국 임시정부의 입법부였던 임시의정원을 기원으로 두고 있으며 1948년 5월 10일 구성된 제헌국회가 대한민국 최초의 국회이다. 매년 1회의 정기회와 30일 이내의 임시회가 열리며 회기 중에 국회는 법의 의결권과 예산안의 심사 국정 감사와 헌법에 명시된 기관장의 임명 동의 및 조약의 체결 및 비준 동의 등의 활동을 한다.대한민국 국회의원의 임기는 4년이며 임기 중 의사진행과 관한 발언에 대한 면책특권과 회기 중 불체포특권을 가진다. 공직선거법에 따른 피선거권을 충족한 인물로 국회의원 총선거나 재선거 및 보궐선거 혹은 대한민국 중앙선거관리위원회의 비례대표 의석승계 결정에 따라 선출된다. 대한민국 국회의장과 부의장은 국회의원 중에서 본회의의 무기명 투표를 거쳐 선출되며 그 임기는 국회 회기의 절반에 해당되는 2년이다.대한민국의 행정부에 해당하는 대한민국 정부는 대통령을 수반으로 하여 입법부에서 법률로써 정한 사안들을 실행한다. 대통령은 국무총리와 국무위원으로 구성된 국무회의의 조력을 받아 업무를 처리한다.대통령은 5년 단임으로 국민의 보통 평등 직접 비밀 선거에 의하여 선출된다. 대통령은 국회가 통과한 법률을 거부할 권한이 있다. 그러나 한 번 거부한 법률을 국회가 다시 통과시킨다면 그 법률은 그대로 통과된다. 대통령은 헌법재판소의 재판관 3인과 대법관 등을 임명할 수 있다. 대통령은 조약을 체결비준하고 외교사절을 신임접수 또는 파견하며 선전포고와 강화를 할 권한을 가지고 있으며 국군을 통수하며 공무원 임명을 할 수 있는 등 국정 전반에 걸쳐 방대한 권한을 행사한다.대통령의 명을 받아 내각을 통할하기 위하여, 대통령의 보좌기관으로서 국무총리를 두고 있다. 국무총리는 대통령이 임명하되 국회의 동의를 받아야 한다. 국무총리는 내각의 구성원을 대통령에게 임명을 제청하며 내각을 통솔한다. 대통령의 유고 시 국무총리가 대통령의 권한을 대행하게 되며 국무총리가 유고시 경제부총리 겸 기획재정부 장관, 사회부총리 겸 교육부 장관 순으로 권한을 대행한다.대한민국의 사법부는 대다수의 현대 국가들과 마찬가지로 재판에 있어서 공정한 심판을 위해 3심제로 이루어져 있다. 대법원을 최고법원으로 그 밑에 고등법원 지방법원 지방법원의 지원과 특허법원 가정법원 행정법원 등의 전문성을 요구하는 법률 심사를 위해 설치된 특수법원(여기에서의 재판은 1심의 판결과 동일하다.)으로 구성되어 있다. 대한민국 국군의 경우 군사법원법에 따라 군사재판을 할 수 있으나 최종심은 대법원이 관할한다.사법부의 독립이 이루어지지 않은 불의한 역사의 반성에서 1988년 헌법을 개정하여 사법권이 법원에 있는 원칙의 예외로 설치한 헌법재판소에서는 법률이 헌법에 위배되는지를 판가름하는 위헌법률심판, 대통령을 비롯한 공무원의 탄핵 소추를 심사하는 탄핵심판, 위헌 정당의 해산 여부를 심사하는 정당해산심판, 권한쟁의심판, 헌법소원심판을 심사한다. 헌법재판소의 재판관은 총 9명이며, 대통령, 국회, 대법원장이 각각 3명씩 선출하고 대통령이 임명한다. 헌법재판소장은 대통령이 국회의 동의를 얻어 임명한다.최고 법원인 대법원의 법관인 대법관은 대법원장의 제청에 따라 국회 동의를 거쳐 대통령이 임명한다. 대법관의 임기는 헌법을 통해 보장되며 그 연한은 6년이다.사법부를 구성하는 법관에 의하여 독립된 재판이 보장되나 실질적으로 불기소 처분권을 가지는 검사가 공소를 제기하는 사건에 한하여 제한적으로 재판권이 보장되어 있다.이렇게 선진적인 사법 제도를 갖추고 있음에도 모든 사건은 정답이 있어 변호사의 유•무나 재판 당사자가 누구냐에 따라 재판 결과가 달라질 수 없어야 하지만 그렇지 못해 유전 무죄나 여론 재판 등으로 사법 불신이 심각하다.조선민주주의인민공화국의 지위에 대한 분쟁.대한민국은 1919년 3.1 운동에 영향을 받은 대한민국 임시정부의 수립으로 건국되었다. 1945년 8월 15일 광복 이후 한반도의 북위 38도선 이남 지역 거주자들의 자유 선거를 통하여 1948년 공식적인 민주주의 국가로 나아갔다.대한민국은 1948년 12월 유엔 총회 결의 제195호를 통해 유엔으로부터 한국 대다수 주민이 살고 있으며 유엔이 감시 가능한 지역(38선 이남 지역)에서 주민의 자유로운 의사에 따라 탄생한 한국 유일한 정부로서 합법 정부로 승인받았다. 이와 관련하여 대한민국 정부가 1948년에 유엔 감시 하에 선거를 실시한 한반도 남반부와 부속도서에서만 유일한 합법 정부라는 주장이 있다. 1991년 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국은 동시에 UN에 가입하였다. 한편 국제법 상의 관례와 통설 대한민국의 헌법재판소는 라고 판시하여 대한민국은 조선민주주의인민공화국의 국가성을 원칙적으로 부정하고 있으나 대한민국 정부가 수립될 때 한반도가 분단되어 있어 국가 성립 3요소인 국민 영토 주권이 인정되는 지역은 이었다는 점과 이후 1972년 74 남북 공동 성명 1991년 남북 기본 합의서 2000년 615 남북 공동선언 등에 의하여 상호 공존을 약속하고 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국이 별개의 독립된 주권국가로 인정되는 일부 국제법규와 대한민국 헌법의 시각이 대치되어 문제점이 존재한다.이에 따라 대한민국은 이북5도위원회를 설치하고 있다.대한민국의 외교에 관한 업무는 외교부가 맡고 있다. 휴전선을 사이에 두고 이웃한 조선민주주의인민공화국과는 한국 전쟁을 겪은 뒤 적대적인 관계가 유지되었다. 김대중과 노무현 정부는 햇볕 정책 곧 대북유화책을 시도했으나 차후 북한의 핵무기와 미사일 개발 등 대남 도발 행위로 인해 중단되었다. 이명박과 박근혜 정부는 연평도 도발 천안함 폭침 목함 지뢰 사건 등이 발생함과 동시에 대북 강경정책을 실시했고 이에 따라 남북 관계가 상대적으로 경색되었다. 대한민국의 외교는 한국 전쟁에서 큰 역할을 담당하였던 미국과는 긴밀한 관계를 맺고 있다. 과거 한반도를 식민 통치하였던 일본과는 1965년 수교하였다.대한민국은 현재 유엔 회원국 중 조선민주주의인민공화국, 시리아, 쿠바 등 3개국과 외교 관계가 없으며, 이 중 조선민주주의인민공화국을 국가로 인정하지 않는다. 이외에 서사하라, 중화민국, 팔레스타인, 코소보 등도 외교 관계가 없다. 이 중 중화민국은 대한민국 정부 수립 때부터 수교국이었으나 1992년에 국교가 단절되었다. 그렇지만 현재 대한민국과 중화민국 양국은 양국 수도에 서로 대표부를 설치하여 운영 중에 있고 상호 간의 왕래와 민간교류는 자유롭다. 팔레스타인의 경우에는 대한민국이 팔레스타인에 대표부를 설치하여 운영 중에 있다.과거에는 통상에 관한 업무를 전문적으로 관장하기 위해 외교통상부 산하 통상교섭본부를 설치해 운영하였으나 정부조직 개편에 따라 산업통상자원부로 이관되었다.대한민국의 영토인 독도 이어도 등에 대하여 이웃한 일본 중화인민공화국이 각각 영유권을 주장하고 있다.현재 대한민국은 유엔과 WTO OECD 그리고 G-20의 구성원이며 또한 APEC와 동아시아 정상회의의 창립 가맹국이며 미국의 주요 비NATO 동맹국이다. 한편 2007년부터 2010년 상반기까지 해외에서 추방한 대한민국 국민이 2111명으로 일본에서 제일 많았다.대한민국은 조선민주주의인민공화국의 수립 당시부터 현재까지 국가로 승인하지 않으며 조선민주주의인민공화국 정부에 대하여 국제법상 교전단체의 지위만을 인정한다. 또한 대한민국은 대한민국 헌법을 비롯한 국내법상 조선민주주의인민공화국이 차지하고 있는 지역 일체를 대한민국의 고유한 영토로 간주하고 있으며 따라서 자국 영토를 불법적으로 점거하는 반국가단체로 본다.국민의 정부 당시 최초의 남북정상회담이 개최되었으며 조선민주주의인민공화국과의 물자 교류는 참여정부 말까지 활발했으나 조선민주주의인민공화국의 대남 도발 등으로 인해 2013년 금강산 관광 산업, 개성공단까지 중지된 상태이였지만 남북회담을 통해 재가동하기로 했다. 그러나 2015년 이후 조선민주주의인민공화국이 계속해서 대남 도발, 핵 실험, 미사일 발사 등을 진행함에 따라 다시 중지되었다.대한민국과 미국의 관계는 19세기 중반인 1871년 조선의 통상을 요구하던 제너럴셔먼호 사건으로 거슬러 올라간다.그러나 당시 조선은 흥선대원군의 쇄국정책으로 완강히 버티자 얼마 버티지 못하고 돌아간다. 그 뒤 일본의 운요호 사건을 계기로 조선은 쇄국정책을 풀고 일본을 비롯한 세계열강과 통상조약을 맺게 되자 미국은 1882년에 조선과 통상조약을 맺어 공식적으로 외교관계를 가지게 된다. 1897년에 고종이 대한제국을 선포할 때 미국은 특사를 파견하여 축하해 주기도 했다. 그러나 이러한 관계는 1905년 을사조약 뒤부터 뒤틀어졌는데 당시 미국 제26대 대통령 시어도어 루스벨트의 딸인 엘리스 루스벨트가 미국을 대표하여 대한제국에 방문했을 때 고종의 환대에도 없는 사람 취급하였고 고종의 아내였던 명성황후 무덤 앞의 말 조각상에서 앉아 사진을 찍는 무례함을 범했기 때문이다. 설상가상으로 1910년 일본제국의 대한제국 강제합병을 계기로 미국과의 외교관계가 단절된다.1948년 대한민국은 미국의 원조로 민주 정부를 수립하였고 그 이래로 미국의 대량 원조를 통해 매우 광범위하게 발전하여 왔다. 미국은 한국 전쟁 당시 유엔군을 조직하여 대한민국 편에서 참전하여 절대적인 역할을 하였고 휴전 이후에도 주한 미군이 계속 주둔하고 있고 대한민국은 주한미군에 의한 군사적 보호속에서 매우 긴밀한 동맹관계를 유지해 오고 있다. 제5공화국 때는 부산 미국문화원 방화사건도 있었고 2000년대 들어서 주한미군 한강 독극물 무단 방류 사건 미군 장갑차 여중생 압사 사건 등으로 일부 반미 감정이 고조되기도 하였다.2007년 한미자유무역협정이 체결되었고 문서 공개 이후 한동안 상당한 논란에 휩싸였다. 이후 이명박 정부가 출범하면서 미국산 쇠고기 수입 협상 논란은 촛불 시위로 비화되어 2008년 미국산 쇠고기 수입 협상 논란을 겪었다. 한편 이명박 정부가 출범된 이후 한미 관계가 상당히 강화되었다. 현재 대한민국은 군사, 외교, 경제적으로 깊은 관계를 맺고 있다.양국은 1965년 한일 협정을 통해 공식적인 외교 관계를 수립하였다.양국 간에 역사 인식, 영토 등에 대한 갈등이 존재한다. 제2차 세계대전 당시의 전범들을 숭배하는 야스쿠니 신사 참배 문제나 독도 문제, 동해 명칭 문제, 일본군 위안부도 민감한 문제이다. 일본의 고이즈미 준이치로 내각과 아베 신조 내각 당시에는 한일 셔틀외교가 중단되는 등 양국 관계가 멀어졌으나 아시아 외교를 중시하는 일본 후쿠다 야스오·하토야마 유키오 내각의 출범과 한일 관계를 보다 중시하는 대한민국의 이명박 정부가 출범한 이후 관계가 개선과 악화를 반복하다가 일본 민주당 하토야마 유키오 총리가 취임하면서 한일 관계가 강화되었다. 2002년에는 양국이 공동 주관하여 한일 월드컵을 개최하기도 하였다. 2000년대에 들어서는 일본에서 한국 문화에 대한 선호도가 높아지면서 이른바 이 불어 양국 간 교류가 많이 증진되었다. 그러나 역사·영토 문제 등 여러 부분에서 논란이 계속되고 있고, 일본이 집단자위권을 강화함으로써 양국 관계도 점차 경직되어가고 있다.대한민국은 1948년 정부 수립 직후부터 중화민국과 외교 관계를 수립하였다. 1950년에 발발한 한국 전쟁에서 조선민주주의인민공화국을 지원한 중화인민공화국과는 적대 관계가 되었으며, 1992년까지 외교 관계를 맺지 않고 있었다. 그러나 대한민국은 중화인민공화국과 1992년 공식 수교하면서, 기존의 중화민국과 단교하여 오늘에 이르고 있다. 조선민주주의인민공화국과 관련된 여러 문제가 있는 와중에도 양국은 외교 관계를 이루고 있다. 2016년 주한 미군의 배치 추진과 미・중 무역 갈등 문제 등 국제 사회에서의 충돌로 인하여 한중 관계가 악화되고 있다.러시아는 구 소비에트 연방의 법통을 이어받은 나라로, 자본주의와 공산주의 국가 간의 갈등이었던 동・서 냉전으로 인해 대한민국과는 적대적인 관계였으나 탈냉전 이후에 한소수교가 1990년에 전격적으로 이루어졌으며, 소련 붕괴 이후의 러시아와 경제, 문화, 우주기술협력, 군사(불곰사업) 등에서 밀접한 관계를 추진해나가기 시작했다. 하지만 녹둔도 문제를 포함해서 연해주 등 잠재된 영토 문제가 아직 남아있지만 남북분단으로 인해 가시화되지는 않았다. 대한민국의 위성인 나로호 발사도 러시아의 협조 하에 발사했다. 현재 12만 5000명의 고려인이 러시아에 거주하고 있다. 러시아와 한국은 대한항공, 아시아나항공, 아에로플로트 등 여러 항공사가 매일 운항하고 있다.대한민국은 조선민주주의인민공화국과의 대립으로 인해 일찍부터 군사력을 증강시켜 왔으며 1990년대까지는 양적 위주의 성장을 추진했으나, 2000년대 들어 새로운 무기 기술의 개발과 발달로 인해 질적 성장을 이루었다. 대한민국 국방부가 국군이라고 불리는 대한민국의 군을 지휘하고 있다. 2020년 12월 기준 병력 규모는 현역이 약 555,000명, 대한민국 예비군은 약 3,100,000명이다. 세계에서 11번째로 탄도미사일을 독자 개발했다.대한민국 국군의 경우 여군은 기갑, 포병, 잠수함 병과에는 진출할 수 없었으나 2014년 9월 창군이래 최초 여군 포병장교가 탄생하였고 기갑병과에도 여군이 진출함에 따라 다양한 병과에서 여군들이 활약하고 있다.대한민국 육군은 병력 약 520,000명, 전차 약 2,300대, 장갑차 약 2,500대, 견인포/자주포/다연장 로켓포 약 5,200문, 유도무기 30기, 헬기 600기를 보유하고 있다. 현재 국방과학연구소는 전차 K2 전차를 개발했다. K-2 전차는 2014년 대한민국 육군에 정식으로 배치된다. K-21 전투장갑차는 2012년경 전력화하였고 복합형 소총인 K-11 소총을 운용하고 있다.2012년 1월 육군에는 현재 39개 사단으로 이루어져 있다. 그 외 해군 예하 해병대 2개 사단이 있다. 2020년까지 1군사령부와 3군사령부를 지상작전사령부로 통합하며, 5개의 지역군단과 2개의 기동군단으로 개편하고, 향토사단 자체는 존치하며, 동원사단은 4개로 줄이고 전 부대를 기계화부대로 편성한다. 병사들의 개인화기 및 개인장비, 피복을 개선시키는 중이다. 전투력 향상을 위해 고글+무릎보호대+장갑+방탄복+야간 야시장비+스코프+도트사이트+광학장비를 지급하고 보병장비, 개인장비, 장구류, 군장이 늘어나고 저격소총, 옵션장비 ,사격장, 1인당 교탄증가가 되었다. 소대장이 항공근접지원을 직접 유도할 수 있고 병사들은 무인 항공기를 수시로 띄울 수 있다. 시가전 능력을 향상시키기 위해 신속대응 훈련과 CQB 훈련과 시가전 훈련을 자주 진행 중이다. 실전 훈련처럼 진행한다. 현대전에 맞추기 위해 육군 전 부대 대대급 현대화가 진행 중이다. 저격수, 정찰 저격수들을 육군 전 부대에서 양성 중이다. 저격수 학교를 창설한다. 저격수 규범은 미국 저격수 규범과 똑같은 저격수 교범을 채택하였다.대한민국 공군의 장비는 F-15K 59대 KF-16 134대와 F-16C/D 35여대 F-4E 80대 KF-5E/F 와 F-5E 195대 T-103 러시아제 훈련기 IL-103 72대 KT-1 기본 훈련기 105대 KA-1 전선항공통제기/경공격기 20대 T-50 고등 훈련기 60대+98대 생산 확정 T-50B 10대를 보유 중이며 TA-50 전술입문기 22대를 운용 중이고 KF-16에 버금가는 다목적 전투기인 FA-50 60~120대를 도입 중에 있다. F-4E KF-5E/F 와 F-5E 등은 지속적으로 도태되고 있어서 F-5E KF-5E/F 는 FA-50 60대로 대체되고 F-4E는 F-35A로 대체되며 T-103 훈련기 72대 역시 기체 노후화로 한국항공우주산업이 개발한 KC-100 나라온으로 대체된다.수송기는 전략 전술 수송기인 C-130J-30 4대 C-130H 12대, CN-235-220M 18대가 있으며 VIP 수송용으로 대한항공에서 임차한 보잉 747-400 1대를 비롯해 보잉 737-300 1대, VCN-235 2대, VC-118 1대, BAe-748 2대가 있다. 정찰기로는 호커800기를 개조한 금강정찰기와 백두정찰기, RF-4C 18대, RKF-16 5대를 보유, 운용하고 있으며, 공중 조기 경보 통제기 보잉 E-737 피스아이 4대를 운용 중이며 회전익 항공기 는 구조.탐색용인 HH-60 페이브호크, HH-47 치누크, 카모프 Ka-32가 있으며 병력 수송용인 벨 205, 212, 412, UH-60 블랙호크 등이 있다. 이외에도 VIP 수송용인 VH-92, VH-60, AS-362 '수퍼퓨마'가 있다. 또한 공군은 국산 헬기인 수리온을 2기 주문하였다.사병들의 전투력 향상을 위해 소화기 실탄 사격장 및 1인당 실탄사격 훈련의 내실화와 사병들의 개인 장비도 지속적으로 개선하고 있다. 공군 전력사업 중에서 가장 큰 규모의 사업인 한국형 전투기 사업인 KF-X 사업과 차기 대통령전용기 사업인 VC-X사업, 원격지원전자전기 사업, 스텔스 무인 전투기(UCAV)의 개발 및 사업을 진행 중이며 최근 KC-X 사업의 최종 후보로 에어버스 A330 MRTT가 선정, 4대 구매를 체결하였다.대한민국 해군(예하 해병대 포함)은 병력 약 68000명 잠수함 약 20 척 전투함정 약 140 척 지원함정 20 척 대잠헬기 및 해상초계기 50 대를 보유하고 있고 차기 군함들을 비롯해 모든 군함들은 선체 전체에 광범위하게 스텔스 설계를 적용하고 레이다 반사율을 줄이기 위해 경사설계를 적용한다. 총 3개 함대와 4개 전단을 두고 있다.대한민국 해병대는 대한민국 해군 예하에 편성되어 있는 군으로서 국가 전략 기동군으로서 해병대는 상륙작전을 수행한다.대한민국 해군은 병력 약 69000명 잠수함 약 20 척 전투함정 약 140척 지원함정 20척 헬기/해상초계기 약 50대 K1A1 전차와 K9 자주포 상륙돌격장갑차 등의 기갑 차량 상륙 장비를 보유하고 있다.대한민국 해병대는 1949년 4월 15일 경상남도 진해시에서 초대 지휘관에 신현준 중령이 임명되고, 해군 장교 26명, 부사관 54명, 병 300명으로 창설되었다. 해군 예하의 국가 전략기동군으로서 상륙 작전을 주임무로 하며, 그 외 김포, 강화, 포항, 경주, 진해, 제주, 도서지역 등 방어, 상륙작전을 하고, 예비군 교육 및 훈련 등의 임무도 수행한다. 2014년 기준으로, 2개 사단과 1개 여단을 보유하고 있고, 이외에도 연평도와 진해, 제주도 및 기타 여러 도서 지역들에도 해병 부대들을 주둔시키고 있다.1948년 8월 15일 정부를 수립할 때 대한민국은 자유 평등과 창의를 존중하고 보장하며 공공복리의 향상을 위하여 이를 보호하고 조정하는 의무를 진 체제를 채택하였다. 이를 1988년 헌법 개정에서 개인과 기업의 경제상의 자유와 창의를 존중함을 기본으로 한다. 균형있는 국민경제의 성장 및 안정과 적정한 소득의 분배를 유지하고 시장의 지배와 경제력의 남용을 방지하며 경제주체간의 조화를 통한 경제의 민주화를 위하여 경제에 관한 규제와 조정을 할 수 있다.로 변경하였다.이승만 정부의 경제관료 양성으로 시작된 경제는 419 혁명으로 세워진 장면 정부가 기존에 양성된 경제관료를 중심으로 경제 개발 계획이 준비되었으나 516 군사정변 발발로 실행되지 못했다. 1960년대 박정희 정부의 주도로 경제 개발 계획을 성실히 수행하였으며 경공업 육성을 통해 본격적인 산업화를 시작했다.1973년 이후 박정희 정부의 중화학공업 발전 정책으로 철강 전자 조선 산업 등이 크게 발달하며 수출을 증대 시키고 국가 경제를 매우 빠른 속도로 성장 시켰다. 1980년대 전두환 정부 때에는 3저호황과 중화학공업 과잉 투자 조정으로 하여금 세계적인 수준의 공업국가로 올라섰다. 1960~80년대 고속 경제 성장으로 한때 중화민국 홍콩 싱가포르와 함께 로 불렸으며 1994년에는 사상 처음으로 국민소득 1만 달러를 넘어섰다.그러나 성장 촉진 정책으로 누적된 병폐는 1997년 외환위기로 IMF 구제금융사건을 겪으면서 한계를 노출하게 했고 새로 출범한 김대중 정부는 정보통신산업을 새로운 성장 동력으로 하고 세계적인 닷컴 버블 경제세 편승하여 2년 만에 상당부분 회복하고 경제위기를 해결했음을 선언했지만 비정규직이라는 새로운 고용 환경을 낳은 고용 유연화에 따른 노동 불안정과 대량 해고 청년 실직자 문제 니트족 현상 등의 부작용이 함께 나타났다. 그 후 노무현 정부가 세계적인 거품 경제에 따른 활황 국면에서 꾸준한 경제 개혁을 통해 2007년까지 매년 백억 달러 이상의 경상흑자와 평균 4%대의 경제발전을 이루어 명목 국민소득 2만 달러 실질 국민소득 2만 5천 달러를 이루어 2008년 이명박 정부 때 국제금융 위기를 극복할 수 있는 토대를 마련하였다. 2007년 골드만삭스는 대한민국이 2050년 브릭스+넥스트 일레븐+G7 1인당 명목 GDP가 90294 달러가 되어 91683달러인 미국에 이어 주요 경제국 중 2위에 오를 것이라고 전망하기도 했다.2015년 국제통화기금이 발표한 자료에 따르면 한국의 PPP기준 1인당 국내총생산은 3만 6601달러이며 이것은 세계 29위 수준이다.대한민국은 자본력이 부족한 환경에 따라 독특한 형태의 경제발전을 진행시켜 왔는데, 박정희 당시 계획경제체제를 시행, 수출을 통한 성장을 목적으로, 자본 및 기술적 기반이 약한 중소기업보다는 재벌기업이 주류인 대기업을 축으로 하는 기업경제구조를 세웠으며, 천연 자원이 절대적으로 부족해 가공무역을 핵심으로 삼은 수출주도형 경제성장정책을 도입하였다. 그 결과, 수출과 수입에 많이 의존하는 편이며, 주요 무역 상대국은 중화인민공화국, 미국, 일본, 중화민국, 독일, 영국, 인도네시아, 말레이시아 등이다. 반도체 세계 1위 삼성을 비롯하여 1983년부터 세계 조선 1위를 지켜오고 있는 현대, 백색가전의 LG, 세계 철강 4위인 포스코 등의 여러 기업 집단을 가지고 있으며 포춘지 선정 세계 500대 기업 중 17개가 대한민국 기업이다.대한민국의 대부분의 상장기업에는 개인지배주주가 존재한다. 반면에 기업발전에 따른 외부자본조달로 지배주주의 지분율 하락이 불가피한 가운데 지배주주와 소수주주간 이해상충문제가 심각한 편이다. 대한민국 경제의 중요한 부분을 차지하는 대규모기업집단의 경우 지배구조가 계열사간 피라미드 및 순환식 소유구조에 의해 경영권을 확보하고 있으나, 이는 현금권과 통제권 간의 상당한 괴리를 가져와 기업가치에 부정적 영향을 미치는 문제를 안고 있다. 경영권 행사에 따른 사적 경영권 혜택이 과도하여 기업이 망하지 않는 한 경영권 교체가 이루어지지 않는 비효율적 산업구조는 대한민국 경제의 치명적 약점으로 지적되고 있다.1990년대 이후 대한민국 내의 노동자의 임금이 상승하자 기업들은 임금이 싼 해외로 공장을 이전하기 시작하였다. 특히 중화인민공화국에 진출해있는 대한민국 기업이 많으며, 베트남, 태국, 인도네시아 등 동남아시아에도 많이 진출해 있다. 최근에 중앙유럽 국가들이 유럽 연합에 가입하여 관세가 철폐되면서 중앙유럽으로 진출하는 기업들도 늘고 있다. 조선민주주의인민공화국의 개방이 가속화되면서 개성공단에 입주하는 기업도 늘어났으나, 조선민주주의인민공화국의 대남 도발로 인한 남북 관계 경색으로 가동이 전면 중단된 상태이다.대한민국의 가계부채는 1999년 ~ 2001년 급증, 2002년 ~ 2004년 감소, 다시 2005년 ~ 2007년까지 급증, 이후 2008년 금융 위기로 그 증가세가 지속되어 2011년 처음으로 가구당 가계부채가 5000만원을 넘어섰다. 이는 자산 증가보다 부채 증가가 더 빨라짐에 따라 빚을 갚을 능력이 악화됐기 때문이다.특히 소득이 적을수록 부채상환 능력이 크게 떨어졌는데, 2010년 소득 하위 20%의 가처분소득 대비 부채비율이 2009년 보다 68.2% 급증한 279.5%에 이르러 소득의 3배에 달하였다. 이는 소득이 적은 20, 30대 가구와 저소득층의 재무건전성 악화를 보여주고있다. 이는 저축은행들이 건설업체의 잇따른 부도로 프로젝트 파이낸싱 대출이 부실해지면서 금리가 높은 가계대출 비중을 늘림과 더불어 전월세값을 포함한 물가의 급등과 교육비 지출에 따른 이 증가하였기 때문이다.축소된 가계부채 상환 능력에 대하여 이명박 정부는 고소득층의 가계 빚이 가계부채의 70% 가량을 차지하고 있으므로 빚을 갚을 능력이 양호하며 자산불평등도 외국에 비해 낮다는 것을 이유로 당장 한국 경제에 부담이 될 가능성이 낮다는 반응을 보이고 있다. 그러나 20, 30대와 저소득층의 가계부실이 본격화되면 미국이나 유럽처럼 '가계부채 대란'이 현실로 나타날 수 있다는 지적도 나오고 있는 실정이다.정부의 부채와 공기업의 공공부분 부채는 2011년 3분기 말 한국은행이 파악한 것만 789조 3600억 원으로 1년 만에 9.2% 급증했으며 이중 공기업의 부채는 1년 만에 14.4%나 급증한 363조 8000억 원으로 집계됐다. 공기업 부채가 크게 늘어난 것은 정부가 보금자리 주택이나 4대강 공사 등 국책 사업에 필요한 자금을 공사채 발행 등으로 마련한 결과로 보고있다.소득 양극화 지수는 2003년 기준으로 증가세가 2006년 2.12%, 2008년 2.05%, 2010년 0.89%로 계속 증가하고 있으나 조금 둔화되는 모습을 보였다. 소득 불평등도를 나타내는 지니 계수는 2003년 기준으로 증가세가 2009년 5.65%, 2010년 2.73%으로 계속 높게 나타났다. 공적연금 지출은 30개국 중 29위, 여성 경제활동 참가율은 30개국 중 30위로 나타났다.경제중심도시는 서울및 광역시이며 행정도시는 세종특별자치시이다.1960년대까지의 대한민국의 주요 산업은 농업에 의존하였다. 1963년 이후 집권한 박정희는 공업화 산업화 정책을 추진하였고 농업인구는 격감하여 1970년 1천4백42만 명으로 전체인구의 44.7%였고 2010년 기준한국의 농업인구는 3백2만1천명으로 전체 인구의 7.5%를 차지 10% 아래로 떨어졌다. 이와 함께 농업인구의 고령화까지 진행되면서 나중에 식량위기가 올 가능성이 제기되고 있다.대한민국의 공업은 중급수준의 기술을 요하는 산업들에 특화되었고 주요 산업으로는 조선 전자 자동차 반도체 등이 있다. 특히 조선 산업은 2008년 기준 세계 전체 점유율의 절반을 넘어섰으며 전자 산업은 삼성전자와 LG전자가 있다. 자동차 생산력은 세계 5위이며 현대자동차와 기아자동차가 수출을 주도하고 있다. 최근 로봇 친환경 에너지 등의 미래형 산업에 대한 투자와 지원 또한 늘리고 있다.반면 국가경제 발전수준에 비해 서비스업이 국가경제에서 차지하는 비중은 매우 낮은 편이며 발달수준도 미흡한 편이다. 현재 대한민국의 경제는 삼성 현대자동차와 같은 재벌 대기업에 상당히 의존하고 있는 편이다.한국 공업의 역사는 정확하지 않으나 고대부터 제철 제련 공업이 발달하였다. 구한말과 일제 강점기에는 일본 제국의 경제적 수탈을 목적으로 근대적인 공업 시설이 건립되었고 일본의 자본이 한국에 유입되었다. 일본 자본의 유입에 맞서 국채 보상 운동이 자발적으로 확산되었고 1920년대에는 김성수는 자본을 투자하여 경성방직 경성직류 등 방직과 면 공업을 육성하여 민족자본을 형성하기도 하였다. 1923년부터는 조만식 안재홍 김성수 등에 의해 물산 장려 운동이 진행되어 국산 공업품을 활용하자는 운동이 일어나기도 하였다. 그러나 일본의 대륙 침략을 위한 군수 공업으로 일변화 된 한국의 공업은 정상적으로 성장할 수 없었다.광복 이후에도 한국의 공업 수준은 미미했으나, 1960년대 이후 출범한 제3공화국 정권은 경제성장의 기반으로 공업화 정책을 추진하였다. 이후 60년대에는 수공업, 수제품 공업, 기술, 근로자 파견 위주로 진행되었고, 식료품과 담배, 섬유 공업을 기반으로 하는 수입 대체 산업이 발달하였다. 70년대에는 중화학 공업, 제조업, 수출 위주의 공업정책이 진행되었다. 1980년대 이르러 섬유, 의류 산업뿐 아니라 전자 제품, 건설, 중화학 공업이 발달하게 되었다.대한민국의 골목 상권은 정부가 개입, 규제하지 않는 시장 경제를 채택하였고 군사정권 몰락 이후 이러한 시장 경제 체제가 대폭 확산되고 있다. 따라서 기업형 슈퍼마켓, 빵집 등, 프랜차이즈와 대기업의 다양한 분야 시장 독과점화가 진행되고 있다는 지적도 있다. 이에 따라 정부는 2010년 동반성장위원회를 출범시키고, 중소기업적합업종을 선정, 대통령이 직접 언급 하는 등 제재가 가해지고 있다. 이에 일부 대기업이 속속 사업에서 철수하는 모습을 보이고 있으나 기업형 슈퍼마켓 기업은 중소 업체를 사들이는 등 여전히 많은 대기업은 몸집을 불려나가고 있다는 지적도 있다.대한민국에는 우측 통행을 하며, 자동차 운전석은 왼쪽에 있다. 4,000km에 달하는 31개의 고속도로 및 국도, 지방도 등의 도로가 있어 대한민국의 교통을 담당하고 있다. 현재 경부고속도로는 AH1 노선의 일부이며 국도 제7호선은 AH6 노선의 일부이다.전국적으로 버스의 하루 평균 이용객 수는 1462만명이다.과거에는 현금과 함께 회수권과 토큰을 사용했으나 최근에는 교통카드를 이용하는 지역이 대부분이며 현금도 대부분 사용 가능하나 환승 혜택이 없다. 또한 교통카드를 통한 환승 할인 혜택 등으로 사용자를 유도하는 중이다. 또한 이를 통한 도시철도와의 연계를 목적으로 수도권의 버스 노선 체계는 이명박 전 서울시장을 중심으로 완전히 재편되었고 수도권 통합요금제가 수립되게 되었다. 현재 버스 체계는 크게 시내버스와 시외버스로 나눌수 있으며 시내버스 특정 지역의 면허에 귀속된다.또한 비교적 작은 지역에서의 운행을 위한 마을버스도 부산 서울 경기도 등에서 운행되는 중이다. 시내버스의 경우 시계를 넘어서면 시계 추가 요금이 부과되며 서울 경기도 인천의 시내버스는 거리에 따른 추가 요금이 부과된다. 시외버스는 시외버스터미널이나 시외버스정거장에서 주로 승하차가 이루어지며 대부분 교통카드를 사용할 수 없지만 가끔씩 사용 가능한 노선도 있다. 현재 대한민국의 버스 회사 중에서는 KD그룹이 가장 규모가 크며 대한민국내 여객용 버스의 10%를 소유하고 있으며 경기도 노선의 절반을 관리한다.또한 현재 자가용 이용자들을 대중교통으로 유도하기 위해 버스전용차로제를 도입했다. 최근에는 장애인들을 배려하기 위하여 저상버스를 도입하는 자치 단체들이 생기고 있으며 수도권의 도심 지역의 혼란이 극심한 대한민국의 상황에 걸맞은 굴절버스를 수도권 일부 지역에서 도입하였으나 대부분 비용 문제 등으로 취소되었다.대한민국의 철도 및 광역전철의 총 연장 길이는 3,000km에 달한다. 이러한 대한민국의 철도시설은 1963년 9월 1일 교통부 산하에 철도청을 신설하여 이때부터 국가가 체계적으로 관리하였으나 2005년에는 기업체로 전환하여, 공기업의 형태인 한국철도공사와 한국철도시설공단에서 국유 철도를 관리하고 있다. 또 2016년 12월에는 한국철도공사가 자본을 출자한 민간기업 SR에서 운행하는 수서고속철도가 개통되며 철도경쟁시대가 도래했다. 대한민국의 대표적인 철도선에는 경부선, 호남선, 충북선, 경전선, 장항선, 전라선, 경춘선, 중앙선 등이 있다. 특히 경의선 철도는 평부선·평의선과 시베리아 횡단철도와의 연결을 추진하고 있다.대한민국의 도시철도는 수도권과 동남권 대구광역시 대전광역시 광주광역시 등에서 운행되고 있다. 시내를 운행하는 도시철도를 일컬어 등으로 부르기도 한다. 1974년 8월 15일 처음으로 개통된 수도권 지역은 1~9호선을 비롯하여 총 23개 노선이 운행되고 있으며 전국에서 가장 규모가 크다. 1985년 개통된 두 번째로 큰 부산 도시철도는 총 길이가 100km를 상회하며 6개 노선이 운행된다. 이 외에도 대구에는 3개 노선 광주와 대전에는 1개 노선이 운영되는 등 일부 광역시를 중심으로 도시철도가 마련되었다. 요금은 지자체마다 다르나 대부분의 노선에서 복지 정책으로 65세 이상의 노인과 장애인 국가유공자는 무임으로 승차할 수 있다.대한민국의 도시철도는 대체로 운행 시간이 정확하고 위생환경과 전반적인 이용이 쾌적하다는 긍정적인 평가를 받으나 실내먼지 오염농도가 높고 출퇴근 시간에 사용자가 많은 일부 역에서 혼란이 빚어지는 등 개선점도 지적된다. 또한 화재 확산 방지를 위하여 2003년 대구 지하철 화재사고 이후 열차의 내부 자재를 불연성 재질로 제작하고 있으며 방독면이나 소화기 등도 역사와 차내에 비치되어 있다. 선로 추락 사고나 자살 등을 예방하기 위한 대책으로 전국의 모든 도시철도 역에 승강장 안전문이 설치되었다.대한민국에는 8개의 국제공항과 7개의 국내선 공항이 대한민국 내외의 항공 교통을 담당하고 있다. 항공교통은 광복 후 1948년 대한국민항공사가 설립되어 국내선을 1954년 이후 국제선을 운항하였다. KNA는 1962년에 대한항공공사로 개칭하고 국영으로 운영되다가 1969년 한진상사가 인수하여 대한항공으로 개명하고 민영으로 운항되면서 급속한 성장을 보였다. 1988년 제2민간항공사업이 허가됨으로써 금호그룹의 아시아나항공과 함께 경쟁체제로 바뀌었다. 또한 대한항공은 2007년 기준으로 약 100억 톤의 화물을 처리하였다. 최근에는 진에어 에어부산 등 여러 저가항공사도 운행되고 있다.수출입화물운송에서 절대적인 지위를 점하고 있는 해운업은 선박의 노후화 선원부족 비용가중이라는 내부적 문제에 비국적선 취항증가로 경영압박을 받고 있다. 2002년 말 전국의 항만수는 총 49개항이며 이 중 무역항이 27개 연안항이 22개항이다. 이들 항만의 연간 하역능역은 2억7259만5000톤으로 1988년의 1억7077만톤보다 약 1.6배 증가했다. 선박등록현황은 총 763만 7549톤이며 이 중 여객선 12만 4513톤 화물선 521만 4636톤이고 외항선박들의 주요정기항로 취항현황을 보면 북미 25척 동남아 48척 한일항로 55척 등이다.2010년 10월 대한민국의 총인구는 주민등록상 5000만 명을 돌파했다. 대한민국의 모든 국민은 자동으로 건강보험에 의무적으로 가입되며 국가가 피부양자로 지정된다. 초등학교 6년과 중학교 3년은 무상의무교육이다. 민주화 이후의 한국 사회는 보수와 진보의 극심한 이념 대립 등에서 기인한 사회 갈등이 존재한다.국민의 대부분은 한국어를 모국어로 사용하는 한민족이다. 고대부터 중국 대륙 등지로부터의 인구 유입도 잦았으나 그들도 같은 민족으로 융화되었다. 다만 1990년대 이후 중국 동남아시아를 비롯한 개발도상국 국가에서의 이주가 늘어나면서 다민족적인 요소 또한 증가하고 있다. 2018년 통계청 기준 인구는 총 51629512명이다. 민족구성을 보면 한국인 49977951명 중국인 101만2000명, 베트남인 169,177명(0.33%), 태국인 151,104명(0.3%), 미국인 66,003명(0.13%), 우즈베키스탄인 57,998명(0.11%), 필리핀인 47,532명(0.09%), 캄보디아인 45,144명(0.087%), 인도네시아인 38,890명(0.075%), 네팔인 37,346명(0.072%), 몽골인 32,704명(0.063%), 미얀마인 25,874명(0.05%), 카자흐스탄인 25,850명(0.05%), 스리랑카인 24,727명(0.047%), 일본인 18,801명(0.036%), 러시아인 18,615명(0.036%), 캐나다인 13,602명(0.026%), 방글라데시인 13,555명(0.026%), 파키스탄인 10,550명(0.02%) 등이 있다.2016년 8월 기준 전체 대한민국의 임금노동자는 19627000명으로 그 가운데 2664000명이 최저임금보다 낮은 보수를 받고 일하는 것으로 추산됐다고 통계청은 전했다.고용노동부가 발표한 '2016년 전국 노조 조직현황'에 따르면 국내 전체 노조 조직률은 전년보다 0.1%포인트 오른 10.3%로 집계됐다. 노조 조합원 수는 196만6681명으로 전년보다 2만8136명 증가했다. 이 수치는 전교조가 법외노조가 되며 통계에서 빠진 수치이다.대한민국의 노동조합 연맹체로는 전국민주노동조합총연맹, 한국노동조합총연맹 등이 있다.대한민국에서는 수구 기독교 근본주의 세력을 중심으로 하여 기독교계에서 성소수자 혐오와 차별 등이 존재해 왔다. 대한민국에서는 2000년 홍석천 하리수 이시연 등의 등장 이전에는 성소수자라는 사실을 밝히기만 해도 주변에서 따돌림 학교 폭력에 노출되거나 취업 등에 불이익 등을 받아왔다. 성소수자들은 1992년 이후 본격적으로 한국 사회에서 목소리를 내기 시작하였으며 1993년 성소수자 단체 초동회가 처음 결성되고 1년 뒤에는 남자 동성애자인 게이 트랜스젠더 모임인 친구사이와 레즈비언 단체인 끼리끼리로 분리되었다. 1997년에는 대학생 동성애자 인권단체인 대학생동성애자인권연합이 결성되고 이듬해 동성애자인권연대로 명칭 변경 2015년 행동하는 성소수자 인권연대로 명칭 변경하였다.1998년 5월 17일에는 성소수자 인권 운동가 오세인이 1997년 자신이 게이임을 가족에게 밝혔다가 추방당한 후, 활동하던 단체 사무실에서 자살하였고, 2003년 4월 26일에는 동성애자를 악마, 사탄 등으로 비판하는 개신교계의 공격과 동성애를 청소년 유해 단어, 음란물로 지정하려는 움직임 등 성소수자 혐오에 저항하는 활동을 하는 시인 겸 작가 육우당이 끝내 자살하게 되는 사건이 있었다.2000년 이후 자신이 게이임을 커밍아웃한 홍석천을 시작으로 트랜스젠더인 하리수 이시연 등의 공개적 활동 등으로 성소수자들에 대한 맹목적 거부감이 사회적으로 서서히 사라지기 시작하였다. 이후 일부 단체와 일부 사회 인사들을 중심으로 성소수자들의 활동을 지지 성소수자 문화제 개최 등의 행사가 본격 등장하였다. 현재 대한민국 내 대표적인 성소수자 인권단체 연맹체로는 성소수자 차별반대 무지개행동 이 있다.한편 보수 기독교단체에서 는 개정안을 발의하며 논란을 낳았다.대한민국의 기득권층에서의 여성의 활약이 미미하다고 분석되는데 2017년 이코노미스트 유리천장 지수에서 한국의 고위직 여성 비율은 10.5% 기업 이사회 내 여성 임원 비율은 2.4%로 나타나 OECD 29개국 중 최하위를 기록했다. 대한민국 국회 내 여성 비율은 17%로 이는 OECD 평균보다 낮은 수치다. 근 십여 년간 대한민국의 대기업들이 외국인 임원과 여성 관리자를 뽑았지만 그 중 상당수는 몇 년도 버티지 못했다. 2010년 SK의 첫 외국인 여성 임원이었던 린다 마이어스는 "한국 기업은 다양성 문제에서 너무 보수적이고 변화에 느리다"고 평가했다.중화권, 일본, 동남아시아, 아랍, 독립국가연합 등을 비롯한 세계 여러지역의 사람들과 결혼하는 한국인이 늘고 있으며, 이러한 새로운 형태의 가정을 "이주가정"이라고 부른다. 특히 농촌 지역 기준 결혼 등록건수의 50%에 해당하는 1만여 건 정도가 국제결혼으로 등록되고 있다. 1990년대 초까지 남아선호사상이 잔존하였으며, 1970년대의 박정희 정부의 "둘만 낳자"는 가족 계획과 1980년대 전두환 정부의 "하나 낳아 알뜰살뜰" 등의 가족 계획으로 여자 아이에 대한 낙태 현상 등으로 1970년~1990년대 초반 출생자들 사이에서는 남녀 간의 성 비율이 깨져 여성에 비교하여 남성의 수가 월등히 많은 현상이 도래하였다. 또한 1980년대 후반부터 농촌 기피 현상으로 일부 농촌 지역 노총각들이 결혼, 연애가 어려운 것에 비관하여 자살하는 일이 증가하였으며, 1990년대 이후에는 외국에서 배우자를 찾는 농촌 총각들이 증가하였다.이주노동자는 1990년대 이후 국민들의 생활수준이 전반적으로 향상되면서 1970년대 이후 고졸이던 평균 학력이 1995년 고교평준화와 학력고사 등의 폐지 이후 대졸 내지는 초대졸로 변화하였다. 그에 따라 청년층이 "3D 업종" 또는 "4D 업종"으로 분류되는 직업을 기피하는 현상이 발생하고 있다. 또한 3D 업종과 4D 업종으로 분류되는 직종 외에도 중소기업과 일부 공장 등에 대한 기피현상이 두드러지게 나타나고 있다. 그로 인해 각지에서 많은 이주노동자들이 대한민국에 들어와 일하고 있다. 이들은 합법적으로 취업 비자를 받고 입국한 산업연수생과 불법적으로 들어온 불법 체류자로 나뉘는데 일반적으로 이주노동자라 하면 이들 둘을 통틀어 가리킨다. 2010년 기준으로 대한민국의 이주노동자 수는 55만 명으로 전체 경제활동인구의 2.2%를 차지하고 있다. 일각에서 이주노동자가 일자리를 빼앗아 간다는 견해가 있음에도 불구하고 이주노동자의 비율은 10% 대를 넘지 않고 있다.대한민국 내 난민의 대부분은 경제적 곤란 등의 이유로 북측에서 나온 탈북자로 정부에서는 이들을 대한민국 헌법에서 정한 상징적인 영토 규정에 의하여 대한민국 영토를 불법점거하고 있는 반국가단체의 집단을 탈출하여 대한민국의 영역으로 들어온 대한민국 국민이라고 하면서 국적 부여 생활 지원 등 다양한 혜택을 부여하고 있다. 또한 1990년대 이후 정치적 난민을 인정하기 시작하여 아프리카나 아랍권의 일부 국가로부터 정치적 혹은 종교적 박해를 피해 입국한 이들을 인도적으로 받아들이고 있으나 그 수는 일반적인 선진국에 비해 많지 않다. 2017년에는 양성애자 여성이 난민 인정을 신청하여 성 정체성을 이유로 박해를 받을 우려로 인해 대법원에서 받아들여진 사례가 있었다.한편 2018년 500명이 넘는 예멘인들이 제주도로 입국해 난민 인정 신청을 하면서 대한민국에서 난민 수용 여부에 대한 찬반 논란이 본격적으로 일어났다.2012년 6월 23일을 기준으로 대한민국 통계청은 총인구가 5000만 명을 돌파했다고 발표했다. 이는 세계 194개국 중 26위이다. 광복 직후에는 해외 동포들이 귀국하고 6.25전쟁 때에는 조선민주주의 인민공화국인들이 많이 월남했는데 광복 직후에는 약 180만 명 6.25전쟁에 약 100만 명이 남쪽으로 내려왔다. 1960년대 이후 대도시에 인구가 집중하게 되는 도시화 현상이 일어났으나 최근에는 쾌적한 생활을 위한 역도시화 현상도 나타나고 있다. 1970년 이전까지 5백여만 명이던 서울의 인구는 1988년에 1천만 명을 돌파하였다. 이후 서울의 인구 증가는 정체 상태에 있으나 인근 경기도의 인구가 급증하여 2007년 10월 말 수도권 거주 인구는 2390만 3785명으로 전국 인구의 48.6%를 차지하였다. 인구 밀도는 503명/km2이다.1990년대 들어 감소 경향을 보이던 서울의 인구는 2000년대 들어 소폭 증가하기 시작, 2009년에는 1046만 명으로 6년 연속 증가했다.인구 유입 등으로 수도권 전체 인구는 증가하는 반면 부산은 지속적 감소로 1995년 381만 명에서 2013년 356만 명으로 급감했으나 대신 인근 경상남도 지역의 인구가 증가하고 있다. 대구 역시 253만 명에서 252만 명으로 줄어들었다. 인천은 약 298만 명, 대전 155만 명, 광주 148만명 울산 117만 명 등이다.대한민국의 도시화율은 81.5%로, 전 세계적으로 매우 도시화된 국가에 속한다. 대한민국은 2020년을 전환점으로 하여 인구증가율이 마이너스를 기록하여, 2045년에는 인구 5천만 명 선이 붕괴될 것으로 전망되고 있다. 2018년 기준으로 합계출산율은 0.98명으로 세계 최초의 출산율 0명대 국가가 되어 세계 최저 수준의 출산율을 기록하고 있어 인구 감소에 큰 영향을 미칠 것으로 전망된다.초등학교 6년과 중학교 3년이 의무교육이다. 고등학교는 3년 과정이며, 일반계·전문계·특수 목적 고등학교로 분리되어 있다. 고등교육에는 4~6년제 대학교와 2~3년제 전문대학이 있다.2005년 인구주택총조사에 따르면 교육을 받는 정규학교 재학자는 1089만 명(24.7%) 졸업자는 2987만(67.8%) 중퇴자는 96만 명(2.2%)이고 졸업자는 초등학교 및 중학교 졸업자는 750만 명(24.5%) 고등학교 졸업자는 1263만 명 (41.2%) 대학 졸업 이상은 1050만 명(34.3%)을 나타내는데 이는 교육 수준이 상당히 높은 것으로 볼 수 있다. 하지만 이러한 높은 교육수준은 대한민국의 교육정책에 의해서 기인된 현상으로 보는 경우가 많으며 현재에는 오히려 학력인플레이션으로 인해 청년실업의 증가가 사회의 심각한 문제로 대두되고 있다.대한민국은 대학교 진학률이 다른 국가에 비해 상당히 높은 편이다. 일반적으로 대학교에 진학하려는 사람들은 대학수학능력시험을 치르게 된다. 대학수학능력시험은 고등학교 졸업 예정자 혹은 고등학교 졸업에 상응하는 학력을 가진 사람이면 누구나 치를 수 있다. 이 외에도 각 대학에서는 수시입학전형, 특별전형 등을 통하여 개별 대학의 요구에 맞는 학생들을 선발하고 있다. 또 대한민국은 사교육 시장이 크게 발달되어 있어, 사교육에 들어가는 비용이, 각 가정마다 월평균 70여만원을 웃돌고 있다.민주화 이후의 한국 사회는 우파와 좌파의 극심한 이념 대립 등에서 기인한 사회 갈등이 존재한다.2000년대 들어서 이러한 갈등은 고도로 발달된 인터넷 여론에 기반한 전국적인 규모의 촛불 집회로 종종 표출되었다. 이러한 대한민국의 대규모 촛불 집회에 대한 평가는 이념 진영에 따라 판이하게 다르다. 촛불 집회에 대하여 좌파 진영은 시민들의 민주 의식 신장에 따른 자연스러운 현상으로 민주주의의 필수 요소인 시민의 적극적 참여를 이끌어 냈다는 점, 인터넷을 통해 직접민주주의에 다가갔다는 점에서 긍정적으로 평가한다. 하지만 우파 진영은 선동에 의한 자유민주주의의 왜곡과 특정 정파 이해집단의 욕구를 위한 창구로 활용된다는 점을 들어 사회 혼란, 경제적 손실을 초래했다고 평가한다.또한 한국의 노사갈등에 대하여 상당수의 국민들이 문제라고 인식하고 있으며, 국제경영개발원에 의하면 한국의 노사관계는 57개국 중 56위로 선정되어 시급한 문제로 꼽히고 있다.이념 대립의 연장선에서 자유민주주의의 실현 방식에서 국가주도의 사회운영과 성장을 주장하는 국가주의세력과 개인의 자유에 따른 사회 운영을 주장하는 동시에 분배를 중시하는 자유주의진보주의 세력 간 논리의 충돌도 있다. 이는 서방세계와 같은 좌우 대립의 이념지형이 제대로 형성되지 않은 데서 기인한 사회 갈등인데 그 원인으로 일각에서는 대한민국이 반공반북을 중요시하여 좌파의 존재를 부정해야 하는 환경이 장기간 지속되었고 1980년대 학생노동운동 진영에 의해 만들어진 좌우 대립의 이념지형도 1990년대 초 세계적인 공산주의의 몰락으로 사라져 서방세계와 같은 이념지형이 형성되지 못했기 때문이라고 보고 있다.대한민국의 갈등 지수는 2009년 삼성경제연구소가 조사한 결과 OECD 회원국 중 4위에 해당하였으며, 이 같이 높은 사회 갈등에 따른 비용으로 국내총생산의 27%인 약 300조원을 지출하고 있는 것으로 나타났다.대한민국의 소통 지수는 2011년 아시아포럼21이 조사한 결과 100점 만점 중 이명박 정부의 소통 지수는 45.8점, 한나라당의 소통 지수는 42.6점, 기성세대와 젊은세대 간 소통 지수는 36.2점으로 모두 50점 이하인 걸로 나타났다.인종 차별이 다른 아시아 국가에 비해서 유독 심하며, 백인은 차별이 거의 없으나, 흑인 및 황인은 오히려 차별을 당하는 경우가 많다. 또한, 한국어를 모르는 아프리카 및 동남아시아 사람들에게도 차별 대우를 하는 경우가 있으며, 유럽 같은 경우에는 차별이 그렇게 심하지 않다.경쟁 심리도 심각하다. 대한민국은 어려서부터 성적 경쟁 위주의 교육과 문화 속에서 성장하게 함으로써 경쟁과 그 속에서 살아남는 법을 배우게 한다. 이에 따라 남과 나를 비교하며 오직 높은 곳만을 추구하게 되는데 이는 성인이 되어서 학력 위주 경쟁 스펙 위주 경쟁 실적 위주 경쟁 외모지상주의 물질만능주의 등으로 획일화된다.SBS와 한국갤럽이 2011년 천 명을 대상으로 설문조사한 결과, 우리 사회의 경쟁 수준은 평균 76점으로 10년 전보다 20점 가까이 높아져 경쟁이 계속 가속화됨을 보여주었으며, 국민 10명 중 8명이 "과도한 경쟁에 부담을 느낀다"라고 대답하여 상당수가 부담감을 느끼는 것으로 나타났다.경쟁은 모두를 스트레스 속에 놓이게 하며 장기간 스트레스는 매우 예민해지게 만들고 분노 불면증 우울증 등의 신체정신적 증상을 동반하게 된다. 그래서 이를 담당하는 정신과 진료와 심리 상담 치료의 횟수가 늘어나고 있으나 여전히 언덕 위의 하얀 집으로 불리는 등 차별의 대상이 되고 있어 상당수가 기피하는 실정이다. 또 경쟁은 다수의 패배자를 생산하게 되는데 이는 다수의 자존감 저하와 수치심 분노심 상승의 원인이 되고 있다.결국 사회 전반의 동질성 추구와 이질성 거부 심리 경쟁 심리는 복합적으로 작용하여 외국인 차별 왕따 학교 폭력 인터넷 악플 등으로 표출되고 있으며 이에 따른 피해로 정신 이상자의 수를 늘리거나 그런 정신 이상자를 방치하게 되어 자살자를 늘리거나 사회에 불만을 품고 불특정 다수에게 행하는 묻지마범죄의 수를 늘리는 결과를 가져오고 있다.이에 유엔 아동권리위원회는 2011년 10월 라는 보고서를 통해 학생의 성적에 따른 차별과 경쟁적인 교육체제에 대해 지적하며 개선을 요구하였다.학력 차별에 대한 대응으로 이명박 대통령은 2011년 라디오 연설에서 를 강조하였으며, 고용노동부가 고등학교 직업 교육에 지원을 강화하는 등 능력 중심의 열린 고용 지원에 나서고 있다. 하지만 백혈병이 생겨 산업 재해로 인정 받는 학생도 있었고, 음료공장 실습중 컨베이어 벨트에 끼어 숨지기도 하고, 제주도에서는 지하철 청소 실습 중 지하철에 치어 숨지는 사고 등으로 고등학교 현장 실습이 노동력 착취 수단으로 이용되는 경우가 많은 상황이다.2011년 정부에 의해 명칭을 "정신과"에서 "정신건강의학과"로 변경하는 등 다양한 진료를 하는 분야임을 알리기 위한 시도를 하고 있으며 남녀 심리치료범죄 심리 등 다양한 방송 프로그램 주제로 사용하거나 교수가 직접 매체로 나와 강의를 하는 등 대중에게 다가가기 위한 노력을 지속하고 있다.이러한 결과로 과거 대학교의 비인기 학과였던 '심리학과'가 상위 경쟁률을 기록하고, 관련 주제의 책이 대거 출간되고, 베스트 셀러에 오르는 등 인기가 높아지고 있다.한국콘텐츠진흥원이 2011년 발표한 자료에 따르면 대한민국 국민 전체의 여가 시간에 즐기는 활동 중 게임이 29.9%로 가장 높았다. 연령별 연령별로는 30대 미만의 경우 역시 게임이 가장 높게 나타났다. 반면 30대 이상 연령층은 영화와 TV 시청을 선호하는 것으로 나타났다. 의 자료에 따르면 대한민국 1인당 영화 관람 횟수는 2013년 4.12편으로 미국의 3.88편을 제치고 세계에서 영화를 가장 많이 보는 것으로 나타났다.자신의 여가생활에 대한 불만족 이유들로는 이라는 이유가 45.6%로 나타났다.한국은 반도에 있는 지리적 조건으로 대륙 문화와 해양 문화의 영향을 모두 받았다. 고대의 한국 문화는 시베리아 중앙아시아의 북방계와 동남아시아의 남방계가 혼합된 바탕에 중국 등 이웃 나라에서 들어온 외래 문화와 한국 고유의 독자적 문화와 융합하여 발전했다.관습적인 공용어이자 법적인 공용어는 한국어로 그 계통이 학계에서 확증되지 않은 고립된 언어이지만 많은 학자들이 알타이어족과 연관성 있음을 주장한 바 있고 특히 많은 한국인 학자들은 한국어가 알타이어족에 속한다고 보고 있다.한국어 표기에 쓰이는 문자인 한글은 세종대왕이 원로대신들의 반대를 무릅쓰고 언문청(諺文廳) 또는 정음청(正音廳)을 설치하여 훈민정음이라는 명칭으로 1446년 반포하였다. 한글은 각 자음과 모음이 하나의 기호로 표시되고 그 자음과 모음을 모아써서 소리를 나타내는 표음문자이다. 한글의 자음은 발음기관의 모양을 본뜨고 모음은 천(하늘ㆍ)지(땅ㅡ)인(사람ㅣ)을 나타내는 각 부호의 조합으로 만든 세계에서 유일하게 그 창제 원리가 밝혀진 문자이다. 한글 창제 이전에는 삼국 시대 혹은 그 이전부터 써왔던 한자와 이를 당시의 한국인이 쓰던 입말에 맞는 한자의 소리만 따서 문자로 표기한 향찰 구결 이두 등이 한국어 기록 수단이었다.한자는 훈민정음 창제 이후에도 양반층 및 관공서에서 계속 써왔으며 1894년 갑오개혁 이후에야 비로소 공문서에 한글을 쓰기 시작했다. 일부에서는 글의 이해를 돕는다는 측면에서 한글 대신 한자로 직접 표기하기도 한다. 1962년 3월 1일 박정희 대통령의 한글전용정책이 시행되면서 표기문자의 주류로 등장했고 현재 한자 표기는 중의적 표현을 막기 위해 부수적으로 쓰고 있다.초등학교 3학년부터 고등학교까지는 영어를 제1외국어로 의무 교육으로 가르치고 있다. 중고등학교에서 선택하여 배울 수 있는 제2외국어로는 중국어 프랑스어 독일어 일본어 스페인어 러시아어 아랍어이다. 대학수학능력시험때 수험생이 제2외국어를 선택할 수도 있다. 특히 일본어와 중국어는 대한민국 국민들이 가장 많이 배우는 제2외국어이기도 하다.대한민국 헌법에 의하면 언론의 자유를 인정하는 것과 더불어 집회, 결사, 표현의 자유를 허용하고 있다.대한민국의 일간 신문은 크게 전국지와 지방지로 나뉜다. 전국지는 대한민국 전국을 대상으로 발행되며, 지방 소식을 전달하기 위해 일부 지면을 할애한다.지방지는 특정 지역에 연고를 둔 신문으로 전국적인 뉴스를 다루기도 하지만 주로 해당 지역의 뉴스를 다룬다. 전국지로는 조선일보 중앙일보 동아일보 등의 보수적인 신문 이른바 으로 분류되고 있다. 2008년 한국언론재단에서 조사한 자료에 따르면 시장점유율은 조선일보 11.9% 중앙일보 9.1% 동아일보 6.6% 경향신문 2.7% 한겨레신문 1.7% 의 순으로 나타나고 있다. 특정 분야를 전문적으로 다루는 전문지들도 있으며 크게 경제에 관련된 소식을 다루는 경제지와 스포츠와 연예계 소식을 다루는 스포츠지를 들 수 있다. 한편 주요 도시의 공공시설에서 출근 시간대에 무료로 배포되는 무가지가 존재하며 인터넷 매체를 통한 인터넷 신문도 존재한다. 2008년 기준 대한민국 일간지의 수는 약 288종 주간지의 수는 약 2896종 월간지의 수는 약 3293종 격월간지의 수는 약 459종 계간지의 수는 약 981종 년 2회의 수는 약 325종 인터넷 신문의 수는 약 1040종 정도가 있다.방송의 경우 지상파 텔레비전 방송 FM라디오 방송 AM라디오 방송 단파 라디오 방송 케이블 방송 디지털위성방송 지상파 DMB 방송 등이 있다. 현재 전국 단위 지상파 방송으로 국공영 방송인 한국방송공사와 준공영방송인 문화방송이 있다. 지역 단위 지상파 민영 방송으로는 한국방송공사와 문화방송을 중심으로 한 계열과 서울지역의 지역민영방송인 SBS를 중심으로 한 SBS 네트워크 계열이 있으며 그외 독자적인 지방 민영방송인 경인지역의 경인TV가 있다. 그외 한국교육방송공사법에 따른 공영방송인 한국교육방송공사이 지상파 방송으로 있다. 종합편성채널 4사로는와 보도 채널인 연합뉴스TV와 YTN 등 2개의 보도 채널이 존재하며 케이블TV 최대 PP사업자인 CJ E&M과 티캐스트도 있다.라디오 방송의 경우 지상파 방송사인 KBS MBC SBS EBS가 점유하는 주파수와 기타 기독교방송 극동방송 불교방송 평화방송 원음방송 등 종교방송의 주파수 교통안내 전문 방송인 교통방송 국악 전문의 국악방송 그리고 국방홍보 목적의 국군방송 등의 여러 방송사가 존재한다.대한민국은 미국에 이어 세계에서 두 번째로 인터넷이 연결된 나라이며, 세계 최고 속도의 인터넷 속도를 보유하고 있다. 높은 초고속 인터넷 보급률과 인터넷 이용률을 보이는 대한민국은 2000년 초중반 인터넷 신문을 표방한 오마이뉴스, 프레시안 등의 등장과 함께 인터넷 신문과 포털사이트를 중심으로 한 인터넷 언론 매체가 두각을 나타내고 있다. 이런 인터넷 언론 매체들은 인터넷 매체 특유의 신속성과 높은 접근성 등을 강점으로 대한민국 사회에서 여론 형성에 상당한 위력을 보이고 있다. 참고로 단순 뉴스 전달자에 불과했던 포털사이트가 하나의 언론세력으로 성장하는 변화를 보임에 따라, 대한민국 정부는 인터넷 신문사, 포털사이트를 언론 기관으로 보고 법적 규제를 마련했다.대한민국에는 고대로부터의 전통적인 토착신앙으로서 무교이 있다.불교와 유교는 오래전 삼국시대부터 유입되었으며, 불교는 5세기부터 14세기 말(삼국시대 및 고려시대)에 이르는 약 1천 년 동안 한반도에서 융성하여 많은 사찰과 문화유산을 남기고 현재 단일 종교로는 대한민국에서 가장 신도수가 많다. 14세기 말 조선에서는 유교가 국교로 지정되었다. 그러나 현재는 유교를 학문과 사상, 가치관 그리고 철학으로서 배우는 사람은 있으나 신앙의 대상으로 삼는 사람은 그다지 많지 않다. 유교는 현재까지도 한국인들의 풍습이나 습관, 습성, 가치관, 사상, 생활 방식 등에 많은 영향을 미치고 있다.기독교의 경우 천주교는 조선 후기에 이승훈 등에 의해 서학이라는 이름으로 전파되었으며, 그 교세가 확장되자 병인박해, 신유박해 등 대규모 박해 사건이 일어난 일 때문에 프랑스의 병인양요가 일어난 계기가 되어 조선 정부의 탄압이 거세졌다. 당시의 순교자 중 103명이 천주교회에서 시성되어 성인이 되었다. 19세기 말부터 20세기 초 사이에 미국의 개신교 선교사들의 선교활동으로 학교와 개신교 교회들이 세워졌다. 이 시기에 감리교, 장로회 등의 개신교, 성공회, 정교회 선교사가 파송됨으로써 전파되었고 양적인 성장이 있었다. 대한민국의 기독교 역사는 비록 짧으나 빠른 속도로 발전하여 현대 사회에 큰 영향을 발휘하고 있으며 전 세계적인 종교활동 및 선교가 활발하다. 현재 성공회, 천주교와 정교회, 개신교를 합친 기독교 인구는 전 종교 중에서 가장 많다.그 밖에 천도교, 대종교, 원불교, 증산도, 통일교 등 여러 신흥 종교가 19세기에서 20세기에 이르는 기간 한국에서 창시되어 현재까지 신봉되고 있다.대표적인 대한민국의 전통 민요로는 아리랑을 들 수 있고 그 밖에 지방마다 다른 민요가 있다. 대한민국의 많은 가수들이 동아시아와 동남아시아권에 널리 알려져 있으며 대한민국의 대중음악 시장은 지속적으로 발전하고 있다. 대표적인 K-POP 가수로는 보아 동방신기 슈퍼주니어 소녀시대 샤이니 비스트 티아라 인피니트 방탄소년단 핑클 등이 있다. 또한 2012년에는 싸이의 로 빌보드 차트 5주 연속 1위를 기록하였다.한국 미술은 약 기원전 7천여 년 전 신석기 시대부터 시작되었다. 고조선 시기에는 제의를 위해 만들어진 비파형 동검 동경 방울에서 그 예를 찾아볼 수 있다. 삼국 시대에는 왕족과 귀족을 위한 예술이 등장하였는데 고구려의 고분벽화 백제의 금동대향로 신라의 금관이 대표적이다. 이후 고려 시대에는 도자기의 일종인 고려 청자와 먹으로 그리는 문인화가 발달했다. 조선 시대 때부터 양반 사대부들을 성리학에 기반한 문화를 발전시켰으며 이들은 문인화와 백자를 선호하였다. 이들 문화는 다분히 사대주의적이었으나 영조와 정조 시대에는 정선 김홍도 신윤복 등의 화원들이 나타나 특색 있는 미술을 만들었다. 동시에 조선시대에는 서민적인 미술인 민화가 발달했다.그 후 대한제국기와 일제 강점기를 거치면서 일본 유학생을 중심으로 서양 고전 미술과 모더니즘 미술이 도입되었고, 해방 이후 미국, 프랑스, 독일로 유학을 떠났다 돌아온 유학생들이 현대 미술을 시도하였다. 현대 한국 미술은 서양적 기술과 재료를 바탕으로 한 혼합된 서양화가 주를 이루고 있지만, 서예, 동양화와 같은 전통미술 역시 명맥을 이어나가고 있다. 한편 백남준은 독창적인 비디오 아트를 선보여 한국 출신 작가 중 가장 전 세계적으로 잘 알려진 예술가가 되었다. 하지만 한국 순수미술 분야는 국내외적으로 관심을 받지 못하고 있다. 반면 건축, 그래픽디자인, 산업디자인, 게임 같은 상업미술 분야에서는 점차 주목받고 있다.한국의 스포츠는 고대부터 무술에 근거한 체육 활동이 발달했으며, 특히 대한민국의 국기인 태권도는 올림픽 정식 종목에 채택되기도 하였다. 태권도 이외에도 한국 전통 무술인 궁술, 택견, 씨름이 있다.대한민국은 1948년 하계 올림픽부터 올림픽에 참가했다. 또 1988년 하계 올림픽을 서울에 유치하였으며 금메달 12개 은메달 10개 동메달 11개를 획득하여 종합 4위를 기록하였다. 올림픽에서 대한민국이 강세를 보이는 종목으로는 양궁 사격 탁구 배드민턴 쇼트트랙 핸드볼 유도 태권도 역도가 있으며 최근 20년간 하계 올림픽의 경우 시드니 올림픽을 제외하면 메달 종합 10위 이내의 성적을 올렸다. 특히 2012년 하계 올림픽에서는 종합 5위에 오르는 기염을 토하기도 하였다. 동계 올림픽의 경우 2018년 동계 올림픽을 개최하기도 했으며 2010년 동계 올림픽에서 대한민국은 종합 5위를 기록하며 최고 기록을 세웠다.대한민국은 또한 1986년 아시안 게임과 2002년 아시안 게임 2014년 아시안 게임등을 개최했으며 종합 1위는 1995년 동계 유니버시아드 2007년 동계 유니버시아드에서 차지한 적이 있다.실제로 즐겨하는 생활스포츠 그리고 국가대표팀 경기와 프로 경기 포함 TV로 가장 즐겨보는 스포츠 등 각종 부분에서는 축구가 최고 인기 스포츠로 선정되고 있으며 축구 야구 농구 배구 e스포츠 바둑의 6개의 종목이 프로 리그를 갖추고 있다. 프로 리그에서 인기 종목으로는 야구와 축구 등이 꼽히며 한국의 발전에 밑거름에 이어 근래에는 국제 대회에서 좋은 성적을 거둔다. 축구는 2002년 FIFA 월드컵을 일본과 공동 개최하며 대회 4위에 오른 적이 있다. 2010년 FIFA 월드컵에서는 원정 16강에 성공하였으며 2018년 대회까지 아시아에서 유일하게 10회 연속 월드컵 본선에 진출했다. 2012년 하계 올림픽 축구에서는 동메달을 따기도 했다. 야구는 2008년 하계 올림픽에서 우승 2009년 월드 베이스볼 클래식 준우승 2015년 WBSC 프리미어 12 우승의 경력이 있다.1990년대 말 게임 및 전자 산업의 발전과 더불어 성장한 e스포츠는 2001년 창립 후 선수 관리 경기 규칙 대회 방식이 체계화 되어 누구나 쉽게 참여할 수 있는 대중 스포츠로서 자리를 잡았다.2004년부터 파트 3 경마국으로 지정되었다. 2009년 대한민국의 서러브레드 경주마 생산은 1000여 마리였다. 경기도 과천시, 경상남도 김해시와 부산광역시 강서구, 제주도에 경마공원이 있고 32개의 KRA 플라자가 있다.한편 대한민국이 개최했거나 개최 예정인 스포츠 대회는 다음과 같다.한류(韓流, Korean wave)는 대한민국의 대중문화가 주로 아시아를 중심으로 외국에서 대중성을 가지게 되는 것을 말한다. 1997년 무렵부터, 문화 수출국을 목표로 하는 대한민국의 국책을 배경으로, 2000년 전후부터 대한민국 드라마가 아시아의 여러 나라들에서 방송되었다. 그 후 중화인민공화국이나 일본에서도 한국의 대중문화가 널리 유입되어 이 용어가 널리 사용되게 되었다. +애국가는 대한민국의 국가이다. 1919년 안창호에 의해 대한민국 임시 정부에서 스코틀랜드 민요인 〈작별〉에 삽입해서 부르기 시작하다가 1935년 한국의 작곡가 안익태가 지은 에 가사를 삽입해서 현재까지 부르고 있다.가사의 작사자는 윤치호 설, 안창호 설, 윤치호와 최병헌 합작설 등이 있다. 윤치호의 작사설 때문에 대한민국 임시 정부에서는 애국가를 바꾸려 하였으나 대한민국 임시 정부 주석 김구의 변호로 계속 애국가로 채택하게 되었다. 이후 1948년의 정부 수립 이후 국가로 사용되어 왔으며, 2010년 국민의례 규정에서 국민의례시 애국가를 부르거나 연주하도록 함으로써 국가로서의 역할을 간접적으로 규정하고 있다.애국가의 가사는 1900년대 초에 쓰여졌다. 작사자는 크게 윤치호라는 설과 안창호라는 설 두 가지가 있으며, 국사편찬위원회의 공식적인 입장으로는 미상이다. 작사자 윤치호 설은 윤치호가 애국가의 가사를 1907년에 써서 후에 그 자신의 이름으로 출판했다는 것이다. 한편 안창호가 썼다는 주장은 안창호가 애국가를 보급하는 데에 앞장섰다는 데에 중점을 두고 있다. 1908년에 출판된 가사집 《찬미가》에 수록된 것을 비롯한 많은 일제 강점기의 애국가 출판물은 윤치호를 작사자로 돌리고 있는 등 윤치호 설에는 증거가 많은 반면 안창호 설에는 실증적인 자료가 부족하다.윤치호의 사촌동생 윤치영은 윤치호가 대한민국의 애국가 가사의 일부를 썼다고 주장했다. 윤치영에 의하면 애국가 가사의 앞부분은 최병헌 목사가 짓고 후렴구는 윤치호가 지었다는 것이다. 최병헌은 윤치호가 다니던 정동감리교회의 목사였다. 윤치호와 최병헌이 함께 지었다는 애국가 사본이 2002년 한남대학교 교수 박정규에 의해 발견되기도 했다. 이는 윤치호의 가 합쳐진 형태로 후렴이 현재의 애국가와 같다. 또한 애국가의 원본은 그가 지었으나 후에 대한민국 임시정부에서 일부 개사했다고도 한다.그밖에 로 시작되는 협성회 무궁화가 역시 윤치호가 작사를 하였다는 설이 있다. 윤치호가 지은 노래 중 안창호가 가사의 성자신손 오백년은 우리 황실이요를 문제삼아 가사를 바꾸라고 요청하자 동해물과 백두산이 마르고 닳도록 으로 고쳤다. 그러나 1919년 대한민국 임시 정부에 참여한 안창호는 윤치호가 지었다가 본인 스스로 수정한 부분 중에서도 우리 대한 만세를 우리 나라 만세로 이기상과 이맘으로 임금을 섬기며를 이기상과 이맘으로 충성을 다하며로 안창호가 다시 고쳤다는 것이다.독립운동가 겸 정치인 주요한과 독립운동가 안태국의 사위 홍재형 등은 그가 지은 협성회 무궁화가를 안창호의 요청으로 개사한 것이 애국가의 기원이 되었다고 진술했다. 이는 한말 독립운동가인 안태국의 사위인 홍재형이 안태국의 말을 회고하는 < 안도산전서 > 의 내용에서 살펴 볼 수 있다.또 주요한은 <안도산전서> 에서 ´원래 끝 구절의 첫 가사는 였으나 1919년부터 상해에서 이를 지금과 같이 고쳐 부르기 시작하였고 이는 분명 안창호가 고친 것´이라고 서술하고 있다.한편 전택부 역시 윤치호가 애국가의 유력 작사자라 주장하였다. 그 근거로는 첫째로, 1907년 윤치호의 역술로 출판된 <찬미가>중에 현재 우리가 쓰고 있는 애국가가 들어 있다는 사실, 둘째로 미국에서 살고 있는 양주은이 소장한 국민가 중에 애국가가 윤치호의 작사로 되어 있다는 사실, 셋째로 해방 후 윤치호가 친필로써 애국가(사진 10번)를 쓴 것이 있다는 사실이다. 이러한 사실은 이미 1955년 벌써 밝혀졌던 사실 이라는 것이다.윤치호가 지은 찬미가의 개사본이 1910년에 실렸다. 애국가가 수록된 최초의 문헌이 윤치호의 “찬미가”이고 1910년 9월 21일자 신한민보에 애국가의 전문이 윤치호 작사의<국민가>라는 제목으로 실려 있어 윤치호가 가장 설득력을 얻고 있다.1902년에 윤치호가 지었다는 무궁화 노래가 애국가의 원형과 같다는 자료도 나타났다. 2006년 2월 27일에는 박정규(朴正圭) 한남대 교수가 충북 청원군에서 열린 단재 순국 70주기 추모 학술발표회 발표문 중에서 애국가의 원형이 된 노래도 함께 발표하였다. 신채호가 지은 '광무(光武) 5년 신축(辛丑) 2월 7일 신채호 배(拜)'라고 쓴 노래와 함께 발견된(1896)와 김인식의 (1910)가 합쳐진 형태로 후렴이 현재의 애국가와 같다.윤치호는 안창호의 노력으로 신학문을 수용하고 체계적 교육이 시행되고 있던 대성학교의 교장으로 있으면서 느낀 바 있어 자신의 작품격인 찬미가를 저술하며 여기에 도산이 대성학교 학생들에게 가르치던 애국가를 수록하였을 가능성도 배제할 수 없다. 애국가의 원작자로는 윤치호 설이 유력하다. 한편 1955년 국사편찬위원회가 윤치호 단독작사설을 심의했을 때 찬성 11표 반대 2표로 만장일치를 끌어내지 못하여 결정을 유보하였고 그 이후 애국가에 작사자에 대한 결정은 없었다. 따라서 현재 애국가의 공식적인 작사자는 미상이다.처음 애국가는 가사에 스코틀랜드 가곡인 〈올드 랭 사인)〉의 가락을 붙여서 불렀다. 새 곡을 써야 할 필요를 느낀 안익태가 1935년 11월 사 장조로 된 새 가락을 작곡하여 1936년 The Korean Student Bulletin 1936년 10월호에 애국가 악보 광고가 붙기도 하였다. 새 가락을 붙인 애국가의 악보는 1942년 뉴욕한인교회 이름으로 출판되었다.애국가는 1940년경에 상하이에 있던 대한민국 임시 정부에 전해졌고 국가로 채택되었으나 한반도에는 전해지지 못했다. 다만 1942년 8월 29일에 개국한 미국의 소리 한국어 방송은 애국가 1절을 매일 방송하였다.한반도의 독립 이후 새 애국가의 악보가 전해졌고 이후 1948년 세워진 대한민국 정부의 사실상의 국가가 되었다. 애국가의 악보는 교과서 등을 통해서 한반도 전역으로 퍼져나갔다. 다만 대한민국의 성문법에서는 국가를 별도로 규정하지 않았고 현재까지도 법령상 규정되어 있는 바는 없으나 사실상의 국가로 인정되어 있어 국가적인 행사 따위에서 연주 또는 가창된다.라디오 방송은 해방 이후에는 1945년 9월 9일(사실상 1948년 정부 수립)부터, 텔레비전 방송은 1956년 5월부터 1959년 2월까지, 1961년 12월 31일 이후부터 방송 시작맨트와 종료맨트(국명 고지)을 통해 애국가를 매일 방송하고 있다.1980년 12월 언론통폐합 이후 애국가는 KBS에서 제작한 사장조 애국가가 사용되어 현행 1995년 행정안전부의 KBS 교향악단 공식음원 배포이후에도 2000년대 후반까지 주로 사용되었다.이후 1990년대들어 SBS가 개국한 이후에는 1993년부터 선명회 합창단이 부른 애국가 사용을 하기 시작하였고 EBS도 마찬가지로 1993년에 제작한 자체 애국가 사용을 한적이 있었다. 광복 50주년을 맞은 1995년 SBS가 제작한 국립합창단과 선명회합창단이 부른 방송 애국가가 2009년 12월 31일까지 사용되어 이후 2010년 1월 1일에 제작한 과천시립예술단이 부른 애국가로 바뀌었고 같은해 광복 50주년 기념으로 KBS 교향악단이 배포한 YBM 서울음반의 애국가를 통해 제작 배포되어 현재까지도 행정안전부의 공식음원으로 지정되어 이후 모든 방송국에 확대 편성되었지만 2005년 저작권 기증이후에도 저작인접권으로 인해 국민의례용도로 제한적인 사용이 가능했었다. 그리고 2018년 12월 18일에 박인영이 작곡한 애국가를 편곡하였으며 서울시립교향악단과 서울시합창단이 공동으로 문화체육관광부와 한국저작권위원회가 제작 배포하였다. 그리고 새 편곡음원 애국가는 국민의례와 더불어 상업적으로 자유로운 사용이 가능한 편곡음원이다. 2019년 3월에 최초로 3.1운동 및 대한민국 임시정부수립 100주년을 맞아 SBS가 처음으로 사용을 시작했으며 9월 이후에 기독교방송 가톨릭평화방송 TBS 시민의 방송으로 확대되었다. 2020년 들어 1월에 한국교통방송 3월에는 마포공동체라디오 5월에는 EBS와 YTN 국회방송이 8월 19일에 금강공동체라디오로 확대 편성되었다.2020년이후 모든 국경일과 국가기념일 기념식 실황 중계의 애국가 제창 및 연주 영상으로 나온다.간혹 2020년 현충일 및 6.10 민주항쟁 기념식, 2021년 제102주년 삼일절 기념식, 현충일 기념식 한정으로, 박인영이 편곡한 문화체육관광부와 한국저작권위원회가 제작 · 배포한 애국가를 사용하였다.조선민주주의인민공화국에서.조선민주주의인민공화국은 대한민국을 주권 국가로 인정하지 않기 때문에 일반적으로 대한민국의 애국가 연주를 거부하고 있다. 이 때문에 조선민주주의인민공화국 축구 국가대표팀의 대한민국 축구 국가대표팀과의 2010년 FIFA 월드컵 예선 홈 경기는 평양이 아닌 중국에서 치러졌었다. 다만 2013년 평양에서 열린 아시안컵 및 아시아 클럽 대항 역도선수권대회에서는 이례적으로 대한민국의 애국가 연주가 허용되었다.1964년 제3회 서울 국제음악제에 초대된 지휘자 피터 니콜로프는 기자회견을 열어 자신이 서울에서 받은 대우가 좋지 않다고 불평하고 음악제를 추진한 안익태를 상대로 비난 성명을 발표하면서 애국가의 가락이 도브리치 시의 시가인 〈오 도브루잔스키 크라이〉()와 많이 닮았다고 주장했다. 그는 기자회견 자리에서 그 노래를 부르면서, "만약 불가리아 사람들이 한국에 와서 〈오 도브루잔스키 크라이〉를 부른다면, 한국인들은 일어날 것입니다"(If Bulgarian singers came to Korea and sang "O Dobrujanski Krai", Korean audiences would stand up!) 라고 발언했다고 한다.다만 두 곡은 첫소절이 서로 비슷하지만 〈오 도브루잔스키 크라이〉가 약박으로 시작하는 데 비해 〈애국가〉는 강박으로 시작하며, 전체적으로 가락의 분위기가 다르다. 안익태가 애국가를 작곡한 것은 1935년이고, 그가 처음으로 유럽에 간 것은 이듬해인 1936년이었기 때문에 그가 불가리아 민요를 접했을 가능성은 낮다. 또한 니콜로프의 논리는 1966년 안익태의 전기인 김경래의 에서 "안익태는 애국가를 작곡하기 위해 필라델피아 유학시절 무려 40여 개국의 국가를 수집했다. 또한 세계 각국의 민요, 가곡, 성가곡을 모아 애국가 작곡을 위한 기초 자료로 삼았다"는 증언에 맞지 않는다고 분석되기도 한다.1976년 이유선은 그의 책 에서 위의 표절 문제를 거론하며 “대한민국은 완전한 민주독립국가이니만큼 하루 속히 국가를 새로 제정해야 할 것이다”고 썼다. 이에 안익태기념사업회 측은 반론자료와 함께 정부 각 부처에 진정서를 보냈다. 문화공보부와 국회사무처는 애국가가 30년 동안 국가 역할을 한 점으로 볼 때 “명확한 근거 없이 표절 여부를 논하는 것은 바람직하지 않은 일”이라고 발표했다.과거에는 애국가의 저작권이 국가에 귀속되지 않고 안익태의 유족이 그 권리를 가지고 있었으며, 1992년부터 이에 따라 한국음악저작권협회의 신탁을 통해 저작권료를 받고 있었다. 이에 따라 2003년에 한국음악저작권협회에서는 프로축구단 경기에서 애국가를 무단으로 사용한 두 구단을 고소하였으며, 이에 따라 논란이 불거졌다.이후 애국가의 저작권을 국가에서 사들이는 것에 대한 논의가 일어났으며, 결국 2005년 3월 16일 안익태의 유족이 대한민국 문화체육관광부에 저작권을 기증함으로 문제는 일단락되었다.애국가의 작사자로 유력히 추정되는 윤치호가 말년에 일본 제국의 관료로 일했다는 점이 논란거리가 되기도 한다. 윤치호는 105인 사건 때 수감을 당한 적이 있는 근대 개화 사상을 전파한 지식인으로서 일제 초기에는 독립 운동가였지만, 105인 사건 후 전향하면서 30여년을 일본의 식민 지배를 위해 앞장섰던 것이다. 또한 작곡가인 안익태도 생전에 친일 활동을 했다 하여 정치적 논란이 되기도 한다.윤치호가 짓고 안창호가 개사하였다는 논란은 1920년대 대한민국 임시 정부에도 돌고 있었는데, 이 때문에 애국가의 채택을 놓고 임정에서도 논란이 많았다. 그러나 이에 대하여 임시정부의 지도자 중 한 명이던 김구는 상하이 임시정부 시절 한 동지에게 '우리가 3.1 운동을 태극기와 애국가로 했는데 누가 지었는가가 왜 문제인가'라며 '작사ㆍ작곡가의 성향보다 애국가 안에 담긴 정신이 더 중요하다'고 반박하였다고 전해진다.또한 곡의 음악성에 관하여, 그 선율 자체가 처음에 못갖춘마디처럼 들려, 이로 인해 뒷부분의 호흡에 문제가 생긴다는 지적이 있다. 실제로 2006년에 YB가 편곡한 애국가에서는 첫마디만 못갖춘마디로 바뀌어 있다.1977년 한국음악협회의 회장 조상현은 애국가의 표절 의혹과 함께 가사와 선율의 불일치 소극적인 내용의 가사 등의 이유를 들어 1월 26일 총회에서 새 국가를 만들 것인지 여부를 결정한 다음 통과되면 이를 정부에 건의하기로 발표했다. 하지만 총회에서 새 국가에 대한 논의를 하지 않기로 결정했다. 그 이후에도 정부가 국가를 새로 제정하려고 한다는 의혹이 일기도 했지만 정부는 앞으로 국가를 새로 만들 계획이 없다는 입장을 밝혔다.2019년 애국가의 친일성 문제와 안익태의 친일 및 친나치 행적이 지적되면서 청와대 국민청원에 국가 교체 청원이 나와도 있다. +노벨 물리학상은 6개 분야의 노벨상 중 하나로 1년에 한 번 스웨덴 왕립 과학원에 의해 수여된다. 첫 번째 노벨 물리학상은 1901년 엑스선을 발견한 독일의 빌헬름 콘라트 뢴트겐에게 수여되었다. 이 상은 노벨 재단이 주관하며 이 상을 수상하는 것은 물리학계에서 최고의 영예로 꼽힌다. 노벨 물리학상은 알프레드 노벨의 사망일인 12월 10일에 스톡홀름에서 수여된다. 2007년의 노벨 물리학상은 프랑스의 알베르 페르와 독일의 페터 그륀베르크가 거대 자기저항의 발견에 대한 공로로 공동 수상하였고 상금인 1천만 스웨덴 크로나를 나누어 가졌다.노벨 물리학상은 사람들이 그 과학자의 업적의 중요성을 알기까지의 시간이 걸리기 때문에, 다른 한 편으로는 시간과의 싸움이라고 말할 수 있다. 예를 들어 1983년 노벨 물리학상 수상자인 수브라마니안 찬드라세카르의 경우 그 이론은 이미 1930년에 이미 발표하였지만 사람들에게 인정을 받지 못하여 50여년이 지나서야 상을 받을 수가 있었다. 또한 2013년 노벨 물리학상 수상자인 피터 힉스와 프랑수아 앙글레르의 경우 그의 이론을 검증할 수 있게 되는 과학기술이 발전하기 까지 오랜 시간이 걸려, 49년 뒤 그의 업적이 사실로 확인되어 노벨상을 받게 되었다. 그래서 많은 이론과 발견이 사람들에게 중요성을 인정받았지만, 그 이론이나 발견을 발표한 과학자가 이미 죽어버렸기에 노벨 물리학상을 받지 못하는 안타까운 경우도 있다.안익태는 대한민국 태생의 스페인의 작곡가, 첼리스트, 트럼페터, 바이올리니스트, 지휘자이다. 호는 산남이다. 1945년 8.15 조선 광복 이후 대한민국 서울의 숭실중학교와 숭실고등학교에서 각각 명예 졸업장을 수여받기도 한 그는 대한민국의 국가인 애국가를 작곡했으며, 대표 작품으로 한국환상곡이 있다. 친일인명사전에 올라가 있다. 일제강점기의 초반에는 독립운동가로 열심히 활동하였지만 중반부터는 당시 일본과 친밀감이 있던 독일로 넘어가 만주국 건국10주년 기념 음악을 만들고, 음악회를 지휘하였다. 1941년에는 일본의 궁중음악인 에텐라쿠를 지휘하고, 일본의 국가인 기미가요를 연주하였다.안익태는 1906년 평안남도 평양에서 태어났으며, 평양종로보통학교와 평양 숭실고등보통학교를 마쳤다. 1921년에 일본으로 유학, 도쿄 세이소쿠 중학교에 음악특기자로 입학하였다. 1926년에는 도쿄 구니타치 고등음악학교에 입학해 첼로를 전공했고, 1930년 졸업 후 다시 미국으로 유학했다. 와 커티스 음악학교, 음악대학원에서 첼로와 지휘 등을 배웠고 한인 교회 등에서 음악감독으로 일하기도 했다.1936년에 처음 유럽을 방문했고 이때 파울 힌데미트와 펠릭스 바인가르트너를 만나 음악 활동에 대한 의견을 교환했다고 전해진다. 또한 안 에키타이( 서양식 이름 에키타이 안)라는 일본어 이름을 사용했을 정도로 친일 행적을 시작했다는 주장이 광복회 일부에서 제기됐다. 그러나 안익태 후손은 정책에 의해 추진되었다. 그 이전까지는 조선인에 대한 일제의 인종차별 정책 때문에 조선인이 일본식 이름을 쓰고 싶어도 쓸 수가 없었다.안익태는 1937년에 음악대학원을 졸업한 뒤 1938년에 아일랜드의 더블린 방송 교향악단을 객원지휘했다. 이후 헝가리에 머물면서 부다페스트 음악원에서 졸탄 코다이와 에르뇌 도흐나니 등에게 작곡을 배웠고, 종전 직전까지 독일과 이탈리아, 유고슬라비아, 불가리아, 루마니아, 프랑스, 스페인 등지에서 지휘 활동을 했다.1941년부터 1943년까지 주베를린 만주국 대사관 공무원인 에하라 고이치의 집에서 살았다. 안익태가 작곡한 의 가사에는 제2차 세계 대전의 추축국인 일본 제국·나치 독일·이탈리아 왕국 3국의 결속을 다짐하는 내용이 있는데, 가사의 일부는 에하라가 썼다고 한다. 에하라는 물밑에서 독일 내의 일본 첩보활동을 총괄하는 일을 담당하고 있었으며 독일에서 활동하는 예술인들로부터 정보를 수집하고 있었다.안익태 본인은 리하르트 슈트라우스를 1930년대 후반에 만났다고 밝혔으나, 실제로는 베를린에 머물렀던 1942년에 만난 것으로 보인다. 이 시기의 안익태 공연 프로그램에 '슈트라우스의 제자' 라는 내용이 실리기 시작했고, 슈트라우스가 자신의 작품인 '일본 축전 음악' 을 지휘한 것을 축하하는 의미로 작성해준 추천장이 남아 있다. 안익태는 2차대전 종전 후 슈트라우스의 교향시들을 본격적으로 다루었으며, 일본의 옹가쿠노토모샤에서 슈트라우스의 전기를 출판하기도 했다.전황이 악화되자 1944년 4월에 파리에서 베토벤 축제 연주회를 마친 직후 독일의 우방인 스페인으로 피난했으며 그 해 12월에는 그의 대표작인 한국 환상곡의 현존하는 가장 오래된 자필 악보를 완성했다.1946년에는 스페인 여성 롤리타 탈라베라와 결혼하여 마요르카 섬으로 이주했고, 마요르카 교향악단의 상임지휘자가 되었다. 이후 스위스, 멕시코, 과테말라 등에서 지휘했고, 1955년 3월에 대한민국 정부 수립 후 처음으로 고국을 방문했다.1962-64년까지 3년간 서울에서 국제음악제를 주관했고 런던 교향악단과 런던 필하모닉 오케스트라 도쿄 교향악단 등을 객원지휘했다. 1965년 7월 4일에 런던의 필하모니아 오케스트라와 마지막 연주회를 가진 직후 건강 상태가 악화되었고 9월 16일에 스페인의 바르셀로나 병원에서 60세의 나이로 타계했다.안익태의 1940년대 유럽 활동에 대한 정보는 대부분 김경래와 롤리타 탈라베라의 전기에 기록된 자료로 전해져 왔으나, 최근에 진행된 연구들에서 이들 자료의 잘못된 정보와 왜곡 사례를 지적하고 있다.2000년에는 음악연속간행물 의 베를린 통신원이었던 진화영이 안익태의 베를린 필하모니 관현악단 지휘에 대한 기록이 종전의 1940년이 아닌 1943년이며 단 한 차례 뿐이었다는 기사를 발표했다. 같은 해 발굴되었다는 안익태의 지휘 모습이 담긴 기록 영화가 2006년에 독일에서 음악을 공부하고 있는 송병욱에 의해 만주국 축전 음악회의 실황 녹화였다는 사실이 밝혀져 국내 음악계에 충격을 주기도 했다.2006년 11월 19일에 송병욱의 강연회를 통해 만주국 축전 음악회의 기록 영화가 한국에서 처음으로 공개 상영되었으며 2007년에는 음악학자 이경분이 독일과 스위스 등지의 문서 보관소 등에서 찾아낸 자료들로 안익태의 1938-44년 활동상을 정리한 책이 출간되었다.2008년 발표된 민족문제연구소의 친일인명사전 수록예정자 명단의 음악 부문에 선정되어 논란이 일었다. 안익태의 명단 포함에 대해 안익태기념재단 측은 고 해명하였다. 이 명단의 군 부문에는 형인 안익조도 포함되어 있다. +서울특별시는 대한민국의 수도이자 최대 도시이다. 백제의 첫 수도인 위례성이었고 고려의 남경이었으며 조선의 수도가 된 이후로 현재까지 대한민국 정치경제사회문화의 중심지이다. 중앙으로 한강이 흐르고 북한산 관악산 도봉산 불암산 인릉산 청계산 아차산 등의 산들로 둘러싸인 분지 지형의 도시이다.서울의 면적은 605.2 km2로 대한민국 면적의 0.6%이고 인구는 약 950만 명으로 대한민국 인구의 17%를 차지한다. 시청 소재지는 중구이며 25개의 자치구가 있다. 1986년 아시안 게임 1988년 하계 올림픽 2010년 서울 G20 정상회의 등을 개최하였다. 2018년 서울의 지역내총생산은 422조원이었다."서울" 어원에 관해 여러 가지 설이 존재하나, 학계에서는 일반적으로 수도를 뜻하는 신라 계통의 고유어인 서라벌에서 유래했다는 설을 유력하게 받아들이고 있다. 이때 한자 가차 표기인 서라벌 원래 의미에 관해서도 여러 학설이 존재한다. 삼국사기 등에서 서라벌을 금성으로도 표기했다는 점과 신라까지 포함하여 "설", 즉 '새로운 땅'이라는 뜻으로 새기는 견해가 있다. 고대-중세 한국어에서 서라벌에 관한 정확한 발음을 확실하게 확인한 게 없으며, 그 발음은 훈민정음 창제 후 ""이라는 표기가 등장하고 나서 알게 되었다.서울 한자 음차 표기로는 이십일도회고시 한경지략 증보문헌비고의 서울(徐菀) 동사강목 북학의의 서울(徐蔚) 대동지지의 서울(徐鬱) 앙엽기의 서올(徐兀) 등이 있다. 이처럼 조선 시대 서울은 한양 한성(漢城) 외에도 서울() 경도(京都) 경부(京府) 경사(京師) 경성(京城) 경조(京兆) 등으로 불리기도 했으며 김정호의 수선전도에서 알 수 있듯 수선(首善)으로 표기한 예도 있다. 이 가운데 한양과 한성을 제외하면 모두 수도를 뜻하는 일반명사로서 '서울'이 원래는 서울 지역(사대문 안과 성저십리)만을 가리키는 말이 아닌 수도를 뜻하는 일반명사였다는 방증이다. 국어사전에서는 일반명사 '서울'을 '한 나라의 중앙 정부가 있고 경제 문화 정치 등에서 가장 중심이 되는 도시'라고 정의하고 있다. 1910년 10월 1일에 일제가 한성부를 경성부로 개칭하면서 일제강점기에 서울은 주로 경성으로 불렸으며 1945년 광복 후에는 '경성'이란 말은 도태되고 거의 '서울'로 부르게 되었다.서울 로마자 표기 "은 19세기 프랑스 선교사들이 서울을 쎄-울로 표기한 데서 비롯했다. 오늘날 프랑스에서는 서울을 "로 표기하고 스페인어권에서는 "로 쓰나 모두 '쎄울'로 읽는다. 또 영미권에서는 일반적으로 "로 쓰고 영혼을 뜻하는 단어 "처럼 '쏘울'로 읽는다. 서울시에서는 이러한 점을 착안하여 2006년 11월 13일 서울시 서브슬로건을 로 지정하였다.서울은 한자어가 아닌 고유어 지명이기 때문에 서울이라는 한자가 존재하지 않아서 중국에서는 서울을 한청이라 불렀고 1988년 서울올림픽도 한성올림픽이라고 불렀으나 2005년에 서울시가 서울과 발음이 유사한 서우얼을 서울 공식적인 중국어 표기로 정하면서 점차 이 표기가 확산되어 가는 추세다. 일본어 표기는 다.해방 이후에는 미군정청 문서에서 서울특별시 영문 공식 명칭은 'Seoul Independent City'였다. 직역하면 "서울독립시"이나 독립시라는 표현이 어색하다는 한국어 관점에 따라 "특별시"로 번역한 게 굳어져 'Seoul Special City'로 되었다. 하지만 서울특별시청 홈페이지에서 서울특별시 공식 영어 명칭은 'Seoul Metropolitan Government'이다.서울은 북위 37° 34′, 동경 126° 59′의 한반도 중서부에 위치하는 분지 지형의 도시이다. 시의 중심으로 한강이 흐르고, 서울 도심에는 남산, 인왕산이 있다. 시 주변으로 북한산, 관악산, 도봉산, 수락산, 불암산, 구룡산, 우면산, 아차산, 지양산 등이 서울을 둘러싸며 경기도 및 인천광역시와 자연적 경계를 이루고 있다. 동서 간의 거리는 36.78 km, 남북 간의 거리는 30.3km이며, 면적은 약 605.25 km2이다. 서울의 면적은 대한민국의 0.6%이며 남북한 면적의 0.265%이다. 서울특별시의 최북단은 도봉구 도봉동이고 최남단은 서초구 원지동이며 최동단은 강동구 강일동, 최서단은 강서구 오곡동이다.서울은 국립공원으로 지정된 북한산을 최고점으로 한 고양양주구릉과 경기평야가 만나는 지대에 있다. 주위에는 북한산도봉산인왕산관악산 등 500m 내외의 산과 구릉이 자연성벽과 같이 둘러싸고 있는 분지이다. 광주산맥의 한 줄기인 도봉산은 백운대인수봉노적봉의 3개 봉우리가 솟아 있는 북한산과 이어져 있고 그 산줄기는 다시 남으로 뻗어 북악산을 솟게 하였다. 그리고 북악산에서 동으로 뻗은 산줄기에 낙산 서로 뻗은 산줄기에 인왕산이 있다. 인왕산에서 뻗은 산줄기 중 남쪽으로 뻗은 것은 숭례문을 지나 남산응봉과 이어져 있고 서쪽은 무악재의 안부를 지나 안산과 이어져 있는데 모두 구릉성 산지이다. 한강 남쪽에는 100m 이하의 구릉지가 펼쳐져 있고 남쪽에 천연의 요새와 같이 서울의 외곽에 솟아 있는 관악산 청계산 구룡산 우면산 등이 있다. 그 외에 서울 동부에 불암산 수락산 망우산 아차산 등이 있다.서울의 중심에는 한강 하류가 동에서 서쪽으로 흐르고 있다. 하류이기 때문에 구배는 완만하며 물의 흐름은 느리나 홍수 때는 상중류의 유역 지방으로부터 흘러내려오는 물 때문에 수위가 높아진다. 여의도는 상류로부터 운반되어 온 토사가 퇴적된 하중도이다. 한강물은 서울시민의 수돗물로도 공급되는데 과거에는 뚝섬과 선유도 등에도 취수장이 있었으나 현재는 잠실 수중보와 팔당 저수지로부터 물을 끌어들여 공급하고 있다. 한강은 일제 강점기까지 별다른 정비가 없었다가 1960년대 이후 한강을 정비하는 사업이 진행되기 시작하였다. 1968년 밤섬을 폭파한 뒤 여의도를 개발하였고 1970년부터 1975년까지 잠실 개발계획으로 잠실섬과 부리도의 남쪽 물길을 막아 육지로 만들었다. 1982년 시작된 '한강종합개발사업'을 통해 둔치를 조성하고 강변 양쪽에 강변북로와 올림픽대로를 놓았다. 2006년에는 한강 르네상스라는 이름으로 한강 주변을 다시 정비하였다.한강 이외의 주요 하천으로는 불광천, 안양천, 중랑천, 청계천, 탄천, 양재천, 여의천, 홍제천 등이 있다.서울의 임야 면적은 2006년을 기준으로 157.35 km2으로 임야의 51.5%는 국공유림이고 49.5%는 사유림이다. 임야의 분포는 산이 많은 노원구에 17.73 km2 관악구에 17.53 km2 강남구에 16.11 km2가 있어서 전 임야의 32.6%를 차지하고 있다. 이 임야의 많은 부분이 개발 제한 구역으로 묶여 있어서 임야는 잘 보호되고 있는 편이긴 하지만 임야 면적은 매년 조금씩 줄어들고 있다.한반도 경기 지괴 내에 위치한 서울의 지반은 주로 중생대에 형성된 화강암과 선캄브리아기에 형성된 화강편마암의 두 종류로 되어 있다. 중생대의 대보 화강암은 서울의 동북부인 종로구 중구 동대문구 성북구 강북구 도봉구 노원구와 북한산 관악산 일대에 분포되어 있고 선캄브리아기 지층은 주로 서남부인 마포구 강서구 양천구 구로구 금천구 동작구 서초구 강남구 송파구 강동구 일대에 분포되어 있다. 그 경계선은 대체로 서대문구 연희동-아현동-공덕동-용산구 삼각지역-동빙고동을 잇는다.화강암은 조립질이면서 다른 암석과는 다르게 절리(節理)가 잘 발달하고 풍화작용에 약하며 도봉산백운대인수봉과 같은 봉우리가 기암절벽을 만들어 서울 특유의 절경을 보여 주고 있다. 홍제동안암동창신동장위동 등지의 화강암은 1990년대까지만 하여도 건축재로 쓰이곤 했다.화강편마암은 견고한 암석이지만 접착성이 적기 때문에 쉽게 붕괴되어 봉우리를 이루지 못하나 작은 기복을 이룬 노년기 지형을 나타내주고 있다. 특히 동작동 부근의 화강편마암은 판형으로 쉽게 벗겨져 온돌의 구들장으로 쓰였고 화강편마암이 풍화되어 된 천호동의 점토는 벽돌과 옹기 제조의 원료로서 많이 쓰였다.신갈 단층은 한반도 경기 지괴 내 연천군에서 서울특별시와 성남시 분당구 등을 지나 평택시까지 이어지는 연장 130km의 주향 이동 단층이다. 추가령 단층대의 일부이며 한국지질자원연구원에서 제공하는 지질도에 의하면 도봉구 성북구 동대문구 강남구 서초구 남부 등 서울특별시 동북부를 지난다.서울 도심 주변에는 도심을 관통하는 청계천의 계속된 침식으로 북악산과 남산에서 산기슭이 발달되어 기복이 많은 지형이 되었다. 을지로에 있던 구리개, 조선일보사 앞의 황토현이란 기복은 가로공사와 도시개발에 따라 그 자취를 찾아볼 수 없으나, 현재도 율곡로·퇴계로·을지로 곳곳에서 기복을 찾아볼 수 있다. 이러한 기복 때문에 이 지역에는 고개 또는 현이란 지명이 남아 있다. 이러한 지명에는 충무초등학교 부근의 풀무고개 또는 대장고개, 인현·종현·진고개, 계동 일대에 관상감현, 가회동 일대에 맹현·홍현·안현·송현·배고개 등이 있다. 이러한 지형은 조선시대에 잘 이용되었다. 풍수설에 따라 북악산 기슭에는 경복궁·창덕궁·창경궁·종묘, 인왕산 기슭에는 덕수궁을 지었고, 궁궐 사이는 궁인·귀족·고관 들의 저택지로 이용하였다. 이 지역의 침식으로 운반된 토사는 청계천 연안에 퇴적되어 평탄한 시가지를 형성하게 하였다. 따라서 도심지에서 가장 평탄한 곳은 청계천 북쪽의 연안으로 동대문에서 세종로 사이의 종로이며, 이곳에서는 지형의 기복을 거의 찾아볼 수 없다. 삼각지로부터 해발고도 20m의 갈월동을 지나면 지형이 차차 높아져서 서울역 앞에 오면 더욱 높아지기 시작하고, 숭례문 부근은 해발고도가 40m 내외가 된다. 이곳은 분수계가 되어, 동으로는 청계천이 동으로 흘러 중랑천과 합류한다.서울은 냉대 동계 소우 기후 또는 온대 하우 기후에 속하며 습윤 대륙성 기후로 분류하기도 한다. 기온의 연교차가 큰 대륙성 기후이다. 최근 기온 상승으로 인해 최한월 평균기온이 영하 3 °C보다 높은 -2.4 °C로 높아져 대한민국 기상청은 온대 하우 기후로 변경했다. 그러나 이는 열섬 현상으로 인한 것으로 외곽 지역은 여전히 -3 °C 미만으로 내려간다는 점과 냉대 기후의 최한월 평균기온 기준을 0 °C 미만으로 간주하는 경우도 많다는 점에서 온대기후와 냉대기후의 중간정도 되는 기후이다. 여름 기온과 겨울 기온의 연교차가 28.1 °C로 매우 크기 때문에 겨울은 매우 춥고 여름은 몹시 무덥다. 최근 30년 기준으로 서울의 연평균 기온은 12.8 °C 이고 최난월인 8월 평균 기온은 26.1 °C 최한월인 1월 평균 기온은 -1.9 °C이다. 특히 최한월의 평균 기온은 같은 위도 상의 다른 도시에 비해 낮은 편이다. 시내의 기온 분포는 중구와 같이 가옥이 밀집한 곳과 많은 자동차가 배기가스를 뿜으며 지나는 간선도로 그리고 도심부의 포장도로가 지나는 지역이 가장 기온이 높고 한강 연안과 가옥의 밀집도가 낮은 지역은 기온이 낮게 나타나고 있다. 도심의 기온은 여름철의 6 7 8월 3개월을 제외하고는 해가 거듭될수록 높아지고 있다. 따라서 이 상태로 계속 기온이 높아진다고 가정하면 약 100년 간에 평균기온은 1.8 °C 일 최저 기온의 연평균치는 3.1 °C씩 높아질 것으로 예상된다. 반면 시내의 습도는 점점 줄어들고 있다.계절은 여름이 가장 길고 그 다음 겨울, 봄 순서대로이고 가을이 가장 짧다. 봄은 3월 중순부터 시작되는데 월평균 기온이 5 °C 이상으로 올라가고 날씨는 맑고 따뜻해진다. 그러나 제트기류가 서쪽에서 불어올 때 황사가 일어나기도 한다. 여름은 20 °C 이상의 기온이 계속되며 7, 8월에는 30 °C 내외, 심하면 35°C 이상의 무더운 날씨가 많다. 또한 장마나 집중호우가 계속되어 많은 비가 내리므로 홍수의 피해가 크다. 가을은 하늘이 높고 맑은 날이 계속되며, 기온은 차차 내려가 선선한 날씨가 시작된다. 겨울은 최저 기온이 0 °C 이하로 내려가는 날이 100일 내외, 최저기온이 -10 °C 이하로 내려가는 날이 29.4일로서, 추운 날이 비교적 오래 지속되고 있다. 눈이 내리는 기간은 12.5일, 얼음이 어는 기간은 16.4일이나 강수량은 여름에 비하면 훨씬 적어 건조한 날씨가 많다. 최근 30년 기준으로 연평균 강수량은 약 1,417.9mm이나, 1990년에는 2,355.5mm, 1949년에는 633.7mm가 내릴 정도로 연 강수량의 기복이 심한 편이다. 계절별 강수량은 여름철에 892.1mm, 겨울철에 67.3mm로 여름철에 강수가 크게 집중되는 경향을 보인다.한반도는 계절풍 지대에 속하기 때문에 서울은 여름에 남동풍 겨울에 북서풍이 빈번하게 분다. 도심부에서 도로 위를 부는 도로바람은 남산의 북사면에서 발달한 차가운 공기가 충무로 지하상가 위를 지나 을지로 입구 쪽으로 이동하기 때문에 퇴계로 2가 부근에서 바람이 가장 강하게 분다.역대 최저 기온은 1927년 12월 31일의 -23.1 °C, 역대 최고 기온은 2018년 8월 1일의 39.6 °C이다.시내에는 큰 건물과 공장의 굴뚝에서 내뿜는 매연 자동차의 배기가스 등의 오염물질이 늘어나면서 태양광선이 제대로 땅에 닿지 못하고 있으며 따라서 시내에 내리쬐는 일사량은 매년 감소되어 가고 있다. 비행기나 높은 산 위에서 시내를 내려다보면 연기와 먼지를 품은 오염대기층인 연진모자가 상공을 덮고 있어 서울 시야를 나쁘게 하고 있다. 2011년 환경부가 7대 도시의 대기 오염물질을 조사한 결과 전국의 미세먼지 평균농도는 51㎍/m3이고 서울의 미세먼지 농도는 49㎍/m3로 나타났다. 2013년을 기준으로 하여 서울시는 전국 16개 지방에서 8위를 하였고 광역시나 특별시 중에서는 4위를 하였다. 그러나 최근 수년 동안 서울시에서는 청정연료 확대보급 경유자동차 저공해화 도로비산먼지 청소 공사장 비산먼지 관리 등과 같은 대기질 개선활동을 집중적으로 전개해 오면서 대기질이 좋아지기 시작했으나하지만 2020년 코로나19 상황과 역대 가장 긴 장마 때문에 서울의 미세먼지는 110일 동안 보통 이하를 기록하기도 하였다.서울특별시의 행정구역은 25개 자치구와 424개 행정동이 있다. 한강 남쪽에 11개, 한강 북쪽에 14개 자치구가 있다. 2020년 4월말 주민등록 인구는 9,726,787명이다. 가장 인구가 많은 구는 송파구, 가장 인구가 적은 구는 중구이다.21대 국회의원 선거 기준 49개 선거구로 나뉜다. 주민등록 인구에 따라 29만5천 명 미만인 자치구는 1개 29만5천 명 이상 ~ 59만 명 미만인 자치구는 2개 59만 명 이상인 자치구는 3개의 선거구를 가진다.고려 멸망 후 조선이 천도한 후 조선 태종 때 인구는 약 10만 명이었으며, 이후 1900년대까지 20만 명 선을 유지하였다.일제 강점기 이후 서울의 인구는 지방 인구의 도시집중 현상으로 급격하게 늘어나서 과밀화 현상을 빚고 있다. 1919년에 인구 25만 명, 인구밀도 6,874명/km2이었던 것이 1925년에는 인구 34만 명, 인구밀도 9,297명/km, 1930년에는 인구 33만 명, 인구밀도 9,824명/km2, 1935년에는 인구 40만 명, 인구밀도 11,172명/km2에 달하였다. 이에 따라 1936년에 시역을 확장하여 인구는 73만 명으로 증가하고 인구밀도는 5,430명/km2으로 감소하였다. 1945년 광복 당시의 인구는 90만 명, 인구밀도 6,628명/km2이었는데, 외국에서의 귀국, 한반도 북부지역 출신 등으로 1946년에는 인구가 127만 명으로 급격하게 증가하였고, 인구밀도는 9,309명/km2이 되었다. 1948년에는 인구 171만 명에 인구밀도 12,055명/km2으로, 1949년에는 136.05 km2이었던 시의 면적이 268,35 km2로 확장되었고 인구는 142만 명, 인구밀도는 5,284명/km2이 되었다.1951년에는 한국 전쟁으로 인구가 65만 명 인구밀도는 2416명/km2으로 급격하게 감소하였다. 그러나 1953년에 휴전과 환도로 다시 인구가 급격하게 증가하기 시작하여 1955년에는 인구 157만 명 인구밀도 5869명/km2 1960년에는 인구 245만 명(전체 인구의 10%) 인구밀도 913명/km2 1970년에는 인구 543만 명(전체 인구의 18%) 인구밀도 9013명/km2 1980년 인구는 836만 명 인구밀도 13074명/km2 1990년에는 1061만 명 인구밀도가 15532명/km2이 되었다.이렇게 계속 증가하던 인구도 1992년 인구 1,097만 명, 인구밀도 18,121명/km2을 정점으로 감소하기 시작했다. 이는 정부의 서울 인구 분산 정책에 따른 것으로. 서울 교외에 분당·일산·평촌·중동과 산본등의 1기 신도시가 개발되었고 이 마저도 포화상태로 현재 운정, 판교, 동탄등 2기 신도시 개발에 따른 이주에 의한 것이다. 계속 감소하던 인구는 2003년 인구 1,028만 명, 인구밀도 16,975명/km2을 정점으로 다시 증가하기 시작하였는데, 이는 '뉴타운'으로 불리는 서울 시내 대규모 재개발로 인한 인구 유입의 영향이 크다. 2009년 12월말 기준 인구는 10,464,051명, 4,116,660세대이고, 인구밀도는 17,289명/km2이다.서울의 인구증가를 보면 1960년경부터 대한민국의 경제성장과 함께 각종 산업이 발전하면서 고용 증대가 이루어졌고 이에 따라 농촌인구가 급격하게 서울로 집중하게 되었다. 농촌에서는 생계가 어려워 무작정 서울로 온 이농 인구 덕분이었다. 서울은 자연증가보다 사회증가에 의하여 과밀화 상태에 이르게 되었다. 또한 서울에는 교육기관이 많이 분포하고 있어 서울에서 대학을 졸업한 학생들은 주로 서울에서 취업을 하거나 생활 터전을 마련한다.다만, 2010년대 들어 서울의 높은 전세로 인해 서울의 인구순유출 속도가 한국 도시들 중 가장 빠르며, 2016년 5월을 기점으로 서울 인구가 1,000만명 선 아래로 떨어졌다. 사실상 서울 올림픽이 열리던 1988년 1000만명을 넘어선 서울의 인구가 28년만에 1000만명 아래로 떨어진 것이다. 2018년 5월 기준으로 서울의 인구는 980만명이다. 서울을 빠져나가는 대부분의 인구는 경기도로 이동하고 있으며, 세종시나 제주도로의 이동도 이루어지는 역도시화 현상이 일어나고 있다.서울은 대한민국의 수도로서 입법부행정부사법부 등 국가의 통치 기관이 집중되어 있다. 종로구에는 청와대와 정부서울청사를 비롯한 중앙 행정 기관과 헌법재판소 등 국가 중요 기관이 있고 중구 정동에는 각국의 외교 대사관이 밀집해 있다. 또한 여의도에는 국회가 서초구에는 대법원을 비롯한 법조 단지가 형성되어 있다.2014년 서울의 지역내총생산(GRDP)은 327조 6020억 원이며, 실질성장률은 2.2%이다.삼성, LG, 현대자동차, SK, 롯데 등 주요 대기업의 본사가 있다. 대한민국 GDP의 22%를 창출하고 있으며, 금융 기관의 50% 이상이 집중되어 있다.서울의 공업은 1919년에 영등포에 세워진 방직공장을 시초로 한다. 영등포에는 그 외에도 피혁공장과 철도공작창이 지어졌으며, 1940년대 들어서 제2차 세계 대전으로 인한 일본의 군수물자 조달을 목적으로 영등포와 용산을 중심으로 군수 산업이 발달하였다. 8·15 광복과 한국 전쟁을 거치면서 잠시 침체 상태에 있었으나, 1962년부터 시작된 국가 주도의 경제 개발로 인해 서울의 공업은 급속도로 발달하였다. 1971년 형성된 구로동 수출산업공단은 섬유·전자기계·고무합성수지제품·금속·광학기기류 등의 생산으로 서울 최대의 산업단지가 되었으며, 인근의 영등포 기계공단과 묶여 경인공업지구를 형성하였다.1990년대 초까지 용산·영등포·천호동·노원구 등에 공업지구가 형성되어 있었으나, 수도권이 팽창하면서 인천·시흥·안산·부천 등 인근 지역으로 옮겨갔다. 2000년대 들어 첨단산업이 발달하면서 구로동·가산동 지역의 대규모 공단이 디지털산업단지로 탈바꿈하여 현재는 수많은 IT 벤처 기업이 있다.서울의 상업은 4대문 안 서울 도심인 종로·남대문로·충무로·명동·을지로와 청계천 등의 상가와 남대문시장·동대문시장·중부시장 등의 시장과 백화점, 대형 할인점 등을 중심으로 이루어지고 있다. 1960년대 들어 대단위 슈퍼마켓과 연쇄점·지하상가가 시내 요소에 설치되어 새로운 상가를 형성하였다. 전문상가로는 전국에 의류를 공급하는 남대문 의류상가와 동대문 평화시장, 가락동 농수산물도매시장, 노량진수산시장, 용산전자상가, 경동시장 등이 있다.서울대학교 서울시립대학교 서울과학기술대학교 한국예술종합학교 한국체육대학교 등 국공립 대학교와 연세대학교 고려대학교 서강대학교 성균관대학교 한양대학교 중앙대학교 경희대학교 한국외국어대학교 이화여자대학교 건국대학교 동국대학교 광운대학교 홍익대학교 국민대학교 숭실대학교 세종대학교 등 사립 대학교들이 소재하고 있다. 대학교 40개교 교육대학 1개교 방송통신대학교 1개교 전문대학 12개교 등이 있다.문화와 관광 그리고 주요시설.서울은 대한민국 문화활동의 중심지가 되고 있으며 도서관·박물관·신문사·출판사·방송국·공원과 기타 문화시설들이 집중되어 있다.서울에는 132개의 국보 380개의 보물 61개소의 사적 11개의 천연기념물 32개의 무형문화재 46개의 중요민속자료 등이 있다. 또한 경복궁 등의 고궁과 각종 공원 등이 있어 시민들과 외국 관광객들에게 좋은 휴식처와 관광 명소가 되고 있다. 운동경기장으로는 잠실에 잠실종합운동장 목동에 목동운동장 성산동에 서울월드컵경기장이 있다.국립중앙박물관 등 60여 개의 박물관이 있다.서울에는 시립 도서관 23개 소가 있으며, 시립 도서관의 경우 대부분 서울특별시교육청에서 운영하고 있다. 그 외에도 각 자치구에서 설립한 구립 도서관이 있다. 최근 구립 도서관의 숫자가 늘고 있는 추세이다. 장서 100만여 권을 가진 국립중앙도서관과 국회도서관, 그외에도 공공 및 사립도서관, 대학도서관 등이 있다.서울의 도심 지역에는 대형 종합 신문사들의 본사가 몰려 있다. 도심인 중구에는 조선일보 중앙일보 경향신문 서울신문 매일경제신문 종로구에는 동아일보 한국일보 본사가 있고 마포구에는 한겨레가 위치하고 있다.서울시티투어버스는 광화문을 기점으로 서울의 중심 관광지를 순환하고 있다.서울은 1986년 아시안 게임 1988년 하계 올림픽을 개최하였으며 2002년 FIFA 월드컵의 개막전과 4강전을 비롯한 총 3경기가 서울월드컵경기장에서 치러졌다. 서울특별시 송파구에는 1986년 아시안 게임과 1988년 하계 올림픽의 개막식 폐막식이 있었던 서울올림픽주경기장과 이를 기념하는 올림픽공원이 있으며 마포구에는 월드컵공원이 있다. 노원구에는 종합선수합숙훈련장인 태릉선수촌이 있다.대한민국에서 가장 많은 프로스포츠팀을 보유한 도시이며 특히 프로스포츠 양대 산맥인 프로축구 K리그와 프로야구 KBO 리그에서 1990년 럭키금성 황소 와 LG 트윈스 그리고 2016년 FC 서울과 두산 베어스의 2차례 동반 리그 우승을 달성하였다.승용차와 대중교통인 지하철 버스 택시 등이 주된 시내 교통 수단이다. 주요 환승지로는 1호선 서울역 영등포역 용산역 서울고속버스터미널 센트럴시티 동서울종합버스터미널 남부터미널 12호선 시청역 2호선 강남역 신도림역 24호선 사당역 등이 있다. 2007년 말 기준으로 자동차 등록 대수는 2933286대로 수송 분담률은 2006년 기준으로 지하철 34.7% 버스 27.6% 택시 6.3% 자가용이 26.3% 등이다. 1899년부터 운행하던 전차가 1968년 없어지면서 서울의 대중 교통 수단은 많이 달라졌다. 1966년부터는 시가지의 대폭적인 재개발로 건물의 고층화와 함께 도로의 입체화가 진전되었다. 대중 교통 수단의 재배치는 서울 도시 구조에 매우 큰 영향을 끼쳐왔다. 대표적인 예로 1기 지하철 특히 당초 계획과는 달리 거대 순환선으로 변경된 2호선이 서울의 공간에 끼친 영향을 들 수 있다.경부고속도로, 서해안고속도로, 용인서울고속도로 등이 남쪽으로 이어져 있으며, 인천국제공항고속도로와 경인고속도로는 서쪽에 있는 인천광역시와 연결된다. 시 외곽에는 수도권제1순환고속도로가 둘러싸고 있다. 도시 내부에는 강변을 따라가는 강변북로, 올림픽대로, 내부순환로, 동부간선도로, 서부간선도로, 남부순환로, 북부간선도로 등의 간선도로가 건설되어 있다.강변북로는 고양시와 파주시 올림픽대로는 인천광역시와 부천시 동부간선도로는 성남시와 의정부시 서부간선도로는 안양시와 광명시 북부간선도로는 구리시와 연결된다. 서울시내의 주요 도로로는 테헤란로 세종대로 종로 강남대로 시흥대로 등이 있다.서울에서 버스가 처음으로 운행을 하기 시작한 때는 1928년으로 라는 이름으로 10대를 운영했다. 1949년 17개 회사가 서울시로부터 면허를 받고 버스 운영에 뛰어들었다. 이후로 여러 차례의 확장과 개편을 거쳤으며 2004년 서울특별시 버스 개편으로 버스 준공영제와 환승할인 제도가 도입되었다. 현재 시내버스 간선버스 마을버스 광역버스 등을 포함한 수백개의 버스노선이 시내를 연결하고 있다.서울에서 택시는 1912년에 처음 운행을 시작하였고, 1919년 최초의 택시회사가 설립되었으며, 1926년에는 미터기가 도입되었다. 8·15 광복 후에도 발전을 거듭하여 1970년 콜택시가 등장하고, 1988년에는 콜택시 대체용으로 도입된 중형택시, 1992년에는 모범운전수가 운전하고 콜택시를 도입하는 등 서비스 수준을 높인 모범택시가 선을 보였다. 또한 2009년에는 소형택시 부활이 결정된 이후 2011년 12월부터 소형택시 70여대가 운행되고 있다. 2015년 10월에는 고급택시가 운행을 시작했다. 2020년을 기준으로 서울시 소형택시의 기본요금은 2100원, 중형택시는 3800원, 모범택시는 5000원, 고급택시는 8000원이다.서울은 한반도 철도의 중심지이다. 서울에서 다른 도시간을 잇는 철도 교통이 골고루 발달되어 있다. 지역에 따라 이용할 수 있는 역이 나뉘어 있어 서울역에서는 경부선과 경전선 KTX 용산역에서는 호남선전라선장항선 청량리역에서는 중앙선태백선영동선 강릉선열차가 출발한다. 그 외에도 영등포역 등의 중간역에서 열차를 이용할 수 있다. 또한 인천국제공항에서 인천국제공항철도를 이용하여 서울역까지 접근할 수 있다. 또한 철도관제센터 또한 서울에 위치해 있어 그곳에서 대한민국 전역의 모든 철도를 총괄 관리 및 명령한다.1968년 서울전차의 퇴역으로 이를 대신할 대중교통수단 건설이 논의되었고, 1974년 수도권 전철 1호선의 개통으로 본격적인 도시 철도 시대를 열었다. 1기 지하철 사업으로 2호선, 3호선과 4호선이 개통되었고, 그다음 2기 지하철 사업으로 5호선, 6호선, 7호선, 8호선이 새로 건설되어 추가되었다. 이후 9호선이 건설되면서, 2011년 현재 한국철도공사 관할 구간을 제외하고 9개 노선이 운행하고 있다. 서울의 도심과 부도심을 이어주며, 특히 서울 지하철 2호선의 개통은 서울의 공간에 적지 않은 영향을 끼쳤다. 서울 지하철 5호선의 경우에는 최초로 한강 아래로 터널을 뚫어 운행을 시작했다. 서울 지하철 1호선을 포함한 일부 노선은 한국철도공사의 수도권 전철과 연계 또는 직결 운행하여 서울 주변의 위성도시들을 연결한다.동아시아 단거리 국제선과대한민국 국내선은 주로 김포국제공항을 나머지 중장거리 국제선은 인천국제공항을 이용한다. 서울 도심에서 인천국제공항까지는 약 1시간 정도가 소요되며 인천국제공항철도 또는 인천국제공항고속도로를 이용하여 접근할 수 있다.과거에는 뚝섬과 마포에 포구가 있어 번창하였으나, 육상교통이 발달되면서 자취가 사라졌다. 또한 노량도·양화도·한남도·송파도·광나루 등의 나루터가 있었으나 한강대교가 가설된 후부터 옛날의 나루터 모습은 완전히 사라지고 말았다. 한강 개발 이후가 된 후 관광용으로, 또한 통근용으로 수상 교통의 부활이 이루어졌다.한강종합개발사업의 일환으로 1986년 10월 26일부터 관광용 한강 유람선 운행을 시작했다. 여의도와 잠실 등 8개 선착장에서 운행하고 있다.한강 르네상스 프로젝트의 일환으로 2007년 10월 11일부터 한강 수상택시 운행을 시작했다. 여의도와 잠실 등 한강변 18개 승강장에서 운행하고 있으며 교통수단 뿐만 아니라 관광용으로 이용되고 있었으나 운항정지 중이다.서울특별시는 2014년 2월 기준 20개국 24개 해외 자매도시들과 교류를 하고 있다. +앙카라는 터키의 수도이다. 이스탄불에 이어 두 번째로 큰 도시이며 앙카라 주의 주도이기도 하다. 인구는 4,587,558명이고, 앙카라 주의 인구는 5,150,072명이다.앙카라는 터키의 초대 대통령 무스타파 케말 아타튀르크의 정치적 중심지로, 1923년 오스만 제국이 멸망하고 터키 공화국이 세워지자, 이스탄불을 대신해 수도로 지정됐다. 앙카라는 공무원이 많이 거주하는 도시이지만, 아나톨리아 지역의 상공업의 중심지이며, 도로와 철도 교통의 중심지다.앙카라에는 중동전문대학와 앙카라대학이 있다. 또 국립도서관, 고고학박물관, 민속학박물관과 국립극장, 대통령 관현악단이 앙카라에 있다.앙카라가 수도가 된 이후의 개발로 옛 도심지였던 울루스와 신 개발지대인 예니세히르로 구분된다. 울루스는 로마비잔틴오스만 양식의 옛 건물과 좁은 도로로 대표되는 데 반해 예니세히르에는 넓은 도로 호텔 극장과 아파트 건물이 들어차 더 현대도시다운 모습을 하고 있다. 정부 청사와 외국 공관도 예니세히르에 소재해 있다.앙카라는 기원전 2000년부터 기원전 1700년까지 히타이트 문명의 지배하에 있었다. 기원전 1000년 경에는 프리기아인들이 이 곳에 정착했고 프리기아의 수도인 고르디움이 현재 앙카라 주의 남서쪽에 위치한 포랏르에 있었다. 앙카라는 고대에 프리기아인들의 풍요한 도시였으나 후에 지진으로 고르디움은 파괴되었다. 미다스의 손 신화로 유명한 미다스 왕이 프리기아의 왕이었다.프리기아의 풍습은 리디아와 페르시아의 통치 기간에도 계승됐다. 프리기아의 풍습은 로마 시대 때까지 계속됐다. 페르시아 제국의 왕도가 이곳을 지나갔다. 중앙 아나톨리아 지방의 주권은 페르시아 제국이 기원전 330년 알렉산더 대왕에게 패배하기 전까지 페르시아 제국이 갖고있었다. 알렉산더 대왕은 고르디움을 통해 앙카라에 입성했고 짧은 기간만 머물렀다. 기원전 323년 알렉산더 대왕이 사망하자, 마케도니아 제국은 뿔뿔히 나뉘어서 안티고노스 1세가 앙카라 지역을 차지한다,기원전 300년 경에는 아나톨리아 지방의 북동부에 위치한 폰토스가 무역거점으로 삼기위해서 이 지역에 진출했다. 그리고 앙카라의 이름의 기원이 된 안키라라는 이름이 생겨났다.그 후 기원전 232년경 갈라티아 지방에 정착한 켈트인의 일파인 텍토사게스족(라틴어 Tectosages)들의 중심지가 되었다.기원전 189년에는 로마의 집정관 '그나이우스 만리우스 불소'가 앙카라를 점령하여 갈라티아인들에 대한 군사활동의 근거지로 삼았다. 기원전 63년에는 폼페이우스가 다른 텍토사게스 영토와 함께 한 수장 아래 두어 한동안 자치가 이루어지다가 기원전 25년에 아우구스투스 황제가 앙카라를 로마 제국의 갈라티아주 수도로 삼았다.이때 앙카라의 주민구성은 그리스인, 유대인, 로마인, 로마화된 켈트인들을 포함하고 그리스어가 사용되었으나 그리스화된 헬레니즘 도시가 되지는 않은 상태였다. 기원후 19년경 그리스인 지리학자 스트라본은 앙카라를 도시가 아니라 요새라고 불러 그리스·로마 도시 수준의 공공시설 등을 갖추지 못하였다고 암시하고 있다.비문이나 주화에 남겨진 기록으로 유추해 볼 때 당시 앙카라의 문화는 켈트 바탕에 로마의 사상과 관습이 얹힌 형태였다고 여겨진다. 150년경에야 진정한 헬레니즘이 싹트기 시작한다. 기독교가 북쪽이나 서북쪽으로부터 전파된 시기는 이르면 1세기 정도로 생각된다. 앙카라의 위상은 콘스탄티노플이 로마 제국의 국제 도시가 되고 나서야 가까운 지리조건 덕에 크게 올라갔다. 그 후 중세에도 앙카라는 여전히 중요한 도시로의 위치를 고수하였다. 비잔티움 제국의 도시였을 때는 페르시아인들과 아랍인들의 공격을 받았다.1073년에는 셀주크 튀르크에게 점령을 당하였다. 십자군 원정을 온 툴루즈의 레이몽 4세가 1101년 셀주크 튀르크를 몰아냈으나 비잔틴 제국은 앙카라를 지배할 만한 힘이 없어 그 후 셀주크 튀르크와 다른 경쟁 세력들은 앙카라를 두고 서로 싸웠다.1356년에는 오스만 제국의 2대 술탄인 오르한 1세가 앙카라를 정복하였다. 티무르 제국의 티무르가 아나톨리아 원정 때 앙카라를 포위 공격해 1402년 빼앗았다. 그러나 1403년에 앙카라는 다시 오스만의 지배하에 돌아와서 제1차 세계 대전 때까지 오스만 제국이 지배하고 있었다.1차 대전의 종반 무렵 현재의 터키 지방은 오스만 술탄의 지배하에 있었으나 그리스 군의 침공을 받고 있는 상태였다. 터키 민족주의 지도자 케말 파샤는 그의 저항운동 본부를 1919년 앙카라에 세웠다. 1923년 터키 공화국이 수립되고 앙카라가 이스탄불 대신 터키의 수도로 정해졌다.앙카라가 터키 공화국의 수도가 된 이후, 구시가지는 울루스로, 신시가지는 예니셰히르로 불리게 되었다. 로마시대, 비잔틴시대, 오스만 제국 시대의 유적들과 오래된 시장, 옛 관공서 등은 울루스에, 대로, 신식 호텔, 극장, 쇼핑몰, 신식 관공서, 대사관 등은 크즐라이를 중심으로 하는 신시가지에 위치하게 됐다. 그 이후, 앙카라는 터키 공화국의 수도로서 눈부신 발전을 이룩했다. 1924년에는 앙카라의 인구는 35,000명 밖에 되지 않았다. 1950년에는 286,781명이 사는 도시가 되었고, 2014년에는 5,150,072명의 인구가 사는 대도시가 되었고, 현재 터키에서 두 번째로 인구가 많은 도시가 됐다.2015년 10월 10일 현지시각 오전 10시 4분에(EEST) 앙카라 중앙역 앞에서 테러가 발생했다. 이 테러로 102명이 사망하고, 400명이 넘는 사람들이 다쳤다. 이 테러는 터키 공화국의 역사상 최악의 인명피해를 낸 테러였다.앙카라는 중앙아나톨리아 지역 즉 내륙에 위치하다보니 대륙성 기후를 띈다. 여름에는 덥고 건조한 날씨가 겨울에는 춥고 눈이 많이 온다. 주로 가을과 봄에 비가 내린다. 앙카라는 고지대에 위치하다보니 여름에는 낮에 덥고 건조하지만 밤에는 시원하다. 연간 강수량은 402mm 이고 1월 평균기온은 0.4°C 7월 평균기온은 23.6°C이다.1923년 터키의 수도가 될 당시 앙카라는 원래 인구 50만 명을 수용할 수 있는 도시로 계획이 되었다. 1927년 앙카라의 인구는 75,000명에 불과했지만, 1950년대에 들어서면서 지방에서 많은 사람들이 이주하여 인구가 폭증하기 시작하였다. 2013년에는 5,045,083명으로 집계되었다.앙카라는 중요한 상업공업도시이며 주변의 농업 지대에게는 중요한 시장이다.역사적으로 앙고라 염소털로 만든 모헤어, 앙고라 토끼 털로 만든 앙고라 울을 생산하는 섬유산업이 발달했었다. 또한, 중앙 아나톨리아 지방에서 포도가 많이 생산되었기 때문에 와인 생산지로도 유명했다. 특히, 카바클데레 와인이 유명하다.공업에서는 TAI, MKE, 아셀산, 하벨산, 로켓산, 누롤 마키나 등의 항공산업 및 방위산업 관련 회사들의 본사가 위치하여있다. 이들 업체의 수출은 계속해서 늘어나고 있다. 또한, 독일의 버스, 트럭 제조 회사인 MAN SE의 공장도 위치하여있다. 또한, 앙카라에 위치한 앙카라 대학교, 중동공과 대학교, 빌켄트 대학교 등에서 배출한 인재들이 꾸준히 산업에 투입되고 있다.정부기관의 고용 역시 앙카라 경제에 상당히 큰 부분을 차지한다. 또한 각국의 대사관에서 일하는 외국인의 비중도 높은 편이다.외국인 관광객들이 많이 찾는 시장은 울루스에 위치한 츠크르크츠라르 요쿠수로 주로 양탄자 가죽 제품 등을 판매한다. 바클크라르 시장은 장식품 카펫 골동품 등으로 유명한 시장이다. 앙카라성 근처에도 향신료 말린 과일 견과류 등을 판매하는 시장이 있다. 또한 스히예 광장 주변에는 매일 전통시장이 열린다.현대적인 쇼핑몰은 크즐라이나 찬카야의 투나르 힐미 에비뉴에서 주로 볼 수 있다. 크즐라이역 주변에는 크즐라이 쇼핑몰이 있는데 푸드코드, 스타벅스, 옷가게가 입점해있다. 아트리움 몰(Atrium Mall) 옆에 바로 옆에 있는 아타쿨레 타워의 꼭대기 층에는 레스토랑이 있다. AT역 주변에는 아르마다 쇼핑 몰이 위치하고 있다. 또한, 케치외렌의 에트리크 지역에 대형 슈퍼마켓, 오락실, H&M 등이 입점해있는 안타레스 쇼핑몰이 위치하고 있다.아르마다 CEPA 켄트파크 쇼핑 몰이 고속도로 변에 있고 갈레리아 알자디움 골디온이 위밋쾨이에 위치한다. H&M ZARA 등의 브랜드가 입점해 있는 앙카몰은 앙카라에서 가장 큰 쇼핑몰로 아크쾨프뤼역 바로 앞에 위치해 있다. 2014년에는 넥스트 레벨과 타우루스 쇼핑몰이 오픈했다.앙카라는 정치적으로 이슬람주의 보수당인 정의개발당 케말주의 중도좌파인 공화인민당 민족주의 극우인 민족주의자운동당가 의석을 나누어 갖고 있다. 선거구 수는 25개이다. 2014년 선거 결과 공화인민당은 2개의 의석을 차지하고 있으나, 앙카라에서 가장 인구가 많은 찬카야에 의석을 가지고 있다. 민족주의자운동당은 2개의 의석을 갖고 있다. 전반적으로 정의개발당이 많은 의석을 차지하고 있다. 앙카라는 이즈미르나 이스탄불과는 달리 정치적으로 보수적인 경향을 보인다. 하지만, 2013년 터키 반정부 시위 때 앙카라에서도 이스탄불, 이즈미르 못지 않은 격렬한 시위가 발생했고, 다수의 사상자도 있었다.멜리흐 괵체크(Melih Gkek)가 1994년부터 현재까지 앙카라의 시장으로 재임 중이며 터키 복지당(RP Refah Partisi)에서 선행당(FP Fazilet Partisi)으로 그리고 정의개발당으로 당적을 옮겼다. 멜리흐 괵체크는 1994년 선거를 시작으로 1999년 2004년 2009년까지 당선되었으며 2014년 선거에서도 당선되면서 5선 시장이 되었다. 민족주의자운동당에서 2009년 보수 정치인인 만수르 야바쉬(Mansur Yava)를 내세웠으나 낙선했다. 멜리흐 괵체크는 2009년 선거에서 1% 차이로 승리했으며 만수르 야바쉬는 이를 조직적인 부정 선거라고 주장했다. 만수르 야바쉬는 터키 최고선거관리위원회에 제소했으나 기각당했고 그 후에 유럽 인권 재판소에 이를 다시 재소했다. 멜리흐 괵체크가 5번이나 당선됐지만 2009년 선거는 상당수의 유권자들이 부정선거로 인식하고 있다.앙카라 지하철과 대부분의 버스는 EGO에서 운영한다. 대다수의 버스는 교통카드만을 이용해서 사용이 가능하지만, 일부 개인이 운영하는 버스에서는 현금으로만 탑승이 가능하다. 현재 앙카라에는 경전철인 앙카라이와 M1, M2, M3까지 3개의 지하철이 운행중이며, M4가 건설중이다. 또한, 쉔테페와 예니마할레역을 연결하는 케이블카도 운행 중이다.앙카라 중앙역은 터키 철도 교통에서 매우 중요한 위치를 차지한다. 터키 국영철도에서 앙카라에서 이스탄불 에스키쉐히르 시바스 등 전국 각지로 여객 서비스를 제공한다. 또한 신잔역에서부터 카야쉬역까지 광역철도도 운행중이다. 2009년 3월 13일에 앙카라와 에스키쉐히르를 잇는 2011년 8월 23일에는 앙카라와 코냐간 2014년 7월 25일에는 앙카라와 이스탄불을 3시간 30분만에 연결하는 고속열차인 YHT가 각각 개통되었다.앙카라는 또한 국토의 중앙에 위치하여 있기에 버스 교통에서도 중요한 위치를 차지한다. 버스 터미널인 AT는 거의 모든 노선을 갖추고 있다.앙카라의 공항은 시 북서쪽에 위치한 에센보아 국제공항이 있다. 아타튀르크 국제공항이나 사비하 괵첸 국제공항에 비해 노선수가 적지만 터키 국내선과 프랑크푸르트, 모스크바 등 유럽 주요 도시를 연결하는 노선이 있다.터키의 타지역처럼 축구가 가장 인기 있는 스포츠이다. 1923년 창단된 겐츨레르비를리이 SK가 앙카라를 연고지로 하는 축구팀으로 쉬페르리그에서 활동중이다. 겐츨레르비를리이 SK는 1987년과 2001년에 튀르키예 쿠파스의 우승팀이었다. 또한 1910년 창단된 MKE 앙카라귀쥐는 가장 오래된 축구팀이지만 현재는 TTF 2. 리그에 소속되어있다. MKE 앙카라귀쥐는 1972년과 1981년 튀르키예 쿠파스의 우승팀이었다. 겐츨레르비르 B팀과 하제테페 SK도 쉬페르 리그에 소속되었던 적이 있다. 위의 모든 팀들은 앙카라 19 마으스 스타디움을 홈 구장으로 한다. 또한 오스만스포르도 앙카라를 홈으로 하는 팀으로 2010년까지 쉬페르리그에 소속되어 있었다. 홈 구장은 예니켄트 아사쉬 스타디움으로 신잔에 위치한다.또한, 신잔을 홈으로 하는 부그사쉬스포르, 에티메스구트를 홈으로 하는 에티메스구트 쉐케르스포르, 예니마할레를 홈으로 하는 튀르크 텔레콤스포르, 찬카야를 홈으로 하는 앙카라 데미르스포르, 케치외렌의 케치외렌귀쥐, 케치외렌스포르, 푸르사클라르스포르, 바룸스포르, 알튼닥을 홈으로 하는 페트롤 오피시 스포르 같은 군소 팀들도 존재한다.또한 농구 역시 인기 있는 스포츠이다. 앙카라에는 앙카라 아레나를 홈으로 하는 튀르크 텔레콤과 TOBB 스포츠 홀을 홈으로 하는 카사 테드 콜레즈리레르 두 개의 농구팀이 있다.배구에서는 할크뱅크 앙카라가 통산 6회 터키 남자 배구 리그 우승을 차지한 강팀이다.아이스 스케이팅과 아이스하키 경기도 앙카라 버즈 파테니 사라이에서 열린다.1980년대 이후로는 스케이트 보드장도 많이 만들어졌다.2012년 완공된 THF 스포츠 홀에서는 터키 핸드볼 쉬페르 리그(Trkiye Hentbol Sper Ligi)와 여자 핸드볼 리그(Trkiye Kadnlar Hentbol Sper Ligi)가 개최된다.앙카라는 이스탄불과 더불어 대학교가 모여 있는 도시로 유명하다.앙카라에는 도시 곳곳에 크고 작은 공원들이 있다. 울루스에 위치한 겐츨리크 공원에는 놀이공원과 호수가 있어서 주말에 많은 사람들이 찾는다. 크즐라이에 위치한 귀벤 공원에는 시미트와 꽃을 파는 행상들이 많이 있으며 아타튀르크의 동상이 있다. 카바크르레데에 위치한 쿨루 공원에는 중국 정부에서 선물받은 백조와 흑조 오리 등이 살고 있다. 알튼 공원는 넓은 공원과 호수가 있으며 배를 탈 수 있다. 앙카라 외곽지역인 에르야만에는 야경과 호수가 아름다운 괵수 공원가 있다.또한 앙카라 아레나 주변에는 한국 전쟁에서 전사한 터키 군인을 기리기 위한 한국 공원이 있다.겐츨리크 공원은 1952년부터 1976년까지 100 터키 리라의 뒷면에 그려져 있었다. 또한 시내에 아타튀르크 오르만 치프트리이라는 아타튀르크가 생전에 농장일을 하던 농원이 있는데 이 곳에는 동물원과 농장 레스토랑 등이 있다. 또한 아타튀르크가 태어난 그리스 테살로니키에 위치한 생가를 완벽하게 복원해 놓은 집도 있다. 농장인 치프틀리크에 방문하는 관광객들은 농장에서 생산되는 치즈 전통 맥주 아이스크림 등을 맛볼 수 있으며 주변에는 카페와 레스토랑들이 있다.앙카라는 세계적으로 유명한 고양이 품종인 터키시 앙고라가 살던 지방이다. 터키시 앙고라는 주로 희고, 부드러운 긴 털을 갖고 있지만, 오늘날에는 품종 개량을 통해 검은털이나 붉은털을 가진 터키시 앙고라도 많다. 터키시 앙고라는 페르시안 고양이나 터키시 밴과도 가까운 품종이다. 눈은 파란색, 녹색, 황색인 경우도 있지만 간혹가다 한쪽 눈과 다른쪽 눈의 색이 다른 오드아이도 있다. 귀는 크고 눈은 아몬드 모양으로 생겼다.앙고라 토끼는 앙카라 주변에 살던 길고 부드러운 털을 가진 토끼이다. 앙고라 토끼는 가장 오래된 가축용 토끼 중에 하나인데 중세시대에 프랑스 왕실의 애완용 토끼로 유명하다. 미국에는 20세기 초에 처음으로 도입됐다. 앙고라 토끼는 털인 앙고라 울로 유명한데 앙고라 울은 희고 길며 가벼워서 의복 재료에 많이 쓰인다.앙고라 토끼를 사육하는 가장 큰 이유는 앙고라 울을 얻기 위해서다. 대부분의 앙고라 토끼는 온순하지만 주의 깊게 다뤄주어야 한다. 여름에는 털을 짧게 깎기도 하는데 긴 털 때문에 여름에 열사할 가능성이 있기 때문이다. +가속도는 시간에 따라 속도가 변하는 정도를 나타내는 물리량이다. 일반적으로 물체는 속력이나 운동방향이 바뀌면서 속도가 변하는데 이와 같이 속도가 시간에 따라 변할 때 가속도가 있다고 한다. 속도와 마찬가지로 가속도는 크기와 방향을 갖는 벡터량으로 나타낸다. SI 단위로는 m/s2를 사용하며 주로 a라는 문자를 사용하여 가속도를 표기한다고전 물리학에서, 일정한 질량을 가지고 있는 물체는 뉴턴의 운동법칙에 의해 다음 식을 만족하게 된다.여기서 F는 물체에 주어지는 힘을 m은 물체의 질량을 a는 물체의 가속도를 나타낸다.속도와 마찬가지로 가속도는 시간간격 formula_2동안 속도가 변한 정도 formula_3의 비로 정의할 수 있다. 이렇게 정의한 가속도를 평균가속도 formula_4라 한다.어떠한 순간의 가속도는 이 시간간격을 0으로 보내는 극한으로 생각할 수 있다. 이렇게 정의하는 가속도를 순간가속도 formula_6라 한다. 이렇게 정의한 가속도는 어느 순간의 속도를 시간으로 미분한 것으로도 정의된다.등속운동은 속도 혹은 속력이 일정한 운동을 말한다. 등속운동에서 변위(거리)는 시간에 비례한다. 이에 반하여 속도 혹은 속력이 시간에 따라 일정하게 증가하는 등가속운동에서는 변위(거리)는 시간의 제곱에 비례한다.가속운동은 어떤 물체의 속도 혹은 속력이 증가하는 운동을 의미한다. 이때 속도 혹은 속력이 일정하게 증가하는 운동을 등가속도운동 또는 등가속운동이라 한다.등가속운동 또는 등가속도운동은 시간에 따른 속도의 변화 즉 가속도가 일정한 운동을 말한다. 등속운동에서 변위는 시간에 비례하지만 등가속운동에서 변위는 시간의 제곱에 비례한다.뉴턴역학에서 힘은 질량과 가속도의 곱이므로 힘과 질량이 일정하다면 물체는 가속도가 일정한 등가속운동을 한다. 지구 표면에서 물체는 일정한 가속도로 운동하며 이를 지구의 중력가속도라고 한다.감속운동은 어떤 물체의 속도 혹은 속력이 감소하는 운동을 말한다. 속도 혹은 속력이 일정하게 증가하는 운동을 등가속도운동 혹은 등가속운동이라고 하는데, 속도 혹은 속력이 일정하게 감속하는 운동을 의미하는 용어로 등감속운동의 용어는 사용하지는 않고 음의 등가속운동으로 취급하는 것이 일반적이다. +속도는 어떠한 물체의 위치 변화를 뜻하는 변위를 변화가 일어난 시간 간격으로 나눈 값이다. 변위는 방향과 크기를 갖는 벡터이기 때문에 속도 역시 벡터이다. 단위 시간당 변위의 비로 나타낼 수 있다. 국제단위계에서는 미터 매 초를 사용하며 일상에서는 킬로미터 매 시간도 자주 쓰인다. 기호로는 주로 v를 사용한다.속도란 움직이는 물체의 위치가 변하는 정도를 나타내는 물리량이므로, 시간간격 formula_1동안 위치가 변한 정도 formula_2의 비로 정의할 수 있다. 이렇게 정의한 속도를 평균속도라고 한다. 평균속도 formula_3는 다음과 같이 수식으로 표현할 수 있다.물리학에서 일반적으로 다루는 속도는 물체가 갖는 어떠한 순간의 속도 즉 순간속도이다. 순간속도는 평균속도를 측정하는 시간간격을 매우 짧게 하여 0에 접근시킨 극한값이라고 생각할 수 있다. 순간속도를 formula_5라고 하면 다음과 같이 수식으로 나타낼 수 있다.위와 같이 순간속도는 변위를 시간에 대하여 미분한 것으로 이해할 수 있다. 물리학에서 일반적으로 속도라고 할 때는 순간속도를 의미한다.속도가 방향과 크기를 갖는 벡터량인 반면, 속력은 크기만을 갖는 스칼라량이다. 속력은 물체가 움직인 경로의 전체 거리에 대하여 변화가 일어난 시간 간격으로 나눈 값이다. 예를 들어 자동차가 50초 동안 앞으로 30m 전진한 다음 80m를 후진하였다고 하자. 전진할 때의 위치 변화를 양으로 후진할 때의 위치 변화를 음으로 나타내면 변위는 formula_7가 되지만, 움직인 경로의 전체 거리는 formula_8가 된다. 따라서 이 자동차의 평균속도와 평균 속력은 다음과 같이 계산 할 수 있다.순간속도는 변화가 일어나는 시간 변화가 0에 접근하기 때문에 변위와 전체 경로의 차이가 없다. 따라서 순간속도를 나타내는 벡터의 크기는 순간속력과 같다. 그러나 보다 큰 시간 간격을 고려하는 평균속도의 크기는 일반적으로 평균속력과 다르다.상대속도는 한 좌표계 안의 두 물체의 속도를 비교한 것이다. 두 물체 A B의 속도를 각각 formula_11 formula_12라고 하면 고전물리학에서는 A에 대한 B의 상대 속도를 다음과 같이 계산 한다.예를 들어 두 자동차 A B가 직선 상에서 마주 보며 달리고 있을 때 A의 속도가 3m/s 이고 B의 속도가 -5m/s 라면 A에 대한 B의 상대속도는 -8m/s 이고 B에 대한 A의 상대속도는 8m/s 가 된다. 일차원 운동만을 고려한다면 상대속도는 스칼라값을 갖는다고 생각할 수 있다.한편 특수 상대성 이론에서는 물체의 속도가 매우 빠를 때 상대속도가 고전물리학과는 다른 양상을 보인다고 설명한다. 관성계가 다르더라도 빛의 속도는 일정하므로 특수 상대성 이론에서 매우 빠르게 움직이는 두 물체의 속도 관계는 다음과 같이 계산된다.위 식에서 빛의 속도 c는 매우 큰 값이기 때문에 A와 B의 속도가 충분히 느릴 경우 formula_15는 0에 접근하게 되고 그 결과 상대속도는 고전물리학의 계산과 같아지게 된다. +운동량 은 물리학 특히, 뉴턴 역학에서 물체의 질량과 속도의 곱으로 나타내는 물리량이다. 운동량의 국제 단위는 뉴턴 초 또는 킬로그램 미터 매 초 이고, 통상적인 기호는 라틴 소문자 이다. 선형 운동량 혹은 병진 운동량이라고도 부른다.예를 들어 빠르게 움직이는 무거운 트럭 같은 물체는 운동량이 크다. 무거운 트럭을 빠른 속도까지 가속시키기 위해서는 큰 힘을 한참 동안 가해야 하고 반대로 그 트럭을 정지시키기 위해서도 큰 힘을 오랫동안 가해야 한다. 트럭이 더 가볍다거나 더 느리게 움직인다면 그만큼 운동량도 작아질 것이다.선형 운동량은 보존되는 양으로, 외부에서 가해지는 힘에 의한 영향이 없는 닫힌계의 선형 운동량의 총합은 바뀌지 않는다. 고전역학에서는 선형 운동량 보존법칙이 뉴턴의 운동 법칙에 포함되어 있다. 하지만 특수 상대성 이론에서도 공식을 약간 수정한 형태로 선형 운동량 보존 법칙을 충족시킬 수 있으며, 선형 운동량 보존 법칙은 적절한 정의를 이용하면 전자기학, 양자역학, 양자장론, 일반 상대성 이론에도 적용할 수 있는 보존 법칙이다.고전역학에서의 운동량.고전역학에서, 운동량은 질량과 속도의 곱으로, 크기와 방향을 모두 갖는 벡터다. 즉, 운동량을 p, 질량을 "m", 속도를 v라고 하면, 운동량은 다음과 같다.만약 어떤 계에 외부에서 힘이 가해지지 않는다면 뉴턴의 운동법칙에 따라 계의 총 운동량은 바뀌지 않는다.두 물체가 충돌할 때도, 두 물체의 운동량의 합은 일정하다. 즉, 두 물체의 질량을 formula_2, formula_3, 충돌 전의 속도를 formula_4, formula_5, 충돌 후의 속도를 formula_6, formula_7라고 하면 다음의 식이 성립한다.이 때 formula_9를 반발 계수라고 부르고, 0 이상 1 이하의 값을 가진다. 만약 e = 1인 경우의 충돌은 탄성 충돌이라고 부르고, 이 때에는 운동 에너지 보존 법칙, 즉1차원 공간의 탄성 충돌에서 두 물체의 속도는 다음과 같다.반면 e < 1인 경우는 비탄성 충돌()이라고 하고 특히 e = 0인 경우는 완전 비탄성 충돌이라고 부른다. 이 때에는 충돌한 두 물체의 속도차 즉 입자 사이 상대 속도가 같다.충격량은 어떤 시간 동안에 운동량의 변화이다. 이에 따라, 충격량의 단위는 운동량의 단위와 같다.충돌 전후 두 물체가 주고받은 충격량의 합은 무조건 0이 된다. 힘은 뉴턴의 운동법칙에 따라 운동량의 시간에 따른 변화율이므로, 일정한 시간 "t"에 대한 힘 F에 대한 충격량 I는이다. 만약 힘의 세기나 방향이 시간에 따라 바뀌지 않으면, 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있다.힘의 정의를 이 식에 다시 사용하면, 다음 식을 유도할 수 있다.특수 상대성 이론에서 3차원의 운동량은 에너지와 함께 사차원 벡터를 이루는데 이를 사차원 운동량이라고 부른다. 즉 그 정의는 다음과 같다.여기서 E는 계의 총 에너지이며 p는 계의 상대론적 (3차원) 운동량이다.상대론적 3차원 운동량은 정지 질량 formula_19과 로런츠 인자 formula_20, 속도 formula_21의 곱이다. 즉,여기서 formula_22는 신속도이다.광자등과 같이 정지 질량이 0인 입자도 운동량을 가진다. 정지 질량이 0인 입자의 경우, 에너지 formula_23와 운동량 formula_24는 서로 비례한다. 즉양자역학에서 운동량은 파동함수에 대한 연산자이다. 불확정성 원리에 의하여 입자의 운동량은 (입자의 위치에 대한 정보가 어느 정도 있는 한) 항상 어느 정도의 불확정성을 갖는다.전하와 스핀이 없는 입자의 운동량 연산자는 다음과 같다. +도모나가 신이치로는 일본의 물리학자이다.양자전기역학의 발전에 큰 영향을 끼쳤으며 그 공로로 1965년 리처드 파인먼과 줄리언 슈윙거와 노벨 물리학상을 수상했다.1906년 그는 도쿄도에서 도모나가 산주로의 아들로 태어났다. 어릴 때는 병약하였으며 1913년 부친이 교토제국대학 교수로 취임하면서 교토로 이사갔다. 1937부터 1939년까지 독일 라이프치히에서 베르너 하이젠베르크 아래에서 연구 활동을 하였다. 제2차 세계 대전 이후 프린스턴 고등연구소 등에서 연구하였다. 니시나 요시오의 제자이다.유카와 히데키와는 제삼고등학교 교토제국대학 동창으로 평생의 동료이자 라이벌로 지냈다. 권위적인 유카와 히데키와 달리 도모나가는 소탈한 성품이었으며 유카와는 직관을 중시함에 비해 도모나가는 논리적인 전개를 선호했다. 학창시절에는 도모나가 신이치로가 성적이 더 좋았으나 정작 노벨물리학상을 유카와 히데키가 먼저 받게 되자 그는 큰 충격을 받았다고 한다.유카와 히데키(, 1907년 1월 23일 ~ 1981년 9월 8일)는 일본의 이론물리학자이다. 교토부 교토시 출신이다.원자핵 내부에 있어서 양성자와 중성자를 서로 강한 상호작용의 매개가 되는 중간자의 존재를 1935년에 이론적으로 예측했다. 1947년 영국의 물리학자 세실 프랭크 파월이 우주선 중에서 파이 중간자를 발견한 것에 의해 이 증명돼 이러한 공적을 인정받아 1949년에 일본인으로서는 최초로 노벨 물리학상을 수상했다. 노벨 물리학상 수상 이후 반핵 운동이나 평화 운동에 적극적으로 참여하여 러셀-아인슈타인 선언에 막스 플랑크와 함께 공동 선언자로 이름을 올렸고 중간자 이론 외에 비국소장이론 소영역이론 등의 이론을 계속 발표했다. 이런 모습은 고등학교와 교토 제국대학 동창이었던 도모나가 신이치로와는 대조적인 모습이었고 도모나가와 마찬가지로 니시나 요시오의 제자로도 알려져 있다. 목소리가 작고 강의가 상당히 난해했다고 전해진다.교토 대학오사카 대학 명예교수 교토시 명예시민이었다. 1943년에 문화훈장을 받았고 학위는 이학박사이다.유년 시절 ~ 학창 시절.1907년 1월 23일 도쿄부 도쿄시 아자부구 이치이베이정에서 부친이자 지질학자인 오가와 다쿠지와 모친인 오가와 고유키의 3남으로 태어났다. 1908년 1살 때 부친인 다쿠지의 교토 제국대학의 교수로 취임한 것에 따라 가족 모두가 교토부 교토시로 이주했다. 그 때문에 아자부의 집에서는 출생 후 1년 2개월 밖에 살지 않았다. 1살 때부터 대학까지는 교토에 있었고 대학을 졸업한 후에는 잠깐 동안 오사카나 니시노미야에 있었던 적이 있으나 인생의 대부분을 교토에서 생활했다. 유카와는 자서전에서 “나의 기억은 교토로 이사왔던 때부터 시작된다. 역시 교토가 고향이 되는 것일지도 모른다”라고 밝혔다.외가쪽은 유카와의 외할아버지인 오가와 고마키쓰는 예전 기슈번의 번사였으며 또한 유카와가 자체가 선조 대대로 와카야마현 출신이었기 때문에 이라고 소개되기도 했지만 유카와 본인에 의하면 교토시 출신이라는 것이다. 와카야마현 출신의 실업가인 마쓰시타 고노스케의 고향에 라고 새겨진 비석이 있는데 거기에는 같은 고향 출신이라는 이유로 유카와의 필체에 의해서 쓰여졌지만 유카와 본인은 와카야마에서 살았던 경험은 없다.5 6세 때 외할아버지인 고마키쓰에 의해서 한문 서적을 읽고 배웠다. 고마키쓰는 한학에 대한 소양이 풍부하여 메이지 시대 이후에는 서양학문을 배워 말년까지 계속해서 런던 타임스를 구독하던 인물로도 알려져 있는데 이에 대해 유카와는 자서전에서 다음과 같이 밝혔다.교고쿠 보통소학교를 졸업한 후 1919년에는 교토 부립 교토 제1 중학교에 입학했다. 중학생 시절의 유카와는 별로 눈에 띄지 않는 존재였는데 별명은 ‘곤베에’였다. 또한 사춘기 때부터는 거의 말을 안들었고 귀찮은 것들은 모두 ‘말 안하겠다’라는 한마디로 끝내버리는 등 ‘이왕 짱’이라고 불렸지만 의외로 에서 따온 별명 같다고 유카와가 스스로 생각했던 시기도 있었다. 이 말수가 적을 정도의 과묵한 성격을 가졌다는 이유로 아버지인 다쿠지로부터 “대체 뭘 생각하고 있는지는 모르겠다”라고 홀대를 받았고 다른 형제들에 비해 능력이 낮다고 보여지면서 대학 진학을 포기하고 ‘전문학교에라도 보낼까’라고 고민했던 시기도 있었다. 교토 제1 중학교의 동기로는 학자가 된 동기들이 대부분이었고 후에 학자가 된 사람도 많았다고 한다. 똑같이 노벨 물리학상을 받은 도모나가 신이치로는 교토 제1 중학교의 1년 선배이며 제3 고등학교와 교토 제국대학 동기였다.노벨 물리학상 수상.1929년에 교토 제국대학 이학부 물리학과를 졸업했고 같은 대학의 다마키 가주로 연구실의 조수가 됐다. 1932년에는 교토 제국대학 강사로 활동했다. 1933년, 도호쿠 제국대학에서 일본 수학물리학회 연회가 열렸을 때 야기 히데쓰구와 알게 됐는데 당시 오사카 제국대학의 이학부 물리학과의 초대 주임교수로 부임한 야기에게 부탁해서 오사카 제국대학 강사를 겸임하게 된다.학생들 사이에서는 목소리가 작고 강의는 꽤 난해했다고 전해졌다. 이 즈음에 오사카 위장 병원의 원장인 유카와 겐요의 둘째 딸 유카와 스미와 결혼해 유카와가의 데릴사위가 되면서 성을 가 됐다.오사카 제국대학으로 옮긴 후 전혀 성과가 없던 유카와를 야기는 더욱 더 공부를 열심히 하도록 주의를 준 뒤 “본래라면 도모나가를 오게 했을텐데 너의 형으로부터 의뢰받아서 어쩔 수 없이 너를 채용했으니까 도모나가에게 지지 않도록 공부를 확실하게 하지 않으면 곤란하다”라고 질책했다. 우치야마 료유에 의하면 야기는 비수같은 독설로 유명했다고 한다.1934년에 중간자 이론 구상을 했고 이듬해 1935년에는 안에서 발견됐다고 칼 데이비드 앤더슨이 발표함으로써 유카와의 중간자론은 세계적으로 주목받게 됐다.1939년, 유카와는 솔베 회의에 초청됐다. 회의 자체는 제2차 세계 대전 발발로 중단됐지만 알베르트 아인슈타인이나 로버트 오펜하이머 등과 친분을 가졌다. 이러한 업적에 높은 평가를 받아서 1940년에 학사원 은사상을 수상했고 1943년에는 최연소로 문화훈장을 수상했다. 태평양 전쟁 말기인 1945년 6월에는 일본 해군을 중심으로 한 원폭 개발 프로젝트 회의에 초청됐으나 개발이 본격화하기 전에 일본은 패전을 맞았다. 유카와는 히로시마 원자폭탄 투하에 대한 해설을 요구하는 신문사의 의뢰를 거절했지만 전후에는 일본을 점령한 미군으로부터 사정을 들었다. 이러한 배경을 기록한 일기가 2017년 12월 교토 대학 유카와 기념관 자료실에 공개된 바있다.더 나아가 1947년에 세실 프랭크 파월 등이 실제로 파이 중간자를 발견한 것에 의해서 1949년에 노벨 물리학상을 수상했다. 아시아인 노벨상 수상자로서는 작가 라빈드라나트 타고르나 물리학자 찬드라세카라 벵카타 라만에 뒤를 이은 세 번째의 수상자였고 일본인으로서는 최초의 노벨상 수상자였다. 이 뉴스는 패전과 연합국 점령하에서 자신감을 잃었던 일본 국민에게 큰 힘을 주었다. 또한 2000년에 유카와의 노벨상 관련 문서를 조사한 오카모토 다쿠지는 추천장 대부분이 외국인 추천자로부터 받았다는 점 등을 들어 “노벨상 역사 가운데에서도 보기 드물게 연구 성과와의 관계가 명료한 것으로 보인다”라고 말했다.전후에는 비국소장 이론과 소영역 이론 등을 제창했지만 이론적 성과로는 연결되지 못했다. 한편 머리 겔만의 쿼크 이론에 대해서는 “전하가 이나 같은 그렇게 어중간하게 존재할 리가 없다”라고 부정적인 입장을 드러냈다.또 한편으로는 반핵 운동에도 적극적으로 참여하여 러셀-아인슈타인 선언에 막스 보른 등과 함께 공동선언자로 이름을 남겼다. 위에서 말한 바와 같이 전쟁 중에는 아라카쓰 분사쿠가 이끄는 교토 대학 그룹에서 일본의 원자폭탄 개발에 관여했다는 사실이 확인됐다.1956년에 원자력 위원장인 쇼리키 마쓰타로의 요청으로 위원이 됐다. ‘원자로를 외국에서 구입해 오더라도 5년째까지는 실용적인 원자력 발전소를 건설한다’는 쇼리키의 지론에 대해 “기초 연구를 생략한 채 원자력 발전소 건설에 서두르는 것은 장래에 엄청난 재앙을 부를 수도 있다”며 거세게 반발, 하루 만에 그만두려고 했으나 모리 가즈히사 등이 만류해서 사임을 철회했다. 그 이후에도 쇼리키와의 대립은 깊어졌고 결국 건강상의 이유로 이듬해인 1957년, 재임 1년 3개월 만에 사임했다.1956년 1월, 궁중에서 열린 가회시에 초대받았던 유카와는 다음과 같은 시를 읊었다.1970년에 교토 대학을 정년 퇴임해 교토 대학 명예교수가 됐으며 말년에는 생물학에도 관심을 가졌고 특히 생명 현상에 있어서 정보의 역할에 대한 관심을 가졌다. 또한 에도 시대 후기의 사상가인 미우라 바이엔의 심취에 깊이 빠졌다. 휘호를 부탁받으면 자주 의 마지막 한 구절이다.1966년에는 노벨 평화상 후보자로 추천돼 있었다는 사실이 노벨 재단이 공표한 후보자 명단에 의해 판명됐다.교토 대학에서 정년 퇴임 후인 1975년에 전립선암이 발병돼 수술을 받았다. 수술에 의해서 암의 진행은 막았지만 그 이후에는 자택에서 요양을 계속하면서 학술 활동에만 전념하고 있었다. 미국과 소련 양국의 긴장 격화로 제4회 과학자 교토 회의의 발기인의 한 명으로서 1981년 6월, 15년 만에 회의 개최가 성사됐다. 이때 이미 건강 상태가 나빠지면서 회의에서는 휠체어에 의지한 상태에서 참석해 핵폐기를 호소했다. 3개월 뒤인 같은 해 9월, 폐렴에 심부전 합병증으로 교토시 사쿄구의 자택에서 향년 74세의 일기로 사망했다. 묘소는 교토시 히가시야마구에 소재한 지온인에 있다.히로시마 평화기념공원에 있는 평화의 상 〈와카바〉(若葉)의 대좌에는 유카와가 지은 단카인 ()이라는 문구가 새겨져 있다.강한 힘의 이론중간자.4개의 힘 가운데 강한 힘을 어떻게 정식화하면 좋을 것인가에 대해 당시로서는 문제가 됐고 여러가지 시도가 이뤄졌지만 모두 성공하지 못했다. 유카와는 전자의 200배의 질량을 갖는 중간자를 힘의 매개 입자를 가정해서 핵력인 강한 힘을 끌어내는 데 성공했다. 게다가 강한 힘으로부터 페르미의 약한 힘을 이끌었다. 중간자론은 약한 힘 강한 힘 양쪽 모두를 포함하는 이론으로서 당시에는 가장 기본적인 장의 이론인 것으로 간주됐다. 또한 힘을 입자가 매개하는 것도 명료하게 보여주면서 장을 창출할 입자라는 생각을 정착시켰다.단, 전자가 강한 힘을 전달한다는 생각을 하이젠베르크가 유카와 이전에 제시하고 있다. 하지만 전자는 이전부터 존재가 알려지면서 이론으로서도 실패한 것이기 때문에 장을 창출할 입자라는 생각은 확립돼 있지 않았다. 하이젠베르크나 보어는 관찰되지 않은 소립자로 장을 설명하는 유카와에게 부정적인 시각을 드러냈다. 보어는 유카와에게, 하이젠베르크는 도모나가에게 이것을 알리기도 했다.이상과 같은 이유로 유카와의 강한 힘을 낳는 중간자론은 소립자론의 길을 열었다고 당시에는 높이 평가했다. 유카와는 강한 힘의 중간자론으로 노벨상을 받았는데 이후의 일을 장의 양자론에서 스스로 찾아낸 문제 해결에 힘을 쏟았다. 그러나 이 연구는 성공하지 못했다.인과율 파괴의 제기.초다시간이론과 비국소장 - 유카와의 원.민코프스키 공간상에서 폐곡면에서의 확률 진폭을 정의하면 인과율이 파괴된다는 문제를 유카와가 제기하면서 이 문제에 생애를 걸었다(이 문제를 이라고 말한다. 유카와가 이 문제를 제기한 후 폴 디랙도 같은 문제를 제기하고 있다).도모나가의 기여는 있었지만 이 문제는 아직 해결되지 않았다고 초대칭성을 세계 최초로 제기한 미야자와 히로나리는 주장하고 있다. 물리학은 유카와의 기본 문제를 회피하여 현상론에 치우쳤다고 한다.유카와 이전에는 일정한 시간으로 확률 진폭이 정의돼 있었다.은사제자동료 및 관계자.※이 항목에서는 일본 국내에서의 저명한 인물을 둔다.제자의 제자에는 현재 활약하는 수많은 이론물리·물성물리·우주물리·천문·수리생물학자가 포함돼 있다. +정몽헌(鄭夢憲 1948년 9월 14일 ~ 2003년 8월 4일)은 대한민국의 기업인이다. 2002년 9월부터 대북 불법송금 사건 관련 조사를 받던 도중 2003년 8월 4일 현대계동사옥 12층에서 투신자살하였다.정몽헌은 현대그룹 창업주인 정주영의 다섯 번째 아들로 태어났다. 정주영이 명예 회장이 되면서 현대그룹 회장에 취임하였다. 정주영 사후 금강산 관광 개발 사업을 주관하였다.현대가의 ‘왕자의 난’을 거치면서 형제들 사이에서 외톨이가 되었는데, 이후 2002년 9월에 5억 달러 대북 불법송금 사건이 터지면서 2003년에 검찰 조사를 받았고, 추진하던 대북사업의 차질과 현대그룹의 경영 악재로 힘든 시기를 보냈다.2003년 8월 4일, 서울시 종로구 계동 현대 사옥 12층 회장실에서 유서를 남기고 투신자살했으나 타살 의혹이 있다. 재계 인사들은 로 추측했다. 정몽헌의 사망 후 배우자 현정은이 현대그룹 회장에 취임하였다.한국 조선l 또는 코리아는 동아시아에 위치한 지역 또는 헌법상의 국가로 현대사에서는 한반도 또는 조선반도의 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국을 이르는 말이다. 현대에 일반적으로 '한국'은 대한민국을 '조선'은 조선민주주의인민공화국을 이르는 경우가 많으며 근현대사에서 한국은 고종이 수립한 대한제국을 일컫는 말로도 쓰였다.넓은 의미로 한국은 고조선 건국 이후 한반도에서 설립된 여러 한민족의 국가를 통칭하는 말이다. 한국의 강역은 현재 한반도와 그 부속 도서들에 해당되나, 역사적으로 한민족의 강역은 만주와 연해주의 일부를 포함하기도 하였다. 한국의 역사를 한국사 또는 조선사라고 한다.1948년 이후로 오늘날까지 한국에는 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국이라는 두 개의 분단국가가 각각 남북에 위치하고 있다. 다만 헌법상 양측은 자국을 유일한 합법 정부로 여기며 대립하고 있다. 한반도와 부속도서의 면적은 약 22만 km이며 인구는 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국을 합쳐 2019년을 기준으로 약 7700만 명에 달한다.한국은 동아시아의 한반도에 위치하고 있다. 북서쪽으로는 압록강을 경계로 중국과 경계를 이루고 북동쪽으로는 두만강을 경계로 중국 및 러시아와 마주하고 있다. 삼면이 바다인 한국에는 서쪽으로 황해 동쪽으로 동해 남쪽으로 남해에 의해 둘러싸여 있다. 한반도 및 부속도서의 최북단은 함경북도의 온성 최서단은 평안북도의 마안도 최동단은 경상북도 울릉군에 속한 섬 독도 최남단은 마라도이다.한반도의 동부 및 북부는 비교적 높은 산들로 이루어진 산지 지형을 특징으로 하고, 서쪽으로 갈수록 대체로 완만한 경사를 이루어 서해로 흘러드는 하천에 의해 형성된 여러 충적평야와 구릉지들이 나타난다. 한국에서 가장 높은 산은 백두산이며, 관모봉, 북수백산의 순이다. 한국 북부의 개마고원은 이라고 불리는 고지대이며, 반도의 동해안을 따라 달리는 산맥인 태백산맥은 백두대간이라고도 불린다.한국의 주요한 섬으로는 면적순으로 제주도 거제도 진도 강화도 등이 있는데 대부분의 섬이 황해와 남해의 근해에 형성되어 있는 한편 제주도와 울릉도는 화산 활동에 의해 형성되어 비교적 고립되어 있다. 한국의 황해안과 남해안은 리아스식 해안이 발달되어 있으며 조수 간만의 차가 크다.한반도 전체의 극지역은 다음과 같다.대한민국의 극지역은 다음과 같다.조선민주주의인민공화국의 극지역은 다음과 같다.한국은 반도에 있는 지리적 조건으로 대륙 문화와 해양 문화의 영향을 모두 받았다. 한국 문화는 시베리아 중앙아시아의 북방계와 남아시아 동남아시아의 남방계가 혼합된 바탕에 중국과 일본 등 이웃들과의 교류에서 영향을 받았으나 독자적인 문화로 발전했다. 전통 음악은 풍물놀이 아리랑 등이 있다.조선시대의 인구 조사에 따르면 조선의 인구는 대체로 700만 명을 넘지 못했다. 조세와 부역 등을 피하려고 호구조사를 기피하는 등 여러 가지 요인으로 40% 가까이 누락되었을 것으로 추측되고 실제 인구는 조선 시대 중기에 와서 1천만 명 내외 후기에는 약 1300만 명이었을 것으로 추측된다. 1910년 일제의 조사에 따르면 대한제국의 인구는 약 1312여만 명으로 나타난다. 그러나 학계에서는 1910년 무렵에는 1742만 명 정도였을 것으로 추정한다. 국권 피탈 후 현대적 인구 조사를 한 1925년에는 1900만여 명 1935년에는 2289만9천여 명 1944년에는 2590만여 명으로 증가하였다.1911년의 성비는 110.9로 심한 남초 현상을 보였으나 1944년에는 99.4로 여초로 바뀌었다. 대한민국에서는 1949년 102.1로 남초 현상을 보이다가 1955년에는 100.1로 균형이 이루어졌다.2017년 12월 말 기준으로 외국인을 제외한 대한민국의 총인구는 5천177만8544 명 이고, 2016년 12월 말 기준으로 조선민주주의인민공화국의 인구는 약 2천537만 명으로 추산된다. 약 700만 명인 해외 거주 한인 중 400여만 명인 외국국적자를 제외한 전체 한국인 수는 약 8천만 명이다.반도 전체의 공용어는 한국어이다. 다만 대한민국의 경우 한국 수화를 추가 공용어로 두고 있다. 한국어는 전 세계에서 가장 많은 인구를 가진 교착어로 분류되기도 하며 또 우랄알타이어족에 속한다는 주장도 제기되어 왔다. 대한민국에서는 경기 방언을 기초로 한 표준어를 조선민주주의인민공화국에서는 서북 방언을 기초로 한 문화어를 표준어로 사용하고 있다.한국어를 표기하는 글자는 한글이다. 한글은 기본적으로 말소리를 기호로 표시하는 표음 문자이고 자음과 모음을 구분하는 음소 문자이며 발음의 유사성에 따라 형태의 규칙성을 띠는 매우 정교한 자질 문자이다. 또 한글은 자음과 모음의 글자를 결합해 하나의 음절을 독립적으로 표시하는 글자를 만드는 형태로 표기한다는 점에서 다른 문자와 두드러지게 구분되는 특징을 가지고 있다.한국어 표기에 쓰이는 문자인 한글은 조선의 세종대왕이 백성들을 위해 직접 만든 문자 체계이다. 세종대왕은 한글 창제 후 정인지·신숙주·성삼문·박팽년 등 집현전 학사들과 함께 해설서인 를 만들어 훈민정음이란 이름으로 1446년에 반포하였다. 한글 창제 이전에는 한자로 문서가 작성되었으나, 표의 문자인 한자로 한국어를 표기하는 데에는 한계가 있어서 향찰, 구결, 이두 등 차자 표기가 사용되기도 하였다. 훈민정음 창제 이후에도 지배층인 양반층과 관공서에서는 한자를 계속 사용하였으며, 한글은 19세기까지 주로 편지글·시조·가사·한글소설 등에 사용되었다. 1894년 갑오개혁 이후에야 비로소 공문서에 한글이 쓰이기 시작했으며, 일제 강점기에는 한글의 사용이 억압 받았으나 1945년 해방 후 본격적으로 널리 쓰여져 한국문화 발달의 기틀이 되었다. 최근에는 동음이의어나 약어의 구별 등을 위한 경우를 제외하고는 한자의 사용이 크게 줄어들었다.한글은 처음 만들었을 때는 스물여덟 글자였으나, 지금은 ㅿ, ㆆ, ㆁ, ㆍ 네 글자가 사라져서 스물네 글자가 되었다. 아하한국은 현재 대한민국과 조선민주주의인민공화국으로 분단되어 있으므로 해당 지역이 관할하고 있는 행정구역의 체계와 형식적으로 통치를 주장하는 지역의 행정구역 체계가 다를 수밖에 없다.대한민국의 행정구역.대한민국은 현재 1특별시, 6광역시, 1특별자치시, 8도, 1특별자치도로 편제되어 있다. 3단계 행정체계로 도/특별시/광역시 > 시/군/구 > 읍/면/동으로 구분된다. 다만, 서울특별시와 광역시를 제외한 인구 50만 이상 대도시 에는 시 아래에 행정구를 둘 수 있다.이들 중 도와 동급의 행정구역은 광역시 특별시 특별자치시 특별자치도이다. 그 목록은 다음과 같다.조선민주주의인민공화국의 지역 구분.조선민주주의인민공화국은 현재 1직할시 3특별시 3지구 9도로 편제되어 있다. 또한 3단계 행정체계로 도 > 시/군 > 동/리로 구분된다. 이는 광복 직후와는 다른 것으로 면은 통합하여 군으로 승격하고 읍은 군의 중심지역을 이르는 명칭으로 변경하였다. 이 외에 로동자구와 직할시에 소속된 구역 등이 있다.이들 중 도와 동급의 행정구역은 직할시,특별시이며, 지구와 함께 행정상의 특혜를 받게 되어 있다. 그 목록은 다음과 같다.다만 대한민국에서는 이 같은 행정구역 구분을 인정하지 않고 광복 당시의 행정구역만을 인정한다. +미분 방정식은 미지의 함수와 그 도함수, 그리고 이 함수들의 함수값에 관계된 여러 개의 변수들에 대한 수학적 방정식이다. 미분방정식의 계수는 미분 횟수가 가장 많은 독립 변수의 계수가 결정짓고, 차수는 계수를 결정 지은 독립 변수의 미분꼴이 거듭제곱된 횟수에 따라 결정된다.수학 응용에서 한 매개 변수가 다른 매개 변수에 대한 의존성을 알 수없는 문제가 종종 발생하지만 한 매개 변수가 다른 매개 변수 에 대한 변화율에 대한 표현을 작성할 수 있습니다. 이 경우 문제는 다른 표현과 관련된 도함수로 함수를 찾는 것으로 축소됩니다.미분 방정식은 엔지니어링 물리학 경제학 등 수학 외의 학문에서도 중요한 역할을 차지하고 유체역학 천체역학 등의 물리적 현상의 수학적 모델을 만들 때에도 사용된다. 따라서 미분 방정식은 순수수학과 응용수학의 여러 분야에 걸쳐있는 넓은 학문이다. 물체의 운동이 물체의 위치와 시간값의 변화에 따른 속도로 표현되는 고전역학이 그 대표적인 예다. 뉴턴의 운동 법칙은 물체의 미지의 위치를 시간에 대한 함수로 표현하고 물체의 위치속도가속도그리고 물체에 작용하는 힘 등을 그 함수에 대한 미분 방정식으로 나타냄으로써 이 변량들을 역학적으로 표현할 수 있었다. 흔히 운동방정식이라고 부르는 이 미분 방정식은 아주 쉽게 풀리는 경우도 있다.미분 방정식을 사용하여 실세계를 표현한 예로는 중력과 공기저항만 고려하여 공중에서 떨어지는 공의 속도를 결정하는 것이 있다. 땅을 향한 공의 가속도는 중력에 의한 가속도 마이너스 공기저항에 의한 가속도이다. 중력은 일정하다고 치고 공기저항은 공의 속도에 비례한다고 하자. 이것은 공의 가속도 즉 공의 속도의 도함수가 공의 속도에 따라 결정된다는 것을 의미한다. 속도를 시간에 대한 함수로 나타내면 이 미분 방정식을 풀 수 있다.수학에서 미분 방정식은 여러 가지 다른 관점에서 연구되고 있는데 대개 그 해―방정식을 만족시키는 함수의 집합―에 대한 연구가 흔하다. 명쾌한 함수의 형태로 해가 구해지는 것은 가장 간단한 미분 방정식들 뿐으로 어떤 미분 방정식은 명확한 해를 구하지 않고 그 특징만 밝혀지는 경우도 있다. 만약 해를 독립적으로 구하는 것이 불가능하다면 컴퓨터를 이용해 수적 근사값을 구할 수도 있다. 동역학계 이론에서는 미분 방정식으로 표현되는 계의 질적 분석을 중요하게 여기는데 주어진 정확도 안에서 해를 구하기 위한 많은 수치 해석 방법이 개발되고 있다.미분 방정식의 목표는 다음 세가지이다.미분 방정식에 대해 해가 있어야만 하는지 아니면 해가 유일한지 등의 문제도 중요한 관심사이다. 그러나 응용수학자 물리학자 엔지니어들은 대개 주어진 미분 방정식을 푸는 데에 관심을 두기 마련이고 여기서 얻어진 해는 전기회로 다리 자동차 비행기 하수도 등을 만드는 데에 이용되고 있다.미분 방정식의 종류.미분 방정식 이론은 잘 발전되어 왔으며 학습을 위해 방정식의 형태에 따라 그것을 의미있게 분류시키기도 한다.상미분 방정식과 편미분 방정식.상미분 방정식은 미지 함수와 종속변수가 하나의 독립변수를 가지는 함수인 미분 방정식을 말한다. 간단한 형태로 미지함수가 실수 또는 복소수 함수 형태를 가진다.미지 함수의 독립 변수가 둘 이상인 미분 방정식이다.선형 미분 방정식은 y도함수 앞의 계수가 변수가 아닌 경우이고 y도함수가 모두 1승인 것을 말한다.비선형 미분 방정식은 선형 미분 방정식과 다르게 y도함수 앞의 계수가 변수이며, 대표적 예시인 나비에-스톡스 방정식에서는 y도함수 앞의 계수가 유체의 성질을 나타내는 매개변수이다. 비선형 미분 방정식은 매개변수의 테일러 급수로 근사해를 구하는 방식이 있다.제1차 상미분 방정식.1차 제차 상미분 방정식의 일반형은 다음과 같다.여기서 formula_2는 우리가 알고 있는 함수이며 이 방정식은 간단히 변수를 다음과 같이 양변으로 분리하여 놓아서 풀 수 있다.위 식을 적분하여 다음의 결과를 얻는다.양변에 e를 취하면 다음의 결과를 얻는다.formula_8는 임의의 상수이다. formula_2가 상수가 아닌 함수이고 어떤 함수의 경우에는 그 적분이 불가능 할 수도 있기 때문에 실제적인 풀이는 매우 어려울 수 있다.1차 비제차 상미분 방정식.1차 선형 상미분 방정식 중 일부는 위의 예처럼 분리가 불가능하다. 이와 같은 1차 비제차 상미분 방정식을 풀기 위해선 적분인자를 알아야 한다. 이 방법을 아래에 설명하고 있다.1차 상미분 방정식의 일반적인 형태를 생각해 보자.이 방정식을 푸는 방법은 특별한 , formula_11 에 달려있다.위의 1차 상미분 방정식의 양변에 formula_11를 곱하자.우리가 선택한 특별한 formula_11의 성질에 의해 위 식은 다음과 같이 간단한 모양으로 변형된다.미분에 대한 곱의 법칙에 의해 위 식은 다시 다음과 같이 변형된다.를 얻고 마지막으로 formula_19에 대해 풀고 formula_11로 양변을 나누면를 얻는다. formula_11는 formula_23의 함수이므로 더 이상 간단히 할 수 없다. +각운동량(角運動量)은 물리학에서 어떤 원점에 대해 선운동량이 돌고 있는 정도를 나타내는 물리량이다. 각운동량은 좌표의 원점을 어떻게 잡느냐에 따라 달라지기 때문에, 여러 각운동량을 다룰 때에는 둘을 합하거나 그에 관련한 연산을 하는 것이 물리학적으로 올바른 것인지 신중히 고려하며 사용해야 한다.각운동량은 물리학뿐만 아니라 여러 공학 분야에서도 매우 중요한 개념이고, 응용분야 또한 매우 다양하다. 이렇게 각운동량이 중요하게 다루어지는 이유는 돌림힘이 작용하지 않으면 각운동량은 보존되는 양이 되기 때문이다. 뇌터의 정리에 의하면 각운동량의 보존은 공간의 회전대칭성 때문이다. 이러한 각운동량의 보존은 공학뿐만 아니라 여러 자연현상을 기술하는 데에도 유용하게 사용된다.어떤 원점에 대한 입자의 각운동량을 수학적으로 정의하면 다음과 같다.이다. 물리계가 여러 입자로 구성되어 있을 때에는, 한 원점에 대한 총 각운동량은 각각의 각운동량을 더해서 구하거나,좀 더 복잡한 부피를 가지는 물체의 각운동량은 미소질량에 대해 각운동량을 적분하여 얻을 수 있다.많은 경우, 고정된 특정한 한 축에 대한 각운동량만을 고려하기 때문에 각운동량을 3차원 벡터로 취급하지 않고 단순히 반시계방향의 회전은 양으로, 시계방향의 회전은 음으로 취급하여 스칼라로 놓기도 한다. 이렇게 할 때에는 벡터곱의 크기로 각운동량을 표기하게 된다.여기서 formula_10는 formula_5로부터 formula_4까지 재는 각도이다.각운동량을 시간에 대해 미분하면 돌림힘 formula_13가 된다. 만약 어떤 원점을 기준으로 계에 돌림힘이 작용하지 않으면이 되어 각운동량이 보존되게 된다. 이를 각운동량 보존 법칙 또는 간단히 각운동량 보존이라고 부른다.각운동량 보존 법칙은 특히 중심력이 작용하는 운동을 분석하는 데 유용하게 쓰일 수 있다. 중심력이 작용하는 입자들의 운동에서 두 입자는 외부로부터의 영향에서 고립된 계를 이루고, 원점은 두 입자를 잇는 선 위의 한 점으로 잡는다. 서로 작용하는 힘의 방향이 언제나 원점에서 입자들까지의 위치벡터와 같은 방향이 되므로, 앞에서 잡은 원점을 기준으로 한 알짜 토크는 언제나 0이 된다. 따라서, 각운동량은 보존된다. 일정한 각운동량을 갖는 이와 같은 경우는 행성, 위성, 보어의 원자모형등의 분석에 유용하게 사용된다.관성 모멘트와 각운동량.관성 모멘트와 각운동량 사이에는 질량과 운동량사이의 관계꼴의 식이 있다. 경우에 따라 스칼라 관성모멘트 formula_19나 관성텐서 formula_20중 하나를 사용한다.회전축이 변하지 않는 경우.회전축이 변하지 않는 경우에 각운동량은 간단히 스칼라 관성모멘트 formula_19와 각속도 formula_22의 곱으로 쓰일 수 있다.위 식은 스칼라 관성 모멘트의 정의와 각속도의 공식 (formula_22와 formula_5이 수직일 때만 성립.)을 사용하여 각운동량의 정의로부터 간단히 유도할 수 있다.여기서는 입자 하나에 대해서만 유도를 하였지만, 일반적인 경우에도 관성모멘트와 각운동량 사이에는 이와 같은 관계가 성립한다.회전축도 변하는 일반적인 회전의 경우, 각운동량과 각속도벡터는 평행하지 않다. 때문에 스칼라 관성모멘트를 사용한 식이 성립하지 않고, 좀 더 일반적인 식인 관성텐서 formula_20를 사용한 아래의 식을 사용한다.관성텐서의 각 성분 formula_31은 다음과 같이 정의된다.이와 속도와 각속도의 일반적 관계를 사용하면 각운동량과 관성텐서 사이의 관계를 유도할 수 있다. 각운동량의 정의에 이를 대입하면를 얻고 여기서 삼중곱을 전개하면 아래와 같은 식을 얻는다.이제 formula_3을 성분 formula_37로 표현해 formula_38를 분리한다.관성텐서의 정의를 대입하면,가 되어 맨 처음 식이 성립함을 확인할 수 있다.양자역학에서의 각운동량.고전적인 각운동량에 대응하는 양자역학적 관측 가능량은 궤도 각운동량 formula_41이다. 다른 양자역학적 관측 가능량과 마찬가지로 궤도 각운동량의 값은 디랙 상수 formula_42의 정수 또는 반정수배로 양자화된다. 뿐만 아니라 양자역학에는 고전적으로 존재할 수 없는 각운동량 항이 존재하는데 이를 스핀 formula_43라고 한다. +원주율은 원둘레와 지름의 비 즉 원의 지름에 대한 둘레의 비율을 나타내는 수학 상수이다. 수학과 물리학의 여러 분야에 두루 쓰인다. 그리스 문자 로 표기하고 파이라고 읽는다. 원주율은 수학에서 다루는 가장 중요한 상수 가운데 하나이다. 무리수인 동시에 초월수이다. 아르키메데스의 계산이 널리 알려져 있어 아르키메데스 상수라고 부르기도 하며 독일에서는 1600년대 뤼돌프 판 쾰런이 소수점 이하 35자리까지 원주율을 계산한 이후 뤼돌프 수라고 부르기도 한다. 원주율의 값은 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375105820974944...로 순환하지 않는 무한소수이기 때문에 근삿값으로 3.14를 사용하거나 기호 파이로 사용한다.유클리드 평면에서 원은 크기와 관계없이 언제나 닮은 도형이다. 따라서 원의 지름에 대한 둘레의 비는 언제나 일정하며, 이를 원주율이라 한다. 즉, 원의 지름을 d, 둘레를 C라 하면 원주율 는 다음의 식으로 나타낼 수 있다.원주율을 나타내는 기호 는 1706년 영국의 수학자 윌리엄 존스가 최초로 사용했다. 이것은 둘레를 뜻하는 고대 그리스어 "페리페레스" 또는 "페리메트론"의 첫 글자를 딴 것이다. 윌리엄 존스는 “특정 도형의 길이나 넓이를 구하는 계산에 매우 유용한 방법이 여러 가지 있다. 원을 예로 들면 지름이 1인 원의 둘레를 약 3.14159…= 로 표기하는 것이다.”라고 기호 의 사용을 제안하였다.원주율은 소수점 아래 어느 자리에서도 끝나지 않고 순환마디도 없이 무한히 계속되는 비순환소수이다. 원주율이 무리수라는 것은 1761년 요한 하인리히 람베르트가 증명했다. 원주율의 소수점 이하에서 나타나는 수열은 무작위 표집을 통해 만드는 난수표와 성질이 같다. 원주율은 십진법으로는 값을 정확하게 표기할 수 없기 때문에 실제 계산에서는 근삿값을 이용한다.한편, 원주율은 계수가 유리수인 유한 차수 다항식의 해가 될 수 없다. 이러한 종류의 수를 초월수라 부른다. 이 사실은 1882년 페르디난트 폰 린데만이 증명하였다. 여기에서 원주율은 어떤 정수에 적당한 유리수를 곱하고 제곱근을 씌우는 등의 연산을 조합하여 얻어낼 수 없다는 사실을 알 수 있다. 또한 원주율이 초월수라는 사실을 통해, 그리스 3대 난제 중 하나였던 “자와 컴퍼스만을 사용하여 원과 넓이가 같은 정사각형을 작도하는 원적문제”가 유한한 대수적 방법으로는 불가능하다는 것을 증명할 수 있다.유클리드 기하학에서 원과 원주율의 관계를 살펴보면 다음과 같은 사실을 확인할 수 있다.원주율이 보이는 복잡한 수열에 비해 이를 계산하는 방법은 의외로 단순하다. 라이프니츠가 정리한 다음 계산식이 널리 알려져 있다.고대의 여러 문화에서 원주율의 값으로 3이 쓰였다. 고대 메소포타미아에서도 원주율을 3으로 계산하였고 구약성경 열왕기상 7장 23절과 역대하 4장 2절에는 직경과 둘레의 길이를 기술하여 원주율이 3정도 임을 알고 있었다고 추측된다. 고대 중국의 수학책인 에는 다음과 같은 문제가 실려 있다.구장산술의 계산은 평균값으로 이루어져있다. 원둘레가 30보인 경우 반지름은 30=2r*3.14 r=4.78 이경우의 면적은 71.74 지름이 10보인 경우 면적은 78.5. 과 의 평균은 75보. 그러므로 구장산술의 계산이 부정확하다는 것은 잘못되었다.구장산술에 실린 계산이 매우 부정확하다는 것은 왼쪽 그림을 보면 쉽게 알 수 있다. 지름이 1인 원에 내접하는 정육각형의 둘레는 3이고 실제 원의 둘레는 그것과는 차이가 상당하기 때문이다. 이는 고대에서부터 이미 널리 알려진 문제였고 값을 보다 정확하게 구하기 위한 노력이 계속되었다. 고대 이집트에서는 원통형 바퀴를 굴려 직접 측정해 원주율을 계산하였는데 =3.16049……를 사용하였다.한편 기원전 3세기의 고대 그리스 수학자 아르키메데스는 근대 적분이 없었던 당시에 무한소라는 개념을 사용하였다. 그는 소거법을 사용하여 formula_3의 근삿값을 계산하였다. 이 방법은 임의 차원의 미지항에 대해 극한을 취하는 것으로, 귀류법을 사용하여 동일한 계산을 반복하는 과정을 통해 해답을 얻는 것이다. 아르키메데스는 변이 매우 많은 다각형이 임의의 원에 내접하는 경우와 외접하는 경우를 비교하여 원주율을 계산하였다. 즉, 임의의 원의 둘레는 그것에 외접하는 다각형의 둘레보다 짧고 내접하는 다각형보다 길다. 이때 다각형의 변이 많아질수록 외접하는 경우와 내접하는 경우의 둘레 차는 작아지므로 원의 둘레에 근사한다. 즉, 지름이 d인 원에 내접하는 변의 개수가 n인 정다각형의 둘레 Pn에 대해 다음과 같이 함수의 극한을 취하면 원주율을 얻을 수 있다.아르키메데스는 정구십육각형을 이용하여 formula_3의 값을 다음과 같이 계산하였다.아르키메데스는 이 결과에 따라 formula_3의 근삿값으로 3.1416을 제시하였다. 또한, 아르키메데스는 원의 면적이 formula_8임을 증명하였다. 아르키메데스는 자신의 저서 에서 어떠한 크기가 주어지더라도 임의의 크기에 적당한 수를 곱하여 주어진 크기를 초과할 수 있다고 가정하였다. 이를 실수에서의 아르키메데스 성질이라고 한다.중국의 삼국시대 위나라 수학자 유휘는 에 주해를 달아 다시 출판하였는데 아르키메데스와 같은 방법을 사용하여 원주율을 =3.14 로 계산하였다. 유휘가 계산한 원주율 근삿값은 오늘날에도 일상생활에서 사용한다.2세기에 들어 중국의 장형은 원주율을 3.1623으로 계산하였고 5세기 중국 남북조 시대 송나라의 조충지는 3.141592로 계산하였다. 독일에서는 1600년대 뤼돌프 판 쾰런이 소수점 이하 35자리까지 계산하였다. 컴퓨터를 도입하기 이전에 가장 긴 자리수의 원주율을 계산한 사람은 영국의 수학자 샹크스였다. 그는 15년이나 걸려 1873년께 소수점 이하 707자리까지 원주율 값을 계산해냈다. 하지만 후에 그 계산은 528자리까지만 정확한 것으로 밝혀졌다.컴퓨터를 통한 원주율 계산.1949년 9월 최초로 컴퓨터를 이용하여 70시간에 걸쳐 소수점 아래 2037자리까지 계산하였다. 원주율 계산에 컴퓨터를 도입한 이후 원주율 계산은 단순 알고리즘의 무한 반복에 불과한 작업이 되어 수학적 의미를 잃었다. 이 계산은 종종 컴퓨터의 성능을 시험하기 위한 방법으로 사용한다. 2005년 일본 도쿄 대학의 가네다 야스마사 교수는 컴퓨터를 601시간 56분 동안 사용하여 원주율을 소수점 1241100000000자리까지 구하였다. 2009년 〈도쿄신문〉에 따르면 일본 쓰쿠바 대학 계산과학연구센터는 17일 슈퍼컴퓨터를 사용한 원주율 계산에서 2조 5769억 8037만 자리수의 세계기록을 수립했다고 한다. 그 이후 프랑스에서는 2조 7천억 자리까지 계산하였다. 2010년 8월 3일에는 일본의 회사원 곤도 시게루가 소수점 이하 5조 자리까지 계산하였다. 2016년 11월 11일 스위스의 입자 물리학자인 페터 트뤼프는 105일 동안 계산하여 원주율을 소수점 이하 22조 4591억 5771만 8361자리까지 계산했다.formula_3 값의 소수점 아래 1,000자리 수는 다음과 같다.formula_3 값의 소수점 아래 100만 자리 10억 자리 1조 자리 수는 Peter Trb의 웹사이트에서 다운로드 받을 수 있다.또는 다른 웹사이트 에서도 확인할 수 있다.원주율은 두 정수의 비로 나타낼 수 없는 무리수이다. 또한 계수가 유리수인 다항식의 근이 될 수 없는 초월수이다.원주율이 무리수라는 것은 1761년에 요한 하인리히 람베르트가 증명했다. 람베르트는 다음과 같이 탄젠트 함수의 연분수 전개식을 이용하여 이를 증명하였다.formula_13가 formula_14이 아닌 유리수일 때 위에 전개된 연분수를 십진기수법으로 나타내면 언제나 순환하지 않는 소수이므로 항상 무리수이다. 한편 formula_15 이므로 formula_16는 반드시 무리수여만 한다. 따라서 formula_3 역시 무리수이다.오일러 등식은 기초 수학의 여러 개념에서 빈번하게 등장한다.원주율이 초월수임은 오일러 등식을 이용하여 다음과 같이 증명할 수 있다. 오일러 등식은이다. 이 때 가 정계수 대수방정식 formula_20의 근이라면 formula_21이다. 따라서 formula_22 역시 성립하여야 한다. 이제 y=i라 하면 =-iy 이고 -=iy 이므로, i는 다음 식으로 나타낼 수 있는 정계수 대수방정식을 만족시켜야 한다.이제 formula_24을 차원의 방정식이라 하면 그 근인 y1 y2…… y에는 i가 존재하여야 하므로 식 (1)에 따라 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.그런데 이러한 관계를 만족하는 대수방정식의 근이 유리수라고 가정하면 무한히 약분할 수 있어서, 이를 기약분수로 표현할 수 없는 모순이 생긴다. 유리수를 기약분수로 표현할 수 없다는 것은 유리수의 정의에 어긋나므로 가 정계수 대수방정식 formula_20의 근이라는 최초의 가정이 잘못되었다고 볼 수밖에 없다. 즉, 원주율은 초월수이다. 자세한 증명은 링크한 주석을 참고하기 바란다.개요에서 밝혔듯이 원주율은 반복되지 않고 무한히 계속되는 수열을 이룬다. 네덜란드 수학자 라위트전 브라우어르는 다음과 같은 질문을 제기하였다.브라우어르는 이 수열이 무한히 계속되기 때문에 이 수열을 어느 정도까지만 확인한 결과만으로는 위 질문에 답할 수 없다는 점을 지적하였다. 실제 소수점 이하 762번째에서부터 수열 999999 가 출현한다. 이 수열은 파인만 포인트로 알려져 있으며 원주율의 소수점 이하 수열에서 확률 0.08%로 발견할 수 있는 것으로 알려져 있다. 따라서 경험적 방법으로는 위 문제에 답할 수 없다. 브라우어르는 이러한 논의를 바탕으로 아리스토텔레스의 배중률 은 유한한 개수를 대상으로 한 것에만 적용 수 있을 뿐 무한한 것에 적용할 수 없다고 결론지었다.원주율에서 나타나는 수열은 무작위 표집을 사용해 만든 난수표의 성질을 보인다. 하지만, 실제 원주율의 수열이 완전한 무작위성을 보이는지는 증명되지 않았다.원주율은 무리수이기 때문에 그 값은 근삿값으로밖에 알 수 없다. 대부분의 계산에는 3.14나 22/7 라는 근삿값을 사용해도 충분하다. 355/113은 외우기 좋고, 정밀도도 좋다. 좀 더 정밀한 기술의 계산에서는 3.1416 또는 3.14159 등을 사용하기도 한다. 기상 예보나 인공 위성 등의 계산에는 소수점 아래 30자리까지 나아간 근삿값을 사용하고 있다. 이렇게 불규칙적인 패턴을 가지는 원주율은 다음과 같이 규칙적인 수식을 이용하여 계산할 수 있다. 더 정확한 값을 얻으려면 수식을 연장하기만 하면 된다.위 식은 고트프리트 빌헬름 라이프니츠가 전개한 것으로 흔히 라이프니츠의 공식이라고 부른다. 이 식 외에도 원주율을 계산하는 공식으로는 다음과 같은 것이 있다.17세기의 프랑스 수학자 프랑수아 비에트는 다음과 같은 무한급수로 원주율을 계산하였다.또한 스털링 근사를 사용해 원주율을 유도할 수도 있다.원주율은 다음과 같이 연분수로 표현할 수 있다.1996년 데이빗 베일리는 피터 보어와인, 시몽 플루프와 공동으로 에 관련된 새로운 무한급수를 발견했다.이 식을 이용하면 2진수 그리고 16진수로 표기한 값의 소수점 아래 -1째 자리까지 구하지 않고 바로 계산해 낼 수 있다. 베일리의 홈페이지 에선 다양한 프로그래밍 언어를 이용해 구현한 실제 예를 볼 수 있다.원주율은 수학과 물리학 등 여러 분야에서 다양하게 적용한다.아르키메데스는 원과 구의 다음과 같은 성질을 증명하였다.한편, 원은 이심률이 0인 타원으로 간주할 수 있으며 이에 따라 타원 방정식은 일반적으로 다음과 같이 표현한다.이 때 타원의 넓이를 A라 하면 다음과 같이 계산할 수 있다.각의 크기를 나타내는 무차원 단위인 라디안은 오른쪽 그림과 같이 정의하여 반지름과 호의 길이가 같을 때 1라디안이 된다. 따라서, 원 전체는 2라디안이고 이를 도로 환산하면 다음과 같다.1687년 스위스의 바젤의 수학 교수였던 야코프 베르누이와 요한 베르누이 형제는 조화급수가 발산한다는 사실을 증명하였다. 그러나 조화급수의 각 분모를 제곱한 다음 식을 닫힌 형식으로 나타내는 것에는 실패하였으며 논문의 끝에 이 문제를 해결하였다면 알려주기 바란다고 적었다.당대의 유명한 수학자들이 이 문제를 풀기 위해 시도하였으나 결국 실패하였고 이 문제는 바젤 문제로 알려지며 해석학자의 악몽으로까지 불리게 되었다. 이를 해결한 사람은 레온하르트 오일러로 1735년에 이 급수의 값이 다음과 같다는 것을 증명하였다.후일 이 급수는 다음과 같은 일반식으로 표현되었는데 이것이 리만 제타 함수이다.리만 제타 함수는 s가 짝수일 때 위 식을 이용하여 그 값을 쉽게 계산할 수 있으나 홀수일 때는 자명하지 않다. 1978년 s가 3일 때 무리수로 수렴하는 것이 증명되었다. 이 수렴값은 아페리 상수라고 한다.복소수 formula_43는 극좌표계를 이용하여 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.복소해석학에서 는 복소수 변수가 지수 함수에서 보이는 행동과 연관이 있으며 오일러의 공식에 따라 다음과 같이 표현할 수 있다.의 지수로 표현하면 다음과 같은 오일러 등식을 얻는다.따라서 "n" 번째 단위근은 다음과 같다.이제 가우스 적분으로 나타내면이 결과는 반정수의 감마 함수가 √의 유리수 곱임을 뜻한다.확률과 통계에서 원주율이 등장하는 정리들은 다음과 같은 것들이 있다.조르주루이 르클레르 드 뷔퐁이 제기한 뷔퐁의 바늘 문제는 원주율의 근삿값을 구하는 경험주의적인 방법으로 거론된다. 길이가 L인 바늘을 일정 간격으로 그린 평행선에 떨어뜨린다고 가정해 보자. 이 때 평행선의 간격 S가 바늘의 길이보다 크다고 하면 바늘을 떨어뜨린 횟수 n번에 대해 바늘이 평행선 밖으로 나간 횟수 x번에는 몬테카를로 방법에 의해 다음과 같은 관계가 있다.즉, 뷔퐁의 바늘 문제에서 바늘을 떨어뜨리는 횟수가 매우 많아지면 바늘이 평행선을 벗어나는 횟수에 대한 바늘을 떨어뜨린 전체 횟수의 비는 원주율에 근사한다.원주율 자체는 물리 상수가 아니지만 물리학의 여러 분야에서 두루 사용한다. 이는 자연 현상의 상당수가 원과 관계가 있기 때문이다. 예를 들어 회전수를 일정하게 유지하는 등속원운동에서 각속도와 원주속도는 다음과 같이 계산할 수 있다.이 외에 물리학에서 원주율을 사용하는 경우는 다음과 같다. +일리야 로마노비치 프리고진는 러시아 모스크바 태생의 벨기에의 화학자이다.벨기에 브뤼셀의 브뤼셀 자유대학(Universit Libre de Bruxelles)에서 화학을 전공했으며 산일구조(散逸構造) 복잡계 비가역성에 대한 연구로 유명하다. 1977년 비평형 열역학 특히 소산 구조론의 연구에 공헌한 점을 인정받아 노벨 화학상을 수상했다. 1989년에는 벨기에의 보두앵 1세 국왕으로부터 자작 작위를 받았다.엔탈피는 열역학계의 성질로 계의 내부 에너지에 압력 곱하기 부피를 더한 값으로 정의된다. 대기압이나 수압과 같이 일정한 압력에 둘러싸인 계를 다룰 때 유용하게 사용되는 상태함수이다. 기호는 대개 라틴 대문자 "H"이다. 국제단위계상에서 줄이 영국 열량 단위에서 칼로리가 엔탈피를 나타내기 위한 단위로 사용된다.열역학 제 1법칙에 의하면 계의 내부에너지 변화량을 구하기 위해서는 가한 열량과 해준 일을 모두 알고 있어야 한다. 등압과정에서는 계가 받은 열량이 계의 엔탈피 변화량과 같게 된다. 따라서 일의 양을 매번 계산하기 번거롭다는 등의 실용적인 이유로 등압과정에서 측정된 엔탈피 변화량()이 주로 사용된다. 화학 물질에 대해 엔탈피라는 용어를 사용할 때에는 대부분 표준상태 즉 부근의 압력과 부근의 온도를 상정한다. 엔탈피 변화량은 흡열 과정에서 양의 값을 발열 과정에서는 음의 값을 가진다.엔탈피는 다음 식으로 정의된다.여기서 는 계의 엔탈피를 는 계의 내부 에너지를 는 계의 압력을 는 계의 부피를 의미한다.엔탈피는 크기 성질로 성분이 동일하다면 계의 크기와 비례하여 값이 달라진다. 세기 성질로 사용하고 싶다면 비엔탈피 나 몰엔탈피 를 정의해 사용할 수 있다. 이 때 은 질량을 은 몰수를 의미한다.불균질한 계의 경우 총 엔탈피 값은 각 부분의 엔탈피의 총합으로 구할 수 있는데 식으로 나타내면 다음과 같다.여기서 는 총 엔탈피 값을, 는 각 부분계를, 는 그 부분계의 엔탈피를 의미한다.중력장 내에 놓인 닫힌 계를 고려해보자. 이 경우 압력 는 고도에 반비례하여 즉각적으로 달라지지만 온도 는 평행이 완전히 이루어지기까지는 특별히 달라지지 않는다. 이 경우 엔탈피는 다음과 같이 적분을 사용해 나타낸다.여기서 는 밀도를, 는 비엔탈피를 나타내며 따라서 는 엔탈피 밀도를 나타낸다. 는 무한히 작은 부피를 나타낸다. 따라서 이 적분은 모든 부피를 무한히 작은 부분으로 나누어서 각 부분의 엔탈피를 더한 것과 같다.위의 엔탈피의 정의는 그 값이 기준을 어떤 점으로 잡느냐에 따라 변하기 때문에 그 자체로 쓰이는 것 보다는 계의 어떤 상태와 다른 상태 간의 엔탈피 차이를 표현하는 방식으로 쓰인다. 어떠한 과정에서 압력의 변화가 0인 경우엔, 엔탈피의 변화량은 계가 주변과 열교환의 형태로 주고받은 에너지인 열량을 나타낸다.따라서 주변의 압력이 일정하게 유지되는 반응의 전후 열량 출입을 나타내는 데에 많이 쓰인다.계의 엔탈피는 직접 측정할 수 없으며 계의 엔탈피 변화로 대신 측정된다 .엔탈피 변화는 다음 방정식으로 정의된다.반응 엔탈피(H) = 엔탈피 변화량 formula_4 E출입량 formula_4E 차이값 between 반응물 & 생성물 formula_4 반응열formula_8는 계의 최종 엔탈피이다.formula_9는 계 의 초기 엔탈피이다.H의 구성 = 부호 + 크기- 부호 : 흡열 반응- 부호 : 발열 반응H 크기의 의미 - E 출입량 = E 차이 between 반응물 & 생성물역반응 H = -정반응 H엔탈피는 온도와 압력에 따라 달라지므로 온도와 압력을 표시한다. 온도와 압력이 표시되어 있지 않으면 25도씨 1기압 상태이다.엔탈피 변화는 화학 반응을 일으킬 때 열역적 계 또는 주위에서 관찰된 엔탈피의 변화를 설명한다.화학반응이 완료된 후 엔탈피 값은 달라진다. 이는 생성물과 반응물간의 엔탈피 차이로 나타나는 현상으로, 엔탈피 변화값 은 - 으로나타 낼 수 있다. 일반적인 엔탈피 변화의 예로서는 표준 생성엔탈피가 있다. 이러한 엔탈피의 측정은 표준화된 환경 또는 표준 조건에서 측정하는 것이 매우 일반적이다.물질 1몰이 완전 연소하여 가장 안정한 생성물이 될 때 방출하는 열량보통 연소 엔탈피는 음수이다.물질 1몰이 가장 안정한 원소로부터 생성될 때 방출하거나 흡수하는 열량생성열 formula_4 생성반응식의 E 차이홑원소 물질 생성열 =0 -> 예외 : <chem>O3</chem> 다이아몬드(C)의 생성열 formula_110생성열 = 연소열인 반응 -> C + <chem>O2</chem>-> <chem>CO2</chem> H=C 연소열 = <chem>CO2</chem> 생성열-> <chem>H2 + 1/2O2 -> H2O</chem> H=<chem>H2</chem> 연소열 = <chem>H2O</chem> 생성열25도씨 1기압에서의 생성열 = 표준 생성열 formula_4 생성열일부 표준 형성의 열은 아래 표에 열거되어 있다.물질 1몰이 가장 안정한 원소로 분해될 때 방출하거나 흡수하는 열량분해열 = - 생성열산과 염기가 중화되어 <chem>H2O</chem>1몰이 생성될 때 방출하는 열량-산과 염기의 종류에 관계없이 일정 물질 1몰이 다량의 물에 용해될 때 방출하거나 흡수하는 열량간이 열량계에 의한 연소열 측정.원리 : 연료가 연소할 때 방출한 열 = 물이 흡수한 열연소열 = 물이 흡수한 열량/연소한 물질의 수 = (물의 ) / ()통 열량계에 의한 연소열 측정.원리 연료가 연소할 때 방출한 열 = 물과 열량계가 흡수한 열= ((물) + (열량계) / ( / ) +운동 에너지 는 운동하고 있는 물체 또는 입자가 갖는 에너지이다. 주어진 물체의 어떤 속도에서의 운동에너지는 그 물체를 정지 상태에서 그 속도까지 가속시키는데 필요한 일의 양으로 정의된다. 가속이 되어 운동 에너지를 얻게 되면 속도의 크기가 변하지 않는 한 그 운동에너지를 유지한다. 또한, 그 운동 상태에서 정지 상태까지 감속시키는데 필요한 에너지 또한 원래 그 물체의 운동 에너지와 같다.고전 역학에서 질량이 m인 비회전체의 속도의 크기가 v일 때 물체의 운동 에너지는 formula_1이다.고전역학에서 "E ∝ mv2" 라는 원리는 처음 고트프리트 라이프니츠와 요한 베르누이에 의해 고안되었는데, 이 때 운동 에너지를 "살아있는 힘()" 라고 묘사하였다. 네덜란드의 는 이 관계의 실험적인 증거를 제시하였다. 물체를 점토 블럭에 떨어뜨리면서 그라브산드는 그들의 관통 깊이가 충돌 속도 크기의 제곱에 비례하는 것을 발견하였다. 브르퇴유는 실험 결과가 암시하는 바를 인지하였고 자신의 설명을 발표하였다."운동 에너지" 와 "일" 이라는 용어의 현대의 과학적 의미는 19세기 중반으로 거슬러 올라간다. 코리올리는 1829년에 "Du Calcul de l'Effet des Machines"를 발표하는데 여기에서 운동 에너지를 수학적으로 기술하려고 시도하였다. 윌리엄 톰슨은 약 1849-51년도에 "운동 에너지(kinetic energy)"라는 용어를 처음 쓴 것으로 알려져있다.에너지는 화학 에너지 열 에너지 전자기 복사 중력 에너지 전기 에너지 탄성 에너지 핵 에너지 정지 에너지 등과 같이 많은 형태로 존재한다. 이것들은 크게 두 가지로 분류 할 수 있는데 바로 위치 에너지와 운동 에너지이다.운동 에너지는 다른 형태의 에너지로 어떻게 전환이 되는지 살펴본다면 쉽게 이해될 수 있을 것이다. 예를 들면, 사이클리스트는 음식에서 제공되는 화학 에너지를 자전거를 가속 시키는데 사용한다. 평평한 표면에서 이 속도를 유지하기 위해서는 공기 저항과 마찰을 이겨내는 데 필요한 것을 빼면 더 이상 필요한 일이 없다. 이 과정에서 화학 에너지는 운동 에너지로 변환되지만 그 과정은 완전히 효율적인 것이 아니고 열을 부가적으로 생산하게 된다.운동하는 사이클리스트와 자전거의 운동 에너지는 다른 형태의 에너지로 변환될 수 있다. 예를 들면 사이클리스트가 충분히 높은 언덕을 만나 페달을 밟지 않은 채로 언덕 정상에서 멈추게 되었다고 하자. 그럼 운동 에너지는 완전히 중력 위치 에너지로 변환되게 되고 이것은 언덕을 다시 내려오면서 운동 에너지로 바뀌게 된다. 마찰 때문에 에너지의 손실이 생기므로 추가적으로 페달을 밟지 않는 한 원래의 속력을 가지지 못한다. 그 과정에서 에너지는 사라진 것이 아니고 마찰 때문에 다른 형태의 에너지로 전환된 것이다. 이번엔 싸이클리스트가 바퀴 하나에 발전기를 연결했다고 가정해보자. 그럼 하강하는 과정에서 전기 에너지를 생산하게 된다. 그럼 발전기가 없었을 때보다 싸이클리스트는 언덕 아래에서 더 적은 속력을 가지게 될 것이다. 이는 원래 가지고 있던 에너지 일부가 전기 에너지로 변환 되었기 때문이다. 만약 브레이크를 밟게 될 경우 운동 에너지는 마찰에 의해서 열로 빠르게 전환 될 것이다.다른 속도의 함수인 물리량과 같이 물체의 운동 에너지 또한 물체와 관찰자의 기준계 사이의 관계에 의존한다. 그러므로 물체의 운동 에너지가 불변량인 것은 아니다.우주선은 공전 속도에 도달하기 위해 필요한 운동 에너지를 화학 에너지로부터 얻는다. 완벽한 원 궤도의 경우 지구 근방의 우주 공간은 마찰이 거의 없기 때문에 이 운동 에너지는 일정하게 유지된다. 하지만 다시 우주선이 지구로 돌아올 경우 운동 에너지는 열로 전환된다. 만약 궤도가 타원형이거나 쌍곡선의 형태라면 공전하는 동안 운동 에너지와 위치 에너지는 지속적으로 교환된다. 근일점에서 운동 에너지는 최대 위치 에너지는 최소가 되고 원일점에서는 운동 에너지는 최소 위치 에너지는 최대가 된다. 그렇지만 운동 에너지와 위치 에너지의 합은 보존된다.운동 에너지는 한 물체에서 다른 물체로 전달될 수 있다. 당구에서 플레이어가 당구공을 큐로 치게 되면 그 공에게 운동 에너지를 전달하게 된다. 만약 그 공이 다른 공과 충돌한다면 에너지가 전달 되기 때문에 멈춰 있던 공은 가속되고 다른 공은 급격하게 느려진다. 당구에서의 충돌은 탄성 충돌에 가깝다. 따라서 운동 에너지는 보존된다. 비탄성 충돌의 경우 운동 에너지는 다양한 형태의 에너지로 분산된다.플라이휠은 에너지를 저장하기 위해 개발되었다. 이는 운동 에너지가 회전 운동의 형태로 저장된 것이라고 볼 수 있다.어떤 물리적 상황에서 운동 에너지를 수학적으로 기술하는 방법이 몇 가지 있다. 일상생활에서는 보통 뉴턴 역학에서의 mv 공식이 가장 적합하다. 하지만 물체의 속력이 빛의 속력에 가까워지면 상대론적인 효과가 나타나며 상대성 이론이 필요하게 된다. 만약 물체가 원자나 아원자 수준의 크기라면 양자 역학적인 효과가 두드러지며 양자 역학이 필요하게 된다.강체의 운동 에너지.고전 역학에서 점 입자 혹은 비회전 강체의 운동 에너지는 그것의 속력과 질량에 의존한다. 운동 에너지는 속력의 제곱과 질량의 곱에 1/2을 곱한 것과 같다. 따라서이고, 여기서 formula_3은 물체의 질량 formula_4는 물체의 속력이다. SI 단위에서 질량은 킬로그램, 속도는 m/s로 측정된다. 그리고 운동 에너지의 단위는 이다.예를 들어 어떤 사람이 80kg의 물체가 18m/s로 운동할 때 운동에너지를 계산하려고 한다면인 것이다. 만약 당신이 공을 던진다면 당신은 공을 가속시키기 위해 을 가할 것이고 그 공이 어떤 물체에 부딪히고 그 물체를 움직이게 한다면 부딪힐 때 공이 그 물체에게 일을 해 준 것이다. 그런데 운동 에너지는 정지 상태에서 어떤 속력까지 가속시키는데 필요한 일이므로 알짜힘 x 변위 = 운동 에너지인 것이다. 즉운동 에너지는 속력의 제곱에 비례하기 때문에 물체의 속력이 두 배가 된다면 운동 에너지는 네 배가 된다. 예를 들어 어떤 차가 다른 동일한 질량의 차보다 두 배의 속력으로 달리고 있다고 하자. 두 차가 브레이크를 밟을 때 마찰력이 동일하다고 하면 속력이 두 배 빠른 차가 네 배더 많은 거리를 브레이크를 밟아야 완전히 멈출 수 있다. 이는 감속하는데 걸리는 시간이 네 배인 것을 의미한다.물체의 운동에너지는 또한 과도 관계가 있는데 이는 다음을 만족한다.여기서, formula_8는 물체의 운동량, formula_3은 물체의 질량이다.의 선형 운동에서의 운동 에너지 또한이다. 여기서 formula_3은 물체의 질량 formula_4는 강체의 의 속력이다.물체의 운동 에너지는 그것이 측정되는 기준계에 의존한다. 하지만 에너지가 나가거나 들어올 수 없는 고립계에서의 전체 에너지는 시간이 지나도 그것이 측정되는 기준계 안에서는 변하지 않는다. 그러므로 로켓 엔진에서 운동 에너지로 변환되는 화학 에너지는 기준계에 따라 우주선체와 배기 가스에 다른게 나뉜다. 이를 오베르트 효과라고 부른다. 하지만 어떤 기준계를 선택하든지 운동 에너지 연료의 화학 에너지 등을 포함한 전체 에너지는 시간에 따라 변하지 않는다. 하지만 다른 기준계를 따라 움직이는 서로 다른 관측자들이 관측한 전체 에너지는 서로 다를 수 있다.기준계에 따라 계의 운동 에너지는 달라지는데 운동량 중심을 따라 움직이는 기준계에서 측정할 때 운동 에너지는 최소값을 가진다. 이는 이 기준계에서 계의 총 운동량이 0이기 때문이다.극소 시간 의 과 같다. 따라서,이고 여기서 formula_14 라고 가정하였다. 내적의 성질을 이용하면이므로 질량이 일정하다고 가정하면 다음과 같다.따라서 이것은 전미분이므로 우리는 이것을 [[적분]]하여 운동 에너지를 구할 수 있게 된다. 물체가 0초 일 때 정지해있다고 가정하고 0부터 t까지 시간에 대해 적분하면이다. 이 식은 운동 에너지가 과 같음을 의미한다. 또한 물체는 처음에 운동 에너지를 가지고 있지 않았다고 가정한다.회전체의 운동 에너지.강제 Q가 질량 중심을 통과하는 어떤 선을 중심으로 회전한다면 회전 운동 에너지가 존재하게 된다. 이는 움직이는 부분들의 운동 에너지 합과 같다. 따라서이 식에서 모멘트는 질량 중심을 통과하는 회전축에 대해 측정되어야 하며 각속도 또한 그 회전축에 대해 측정되어야 한다. 물체의 편심된 모양때문에 생기는 떨림 운동이 있는 물체의 관한 좀더 일반적인 식도 존재한다.계에서의 물체는 계와의 상대적인 운동에 의해 생기는 내적인 운동 에너지를 가지고 있다. 예를 들어, 에서는 행성과 미행성들이 태양을 중심으로 공전하고 있다. 가스 탱크 안에서는 분자들이 거의 모든 방향으로 움직이고 있다. 이 때 계의 운동에너지는 계가 포함하는 모든 물체의 운동 에너지의 합이다.정지한 거시적인 물체(즉, 물체의 운동량 중심을 따라 이동하는 기준계)는 원자 또는 분자 수준에서 분자의 병진, 회전, 진동이나 전자의 병진과 스핀 또는 핵 스핀 등 때문에 운동 에너지 형태의 다양한 내적 에너지를 가지고 있다. 특수 상대성이론에서 이들 모두는 물체 질량을 구성하게 된다. 거시적인 물체의 운동을 기술할 때 운동 에너지는 거시적인 운동에만 관한 것이다. 그렇지만 모든 형태의 내적 에너지들은 물체의 질량, 관성, 전체 에너지를 구성하게 된다.한 물체의 속력 혹은 위치 에너지는 계에 의존적이며 어떤 를 선택하든 음수가 아닌 값을 얻을 수 있다. 예를 들어, 관측자 옆으로 총알이 지나간다고 해보자. 그럼 총알은 관측자의 기준계에서 운동 에너지를 갖게 된다. 이번엔 관측자가 총알과 같은 속도로 움직인다고 해보자. 그럼 그 관측자의 기준 계에서 총알의 운동 에너지는 0이 된다. 한편, 계의 모든 물체가 같은 속도로 움직이지 않는 한 어떤 관성계를 선택하든 전체 운동 에너지가 0이 되도록 할 수 없다. 즉, 관성계를 정했을 때 그 안에서 모든 물체가 정지한 상태가 아니면 전체 운동 에너지는 0이 아닌 최소값을 가진다.계의 전체 운동 에너지는 관성계에 따라 달라진다. 그것은 운동량 중심을 기준계로 하였을 때 전체 운동에너지와 같거나 혹은 전체 질량이 질량 중심에 집중 되었을 때 그 전체 질량이 갖는 운동 에너지와 같다.이것을 간단히 나타내보자. formula_25를 어떤 기준계 의 상대적인 속도라고 하자. 그런데,이다. formula_28를 질량 중심 기준계에서의 운동 에너지라고 한다면 formula_29는 단순히 전체 운동량이 될 것이고 이것은 질량 중심 기준계에서 정의에 의해 0이 된다. 그리고 formula_30는 전체 질량이므로 다음을 얻는다.그러므로 계의 운동에너지는 운동량 중심 기준계 즉, 질량 중심이 정지해있는 기준계에서 최소값을 가진다. 이외에 다른 기준계에서는 질량 중심의 속력으로 이동하는 전체 질량에 해당하는 추가적인 운동 에너지가 존재한다. 운동량 중심 기준계에서의 계의 운동 에너지는 불변량이다.가끔 물체의 운동 에너지를 물체 질량 중심의 병진 운동 에너지와 질량 중심에 대한 회전 에너지로 나누는 것은 편리한 방법이다. 즉,이고 formula_33는 전체 운동 에너지 formula_34는 병진 운동 에너지 formula_35은 질량 중심을 관통하는 선을 회전축으로 하는 회전 운동의 에너지이다.강체의 상대론적 운동 에너지.만약 물체의 속력이 에서 선형 운동량의 표현은 고전 역학에서와 다르다.물체의 [[불변 질량|정지 질량]]을 formula_3, formula_37와 formula_4를 각각 속도와 속력, formula_39를 진공에서의 빛의 속력이라고 한다면 선형 운동량은이고 formula_43 이므로이다. formula_45는 이다. 표현을 간단히 하면이다. formula_45는 formula_48일 때 formula_49인 것을 대입하면이다. 이 공식에 의하면 물체를 정지 상태에서 빛의 속도에 가깝도록 가속할 때 필요한 일의 양이 무한대에 가까워지는 것을 알 수 있다. 따라서 물체를 빛의 속도 보다 빠르게 가속시키는 것은 불가능하다.이 식의 부산물은 바로 -정지한 물체는 formula_52에 해당하는 에너지를 가지고있다-이다.formula_53일 때 상대론적 운동 에너지는 고전 역학에서의 운동 에너지와 거의 일치한다. 이것은 이항근사나 의 앞 두 항만을 취할 때 얻을 수 있다. 즉따라서 낮은 속력에서 전체 에너지 formula_55는 정지 질량 에너지 더하기 뉴턴 운동 에너지로 나뉜다.빛보다 매우 낮은 속력으로 운동할때(일상생활과 관련된 모든 운동) 첫 테일러 전개의 첫 두항이 지배적인 값을 차지한다. 테일러 전개의 다음항까지 근사를 하면인데 여기서 맨 오른쪽 식의 두번째 항은 낮은 속력에서 매우 작다. 예를 들어 10km/s로 운동하는 물체의 경우 두번째 항은 0.0417J/kg이다. 100km/s 일때는 417J/kg이다. 따라서 첫번째 항에 비해 매우 작은 값을 가짐을 알 수 있다.상대론에서 운동 에너지와 운동량의 관계는로 주어진다. 이 또한 테일러 전개를 할 수 있으며 첫번째 항이 뉴턴 역학에서의 표현과 일치한다.양자 역학에서의 운동 에너지.에서 하나의 항으로 나타나며 좀 더 기본적인 연산자인 운동량 연산자 formula_58를 사용하여 정의된다. 운동 에너지 연산자를 formula_59라고 하면이다. 이는 고전 역학에서 운동 에너지와 의 관계와 유사한 것을 살펴볼 수 있다.에서 formula_58는 각각의 위치 좌표에 대해 미분을 취한 형태인 formula_63이며 따라서N개의 전자로 이루어진 계의 운동 에너지 기대값 formula_65는 각 전자의 운동 에너지 기대값의 합이다.formula_67는 전자의 질량이며 formula_68는 i번째 전자에 대한 라플라시안이다.양자 역학에서 [[밀도범함수 이론|밀도범함수]] 형식화(formailsm)에서는 오로지 전자 밀도에 대한 정보만 필요로한다. 다시 말해서 보통 파동 함수에 대한 정보를 필요로 하지 않는다. 전자 밀도 함수를 formula_69라고 하면 N개의 전자로 이루어진 계의 운동 에너지 범함수는 알 수 없지만 1개의 전자로 이루어진 계의 경우 운동 에너지는 다음과 같이 쓰일 수 있다.formula_71는 의 운동 에너지 범함수이다.입자의 운동 에너지.열을 가진 모든 입자 또한 운동에너지를 가지고 있는데 "T" 에 비례한다. 즉와 같다. 여기서 은 이다. +가타카나는 일본어에서 사용하는 음절 문자 중 하나이다. 히라가나와 함께 가나라고 부른다. 가타카나는 해당하는 음을 갖는 한자의 일부분을 가져와 헤이안 시대에 만들어진 것으로, 한문을 뜻으로 읽기 위해 신라의 각필구결 일부를 사용하여 만들어졌다는 주장이 있으나 정설은 아니다.가타카나를 히라가나보다 어렵다고 인식하는 것은 일본인도 마찬가지라 일본 유아들이 가나를 배울 때 히라가나를 먼저 배운 뒤에 가타카나를 배우고 유아용 그림책 등에는 가타카나로 쓴 단어 위에 히라가나를 후리가나로 덧붙이기도 한다. 한영 자판 상태에서 가타카나 입력을 하려면 ㅃ+한자 키를 써야 한다. 히라가나가 ㄸ과 한자 키의 조합 방식과 유사한 개념이 될 수도 있다.일본어에서는 주로 다음과 같은 경우에 쓰인다.이밖에도 일본에서 어떤 항목들을 열거할 때 그 순서를 구별해 나타내는 기호 로 사용되기도 한다. 이 경우 이로하순 대로 적는 경우가 많다.과거 메이지 유신기부터 태평양 전쟁기에 이르기까지의 일본 제국 시대에 작성된 공문서와 법령은 무조건 가타카나와 한자만 사용하도록 하였다.가타카나라는 말 자체는 '片仮名'라는 한자 표기로 되어 있으나 이를 다시 가타카나로, 즉 ''라고 적는 경우도 있다. 또 'v'음을 나타낼 때 쓸 수 있는 가나는 가타카나의 '' 뿐이며, 그 활용형인 ', , , ' 역시 가타카나로만 적을 수 있다.한편 일본어 이외에도 아이누어를 표기할 때 주로 사용되며 과거 일제 점령기의 대만에서도 대만어를 표기하는 데 활용되기도 하였다. 오늘날 대만어는 한자 내지는 알파벳 표기법을 따라 쓰이고 있다.로마자 표기는 헵번 표기법을 한글 표기는 외래어 표기법의 어중/어말 표기법을 따랐다. 회색은 지금은 사용하지 않는 글자들 또는 사용이 드문 글자들이다.고대 일본에서 한자의 일부 획을 따서 문자로 삼은 것은 일찍이 7세기부터였으나, 오늘날 가타카나의 직접적 기원은 9세기 초 나라 지방의 고종파 에 속한 학승들이 불경에 쓰인 한문을 일어로 훈독하기 위해 만든 글자 체계에서 비롯됐다. 이들이 만든 글자는 한문 옆에 작게 붙여 쓰는 일종의 훈점 으로, 한자음만 빌려 쓰는 만요가나의 일부 획을 다시금 생략하여 만든 것이었다. 예를 들어 의 왼쪽 부분을 따서 만들었다. 초창기만 해도 경전의 각 행간 여백에 오코토텐 과 같이 쓰였으나 점차 빠르고 조그맣게 적기 위해 형태의 간략화가 이뤄지게 되었으며, 그 결과 지금 쓰는 가타카나의 원형이 된 것은 물론, 오코토텐의 역할을 대신하여 훈독에 널리 쓰이기에 이르렀다.가타카나는 그 유래에서 짐작되듯이 승려나 박사들이 한자의 음과 훈을 주기하기 위해 사용한 경우가 많았으며 꽤 초창기부터 현대 일본어처럼 한자와 가나를 번갈아 쓴 사례도 발견된다. 나중에는 한문의 주석 역할을 벗어나 노래 가사집이나 이야기집과 같이 일상 속 필기에도 쓰이는 등 사용 범위가 넓어졌지만 히라가나로 쓰인 글이 미적 가치를 평가받고 감상하는 수준에 이른 것과 비교하면 아직까지 기호적인 성격이 강했다. 초창기 가타카나는 그걸 쓰는 개개인과 집단마다 글꼴의 차이가 컸고 10세기 중반까지만 해도 이체자 의 종류가 많았지만 시간이 흐르면서 글꼴이 통일되었고 12세기에 이르러 오늘날의 모습에 가깝게 되었다.가타카나가 히라가나와 같은 하나의 문자 체계로 인식되기 시작한 것은 헤이안 시대 중기이다. 이때 쓰여진 <우쓰호모노가타리> 에서 보이는 서술은 기본적으로 허구인 이야기에서 쓰인 특수한 사례이며 실제로는 가나 를 아릅답게 쓸 수 있게 배우는 것이 당대 여성들 사이에서 일반적인 일이었다고 밝히고 있다.메이지 시대에 들어와서부터는 서양 외래어 유입에 따라 그 활용 빈도가 한층 높아졌으며, J. C. 햅번이 지은 일영사전인 <일영어림집성> 의 도표에서 메이지 초의 가타카나 글꼴을 찾아볼 수 있다. 1900년 소학교령 시행 규칙으로 한 소리 한 글자라는 원칙에 따라 표준 글꼴만 보급되기 시작하였으며, 이를 통해 지금의 가타카나가 확립되었다. 한편 가타카나는 히라가나에 비해 학문적으로 쓰이는 경향이 강했기 때문에, 제2차 세계 대전 시기까지만 하더라도 일본에서는 보다 정식적인 문자로 취급되어 법령과 기타 공문의 표기 문자로 쓰였고, 교육상으로도 히라가나에 앞서 가르쳤다. 그래서 이 당시 교과서를 보면 가타카나와 한자로만 서술된 것이 많다. 하지만 신문이나 문예집 등 민간 분야에서의 서술법에까지 가타카나 사용이 강제되진 않았다. +위상수학과 기하학에서, 다양체는 국소적으로 유클리드 공간과 닮은 위상 공간이다. 즉, 국소적으로는 유클리드 공간과 구별할 수 없으나, 대역적으로 독특한 위상수학적 구조를 가질 수 있다.음이 아닌 정수 formula_1에 대하여 formula_2차원 국소 유클리드 공간 formula_3는 다음 성질을 만족시키는 위상 공간이다.하우스도르프 국소 유클리드 공간 formula_3에 대하여 다음 네 조건이 서로 동치이며 이를 만족시키는 하우스도르프 국소 유클리드 공간을 다양체라고 한다.만약 어떤 위상 공간 formula_3가 formula_13차원 다양체이자 formula_2차원 다양체이며 formula_15이라면 formula_3는 공집합이다.모든 국소 유클리드 공간은 다음 성질을 만족시킨다.모든 하우스도르프 국소 유클리드 공간은 다음 성질을 만족시킨다.모든 콤팩트 하우스도르프 국소 유클리드 공간은 다양체이다.국소 유클리드 공간 formula_17에 대하여 다음 조건들이 서로 동치이다.모든 제2 가산 다양체는 다음 성질을 만족시킨다.모든 파라콤팩트 분해 가능 국소 유클리드 공간은 다음 성질들을 만족시킨다.낮은 차원의 다양체의 분류.위상 공간 formula_3에 대하여 다음 두 조건이 서로 동치이다.위상 공간 formula_3에 대하여 다음 두 조건이 서로 동치이다.다양체의 대표적인 예로는 다음을 들 수 있다.다양체가 아닌 국소 유클리드 공간으로는 다음을 들 수 있다.비가산 개의 연결 성분을 갖는 다양체는 제2 가산 공간이 아니다. 보다 일반적으로 다양체에 대하여 제2 가산 공간인 것은 가산 개의 연결 성분을 갖는 것과 동치이다.정주영(鄭周永 1915년 11월 25일 ~ 2001년 3월 21일)은 현대그룹을 창업한 대한민국의 기업인이며 전직 정치인이다.일제 강점기 조선 시대였던 1940년대 초반 시절에 자동차 정비회사인 아도 서비스를 인수하여 운영하였고 한때 홀동광산을 운영하기도 했다. 이를 바탕으로 1946년 4월에 현대자동차공업사를, 1947년 현대토건사를 설립하면서 건설업을 시작하였고 현대그룹의 모체를 일으켰으며 건설사업을 지속적으로 추진해 성공을 거두었다. 뛰어난 상업과 기업경영능력으로써 현대그룹을 일군 자수성가형 기업인이라고 할 수 있다.1992년 초 김동길 등과 통일국민당을 창당하고 총재에 선출되었으며, 제14대 총선에서 전국구 비례대표 국회의원으로 당선되었고 그 해 12월에 제14대 대선에 통일국민당 소속으로 출마하였으나 낙선하였다. 이듬해 2월에 의원직을 사퇴하고 통일국민당을 탈당하였다.1998년 이후에는 김대중 정부를 도와 대북사업을 추진하였다. 1998년 6월 16일을 기하여 1차 소 500마리, 10월 27일 2차 소 501마리를 이끌고 판문점을 넘어 북한을 방문했다.1915년 강원도 통천군 답전면 아산리(현 조선민주주의인민공화국 강원도 통천군 로상리)에서 아버지 정봉식과 어머니 한성실 사이에서 6남 2녀 중 장남으로 태어났다. 아산(峨山)이라는 그의 아호는 자신의 출생지 옛 지명에서 따온 것이다. 1930년 통천 송전소학교를 졸업하였고 그와 함께한 동창생은 27명이며 정주영의 최종 학력은 소학교(초등학교) 졸업 이 유일하다.가난 때문에 중학교에 진학하지 못하고 아버지의 농사를 도왔다. 가난에서 벗어나려고 여러 차례 가출을 반복하였으나 실패하였다가 결국 가출에 성공하였다. 그런데 사실 상대적으로 보면 대충 4% 안에는 들었다.가출 후 청진의 개항 공사와 제철 공장 건설 공사장에 노동자가 필요하다는 동아일보 기사를 보고 소를 판 돈으로 고향을 떠나 원산 고원의 철도 공사판에서 흙을 날랐는데 이것이 첫 번째 가출이었다. 이것을 시작으로 정주영은 무려 4번이나 가출을 하였다. 두 번째 가출하여 금화에 가서 일하였다. 3번째 가출 때는 아버지가 소를 판 돈 70만원을 들고 도망하여 경성실천부기학원에서 공부를 하다가 덜미를 잡혀 고향으로 돌아갔다. 4번째 가출은 1933년으로 19살의 나이로 인천 중구 신포동(도로명신포로)에 위치한 인천항에서 부두하역과 막노동을 하다가 경성으로 상경하여 이듬해 복흥상회라는 쌀가게 배달원으로 취직했다. 배달원 자리는 꽤 흡족하여 집을 나온지 3년이 지나 월급이 쌀 20가마가 되었다. 부기를 할 줄 아는 정주영은 쌀가게 주인의 신임을 받아 주색잡기에 빠져 재산을 탕진하는 아들이 아닌 정주영에게 가게를 물려 주었다. 일제강점기인 1935년 11월 23일 밤 변중석 여사를 집에서 처음 대면하였다. 당시 소녀 변중석은 윗마을 총각이 서울서 선을 보러 내려왔다는 부친의 말에 방에서 나오지도 못하고 떨고 있었다. 그리고 한 달 보름 뒤 결혼식을 올렸다. 신랑은 신부 뒷모습만 보고 신부는 신랑 얼굴도 제대로 보지 못하고 이뤄진 결혼이었다. 1938년 주인으로부터 가게를 물려 받아 경일상회라는 이름을 짓고 그 가게의 주인이 되었다. 하지만 경일상회 는 개업 후 2년 만인 1940년에 중일 전쟁이 일어나 일제가 식량배급제를 실시하였기 때문에 복흥상회를 폐업해야 했다.1940년 당시 경성부에서 가장 큰 경성서비스공장의 직공으로 일하던 이을학에게서 경영난에 처한 아도 서비스라는 자동차 수리공장의 소식을 접하고 인수를 시작한다.일제말기인 1941년 빚을 내어 아도 서비스의 사업을 맡기도 하였으나 1달도 채 지나기 전에 불에 타버렸다. 다시 빚을 내어 신설동 빈터에다 다시 자동차 수리 공장을 시작했다. 그러나 그 공장도 1942년 5월 기업정리령에 의해 공장을 빼앗기다시피하고 새로운 일거리를 찾아 떠나게 된다. 홀동광산의 광석을 평양 선교리까지 운반하는 일을 3년간 하다가 1945년 5월 그 일을 다른 사람에게 넘겼는데 3개월 후 일본의 패망으로 홀동광산은 문을 닫고 그 곳에 있던 사람들은 소련군 포로로 잡혀갔다. 이때 그는 이미 타인에게 광산업을 인계하였으므로 극적으로 피랍을 모면한다.이후 서울 돈암동의 스무 평 남짓한 집에서 동생들, 자녀들과 함께 벌어놓은 돈으로 살다가 해방 후인 1946년 4월에 미군정청의 산하기관인 신한공사에서 적산을 불하할 때 초동의 땅 200여 평을 불하받아 현대그룹의 모체라 할 수 있는 현대자동차공업사를 설립하였다. 또한 1947년 5월에는 현대토건사를 설립, 건설업에도 진출하였다. 1950년 1월에는 자신이 운영하던 두 회사인 현대토건사와 현대자동차공업사를 합병하여 현대건설주식회사를 설립하였다. 이때 자본금은 삼천만원이었다.그러나 그해 한국 전쟁으로 서울이 인민군에게 점령되면서 모든 것을 버리고 가족들과 부산으로 피난한 정주영은 동생 정인영이 미군사령부의 통역장교로 일하던 덕에 서울에서 하던 토목사업을 계속 할 수 있었으며 서울 수복 후 미군 발주 공사를 거의 독점하였다.창업 전반기와 전후 복구 사업.한국 전쟁 직후 현대건설은 전쟁으로 파괴된 도시와 교량, 도로, 집, 건물 등을 복구하면서 점차 늘어가는 건설수요로 승승장구하게 되었다, 그 뒤에도 늘어나는 건설 수요 등을 감안하여 그는 시멘트 공장 설립을 추진, 1964년 6월 현대 시멘트공장을 준공하여 시멘트도 자체적으로 조달하였다.그 뒤 낙동강 고령교 복구 한강 인도교 복구 제1한강교 복구 인천 제1도크 복구 등의 사업을 수주하여 1960년에는 국내 건설업체중 도급한도액이 1위를 차지하게 되었다. 1964년 단양에 시멘트 공장을 완공하였으며 1965년에는 국내 최초로 태국의 파타니 나라티왓 고속도로를 건설하였다. 1967년에는 다시 자동차 산업에 뛰어들어 현대자동차주식회사를 설립하였다.현대건설 내 시멘트공장을 확장하여 1970년 1월 정식으로 현대시멘트주식회사를 설립하였다. 이후 현대건설과 현대시멘트의 사주로 해외건설시장 확보와 낙찰 등을 이끌어내며 한국 국외의 건설시장으로도 진출하였고 울산 조선소 건설 서산 앞바다 간척사업 등을 성공적으로 추진하면서 기업을 확장하게 된다.1971년 1월 현대자동차, 현대건설, 현대시멘트주식회사 등을 총괄한 현대그룹을 창립하고 대표이사 회장에 취임하였다. 1973년 12월에는 중공업에도 진출하였다.1971년 정주영 회장은 혼자서 미포만 해변 사진 한 장과 외국 조선소에서 빌린 유조선 설계도 하나 들고 유럽을 돌았다. 차관을 받기 위해서였다. 부정적인 반응만 받다가 1971년 9월 영국 바클레이 은행의 차관을 받기 위한 추천서를 부탁하기 위해 A&P 애플도어의 롱바톰 회장을 만났지만 대답은 역시 'No'였다. 이 때 정주영은 우리 나라 5백원짜리 지폐를 꺼내 거기 그려진 거북선 그림을 보여줬다. "우리는 영국보다 300년이나 앞선 1500년대에 이미 철갑선을 만들어 외국을 물리쳤소. 비록 쇄국정책으로 시기가 좀 늦어졌지만, 그 잠재력만큼은 충분하다고 생각하오."라며 설득해 결국 차관 도입에 성공할 수 있었다.1977년 서울 압구정동 현대아파트의 분양특혜사건으로 재판을 받았으나 무죄로 풀려났다. 건축법 위반에 대해 징역 6월 벌금 500만원에 선고유예 판결을 받았으나 현대산업개발 사장이었던 차남 정몽구가 서울지검 특수부에 구속되어 아들이 아버지 대신 처벌받는 전례가 만들어졌다.1978년에는 아산사회복지사업재단을 설립하였으며 같은 해 4월 29일 서울 강남구 압구정동에 위치한 현대고등학교를 설립하고 초대이사장으로 취임하였다. 1983년에는 현대전자주식회사를 설립하였다.기업인으로 활동하는 중에도 한국지역사회학교 후원회에 참여하여, 1969년 1월에는 한국 지역사회학교 후원회장에 피선되기도 했다. 1974년 6월에는 한국과 영국의 민간 경제협력을 위한 한·영 경제협력위원회 한국측 대표의 한사람에 선출되었고, 1970년대 중근동 지역 건설, 개발 사업을 성사시킨 뒤 1976년부터 1997년까지는 한국·아랍 친선협회장을 지내기도 했다.1977년부터는 10년간 전국경제인연합회의 제13대 회장을 역임했고, 같은 해 7월에는 재단법인 아산사회복지사업재단을 설립했다. 1979년과 1980년에는 한국·아프리카 친선협회의 회장으로도 추대되었다.올림픽 유치 추진 활동.1970년대부터 대한민국 주도로 88 올림픽의 서울특별시 유치 운동에 참여하였고, 1981년 3월에는 88서울올림픽 유치위원회가 조직되자 서울올림픽 유치위원회 위원장에 피선되어 각국을 상대로 올림픽 유치 활동, 설득 작업을 추진했다.1981년 11월 88올림픽의 서울 유치가 확정되자 그는 서울올림픽 조직위원회 위원의 한사람에 선임되고, 바로 서울올림픽 조직위원회 부위원장에 피선되었다. 1982년부터 1984년까지는 대한체육회장에 선출되어 서울올림픽 사전 준비와 86 아시안게임 사전 준비활동을 추진하였고, 1982년부터 1987년에는 유전공학연구조합 이사장에 선출되었다.1987년 2월 전국경제인연합회 명예회장에 추대되고, 그해 5월에는 한국정보산업협회 명예회장에 추대되었다.1987년 재단법인 세종연구소의 이사장으로 특별 초빙되었으며 그해 현대그룹 회장직에서 물러나 경영 일선에서 손을 떼고 그해 현대그룹 명예 회장에 추대되었다. 그 뒤 1992년 1월초 정계에 입문 가칭 통일국민당 창당준비위원회 위원장이 되고 이어 김동길 등과 함께 통일국민당을 창당 조직하고 대표최고위원에 선출되었다.1989년부터 1991년까지 소련과의 수교를 대비하여 조직된 한·소 경제협회 회장에 피선되었고, 1992년 3월의 제14대 국회의원 총선거에 입후보, 전국구 의원으로 당선되었다.1992년에는 통일국민당의 원내진출을 이룬 뒤 그해 12월 14대 대통령 선거에 출마하였다. 그러나 김영삼, 김대중 후보에 밀려 3위로 석패하였다. 그런데 선거 직후 김영삼 정권의 세무조사를 받았는데, 이를 두고 정치 보복이라는 의견이 나오기도 했다. 그리고 이러한 김영삼과의 경쟁구도 때문에 생긴 감정 때문인지 김영삼 정권 아래서는 별 다른 행적이 없다가, 이후 김대중정권을 적극 도우며 방북을 한다던지 하는 행동을 보였다. 1993년 초 통일국민당 대표최고위원직을 사임하고 그해 2월에는 국회의원직도 사직하고 탈당, 이후 기업 활동에만 전념하였다. 1993년 현대그룹 명예회장에 재추대되었다. 1996년 그해 타임지 선정 '아시아를 빛낸 6인의 경제인'의 한사람에 추천되기도 했다.1994년 1월 한국지역사회교육 중앙협의회 이사장에 선출되었다.방북과 금강산 개발.그러나 고 김대중 전 대통령이 제15대 대통령에 당선되어 1998년 2월 25일 국민의 정부가 출범하면서 정주영 현대그룹 명예회장은 다시 한 번 세간의 주목을 받게 되었다. 당시 국민의 정부가 실시한 대북 햇볕 정책에 맞춰서 정주영이 금강산 개발 사업을 추진한 것이다.1998년 6월 16일 통일소라고 명명된 소 500마리와 함께 판문점을 통해 조선민주주의인민공화국을 방문하고 같은 해 2차로 10월 27일 소 501마리를 가져갔다. 정부의 햇볕정책을 따른다는 뜻 외에도 정주영 명예회장의 고향이 남한이 아닌 북한영토인 강원도가 고향이라는 사실도 북한에 소를 가져간 이유이다. 이때 소 501마리와 함께 직접 판문점을 통해 방북 김정일 국방위원장을 면담하고 남북 협력 사업 추진을 논의했다. 그리고 마침내 금강산 관광사업에 관한 합의를 얻어 그해 11월 18일에 첫 금강산 관광을 위한 배가 출발하였다. 이때 그는 직접 판문점을 통해 을 성사시켜 그해 11월 18일 첫 출항하였으나 북한의 사업장 몰수로 참담한 실패로 끝났다.대북사업의 추진과 중계 사업을 위해 그는 1999년 2월에 현대아산을 설립했다. 사실 정주영은 1989년에 조선민주주의인민공화국과 소비에트 연방을 방문하여 금강산 공동 개발 의정서에 서명하였는데, 이것이 9년 만에 현실화된 것이다. 이때 정주영은 원산과 평양을 둘러봤으며, 특히 자신의 고향 통천도 방문하였다.2000년 5월에 명예회장직을 사퇴하였다. 1987년 제1회 한국경영대상, 1988년 국민훈장 무궁화장, 1998년 IOC훈장과 노르웨이 왕실훈장을 수상하였다. 한편 현대그룹은 각기 분산되어 현대자동차그룹, 현대건설, 현대중공업그룹 등으로 분리되었다.한편 정주영은 건강이 매우 악화되어 아내 변중석이 입원해있던 서울아산병원에 입원하여 치료를 받았고 나중에 자택에서 요양 생활을 했다. 2001년 1월에 병원에 입원한 뒤 2개월 뒤인 3월 21일에 서울아산병원에서 폐렴으로 인한 급성 호흡부전증으로 인해 향년 87세의 나이로 사망하였다.그의 사후인 2001년 5월 제5회 만해상 평화상이 추서되었다. 이후 5년뒤인 2006년 11월 타임지 선정 아시아의 영웅에 선정되었으며 2008년 DMZ 평화상 대상이 특별 추서되었다.1992년 11월에는 MBC 방송 일요일 일요일 밤에의 코너 진행자의 한사람인 최병서가 사회 저명인사를 흉내 풍자할 때 그의 성대 모사와 함께 풍자를 하기도 했다. 1992년 12월에도 14대 대통령 선거를 전에 두고 다른 대통령후보자들과 함께 최병서의 패러디의 대상이 되기도 했다.1995년에 조사한 세계 부자 순위에서 9위를 차지했다.현대그룹 회장으로 재직시 아들들과 함께 평소에 청운동 자택에서 계동에 위치한 현대그룹 본사까지 걸어서 출근하였다. 평소에 일찍 기상하는 습관이 있었으며, 매일 아침 6시에 온 가족이 한자리에 모두 모여 아침식사를 하였다고 한다. 주로 미역국을 준비했으며 이 때문에 현대가 며느리들은 새벽부터 일찍 일어나 식사 준비를 하였다고 한다.2004년 정주영을 주인공으로 하는 드라마 가 제작되었다.2021년 아산사회복지재단은 20주기를 맞아 자서전 독후감 대회를 개최했다. 책에 담긴 기업가 정신과 역경 극복 사례를 통해 희망과 용기를 주기 위함이며, 2021년 1월 5일부터 2월 25일까지 접수 후 3월 중에 시상이 진행된다. 시상은 중/고등학생 부문, 대학생/대학원생/일반 부문 총 2개 부문으로 나뉘며, 총 49명을 수상한다. +마틴 가드너는 미국의 과학 저술가이다. 특히 유희수학 분야의 저술로 이름이 높다.오클라호마주 털사 태생으로 시카고 대학에서 철학을 전공하였다. 그는 유희수학 분야를 집대성하고 대중에게 널리 알려 수많은 과학자들에게 큰 영향을 끼쳤다. 수학을 비롯한 과학뿐 아니라 마술 문학 유사과학 종교 등 다방면에 걸쳐 관심을 가져 60권이 넘는 책을 저술하였으며 제임스 랜디와 함께 회의주의 운동을 주창하기도 하였다. 미국 노스캐럴라이나 주의 헨더슨빌에 만년을 보내다가 2010년 5월 22일 미국 오클라호마주의 노먼에서 95세를 일기로 사망하였다.그는 미국의 대중 과학 잡지 사이언티픽 아메리칸지에 1956년부터 1981년까지 수학 게임 컬럼을 연재하였다. 그가 연재를 그만둔 후 더글러스 호프스태터가 컬럼을 물려받았는데 마틴 가드너에 대한 존경의 뜻에서 의 애너그램인 란 콘퍼런스를 열기도 한다.그는 자신의 컬럼을 통하여 다음과 같은 흥미있는 주제들을 대중에 소개하였다.65권의 책을 썼으며 초정상주장의 과학적 연구를 위한 위원회의 일원으로 활동하며 사이비과학을 반박하는 책과 글을 다수 발표했다.프리먼 존 다이슨은 영국 태생의 미국의 물리학자이다. 양자전기역학의 이론적 기반을 닦은 인물 중 하나이다. 또한 저명한 물리학자들 중 거의 유일하게 평생 박사 학위를 취득하지 않았다.프리먼 다이슨은 1923년 12월 15일 영국 버크셔주 크로손에서 태어났다. 1936년에서 1941년까지 윈체스터 칼리지를 다녔다. 18살이던 1940년에는 케임브리지 대학교에서 고드프리 해럴드 하디 아래에서 수학을 공부하기도 했다. 제2차 세계 대전이 발발하자 영국군에 입대하여 20살의 나이에 영국 공군 폭격기 사령부에서 분석가로 일했다. 전쟁이 끝나자 케임브리지 대학교 트리니티 칼리지에서 수학으로 학사 학위를 취득했다. 1947년에는 두 개의 정수론 논문을 출판했다.그리고 미국으로 건너가 1947년부터 코넬 대학교 박사과정에 등록하여 한스 베테의 지도 아래 물리학을 연구하기 시작했다. 그러나 바로 연구에 뛰어들면서 이후 평생 동안 박사 학위를 취득하지 않았다.프리먼 다이슨의 가장 널리 알려진 학문적 업적은 양자장론의 이론적 기반을 닦은 작업들이다. 그는 1949년에 양자전기역학을 기술하는 두 가지 방법 즉 리차드 파인만의 파인만 도표를 이용한 경로적분과 줄리안 슈윙거 도모나가 신이치로가 제안한 연산자 계산이 동치라는 것을 증명했다. 그리고 파인만 도표를 가지고 재규격화 계산을 구현한 논문을 최초로 썼다. 또한 다이슨 급수라는 기법을 발명했으며 이것은 워드-다카하시 항등식으로 확장되는 기반이 되었다.1957년부터 1961년까지는 핵추진기를 이용한 우주비행 계획인 오리온 계획에 참여하였다. 시험 기종은 보통의 폭발물을 사용했으나, 우주에서의 핵무기 사용 금지 조약에 의해 계획은 중도에 파기됐다. 이후 제러드 오닐이 설립한 우주학 연구소에서 소장을 역임하기도 했다.생애의 후기에 다이슨은 기술적으로 진보한 문명은 자신이 살고 있는 항성계의 태양을 완벽히 둘러싸 항성에서 나오는 복사 에너지를 완전히 사용하고 바깥쪽으로는 적외선을 복사할 것이라는 주장을 폈다. 이에 따르면 밤하늘에서 적외선을 복사하는 거대한 물체를 찾아보는 것이 외계 문명체를 탐사하는 SETI 계획의 한 방법이 된다. 다이슨은 복사 차폐물로 자그마한 운석들의 구름을 생각했지만 과학 소설에선 이어진 고체 구조물이 선호되어 왔다. 이러한 상상 속의 구조를 다이슨 구라고 부른다. 또한 그는 다이슨 나무라는 것도 제안했는데 이는 유전자 조작으로 혜성에서도 자랄 수 있는 식물을 말한다. 다이슨은 혜성을 조작하여 내부에 생물이 숨쉴 수 있는 대기를 만들어 내는 것이 가능하며 태양계 밖으로 인간을 보낼 수 있는 서식지를 조성할 수 있다고 했다.프리먼 다이슨은 2020년 2월 28일, 98세의 나이로 뉴저지주 프린스턴에서 생을 마감하였다.딸 에스더 다이슨은 기업가이자 투자자이다. 아들 조지 다이슨은 역사가로 과학사를 연구한다. +만프레트 아이겐은 독일의 생물리학자이다.괴팅겐 대학교에서 화학 박사 학위를 받았으며 독일 괴팅겐의 막스 플랑크 생물리학 연구소의 소장을 지냈다. 1967년에는 매우 짧은 간격의 에너지 펄스로 유도된 극히 빠른 화학 반응에 대한 연구에 대한 공로를 인정받아 로널드 조지 레이퍼드 노리시 조지 포터와 함께 노벨 화학상을 수상했다. 1973년에는 영국 왕립학회 외국인 회원으로 선출되었다.린 마굴리스는 미국의 생물학자로서 매사추세츠 대학 앰허스트 대학교의 지구과학과 교수이다. 세포 생물학과 미생물의 진화 연구, 지구 시스템 과학의 발전에 많은 기여를 한 것으로 평가 받는다. 마굴리스는 미국항공우주국 우주과학국의 지구생물학과 화학 진화에 관한 상임위원회의 의장을 역임했으며, NASA의 지구생물학에 관한 실험들을 지도하였다.마굴리스의 가장 중요한 과학적 업적은 세포 내 미토콘드리아의 기원을 진핵세포로 들어간 외부 조직 공생적 관계를 이루다 정착했다고 보는 이론이다. 이러한 세포 내 공생설은 당시 충격적인 가설로 생물학계를 놀라게 했을 뿐 아니라 100여 종의 논문과 더불어 10여권의 책을 펴냈다.그는 영국 대기과학자 제임스 러브록이 주창한 가이아 이론을 지지하며 가설을 공고히 하는데 기여했다는 평가를 받는다.그는 또한 칼 세이건의 첫 번째 부인이었으며, 도리언 세이건의 어머니이기도 하다.사람은 영장류의 일종이다. 지구상의 사람을 통틀어 인류(人類) 인간(人間 Human)이라고도 한다. 사람은 사유 언어 사용 자기반성 문제 해결을 쉽게 할 수 있고 고도로 발달한 두뇌를 지니고 있으며 이로써 인간은 개인이 스스로를 통합적으로 인식할 수 있는 주체가 된다. 이러한 지적 심리적 능력과 함께 직립 보행을 하기 때문에 자유롭게 쓸 수 있는 팔을 이용해 다른 종보다 훨씬 정교한 도구를 만들 수 있다. 지구에 사는 사람은 2019년 12월 기준으로 약 73억 명으로 추산된다. 사람은 현재 남극을 제외한 지구의 모든 대륙에 살고 있으며 이 중 약 85%가 아시아 아프리카 유럽 (아프로-유라시아 구세계)에 살며 나머지 15%는 북아메리카 남아메리카 오세아니아 (신대륙)에 살고 있다.대부분의 고등 영장류와 마찬가지로 사람은 사회적 동물로서 자기표현, 생각의 교환, 사회적 조직화를 할 수 있도록 언어를 비롯한 의사소통 체계를 이용하는 데 능숙하다. 사람은 XY면 수컷, XX면 암컷이다. 즉, 조류 등과 달리 정자에 의해 성별이 결정되는 동물이다.현생 인류의 기원에 대해 정확하게 밝혀진 바는 없으나 이를 설명하는 대표적인 이론으로는 아프리카 대륙에서 태동한 단일 종이 전 세계로 이주했다는 아프리카 기원설 여러 대륙에서 동시에 인류가 진화했다는 다지역 기원설 등이 있다. 오늘날에는 아프리카 기원설이 미토콘드리아 DNA 분석을 비롯한 여러 과학적 증거를 통해 학계의 많은 지지를 얻고 있다.사람은 다른 동물보다 지식의 축적면에 있어서 이점을 가지고 있어서 문명을 발생시킬 수 있었다. 기원전 수천 년 무렵에 황하 메소포타미아 이집트 인더스강 등에 최초의 도시와 초기의 국가가 형성되었다. 이외에 세계 곳곳에서 특징적인 문화들이 발생하였다. 이러한 문명의 발전은 로마 제국 페르시아 제국 몽골 제국와 같은 거대한 제국을 이루기도 하고 자금성 피라미드 타지마할과 같은 세계적인 문화 유산을 남기기도 하였다. 인류는 제1차 세계대전 제2차 세계대전과 같은 전쟁에 의한 파괴를 저지르기도 했으며 현대에 이르러서는 원자폭탄과 같이 인류 전체를 위협하는 무기를 만들어 이용하기도 하였다.문화는 예절 의상 언어 종교 의례 법이나 도덕 등의 규범 가치관과 같은 것들을 포괄하는 이라 할 수 있다. 문화는 다른 동물에서 볼 수 없는 사람의 특징 중 하나이다.사람은 대부분 여러 개체가 모여 살며 이러한 군집을 사회라고 한다. 사회의 단위는 작게는 가정 또는 가족에서 크게는 국가로 나뉜다. 서기 2012년 기준으로 세계에는 200여 개의 국가가 있다.이러한 군집 생활에서 사람은 서로를 구분하고 부르기 위해 사람마다 이름을 부여한다. 또한 이름과 함께 자손을 따라 대대로 이어지는 공통의 이름인 성씨가 사용되며 이를 통해 혈통을 구분하거나 서로 호칭을 한다. 성씨는 남성 쪽을 따라 이어지는 부계성이나 여성 쪽을 따라 이어지는 모계성이 있으며 부계성과 모계성을 모두 갖거나 아예 성씨를 사용하지 않기도 한다.사람은 가족을 구성하기 위해 남녀가 짝을 이루며 이를 결혼이라고 하는데, 문화권에 따라 다르나 한 쌍의 남녀가 짝을 이루는 일부일처제와 한 남성과 여러 여성이 짝을 이루는 일부다처제가 흔하고 이외에 한 여성과 여러 남성이 짝을 이루는 일처다부제, 여러 남성과 여러 여성이 짝을 이루는 다부다처제의 경우도 나타난다.사람은 서로의 생각을 전달하는 데에 언어와 문자를 이용하며 이는 사람의 사회화에 핵심적인 역할을 한다. 현재 사용되는 언어는 분류에 따라 다르나 대략 6천여개로 알려져 있는데 점차 쓰이지 않는 언어가 늘어나는 추세이다. 언어를 표기하고 기록할 수 있는 문자 체계는 5천년 전부터 쓰여온 것이 확인된다.1977년 보이저 1호에 실려 우주로 보내진 보이저 금제 음반에는 115개의 그림과 파도, 바람, 천둥, 새와 고래의 노래와 같은 자연의 소리, 서로 다른 문화와 시대의 음악, 55개의 언어로 된 인삿말이 실려 있다. 이는 외계의 생명체에게 보내는 인간에 대한 안내서다.키(신장)는 유전적 요인이나 환경적 요인에 따라 개인차가 있다. 성인의 경우 보통 남자는 160 cm~195 cm 여자는 145 cm~175 cm 정도이다.직립보행으로 이동하며 손을 사용하여 물건을 이용하거나 여러 가지 일을 한다.뇌의 무게는 태어날 때는 약 300g이고 만 5세 무렵에 성인의 뇌 무게인 1300~1400g에 이른다. 성인 기준으로 몸무게에 대한 뇌 무게의 비율은 약 2%이다.털은 퇴화되어 피부 부위에 따라 털이 없거나 매우 짧아 피부를 완전히 덮지 못한다. 단 머리 윗부분 겨드랑이 생식기 주위에는 각각 머리카락 겨드랑이 털 음모가 나 있는데 이 털은 피부를 덮을 만큼 길고 많다. 머리카락은 어린이 시기부터 있으나 겨드랑이 털과 음모는 이차성징 이후로 자란다. 또한 이차성징 이후로 남자에 한해서 입술과 턱 주변에 수염이 난다. 털의 색깔은 검정 갈색 금색 붉은색 등으로 다양하다. 나이가 들어 노년기에 이르면 점차 멜라닌이 퇴화되어 흰색으로 바뀐다.야행성이던 원시 영장류가 주행성으로 바뀌면서 청각보다 시각에 의존하게 돼 귀를 움직이는 능력은 쇠퇴했다. 하지만 아직도 사람이 낯선 소리를 들었을 때 귀 주변 근육으로 향하는 신경반응의 강도는 씹기, 미소 짓기, 의도적으로 귀 움직이기 등을 할 때보다 10분의 1∼100분의 1 수준 정도로 약했지만, 사람도 다른 동물처럼 무의식적으로 귓바퀴를 관심 있는 소리 쪽으로 움직인다는 사실이 밝혀졌다.사람의 평균 수명은 86세 정도이며 보통은 여자가 남자보다 평균 수명이 긴 편이다. 인간의 성에 따라 나뉘는 남성과 여성은 성행위를 통해 생식하며 성행위를 통해 수정된 배아는 여성의 자궁에 착상되어 임신 기간을 거친다. 보통 한 번에 하나의 태아를 임신하며 드물게 둘 이상의 태아를 동시에 임신하기도 하는데 이를 쌍둥이라고 한다. 임신기간은 38주 로 이 기간을 지난 태아는 출산과정을 거쳐 하나의 개체로 태어나 영아가 된다. 영아기의 사람은 어머니의 젖을 먹고 성장하며 젖을 떼는 시기는 개체에 따라 차이가 있다. 대략 생후 1년에서 6년 사이의 사람을 유아라고 하며 이 시기에 기초적인 언어 습득이 이루어진다. 이후 대략 만 20세까지는 그 초기를 어린이 또는 소년 후기를 청소년이라고 하며 이 시기에 대부분의 외형적 성장이 끝난다. 또한 이 시기에 이차성징이 일어나 남성과 여성의 외형적 차이가 두드러지게 되며 초경이나 사정 몽정을 경험하는 등 생식 능력을 갖추게 된다.이후 대략 만 20세에서 만 40세 사이를 청년 대략 만 40세에서 만 50세 사이를 장년 대략 만 50세에서 만 60세 사이를 중년 만 60세를 넘어서면 노년이라고 하나 이러한 시기 구분이 절대적인 것은 아니다. 성장이 끝난 사람은 청년기 이후로 조금씩 노화되기 시작한다. 중년에서 노년 정도가 되면 노화의 결과로서 신장의 축소 각종 감각 기관들의 둔감화 생식 능력의 감퇴 등의 현상이 눈에 띄게 나타난다. 생식 능력의 경우 남성은 늦게는 70세 이후까지도 생식이 가능하나 청년기를 정점으로 고환에서 생성되는 정자의 수와 운동능력이 점차 감소하기 때문에 임신 성공 가능성도 같이 떨어지며 여성은 중년기 에 폐경이 일어나 난자의 배란이 중지되므로 이후 생식이 불가능하게 된다.사람은 주행성 동물로 대개 낮에 활동하고 밤에 잠을 잔다. 어릴수록 하루에 자는 시간이 길고 자랄수록 짧아지는데 생후 1주에는 18~20시간 만 1세에는 12~14시간 만 10세에는 10시간 정도를 자며 성인은 하루에 대략 6시간 ~ 8시간 정도를 잔다. 사람은 의도적으로 수면 시간을 조절하기도 하며 사람에 따라 마치 야행성 동물처럼 낮에 자고 밤에 활동하는 경우가 있다.현대인은 의생활 식생활 주생활의 3가지를 기본요소를 필요로 하고 이외에도 사회로의 적응과 능력 향상을 위해 교육도 필요로 한다. +아놀드 알로이스 슈워제네거는 오스트리아 태생의 미국의 배우 보디빌더 정치인이다.배우가 되기 전 1960년대부터 70년대에 보디빌더로 활동했으며 38대 캘리포니아 주지사이기도하다. 케네디 대통령의 조카인 마리아 슈라이버와 결혼하여 4명의 아이를 두고 있다 보디빌더로서는 전설적인 존재이며 그의 이름 자체가 근육질의 대명사로 쓰이기도 한다.오스트리아 태생의 헐리웃 근육질 배우. 20살에 미국으로 건너와서 보디빌딩대회 미스터 올림피아를 7번이나 우승했고 전성기는 <코난> 으로 80년대 초반부터 시작되어 지금까지도 속편이 계속 만들어지고 있는 <터미네이터> 샤론스톤과 공연한 <토탈리콜> <터미네이터2> 와 <트루 라이즈>에서 인기의 정점을 찍었었다. 스탤론과 비슷한 나이 이미지로 항상 비교되던 액션배우. 47년생 188센티.슈워제네거는 오스트리아의 작은 마을 탈에서 오스트리아 헌병 부사관 출신으로 지역 경찰서장이었던 구스타프 슈바르체네거의 2남 중 막내로 태어났다. 15세 때인 1961년 보디빌더가 됐으며 1970년까지 미스터 유니버스 1위 5회 1970년부터 1980년까지 미스터 올림피아 1위 7회 등 역대 최다 우승 타이틀을 얻었다. 병역은 무거운 물건을 들어나를 기회가 많다는 이유로 전차병으로 이행했으며 실제로도 전차 조종 자격증을 보유하고 있다. 1968년 미국 이민 후 1983년 미국 시민이 되었다. 오스트리아는 본래 이중국적을 허락하지 않아 다른 국가로 귀화한 오스트리아 시민권자들은 국적을 포기해야 하지만 슈와제너거는 미국 시민권 취득 전 오스트리아 정부로부터 특별 허가를 받아 오스트리아 국적을 유지할 수 있었다. 당시 세계 최고의 보디빌더로 불리던 슈워제네거는 1973년 기네스북에 에 기록되기도했다. 어렸을 때 보디빌더 출신 영화 배우 레그 파크가 헤라클레스 영화에 나오는 걸 보곤 그를 롤모델로 삼고 보디빌더를 시작했다고한다.1969년 <뉴욕의 헤라클레스>로 데뷔했으나 초기 10여년간은 배우로서는 무명의 시간을 보냈다. <터미네이터> 로 할리우드에서 인기배우로 자리를 잡은 이래 지금까지도 꾸준한 인기를 얻고 있다. 1988년 1990년 1991년 1994년 1996년 1997년 2000년 2003년 가 되어 본인 스스로가 최고 기록인 자신의 기록을 또다시 갱신하는 등 헐리우드에서 수 십년간 1인자의 위치를 지켜왔다. <> 는 슈워제네거에게 최고의 명성을 가져다 준 영화로 꼽힌다. 액션 장르에만 만족하지않고 <트윈스> <유치원에 간 사나이> <솔드 아웃> 등의 코미디와 <배트맨과 로빈> 의 악역에도 도전하여 모두 크게 성공하여 배우로서의 연기의 폭을 넓혔다.원래 슈워제네거는 레드 소냐를 촬영하면서 만난 브리짓 닐센과 연인 사이였으나 평소 슈워제네거는 미국 정계에 진출하고 싶은 생각이 간절했던 탓에 브리짓 닐센과 결별하고 1986년 존 F. 케네디의 조카이자 NBC의 유명 언론인이자 기자인 민주당파 마리아 슈라이버와 9년 동안 연애 끝에 결혼했다.슈워제네거는 사업가이자 정치인이기도 하다. 1989년 미국에서 가장 많은 상금이 주어지는 보디빌딩 대회 에 선정되었으며, 美의회 도서관에 영구 보존되기 시작했다. 2008년 미대선에선 공화당 후보 존 매케인을 공식지지했다. 슈워제네거는 2010년 12월 17일 LA Times 인터뷰에서, 퇴임후 오바마 행정부에 입각할 의사도 있다고 말했다. 8년간의 주지사 임기 중에는 몇몇 영화의 카메오 출연을 제외하곤 를 비롯하여 모든 영화의 제의를 거절해왔다.정치성향은 중도우파 성향으로 여겨진다. 또한 녹색 보수주의자로 알려져 있는데, 캘리포니아 주지사 시절 민주당과 연대하여 친환경주의 정책들을 기용하기도 했고 2019년에는 스웨덴 출신 10대 환경운동가인 그레타 툰베리와 독대를 가지기도 했다.2011년 1월 4일 주지사에서 퇴임하였고, 다시 헐리우드 복귀를 공식 선언했는데, 터미네이터 시리즈의 5탄과 6탄을 비롯하여 30여편의 제의를 받아 기나긴 공백과 적지않은 나이에도 불구하고 건재함을 과시했다. 그해 5월 일명 '가정부 스캔들'로 이혼 소송제기를 받았는데 재산이 7500억원 정도로 이는 이전까지의 역대 최고의 위자료 액수였던 마이클 조던의 기록도 훨씬 뛰어넘는 신기록이였으며, 헐리우드 최고의 갑부로 드러났다. 첫 컴백작 <라스트 스탠드> 촬영에 앞서 친구 실베스터 스탤론의 요청에 따라 <익스펜더블 2> 에 카메오로 4일간 촬영했는데 그 대가로 1천만달러를 받았다. 2012년 8월에는 스스로 2천만 달러를 기부하여 "남가주대 슈워제네거국가 및 국제 정책 연구소"를 설립하여 고문위원회 회장과 교수가 되었다. 같은해 8월, 'The Sun'지는 "최고의 액션 히어로는 누구인가?"라는 설문 조사를 했고, 슈워제네거가 '최고의 액션 히어로' 에 뽑혔다. 2013년 1월 개봉의 김지운 감독의 헐리우드 진출작으로도 화제가 됐던 <라스트 스탠드> 와 실베스터 스탤론과 공동 주연을 맡은 <이스케이프 플랜> 등을 시작으로 다시 헐리우드 액션 영화에 본격 복귀하였다. 초대형 블록버스터 터미네이터 시리즈의 새로운 리부트 3부작의 첫번째 영화 <> 에 주인공 터미네이터로 돌아오는데, 이는 지난 2003년 개봉한 블록버스터 <> 이후 12년 만이다.2015년 1월 26일 WWE 명예의 전당에 헌액되는 영광을 차지한다. +GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서는 일종의 자유문서를 위한 저작권 라이선스의 한 형태로서 자유 소프트웨어 재단에서 GNU의 프로젝트를 위해서 착안되었다. GFDL에 따라 만든 문서는 자유롭게 복사 수정 재배포가 가능하며 2차 저작물 역시 GFDL을 따라야 한다. GFDL을 따르는 문서는 기본적으로 무료로 배포되지만 대량으로 제작된 경우 유료로 판매될 수도 있다. 현재 ‘GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서’에 따라 추진 중인 프로젝트들 가운데 가장 큰 프로젝트로 손꼽히고 있는 것이 바로 위키백과다. 위키백과는 크리에이티브 커먼즈와 GNU 자유 문서의 2중 라이선스를 따른다.사용 허가서는 소프트웨어의 문서와 다른 이와 유사한 지침서를 대상으로 한다. 이 허가서에 따르는 모든 문서의 복사 및 변경은 역시 이 사용 허가서의 규준에 따르는 것을 원칙으로 한다. 복사 및 변경된 소프트웨어나 자료는 다시 변경되거나 배포 및 판매될 수 있다.자유 문서 사용 허가서는 1999년 말 의견 수렴을 위한 초안이 발표되었으며 검토와 수정을 거쳐 1.1 버전이 2000년 3월에 1.2 버전이 2002년 11월에 1.3 버전이 2008년 11월 3일에 공표되었다. 현재의 최종 버전은 1.3이다.다른 라이선스와의 호환성.여기서의 이라는 의미는 다른 라이선스의 저작물을 GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서를 사용하는 저작물과 섞어 쓸 수 있는지를 의미한다.CC-BY-SA와의 호환성.두 허가서가 비슷한 저작권 방침을 가지고 있지만 GFDL은 크리에이티브 커먼즈 저작자표시-동일조건변경허락 라이선스와 호환되지 않는다. 하지만 1.3판에서는 GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서를 사용하고 있는 특정 웹 사이트의 저작권을 CC-BY-SA로 변경할 수 있도록 하는 조항을 추가하였다.이 예외 조항은 다음의 몇 가지 조건을 충족한다면 GFDL 기반의 다중 저자 협력 프로젝트 사이트 에서 CC-BY-SA-3.0으로 변경할 수 있도록 허가하고 있다.라이선스의 재허용을 허가하는 11장의 조항은 2009년 8월 1일 이후에는 효력이 상실된다.GPL과의 비호환성.GNU 자유 문서 사용 허가서는 GNU 일반 공중 사용 허가서와 호환되지 않는다.또 다른 자유 콘텐츠 사용 허가 유형.아래 목록들 중 몇 가지는 GNU FDL과는 별개로 발전해 온 것들이다. 그리고 몇 가지는 GNU FDL의 결함에 대응하기 위한 목적으로 만들어졌다. +GNU는 운영 체제의 하나이자컴퓨터 소프트웨어의 모음집이다. GNU는 온전히 자유 소프트웨어로 이루어져 있으며, 그 중 대부분이 GNU 프로젝트의 GPL로 라이선스된다.GNU는 "GNU's Not Unix!"(GNU는 유닉스가 아니다!)의 재귀 약자이며 이렇게 선정된 이유는 GNU의 디자인이 유닉스 계열이지만 자유 소프트웨어인 점과 유닉스 코드를 포함하지 않는다는 점에서 차별을 두려는 것이다. GNU 프로젝트에는 운영 체제 커널인 GNU HURD가 들어있는데 원래 자유 소프트웨어 재단(FSF)에서 거기에 중점을 두고 있었다.그러나 허드(Hurd) 커널이 아직 산업용으로 사용 가능한 상태가 아니라서 그 대신 GNU가 아닌 커널(리눅스가 가장 많이 사용된다)을 GNU 소프트웨어와 함께 사용할 수 있다. 현재 GNU와 LINUX를 결합하여 너무나 많이 사용되므로 이 조합을 짧게 라고 말하는 경우가 많으며 GNU/LINUX라고 부르는 경우는 많지 않다. 삽화에 나와있는 GNU는 생물의 종 이름이다.프로젝트의 창립자 리처드 스톨먼은 GNU를 "사회에 대한 기술적 수단'으로 보았다. 이와 관련해 Lawrence Lessig는 스톨먼의 책 제2판에서 스톨먼은 소프트웨어의 사회적 관념과 어떻게 자유 소프트웨어가 공동체와 사회 정의를 조성할 수 있는지에 대해 썼다고 언급하였다.오늘날 GNU의 안정판은 리눅스 커널이 포함된 GNU 패키지로 구성되어 동작하며 기능적인 유닉스 계열 시스템을 만들어준다. GNU 프로젝트는 이를 GNU/리눅스로 부르며 제공되는 기능들은 다음과 같다GNU 자유 시스템 배포 가이드라인.GNU 자유 시스템 배포 가이드라인(GNU Free System Distribution Guidelines, GNU FSDG)은 GNU/리눅스 배포판과 같은 설치 가능한 시스템 배포판이 자유적인 특성이 있고 배포판 개발자들이 배포판들을 해당 특성에 맞출 수 있게 도와주는 시스템 배포 약속이다.GNU 프로젝트가 GNU 운영 체제를 완성하는 것이라고 했을때 소프트웨어적인 면에서는 자유 소프트웨어의 결과물 카테고리인 자유 소프트웨어 디렉터리에서 보이는 것과 하드웨어적인 면에서는 추구하고 있는 바가 운영 체제의 핵심인 커널 즉 GNU 허드를 만들어 내는 것이라고 할 수 있겠다.이러한 소프트웨어적인 면과 하드웨어적인 면을 통해 온전한 자유로운 운영 체제를 만드는 것이 GNU 프로젝트의 목표라고 한다면, GNU Hurd는 하드웨어를 통괄 제어하는 GNU 운영 체제의 커널이 되겠다. +셀빅(CellVic)은 대한민국에서 생산했던 PDA의 일종이며, jTel에서 개발하였다. 후일 코오롱이 인수한 후 Cellvic으로 개명되었다.jTel은 팜 파일럿을 벤치마크하여 한국 내 환경에 맞게 자체 O/S를 제작해 한국 내 최초의 PDA OS로서 의의를 가졌다.jTel은 1년에 4회의 애플리케이션 공모전을 통하여 애플리케이션 확보에 박차를 기했으며, 개인개발자에 대한 지원과 이에 힘입은 개인개발자들의 노력으로 다수의 애플리케이션을 확보하였다. 또한 커뮤니티를 중심으로 활발한 토론과 애플리케이션 개발에 관한 논의가 진행되었으며, 대표적인 커뮤니티로는 CoolView(후에 상표등록 문제로 셀북으로 개명됨) 제작자인 연승훈씨가 운영하는 kcug.net(현재 운영중단)을 들 수 있다.셀빅은 팜 파일럿에 비하여 대한민국 기업의 제품인만큼 한글 지원은 원활하였다. 세계 최소, 최경량 PDA인 CellVic i부터 휴대폰과 카메라 모듈탑재가 가능한 CellVic XG, 더 발전된 형태로서 스마트 폰 mycube까지 다양한 제품을 만들었으나, 코오롱으로 경영권이 넘어간 이후 PocketPC를 탑재한 스마트폰의 경쟁에서 뒤쳐지면서 끝내 2004년부터 더 이상 후속 지원을 중단하였다.밀러 실험 혹은 밀러-유리 실험()은 초기 지구의 가상적인 환경을 실험실에서 만들어 그 조건에서 화학진화(chemical evolution)가 일어나는지 여부를 알아보는 실험이다. (오파린과 홀데인의 가설에 따르면 원시 지구는 무기 화합물이 유기화합물로 합성되기 좋은 조건이었다고 한다. 유리-밀러 실험은 이 가설을 검증하려 했다.) 이 실험은 생명의 기원에 관한 고전적인 실험으로 여겨지며 1953년 시카고 대학의 스탠리 밀러와 해럴드 클레이턴 유리가 처음 실행했다.실험에는 수증기, 메테인 , 암모니아 , 수소 가 사용된다. 화학물질들은 살균된 유리관과 플라스크로 이루어진 루프형의 실험기구 안에 밀봉된다. 실험기구 중에 플라스크 하나에는 물이 반쯤 채워져 있고, 다른 하나에는 한 쌍의 전극이 들어있다. 물은 가열하여 기화시키고, 수증기가 포함된 내부 공기중에 불꽃을 튀겨, 자연의 번개를 흉내낸다. 그리고, 다시 공기는 식혀져서 수증기는 물이 되고 처음 플라스크로 돌아가는 이 과정을 계속 반복한다.일주일 동안 계속 실험을 행한 결과, 유리와 밀러는 10 ~ 15%의 탄소가 유기물질로 합성되어 있는 것을 관찰하였다. 더욱이, 2%의 탄소는 살아있는 세포의 단백질을 구성하는 아미노산 중에 몇 종류의 형태라는 결과도 얻었다.결론적으로 밀러는 원시대기의 조성을 기초하여 원시지구의 모형을 만들고 결과 반응을 조사하는 것이 연구의 테마였다.생성된 분자들은 완전한 살아있는 생화학적 시스템을 이루기에는 상대적으로 모자란 단순한 유기물질이었다. 그러나 실험은 이미 있는 생명체를 가정하지 않고 자연적인 과정만으로 생명체를 이루는 기본 요소들이 생성될 수 있다는 사실을 확립시켰다.이후의 연계 실험들.스탠리 밀러는 이후에 원시대기에 관한 연구를 좀더 진행하여, 기체 크로마토그래피를 이용하였으며, 사망시까지 연구에 손을 놓지 않았다. 밀러가 사망한 뒤 그의 제자이자 오랜 동료였던 제프리 베다 교수는 밀러의 유품에서 1950년대 실험에서 얻은 물질이 들어있는 유리병이 담긴 박스를 발견했다. 최신 분석 장비로 이 물질의 조성을 분석한 결과 당시 밀러가 확인했던 것보다 더 많은 유기분자가 들어있음을 확인해 2008년 '사이언스'에 발표했다. 2008년, 제프리 베다 교수는 화산 분출의 구조와 스파크를 이용한 실험을 통해 더 많은 아미노산이 발견됨을 보여주었다. 이 실험에는 고출력의 액체 크로마토그래피와 질량분석기등이 이용되었다.그 결과 22가지 아미노산, 5 종류의 아민을 비롯한 수많은 수산화물이 생성되었다.이 실험은 2010년에 황화수소 스파크 실험으로 재현되었으며, 발견된 아미노산은 아래에 표기한다.폭스의 실험으로 아미노산 같은 간단한 유기물은 폴리펩타이드, 핵산과 같은 복잡한 유기물로 합성될 수 있음이 입증되었다.밀러(Miller, S.)와 유리(Urey, H.)의 실험은 오파린(Oparin, A. I.)과 홀데인(Haldane, J. B. S)의 원시 수프 모델에 의한 화학진화의 가능성을 보여주었다.일부의 주장과 그에 대한 반박들.한국창조과학회 등의 운동 단체들이 밀러의 실험에는 오류들이 있다고 주장하지만 이에 타당한 근거는 없으며 모두 반박되었다.1. 이들은 원시 대기 환경이 수소 메테인 암모니아 등 환원성 기체가 아닌 질소 와 이산화탄소 라는 식으로 주장한다. 페리스 박사와 첸박사가 원시 대기의 재료로 산화성 대기를 사용했고 그 결과 아미노산은 생성되지 못한다는 주장을 했다. 하지만 이는 사실이 아니다2. 이들은 원시 지구암석에서 발견된 산소 또한 원시 대기에 포함이 된다면 밀러의 실험대로 아미노산이 생성되어도 금방 파괴되어 버릴 것이라고 주장했으며, 원시대기에는 풍부한 산소가 있었을 것이라고 주장한다.하지만 이 주장 역시 다음과 같은 이유로 반박된다.3. 이들은 원시대기에는 오존층이 없었기 때문에 대기중에서 합성된 유기물에 자외선이 쪼여지면 복잡한 분자들이 파괴된다고 주장했다. 이 주장 역시 과학에 대한 이해가 부족한 자들이 한 것으로 다음과 같이 반박되었다.1. 밀러의 실험에선 L-형 아미노산과 D-형 아미노산 두 가지가 생성되었다. 창조설자들은 D-형 아미노산은 죽은 생명체에서 L-형 아미노산이 변화하여 서로 분자의 수가 같아지는데 밀러의 실험에서도 L-형과 D-형의 아미노산이 발견되므로 생물로서의 역할을 할 수가 없다라고 주장한다. 하지만 이는 사실과 다르다2. 밀러-유우레이 실험을 이산화탄소 질소 수증기로만 이루어진 조건에서 실험하면 어떠한 아미노산도 만들어지지 않는다고 주장한다.3.스탠리 밀러의 오리지날 화학진화 실험은 20개의 아미노산에서 오직 4개만이 생성되었으마, 후에 그럴 듯한 조건에서 실험을 다시하여도 아미노산 20가지를 모두 생성하지는 못했다고 주장한다. 하지만 이것은 역시 아무런 근거 없는 주장이다:4.밀러 유우레이 실험은 시아나이드나 포름알데하이드와 같은 독성 물질을 생성하지, 아미노산을 생성하지 못한다고 주장한다. 이 역시 사실과 어긋난다:창조설자들은 밀러는 원시 대기환경을 실험관에 그대로 옮긴 후 번개와 같은 방전을 재현하려 했으나 밀러의 시험 장치와 실제 번개에는 큰 차이가 존재한다고 주장한다.하지만 이는 사실이 아니다. 번개와 같은 방전을 재현한 이유는 아미노산 합성에 필요한 에너지를 공급하기 위함이다. 결과로 보면 이는 번개보다 에너지가 적지만 그보다 적은 에너지로도 충분히 아미노산이 합성이 될 수 있음을 보여준 것이다. +물 또는 워터은 산소와 수소가 결합된 것으로 생명을 유지하는 데에 없어서는 안 되는 화학 물질이다. 화학식 를 가지며 표준 온도 압력에서 무색 투명하고 무취무미하다. 물은 지구 위의 거의 모든 곳에서 발견되며 지표면의 10% 정도를 덮고 있다. 물은 가장 보편적인 용매로 보통 액체 상태의 물을 가리킨다. 고체 상태인 것을 얼음 기체 상태인 것을 수증기라고 부른다. 흔히 '김'이라고 부르는 형태를 수증기와 혼동하는 경우도 있으나 김은 엄연히 액체 상태의 작은 물방울들이 올라오는 것이기 때문에 수증기와는 다르다.물 분자는 두 개의 수소 원자와, 하나의 산소 원자가 공유결합을 한 H-O-H의 굽은형의 물질이다. 물 분자는 수소 원자와 산소 원자가 각각 전자를 내놓아 전자 쌍을 만들고, 이 전자쌍을 함께 나누어 가짐으로써 결합되어 있다. 화학식은 H2O이다.물은 자연적으로 세 가지 물질의 상태로 나타나며 지구상에서 여러 형태를 지닌다. 수증기와 구름은 하늘에 있으며 바닷물과 빙산은 극지 바다에 있고 빙하와 강은 산에 있으며 대수층의 물은 땅속에 있다.물은 화학적으로 많은 성질을 갖는다. 대표적인 성질은 공유결합, 산과 염기의 생성, 그리고 금속과의 산화이다.물에서의 수소결합은 전자를 끌어당기는 힘이 상대적으로 약한 수소 원자가 약한 세기의 양이온의 성질을 띠고 전자를 끌어당기는 힘이 강한 산소원자가 강한 세기의 음이온의 성질을 띰으로써 나타나게 된다. 따라서 물은 극성 공유결합 물질이다. 또한 중심 원자로 작용하는 수소 원자의 비공유 전자쌍과 산소와의 결합 고리인 수소결합의 작용력을 비교할 때 쌍극자 모멘트 값이 0이 아니므로 극성 분자로 분류된다.한편 물은 높은 비열을 갖는데 이 또한 수소결합에 그 원인이 있다. 물을 가열할 때 쓰이는 에너지의 일부는 수소결합을 끊는 데 쓰이고 나머지의 에너지가 물의 온도를 높이는데 쓰이게 된다. 따라서 물이 다른 분자들에 비해 상대적으로 일정한 열에너지의 첨가로 온도를 올리기 어려운 물질이 되는 것이다. 수소결합으로 인해 물은 분자량이 비슷한 다른 물질에 비해 녹는점, 끓는점, 융해열, 기화열이 크다. 물의 비열과 기화열이 크다는 점은 생물체의 수분과 체온이 일정하게 유지될 수 있다는 점과 관련이 있다.물보다 얼음의 밀도가 작은 것은 수소결합에 의한 육각형 구조와 관련된다. 또한 표면장력과 모세관 현상도 수소결합으로 설명할 수 있다. 물은 다른 분자와 달리 그 점성에 비교해 표면장력이 큰데, 표면에 있는 물 분자가 공기 중으로 끌려가지 않고 내부에 있는 물 분자의 수소결합력을 받기 때문이다. 모세관 현상은 수소나 산소원자를 포함하지 않은 물질에서는 잘 안 나타나는데 그 원인은 물이 모세관 현상을 일으킬 때 그 관을 이루는 분자와 수소결합력이 작용하기 때문이다. 물은 보통 금속류를 녹여 염기를 만들고 비금속류를 녹여 산을 만든다. 산과 염기의 기준은 양이온으로 하전된 수소 이온과 음이온으로 하전된 수산화이온이며 수소이온이 많으면 산성이고 수산화이온이 많으면 염기성이며 두 이온의 값이 0에 가까우면 중성이 된다. 대표적인 산으로는 염산 질산 황산 등이 있으며 이 3가지의 산은 모두 강한 산이다. 대표적인 알칼리로는 수산화나트륨 수산화 칼륨 암모니아수 등이 있으며 3가지 모두 강한 염기이다. 한편 산과 염기는 수소이온이나 수산화이온을 포함하고 있으므로 전해질이고 이온 물질을 갖는 모든 물이 전해질이다.금속과의 결합 및 부식.물은 산소와 함께 금속을 잘 부식시키는 성질이 있다. 철의 경우 반응성이 크나 직접적으로는 산소와 잘 반응하지 않으며 아주 천천히 산화철을 생성한다. 하지만 물이 묻은 철은 상황이 다른데 그 원인은 물이 철을 이온화하면서 전자를 내놓고 이 전자를 받은 산소원자가 양이온으로 하전된 철 분자와 결합을 하면서 이루어지기 때문이다. 이러한 산화는 물기가 완전히 없어질 때까지 멈추지 않아 결국 속까지 모두 산화시키고 만다. 금속의 산화를 막기 위해 기름칠을 하는 경우가 많은데 이는 기름과 물 사이의 반발력을 이용한 것이다.한편 찬물에서 급격히 반응하는 금속은 포타슘 칼슘 소듐 등이 있고 뜨거운 물에서 급격히 반응하는 금속은 마그네슘 알루미늄 아연 등이 있다.수리학에서 1기압 하에서 물의 단위 중량은 보통 나 w로 쓰며 1000kg중/m으로 나타낸다. 지구상에서 물의 단위중량을 다룰 때는 편의상 을 빼고 1000kg/m으로 쓴다.맛과 냄새 그리고 색깔.물은 수많은 물질을 녹일 수 있어서 맛과 냄새가 다양하다. 사람과 다른 짐승들은 너무 염도가 높거나 부패한 물을 피하기 위하여 마실 수 있는지를 평가할 수 있는 진보된 감각을 갖고 있다. 샘이나 광천수로 광고하는 맛은 그 안에 녹아있는 광물에서 비롯한 것이다. 순수 H2O는 무취무미하다. 물의 색깔과 냄새는 식수로서 일차적인 주요한 판단 기준으로 사용될 수 있다.물은 생명체 활동에 필수적이기 때문에 지구 이외의 천체에서 물이 발견되면 항상 관심을 받게 된다.수증기는 다음과 같이 존재한다.액체로 된 물은 다음과 같이 존재한다.얼음은 다음과 같이 존재한다.물과 거주가능 영역.우리가 알고 있듯이 액체와 기체 고체로서의 물은 지구 위에 사는 생물의 생존에 필수적이다. 지구는 태양계의 생명체 거주가능 영역에 위치하여 있다. 태양으로부터 살짝 더 가까이 있거나 살짝 더 멀리 있었더라면 기체 고체 액체라는 세 가지 형태가 동시에 존재할 가능성이 훨씬 적다.지구의 중력은 물이 대기를 지탱할 수 있게 도와 준다. 대기 속 수증기와 이산화탄소는 온도에 대한 완충 작용(온실 효과)을 제공하므로 표면 온도를 상대적으로 일정하게 유지시켜 준다. 지구가 더 작았더라면 대기가 더 얇아져 온도가 극단으로 치우칠 것이므로 화성과 같이 극관을 제외한 물의 형성을 막는다.지구의 표면 온도는 들어오는 태양 복사 수준에 따라 오르락내리락 한다. 이는 온실 기체와 표면 및 대기 반사가 동반되면서 지구 온도가 유동적인 과정을 거친다는 것을 말해 준다. 그럼에도 불구하고 지질 시대를 거치면서 상대적으로 일정한 상태를 지속하고 있다. 이를 가이아 이론이라고 부른다.한 행성 위의 물의 상태는 주위 압력에 따라 달라지는데 이는 한 행성의 중력이 결정한다. 어느 행성의 용적이 충분히 크다면 그곳 위의 물은 온도가 높아도 고체 상태를 유지한다. 그 까닭은 중력이 높은 압력을 만들어내기 때문인데 글리제 436 b와 글리제 1214 b 에서 볼 수 있는 현상이다.물의 기원에 대해서는 다양한 이론이 존재한다.수문학은 지구를 지나는 물의 이동 물의 분포 수질을 연구하는 학문이다. 물의 분포를 연구하는 것을 수로학이라고 한다. 물의 분포와 이동에서 지하수의 경우 수문지질학으로 빙하의 경우 빙하학으로 내륙수의 경우 육수학 바다의 경우 해양학으로 부른다. 수문학을 동반한 생태학적 과정을 생태수문학이라고 한다.한 행성의 표면 위 아래와 공중에 떠 있는 총체적인 물을 수권이라고 부른다. 지구의 물은 대체적으로 1360000000 km3 이다. 물은 지구에서 대부분 바다에 액체 형태로 존재한다. 인공적으로는 수소와 산소를 혼합한 뒤 방전을 일으켜서 만들어 낼 수 있다. 그리고 물의 분포는 바닷물 빙하 지하수 호수와 강 그리고 기타 로 이루어져 있다.지하수와 민물은 수자원으로서 인간에게 실질적으로나 잠재적으로 유용하다.물의 순환은 수권 안의 물이 지속적으로 이동하는 것을 가리킨다. 이를테면 대기 토양의 물 지표수 지하수 식물 사이에서 물은 이동한다.물은 물의 순환 속에서 이러한 지역을 돌며 끊임없이 움직이는데 다음의 과정을 이룬다.표면 유출한 일부 물은 이를테면 호수와 같이 어느 정도의 시간 동안 갇히게 된다. 높은 고도에서 겨울 동안 극북과 극남에서 눈은 만년설, 설괴빙원, 빙하 안에 모인다. 물은 또 땅에 스며들어 대수층으로 이동한다. 그 뒤 지하수는 샘이나 온천, 간헐천 표면으로 거슬러 흘러간다. 또, 지하수는 우물로 말미암아 인공적으로 뽑아낼 수 있다. 이러한 물은 깨끗한 민물이며 사람과 길짐승의 삶에 없어서는 안 될만큼 중요하다. 세계 여러 지역에서 이러한 민물은 부족 현상을 겪고 있다.조석은 달과 태양이 대양에 미치는 기조력으로 말미암아 지구의 대양 표면이 오르내리는 일을 가리킨다. 조석은 바다와 삼각강 수체의 깊이 변화를 일으키며 조류를 만들어낸다. 특정 장소에서 바뀌는 이러한 조석은 지구 회전의 영향과 지역적인 수심측량에 따라, 지구 기준에서 태양과 달의 위치가 바뀌어 일어난다.바닷물은 평균 3.5%의 염분에 적은 양의 기타 물질을 포함한다. 바닷물의 물리적 속성은 민물과 비교하여 몇 가지 면에서 큰 차이가 있다. 더 낮은 온도 에서 얼고 온도를 어는 점으로 낮추면 밀도가 올라간다. 일반적인 바다의 염도는 발트 해의 0.7% 정도에서 비롯하여 홍해 페르시아해의 4.0%에 이르기까지 다양하다.생물학적 관점에서 물은 다른 물질과 구별되는 점으로 생명의 증식에 없어서는 안 되는 수많은 특성을 지니고 있다. 물은 비열용량이 매우 큰 편이기 때문에 생물이 체온을 조절하는 데에 도움을 주며 바다와 호수, 강은 물로 이루어져 있기에 생명 활동이 가능한 환경을 조성한다. 유기 화합물이 궁극적으로 복제를 할 수 있게 하는 방식으로 반응할 수 있게 함으로써 이러한 역할을 수행한다. 알려진 모든 형태의 생명체들은 물에 의존한다. 물은 체내의 수많은 용질이 녹이는 용매일뿐 아니라 또 체내의 물질대사에 필수적인 부분이므로 중요하다고 할 수 있다.물은 광합성과 호흡에 필수적이다. 광합성을 하는 세포는 태양 에너지를 이용하여 물의 수소를 산소에서 분리시킨다. 수소는 기체나 물에서 흡수한 CO2와 결합하여 포도당을 형성하고 산소를 내뱉는다. 살아있는 모든 세포들은 이러한 재료를 이용하고 수소와 산소를 산화시켜 태양 에너지를 포획하며 그 과정 가운데 물과 CO2를 다시 형성한다. 지표의 물에는 생물로 가득하다. 생물의 최초의 형태는 물에서 발생하였다. 거의 모든 물고기는 예외 없이 물 속에서 살며 돌고래, 고래와 같은 수많은 종류의 해양 포유류가 있다. 양서류와 같은 특정한 종류의 짐승들은 물과 땅을 오가며 산다. 켈프, 말과 같은 식물들은 물에서 자라며 일부 물속 생태계를 위한 기반으로 자리잡혀 있다. 플랑크톤은 일반적으로 바다 먹이 사슬의 토대가 된다.바다의 척추동물들은 살아남기 위하여 산소를 보유하여야 하며 보유 방법은 다양하다. 물고기는 허파가 아닌 아가미를 가지고 있으나 폐어와 같은 어떠한 종류의 물고기들은 아가미와 허파 둘 다 지니고 있다. 돌고래, 고래, 수달, 물개와 같은 해양 포유류들은 공기를 마시기 위하여 주기적으로 지표로 올라와야 한다. 일부 양서류들은 피부를 통하여 산소를 마실 수 있다.문명에 미치는 효과.문명은 역사적으로 강과 주된 물길을 중심으로 번성하여 왔다. 이른바 문명의 요람이라 불리는 메소포타미아는 티그리스와 유프라테스 강을 끼고 있었다. 고대 이집트 민족은 나일 강에 온전히 의지하였다. 로테르담 런던 몬트리올 파리 뉴욕 부에노스아이레스 상하이 도쿄 시카고 홍콩과 같은 거대 도시들은 물에 다가가기 쉬운 곳에 있고 결과적으로 무역이 팽창하여 성공할 수 있었다. 싱가포르도 이와 같은 까닭으로 번성하였다. 물이 더 부족한 북아프리카와 중동과 같은 지역에서 마실 물을 구하는 것은 인간 발전에 주된 요인이 되었고 지금도 그러하다.사람이 마실 수 있는 물은 음료수라고 한다. 마시기에 알맞지 않은 물은 걸러내거나 정제하는 등의 다양한 물 처리로 말미암아 마실 물로 바꿀 수 있다. 마실 수는 없으나 헤엄을 치거나 몸을 씻는 데 사람에게 해가 없는 물은 다양한 이름으로 불리는데 이를 안전한 물로 부른다. 개발도상국에서 모든 폐수의 90%가 정화 및 처리되지 않은 채로 지역 강과 개울로 흘러간다.또한 물의 섭취는 동물의 기초대사량을 증가시켜 체중감량과의 유의미한 상관관계를 보인다.농업에서 물은 관개에 이용하며 이는 충분한 식량을 생산하는 주된 요소로 자리잡혀 있다. 관개는 몇몇 개발도상국에서 최대 90% 물을 차지하며 선진국에서도 중요한 부분으로 잡혀 있다. 사람의 몸은 체형에 따라 최저 55%에서 최고 95%의 물을 지닌다. 몸이 정상적으로 기능하려면 날마다 1~5리터의 물을 마시어야 탈수 현상을 막을 수 있다. 섭취하여야 하는 정확한 물의 양은 활동 수준 온도 습도 등의 요인에 따라 다를 수 있다. 대부분은 물을 직접 마시는 것보다 음식이나 음료수를 통하여 소화시켜 물을 흡수한다. 건강한 사람이 물을 얼만큼 섭취하여야 하는지에 대한 명백한 답은 없으나 날마다 6~8잔의 물 (거의 2리터)을 마시는 것이 최소한의 적절한 양이라는 것이 대부분의 옹호자들의 생각이다.시베리아의 바이칼 호는 식수에 적합한 최대의 민물 원천이다. 이곳은 소금과 칼슘이 매우 적으므로 상당히 깨끗하다. +외계어는 통신언어의 일종으로 컴퓨터 문서상에서 쓰이는 한국어의 변칙적인 표기를 통칭하는 용어이다. 2000년대 초 정보화의 발달과 PC통신과 인터넷의 보급화로 통신언어가 발달하였고, 통신언어의 한글 변용 정도가 심하여 의사소통의 어려움이 있는 경우를 외계인들이 쓰는 언어에 빗대어 외계어라 한다. 주로 청소년 층에서 자주 쓰였으며, 일본의 갸루 문자와 유사하다.통신언어의 일종인 외계어는 일반적으로 다음과 같은 특징을 가지고 있다.보통, 어미에서 -ㅗ와 -ㅛ가 -ㅓ와 -ㅕ로 변화되는 등의 통신체와 병행해서 쓰인다.이모티콘과 닿소리만으로 이루어진 표현과 인터넷에서 쓰이는 유행어 등의 표현을 통신에서 쓰는 사람은 위의 것만을 외계어로 여긴다. 하지만 유행어와 닿소리 표현, 이모티콘까지 통틀어서 외계어로 보는 시각도 있다.외계어를 일부에서는 ‘언어 파괴’라고 비판하지만 이를 과민 반응이라고 생각하는 시각도 있다. 청소년층 안에서도 외계어를 비판하는 사람이 있지만 비판하는 대상인 ‘외계어’의 범주의 차이는 다양하다. 외계어는 2000년대 초반에 주로 사용되었지만 최근에는 그리 많이 사용되지 않기 때문에 인터넷상에서 외계어에 대한 논의도 많이 줄어들었다.한편 미술가나 글꼴 디자이너들도 한글이 아닌 문자로 한글을 표현하는 실험을 한다.콜라츠 추측은 1937년에 처음으로 이 추측을 제기한 로타르 콜라츠의 이름을 딴 것으로 3n+1 추측, 울람 추측, 혹은 헤일스톤 수열 등 여러 이름으로 불린다. 콜라츠 추측은 임의의 자연수가 다음 조작을 거쳐 항상 1이 된다는 추측이다.예를 들어 6 에서 시작한다면 차례로 6 3 10 5 16 8 4 2 1 이 된다.또, 27에서 시작하면 무려 111번을 거쳐야 1이 된다. 77번째에 이르면 9232를 정점으로 도달하다가 급격히 감소하여 34단계를 더 지나면 1이 된다.이 추측은 컴퓨터로 268 까지 모두 성립함이 확인되었다. 그러나 아직 모든 자연수에 대한 증명은 발견되지 않고 있다. 이 문제의 해결에 500달러의 현상금을 걸었던 에르되시 팔은 는 말을 남겼다.다음과 같은 통계적인 설명을 생각하면 이 추측은 참일 가능성이 높아 보인다. 그러나 이것이 콜라츠 추측을 증명하는 것은 아니다.콜라츠 추측의 공식 표현.콜라츠 추측의 함수표현 공식콜라츠 추측 공식의 합동산술 표현식1 부터 200 까지 핸드링콜라츠 그래프의 분기.콜라츠 그래프에서 특정 짝수는 홀수에대한 formula_21의 수면서 동시에 짝수에 대한 formula_22수가 되는 분기점이 된다.만약 콜라츠 추측이 성립한다면, 이것은 동시에 formula_25을 제외한 모든 자연수가 formula_9과 연결되기 위한 마지막 분기점이다.따라서 홀수에 대한 formula_21의 수 이면서 동시에 짝수에 대한 formula_22수가 되는 분기점 짝수 formula_31은 formula_32 에서 formula_33의 수이다.콜라츠 그래프 분기점 수열.콜라츠 그래프의 분기점 짝수 formula_31은규칙적으로 출현한다.최초 출현 수열은 다음과 같다.이러한 콜라츠 그래프 분기점 수열은 6씩 증가하는 수열이다.또한 십진수 30을 주기로 5개의 자리수 formula_37이 순환적으로 출현한다. +전자 게시판은 일반적으로 대학의 게시판 또는 중세 도시의 지역 사회 광고판을 컴퓨터 네트워크에 적용한 시스템으로, 보통 특정 전자게시판 소프트웨어를 가동하는 컴퓨터 시스템을 말한다. 사용자들은 전화선과 터미널 프로그램을 써서 시스템에 접속하고 소프트웨어를 업로드하거나 다운로드하고 게임, 뉴스, 메시지 교환 등을 할 수 있다. 전성기인 1980년대 처음부터 1990년대 중반까지 수많은 BBS들은 아마추어 시삽들이 여가 시간에 운영하는 무료 서비스였으며 몇몇 BBS들은 사용료를 요구하기도 하였다.BBS는 여러 면에서 현재의 월드 와이드 웹과 인터넷의 다른 프로토콜들의 전신이기도 하다. BBS는 친교 목적으로 많이 쓰였으며 논문을 발표하거나 자유 프로그램이 퍼지는 경로이며 게임과 기타 다른 응용 분야에서 사용되었다.인터넷이 널리 퍼지면서 BBS는 인터넷 프로토콜 또는 웹에 기반한 시스템으로 바뀌어갔다.공개 게시판의 전신은 1973년 8월 캘리포니아주 버클리에서 시작된 커뮤니티 메모리(Community Memory)였다. 유용한 마이크로컴퓨터가 당시 존재하지 않았고 모뎀은 비싸면서도 속도가 느렸다. 이러한 까닭에 커뮤니티 메모리는 메인프레임 컴퓨터에서 구동되었으며 여러 샌프란시스코 베이 에어리어 주변 지역들에 위치한 터미널들을 통해 접근되었다.정보(情報 )는 컴퓨터공학에서 특정 목적을 위하여 광(光) 또는 전자적 방식으로 처리되어 부호 문자 음성 음향 및 영상 등을 표현하는 모든 종류의 자료 또는 지식을 말한다.한편 정보는 일반 용어에서 전문 용어까지 다양한 뜻으로 사용된다. 이를테면, 언어, 화폐, 법률, 자연환경 속의 빛이나 소리, 온도나 신경, 호르몬 등의 생체 신호등 정보 원천으로부터 비롯한 모든 것을 정보라고 할 수 있다. 이러한 맥락에서 더 넓은 의미로 정보의 원천을 다루기위해 정보가 다루어지는 상황도 정보와 연관지을수있다.요즘에는 컴퓨터의 정보 처리를 기반으로 한 정보가 많이 대두된다. 정보의 원래 뜻에 따라, 정보와 자료를 구별하고, 정보를 라고 생각하는 의견도 있지만, 이러한 분야에서는 전체적으로 정보의 뜻을 가지고 문제 삼는 경우는 별로 없으므로, 특별히 정보와 자료는 구별하지 않는다. 구분하자면, 데이터를 모아 둔 것이 자료라면 자료를 특정한 목적의 의사결정을 위해 가공한 형태를 정보라고 할 수 있다. 따라서 훌륭한 정보는 목적 적합성과 신뢰성 및 적시성을 유지해야 한다. 적시성이 매우 중요한 정보를 첩보로 따로 분류하기도 하며 가공을 통해 비교적 장기간 활용이 가능한 정보를 지식으로 정의하기도 한다. 하지만 정보와 자료는 다른 의미이다.정보는 항상 변화하고 있으며, 그 속도가 더욱 빠르게 진행된다. 개인이 하나의 정보를 선택하게 되면 변화에 의해서 불확실성이 커지게 되고, 정보의 가치가 적어질 수 있다는 이유 때문에 선택된 정보보다 선택되지 않은 정보가 더 가치가 있는 것으로 불안감을 갖게 한다. 맥도너는 '정보란 사실 내지 자료에 지적인 처리를 가하여 얻어진 지식이다.'라고 정의하고 있다. 정보는 자료에 특정 의미가 주어진 것으로서 직접 행동에 영향을 미치게 한다. 모든 정보는 자료이나, 모든 자료는 모든 정보라고 할 수 없다. 포레스터는 '경영은 정보를 행동으로 연결시키는 과정이다.'고 하였다. 이는 경영상의 의사결정에 정보가 중심이 된다는 것이다.대체적으로 많은 사람들은 모든 자료가 정보가 될 수 있다고 생각한다. 그러나 상대적이기 때문에 모든 자료는 정보의 역할을 하기는 어렵다. 정보는 가치지향적이며 관심이 있는 사람들의 의사결정에 영향을 주고 어느 정도의 이익을 제공할 수 있는 자료이어야 정보로서의 역할을 할 수 있다.결국 정보란 일정한 의도를 가지고 정리해 놓은 자료의 집합이며, 정보가 되기 위해서는 이용자, 즉 어떤 목적을 갖는 사람이 있어야 하고 자료가 처리되어야 한다. 그리고 정보는 이용자를 위하여 일정한 규칙에 따라서 재배열, 요약, 삭제하는 행위를 거쳐야 한다.프랑스어의 renseignement를 번역한 말로 사용된 것이 처음이다. 중국에서는 정보를 신식이라고 하는데 이 말에는 첩보라는 뜻도 있다.정보는 상대방에게 사건을 알릴 때 전달되는 내용이다. 예를 들어 아들이 아버지에게 집에 불이 났는지 아닌지 알리는 것도 정보 전달의 한 예이다. 전달 형태가 불이 의 두 가지 방법만 존재한다면 1 비트로 전달이 가능하다. 동전도 마찬가지다. 던진 동전이 앞면인지 뒷면인지를 알려 주면 되기 때문에 1 비트로 표현된다. 16가지의 경우가 나오는 회전 룰렛을 사용하여 경기를 한다면 그 결과를 위해 4 비트를 할당해야 한다. 앞서 말한 3가지 사건에서 사건 요소인 formula_1는 불이 났는지 앞면이 d던져졌는지 회전 룰렛에서 1번 칸이 선택되었는지에 해당한다. 각각의 확률을 생각해 보면 각 사건의 경우의 수가 가지는 확률인 formula_2이 동일하다고 가정하면 순서대로 1/2 1/2 그리고 1/16이 된다. 이때 비트 단위 정보량은와 같이 구해지고 각각 값은 1 1 4가 된다. 물론 불이 날 확률formula_4이 불이 나지 않을 확률formula_5보다 높은 경우가 있다. 이 경우 불이 나지 않을 확률 formula_6이 되어 이를 나타내는 정보량도 formula_7이 된다.대한민국의 전자거래기본법에 따르면, 라 함은 정보처리시스템에 의하여 전자적 형태로 작성, 송신ㆍ수신 또는 저장된 정보를 말한다(전자거래기본법 제2조 제1호).신용정보는 신용정보의 이용 및 보호에 관한 법률에 따르면 금융거래 등 상거래에 있어서 거래 상대방에 대한 식별신용도신용거래능력 등의 판단을 위하여 필요로 하는 정보로서 대통령이 정하는 정보를 말한다. +위키낱말사전은 위키백과의 자매 프로젝트로 공개된 위키 형식으로 다언어 사전을 만드는 것을 목표로 한다. 최종 목표는 "모든 언어의 모든 낱말을 정의하는 것"이다.대니얼 올스턴과 몇몇을 포함한 위키백과 사용자들이 현재의 모양새를 갖춘 프로젝트를 처음 출범시켰다.위키낱말사전 프로젝트는 2002년 12월 12일 시작되었고 2002년 12월 26일 공식 주소를 얻어 2003년 6월 20일 위키미디어 재단의 일원이이 되었다.2016년 2월, 한국어 위키낱말사전은 20번째로 표제어 수가 많은 위키낱말사전이었으나2018년 7월, 21번째로 표제어 수가 많은 위키낱말사전이 되었다.채팅은 네트워크에서 두 명 이상의 사용자가 실시간으로 글을 주고받는 행동을 말한다. 채팅은 본래 PC통신 때부터 즐겨 쓰던 방법으로, 대화방으로 사용자들이 들어와 이야기를 하는 방식이 있다. 최근에는 인터넷과 웹캠의 발달로 음성 채팅 및 화상 채팅 등의 새로운 기술이 널리 퍼졌다. 또한, 대화방을 사용하지 않는 간편한 인스턴트 메신저도 널리 쓰인다.사람들이 직접 만나서 나누는 대화와 같이 인터넷이나 온라인서비스에 접속한 이용자끼리 서로 메시지를 입력해서 주고받는데, 이런 개인적인 대화를 위한 통신망을 대화방이라고 부른다. 온라인 서비스, 즉 PC통신으로 하는 채팅은 주로 국내에서 한정되지만 인터넷으로 하는 채팅은 전 세계 어디에 있는 사람이라도 인터넷에 연결되어 있으면 온라인으로 대화가 가능하다. 인터넷에는 대화방 채널이 많이 있다. 어떤 대화방은 어린이끼리만 있고, 또 어떤 곳은 같은 취미를 가진 사람끼리 이야기를 한다. 우리말을 사용하는 곳도 프랑스어, 일본어 등을 사용하는 곳도 있지만 대분분의 대화방은 영어를 사용한다.최초의 온라인 채팅 시스템은 1973년 일리노이 대학교의 플라토 시스템에서 Doug Brown과 David R. Woolley에 의해 개발되었다.소프트웨어 프로토콜.여러 개의 프로토콜을 지원하는 채팅 프로그램캠(cam)은 기계공학에서 동력 전달 장치의 하나로 회전 운동을 직선 운동으로 또는 그 반대로 바꾸는 철덩어리이다. 원동축의 정속(定速) 회전에 대응하여 종동 링크를 복잡한 경과를 더듬게 왕복직선 운동과 왕복 각운동을 부여하는 데는, 운동의 성질에 응해서 각종 기구가 쓰인다. 그중에서도 임의의 경과를 더듬는 운동을 가장 재빠르게 행하게 하는 데에는 캠장치를 능가하는 것은 없다. 평면 캠과 확동 캠, 입체 캠으로 분류할 수 있다.캠은 회전운동에서 왕복운동으로 변화시키는 철덩어리로 볼 수 있다. 널리 알려진 예는 자동차의 캠축으로, 엔진의 회전 운동을 실린더의 흡배기 밸브 작동에 필요한 왕복운동으로 변환한다.순/역방향 운동이나 원형운동을 왕복운동으로 변화시키는 것은 크랭크라는 철덩어리에 의해서 움직일 수 있다. 휠의 동작에 필요한 회전운동을 전환시키고, 피스톤의 왕복운동을 취하는 자동차의 크랭크축은 그 예이다.캠은 또한 저장된 정보와 도구전송 정보를 볼 수 있게 한다. 스크류 머신의 다양한 도구와 척의 움직임 또는 뮤직 박스의 노트를 지시하는 'CAM-DRUM'은 그 예이다. 캠에 의해 전송되고 저장된 정보는 ‘어떤 행동이 일어나고 언제쯤 일어날까?’ 라는 질문의 답이 될 수 있다. 어떤 캠은 축에 대해 회전하는 캠으로 만들어진 롤러 follower의 변화가 반영되는 변위 다이어그램에 의해서 특별할 수 있다. 이 다이어그램은 반경변위의 그 위치에서 각도 위치와 관련된다. 몇 가지 주요 용어는 플레이트 캠의 구조와 연관성이 있다.변위 다이어그램은 전통적으로 음수가 아닌 값을 그래프로 표시된다.캠장치는 인도할 운동에 상응한 윤곽을 지닌 회전체을 일정한 속도로 돌리고, 둥글거나 또는 평면의 단면을 가진 종동절을 그것에 대해 밀어붙임으로써, 필요로 하는 운동을 하게끔 한 것이다. 하트캠은 판캠의 일종으로, 종동절의 끄트머리가 나이프에지로 되어 있으며, 그것이 캠의 회전 중심을 통과하는 직선상으로 왕복운동 하도록 되어 있다. 이는 가장 기초적인 캠장치이다. 캠은 각종 자동 기계류에 많이 쓰이고 있는데, 엔진 등의 연료판이나 흡배기 밸브의 작동을 제어하는 데에도 쓰이고 있다.배력장치는 원동절의 변위에 비교해서 어떤 종동절의 변위가 매우 작을 경우는 그 종동절에 현저하게 큰 힘을 내게 할 수 있다.엄밀히 직선을 그리는 링크장치는 포슬리에 기구(機構) 외에 여러 종류가 있지만 미끄럼기구를 갖고 있지 않는 한 기구가 복잡하게 되므로 기구를 간단하게 해서 근사적(近似的)인 직선운동으로 만족하는 경우가 적지 않다. 여기에도 여러 종류의 기구가 있는 데 〔그림〕－39는 그 일종으로서 점 P가 그리는 렘니스케이트곡선(雙葉曲線)의 일부가 직선을 거의 닮고 있다는 것을 이용하여 선박용 하역크레인으로 짐을 거의 수평으로 이동하도록 한 기구이다.구면링크장치의 응용.구면링크장치에서는 축선이 이루는 중심각이 평면링크장치의 링크의 길이에 상당하며 중심각이 90°인 것은 평면링크장치의 슬라이더 즉 미끄럼자에 상당한다. 구면링크장치에서도 4절의 것이 기초적인 것이다. 그 가운데서도 실제로 쓰이고 있는 것은 중심각이 90°인 링크 3개를 지니는 구면양미끄럼자 크랭크 연쇄로부터 고정링크의 교체로서 얻어지는 회전미끄럼자 기구와 요동미끄럼자기구 등이 주이다. 예전에 기차의 천장에 설치된 천장선풍기의 목흔들기 기구도 이의 응용이다.초기 캠은 기원전 3 세기부터 헬레니즘 문명의 수력식 자동화기기에 내장되었다. 후에 캠축에 캠을 사용하는 방식이 아랍 발명가 알 자자리에 의해 채용되었다. 유럽기계에는 캠 및 캠축이 14세기부터 나타났다. +PC통신은 개인용 컴퓨터를 다른 컴퓨터와 통신 회선으로 연결하여 자료를 주고 받는 것을 말한다. 전화망을 사용하여 문자, 숫자, 영상, 음성 데이터 등을 전송한다. 개인용 컴퓨터끼리 서로 연결한 통신 형태도 포함되지만, 보통은 정보 서비스 제공을 위한 호스트 컴퓨터와 통신 장비를 설치하고 여기에 가입한 사람들이 개인용 컴퓨터로 접속하여 이용하는 형태의 전화 회선을 통한 통신 네트워크 서비스를 가리킨다. 이때 통신 회선은 주로 전화 모뎀을 통한 전화 회선이 사용되지만 ISDN 등의 다른 회선이 사용되는 경우도 있다.개인용 컴퓨터가 보편화되면서 1990년대에 게시판과 대화방 그리고 자료실을 제공하는 PC통신 서비스 회사가 설립되었다.대한민국의 PC통신.대형 PC통신 서비스.대한민국의 PC통신은 천리안과 하이텔 서비스로 시작되었다.먼저 천리안은 1984년 5월에 한국데이터통신의 전자사서함 서비스로 출발하여, 1985년 10월 생활정보DB, 1986년 9월 화상정보서비스 가 통합하여 천리안이 되었다.한편 하이텔은 1986년 11월 1일 한국경제신문사에서 서비스를 시작한 뒤 1991년 12월 한국통신과 합작으로 한국PC통신를 설립하면서 1992년 3월 서비스를 코텔로 변경하고 같은 해 7월에 명칭을 하이텔로 변경하였다.케텔 당시 한국경제신문사에서는 컴퓨터 통신을 홍보하고 회원들을 확보하기 위해 가입자들 중 추첨을 통해서 1200 BPS모뎀을 나누어 주었다. 당시 모뎀은 상당히 비싸서 10~20만원의 고가 장비였으며, 구입하여 집에 직접 와서 설치도 해주었다. 1994년 나우누리, 1996년 유니텔이 영업을 시작하면서 PC통신 서비스는 다양해졌으며, 접속프로그램인 터미널 에뮬레이터도 큰사람 정보통신의 이야기 위주에서 새롬 데이타맨, 특정 PC통신회사의 전용 에뮬레이터 등 다양하게 개발되었다. 또한, PC통신은 MUD의 발상지이기도 했다. 즉, PC통신을 통하여 현재의 온라인 게임 및 커뮤니티가 발전하게 된 것이다. VT모드의 PC통신은 일부 기존 업체에서는 서비스가 유지되고는 있으나, 인터넷의 발달로 지금은 PC통신 사용자가 드물다. 하이텔 서비스는 2007년 2월 28일에 완전히 종료되었다.VT모드 텍스트 기반 서비스는 다음과 같다.그 밖에 민간주도의 지역 기반 PC통신망은 다음과 같다.1990년대 중반부터 인터넷이 보급되면서, 전용 프로그램을 바탕으로 제공되는 인터넷 기반 통신망도 생겨났다.이와 같은 대형 서비스 이외에도 특정 분야 또는 지역에 특화된 통신망도 존재하였고 소규모 기업 및 단체 심지어 개인이 운영하는 사설 BBS도 상당수 존재하였다.사설 BBS는 개인 또는 단체가 운영하는 주로 비영리 목적의 소규모 PC통신 서비스였다. 자발적으로 발생한 이러한 사설 BBS들은 상용 PC통신 서비스가 대중화되기 전까지 PC통신의 개척자 역할을 하였다.대한민국 사설 BBS는 1988년 3월 이주희가 개설한 도 있었다.이렇게 출발한 사설 BBS들은 외국산 호스트 프로그램—주로 와일드캣—을 한글화 해서 사용했는데 1990년 10월에 최초의 국산 호스트 프로그램인 '카페'가 조병철에 의해서 공개되었고 이를 바탕으로 하성욱의 '곰주인' 김성철의 '밀키웨이'가 나왔고 이와 별도로 1991년 최오길의 '호롱불'이 등장하여 전국적인 사설 BBS 네트워크가 구축되었다.당시 유명 사설 BBS는 다음과 같다.한편, 흔히 01410으로 알려진 한국통신하이텔은 전화망을 활용한 부가통신 서비스의 일종이며, 처음에는 접속번호 157이 사용되었으며 나중에는 014XY 체계가 도입됨에 따라 01410을 접속번호로 하였다.서비스 방식은 접속망 "하이텔"을 한국통신이 운영하면서 "인포샵"이라는 명칭으로 개별 정보제공업체이 정보서비스를 판매하는 형태이며 현재는 "파우와우"로 이름이 변경되어 있다. 이러한 형태는 프랑스의 미니텔 서비스를 모델로 한 것으로, 미니텔과 마찬가지로 문자 및 비디오텍스가 지원되는 전용 단말기 하이텔 단말기를 도입하여 전화가입자들에게 무상임대하였다.이 하이텔망은 인포샵 서비스 이외에도 다른 여러 PC통신 서비스의 접속 관문의 역할도 하였고, 아울러 전화접속 패킷망으로서 HiNET-P, HiNET-F 등의 네트워킹 서비스도 제공되었다. 나중에는 종량제 PPP 접속서비스도 제공된다.서비스 명칭 "하이텔"이 PC통신 하이텔과 공유되어 있으나, 서로 구분되는 별도 서비스이다. 이 서비스 내에는 한국PC통신의 하이텔 이외에도 한국통신이 직접 운영하는 소규모 PC 통신으로 HiTEL-POP도 함께 존재했는데, 이것은 이후 미래텔로 이름이 바뀌었었다가 나중에 PC통신 하이텔로 흡수되었다.014XY 접속번호.5자리로 구성된 014XY 전화번호는 전기통신번호 관리세칙에 의한 부가통신사업자 식별번호로서, 전화회선을 이용한 데이터 통신에 할당되는 전용 접속번호이다. 처음에는 PC통신용 접속 번호로 도입되었으나 나중에는 다이얼업 PPP 접속 번호로도 활용되었고, 음성통화에 비하여 40% 요금 할인 또는 정액요금제 등의 혜택이 있었다.현재는 광대역망의 보급으로 모뎀 사용이 격감하여 대부분의 014XY 번호가 사용되지 않고 있다.공식 서비스는 2017년 8월 31 종료되었으며 다음해까지도 01410 파우와우 서비스는 낮은 접속 성공률로 매회 수분간 접속이 되었으나 더이상 제공되는 컨텐츠와 서비스는 없었으며 2018년 7월 경 일자불상에 모든 014xy 전화번호가 퍠쇄되었다. 따라서 2018년 7월 현재 이하 명기된 모든 일체의 서비스는 더 이상 접속이 불가능하다.아울러 1544 국번으로 시작하던 관련 서비스는 현재 타 기업 등에서 사용하고 있다.2007년 1월 기준으로 부여되어 있는 식별번호는 다음과 같다.별 표시는 2007년 12월 기준으로 접속 불능ASCII 아트 및 ANSI 아트.ASCII 아트는 문자를 조합하여 한 화면상에 그림을 표시하는 것으로 그 기원은 문자 기반 표시장치만 존재했던 초창기 컴퓨터 역사로 거슬러 올라간다.한편 ANSI 아트는 터미날의 제어코드(ESC 이스케이프)를 활용하여 색상 표시 화면 갱신들을 이용해 동적인 화면을 구현하는 것을 지칭한다. +통신체(通信體)는 컴퓨터를 통해 발달한 한국어의 독특한 문체와 그 형태를 의미한다.1980년대 말에서 2000년대~2000년대 말까지 PC통신이 널리 쓰이던 때에는 자판을 한 번 치는 시간도 전화요금으로 청구되었다. 그래서, 시간과 돈, 노력을 절약하는 수단으로 통신체가 각광받으며 널리 퍼졌다. 당시 유행하던 '통신체'로는, '어솨요, 리하이, ^_^/^-^', '방가방가'등이 있었다.그 이후 리니지 등의 게임이나 디시인사이드같은 유저포탈의 생성으로 즐 원츄 아햏햏 뷁 등의 새로운 단어가 생겨났다.문화관광부 연구보고서인 “바람직한 통신 언어 확립을 위한 기초 연구”에 따르면 통신 언어는 다음과 같이 분류된다.네트워크(network) 망(網)은 다음을 가리킨다.햄버거는 샌드위치 패스트 푸드의 일종인 음식이다. 또한 햄버거는 양념, 빵가루 등에 고기를 갈아 넣고 버무린 뒤 구워낸 햄버그 스테이크, 채소, 양념 등을 두 장 이상의 동그랗거나 길쭉한 빵 사이에 넣어 만들며, 보통 손으로 쥐면서 들고 먹는다. 가정에서 직접 만들어 먹기도 하지만, 일반적으로 패스트푸드 식당에서 사먹는다. 수많은 패스트푸드 식당들은 햄버거, 감자 튀김, 콜라 등을 하나로 묶어서 세트로 판매하기도 한다.독일의 함부르크를 중심으로 활동하던 상인들이 지난날 몽골에서 독일로 가져온 음식이었던 타르타르 스테이크를 모방하여 그 지역 요리사가 다진 육회를 재료로 반죽하여 뭉친 것을 불에 구운 것으로 햄버그 스테이크 또는 라 한다. 18세기 초 미국으로 이민온 독일 출신 이민자들에게서 이 스테이크가 미국에서 널리 알려지면서 함부르크에서 온 스테이크라는 이름인 햄버그 스테이크로 불리게 된다.이후 미국 각지에서 햄버그 스테이크를 사용하여 햄버거라는 요리가 유행하게 되었는데 시초에 대해서는 많은 주장이 있을 뿐 정확히 누가 어디서 시작했는지는 알 수 없다. 다만 미국에서 만들어졌다는 것에 대해서만큼은 큰 이견이 없다. 햄버거의 시초를 둘러싼 주장 중 가장 유명한 것으로는 1904년 세인트루이스 박람회 때 한 요리사가 샌드위치를 만들던 중 너무 바쁜 나머지 함부르크 스테이크를 일반 고기 대신 샌드위치 빵에 넣어 판매한 것이 오늘날 햄버거의 시초라는 설이 있다.들어가는 패티의 원료나 양념에 따라서 치킨버거, 불고기버거, 비프버거 등으로 구별해 불리기도 한다. 또 패티 이외의 소에 따라 치즈버거로도 불린다. 채식주의자들을 위해 채소만 넣어 만들거나 콩을 원료로 한 패티로 만든 샌드위치역시 햄버거로 불릴 때가 많다. 대한민국에서는 김치의 맛을 낸 김치 버거와 밥을 뭉쳐 모양을 낸 것을 빵 대신 사용한 라이스 버거도 존재한다. +놀이 또는 유희는 인간이 재미를 얻기 위해 하는 활동을 말한다. 물질적 보상 또는 대가를 바라지 않고 하는 행위이며 외부의 강제에 의한 행위도 아니라는 점에서 노동이나 일과 구별되지만 노동에도 유희적 측면이 있다고 보는 견해도 존재한다.일반적으로 놀이는 기분전환을 위한 여가 활동으로 규정되며, 서양 기원의 승부와 관련 있는 놀이는 게임으로 불리기도 한다.즐거움 외에도 민첩성이나 사회성 등 성장에 필요한 경험을 얻기 위해 놀이를 하기도 하는데 이는 인간뿐 아니라 동물들에게서도 발견되는 현상이다.놀이를 어떠한 것으로 생각하느냐에 관해서는 종래 많은 학설이 있다. 잉여정력설생활준비설반복설휴양설생물학설 등이 있다. 놀이를 작업과의 대립개념으로 했을 때 그 본질은 분명해진다. 작업은 진지한 것이며 피곤함과 고됨이 따른다. 또한 의무적강제적인 것임에 반해서 놀이는 자기목적적이며 자기충족적 운동으로 활동에는 쾌감이 따르고 또한 자발적해방적인 것이다.놀이에는 기본적인 요소로 참여자와 목표가 있어야 하며, 목표에 도달하기 위한 방법(rule)이 추가 요소로 포함될 때도 있다. 근대의 놀이는 기본적으로 방법을 포함하고 있는 것을 의미한다.놀이의 핵심은 등의 건강한 정신 상태를 말한다.유아기에는 작업과 놀이가 미분화상태이기 때문에 놀이에 대해서 어른의 작업에 대한 것과 같이 진지하다. 이 미분화성 때문에 이 시대에서는 놀이 가운데서 작업을 시키는 일도 가능하며 또한 완구를 보더라도 일상생활에서 사용되고 있는 여러 가지 도구가 그 역할을 한다.유아에게는 혼잣놀이나 평행놀이가 많다. 아동기의 중기부터 후기는 집단적 놀이가 특징이며 소위 갱시대를 이룬다. 유희집단의 성원 수도 연령과 함께 변화한다. 집단참가의 인원수는 초등학교 저학년에서는 2~4명이던 것이 고학년에 가서는 6~10명으로 증가한다. 그 후 청년기가 됨에 따라 다시 감소한다. 동일유희라도 발달에 따라서 그 구조가 변화한다.오가와타로(小川太郞)에 의하면 유희는 혼자서 가능한 조직없는 유희로부터 단순한 규칙을 가진 단순한 조직놀이로 다시 복잡한 규칙을 가진 복잡한 조직놀이로 변화한다. 아동기부터 청년기에는 놀이가 집단적으로 행해지며 규칙이 정해진 그룹조직이라든가 운동경기 등이 왕성하게 실시된다. 이 놀이집단을 통해서 협조성이나 자기통제와 같은 성격형성이 가능해지며 신체의 훈련 규칙 존중 등의 사회성의 증진이 학습될 가능성이 많다.뵐러는 놀이를 기능놀이 상상놀이 구성놀이 수용놀이등으로 분류하여 발달을 고찰한다.파텐은 사회적 행동양식에 의해서, 아무것도 하고 있지 않는 행동, 방관적 행동, 혼잣놀이, 평행놀이, 연합놀이, 협동놀이로 분류한다.유아기의 놀이 형태.유아기의 놀이의 형태는 대개 유희활동의 경과형식(經過形式)에 의해서 다음과 같이 분류하여 그 발달 차이를 알아보고 있다.가장 원시적인 유희활동. 거의 2-3분 간격으로 다른 활동을 나타내며 더욱이 그 하나하나의 행동이 유희라고 이름붙일 수 없을 정도로 정리되지 않은 것으로 1세아에 많다. 대부분 적응적 목적을 위해 습득한 어떤 하나의 기제로 순환적 반응을 반복하는 행위가 주를 이룬다. 이 시기는 심상이 아닌 기능적 동화가 주를 이룬다는 점에서 다른 단계와 구별된다.단편적 유희행동이 모자이크식으로 접합한 것이다. 10분간 정도씩 유희가 계속되나 다음 유희와의 관계성이 없이 이루어지는 놀이 방법으로 1시간에 4~9종의 놀이가 나타난다. 2~3세아에 가장 많다. 이 시기에 이르른 아동은 단순한 감각운동적 면에서 탈피해 상징적 가작화를 통한 놀이에 집중한다. 하지만 아동은 사진의 행동을 가작화로써 이해하지 않고 습관적으로 의식화하는데에만 머무르며 이는 누적형놀이와 연속형 놀이를 구분하는 기준이 된다.같은 종류의 유희가 1시간 가까이 연속된다. 하나의 유희가 그것과 관계 있는 유희로 발전한다든지 혹은 다른 유희를 도입하여 잡다(雜多)하게 하나의 유희의 형태를 이루고 있는 것이다. 2~5세아에 비교적 많다. 이 때에부터는 놀이가 습관화된 의식으로부터 분리되어 상징적 도식의 형태를 취한다.정지된 유희활동이 1시간에 2가지나 3가지의 비율로 실시된다. 4~6세아에 많다.분절형의 유희가 다시 오래 계속된다. 1시간 내의 대부분이 하나의 유희이다. 분절형 놀이의 상위유희로 이해하는것이 좋다. 언뜻 보기에는 연속형 놀이와 비슷해보이지만, 각각의 유희 사이에 뚜렷한 차이점이 있다는것으로 연속형 놀이와 구분된다.승부나 규칙과 관련이 없는 놀이는 다음과 같다.승부나 규칙과 관련이 있는 놀이는 다음과 같다. +비디오 게임은 컴퓨터가 비디오 게임 사용자의 입력을 받아 정해진 규칙에 따라 처리하고 그 과정이나 결과를 출력하는 컴퓨터 프로그램을 이용한 전자게임이다. 비디오 게임은 글자나 그림 소리만으로 출력될 수도 있지만 많은 비디오 게임이 영상표시장치를 이용한 시각적 출력을 수반하는 경우가 많다. 21세기 들어 급성장하고 있는 엔터테인먼트 산업으로 2016년에는 영화 음악시장을 합한 규모보다 더 크게 성장했다."플랫폼"이라는 용어는 전자 부품의 특정한 조합이나 컴퓨터 하드웨어를 가리키는데 여기에 소프트웨어와 결합하여 비디오 게임이 동작할 수 있게 한다. "시스템"이라는 용어 또한 흔히 사용된다. 아래의 구별은 명확하지 않으며 하나 이상의 플랫폼을 연결하는 게임이 있을 수 있다. 개인용 컴퓨터뿐 아니라 게임을 즐길 수 있으나 전용 비디오 게임 머신이 아닌 다른 장치들도 존재한다. 비디오 게임은 여러 종류의 입력 장치를 사용하여 사람의 행위를 게임에 번역, 전달할 수 있으며, 가장 흔한 게임 컨트롤러는 PC 게임의 경우 키보드, 마우스이며, 콘솔의 경우 게임패드, 휴대용 콘솔의 경우 버튼이 포함되어 있다. 그 밖의 게임 컨트롤러는 일반적으로 레이싱 휠, 라이트 건, 댄스 패드가 있다. 디지털 카메라 또한 플레이어의 신체 움직임을 포착하기 위한 게임 컨트롤러로 사용할 수 있다.이스터 에그는 개발자들의 메인 게임의 일부가 아닌 곳에 남겨둔 숨겨진 메시지나 농담이다.비디오 게임은 게임으로서는 드물게 혼자서 하는 게임이 많았다. 그것은 컴퓨터 자체가 여러 사람이 함께하기 어려우며, 함께 하는 사람이 없어도 컴퓨터가 알아서 적절한 상대를 만들어 주기 때문이다.혼자서 하는 게임은 컴퓨터가 모든 것을 처리하고 제공한다는 점 때문에 서사적 특징을 띠기도 한다. 다른 참여자와의 상호 작용에 크게 의지했던 기존의 게임과는 달리, 다른 참여자가 없는 비디오 게임에서는 게임이 제공하는 내용이 그 경험 수준을 크게 좌우하기 때문이다.그러한 서사적 특징의 하나는 주인공의 존재인데 보통의 게임은 여러 인간 참여자가 이루어내기 때문에 특별한 주인공이 없던 반면 혼자 하는 비디오 게임에서는 유일한 인간 참여자에 그 비중이 맞추어진다. 그래서 모든 게임 환경과 컴퓨터 참여자들이 주인공인 인간 참여자의 행동에 맞추어 작용함으로써 의도된 경험을 제공하기도 한다. 나아가 컴퓨터가 더는 참여자로서 존재하지 않고 모든 것이 인간 참여자 개인에 맞추어지는 환경으로서 제공되는 게임도 많다. 그를 위해 비디오 게임은 영화와 소설 등의 다른 서사 매체의 문법을 빌려와 게임 참여자에게 높은 수준의 경험을 제공하려 하기도 한다.그러나 통신 기술의 발달로 멀리 떨어져 있는 사람과도 함께 게임을 할 수 있게 되면서 온라인 게임이 대두하게 되었다. 나아가 이전의 게임에서는 상상도 할 수 없을 정도로 대규모의 사람들이 동시에 게임에 참여할 수 있게 되었다. 의 저자인 라프 코스터는 2007년 게임 개발자 회의에서 과거 1인용 게임들의 성행은 놀이의 기형적인 변화였고, 온라인 게임의 시대가 오면서 진정한 놀이로서의 모습을 되찾았다고 주장했다.반면 비디오 게임을 새로운 서사 형태의 출현으로 보는 사람들은 혼자서 하는 비디오 게임에도 큰 의미를 두고 있다.비디오 게임은 종종 다양한 전자 매체가 결합한 멀티미디어의 궁극적 형태로 언급된다. 현대의 비디오 게임은 영화, 문학, 음악 등 여러 표현이 모두 결합하여 상호 작용의 형태로 제공되는 경험 매체라고 할 수 있다.하지만, 게임의 본질은 그 구조이며 영상과 음악, 문학 등의 표현은 그것을 돕기 위한 수단에 지나지 않는다는 시각도 있다.비디오 게임은 플레이어가 상호작용할 수 있는 임의로 연산된 세계를 제공하기 때문에 가상 세계의 일종으로 분류되기도 한다.비디오 게임은 일반적으로 재미를 제공하며 일련의 학습 과정으로 이루어졌다는 점, 디지털의 특성상 널리 배포될 수 있다는 점 때문에 교육이나 선전의 도구로서 사용되기도 한다.과도한 비디오 게임은 심각한 게임 중독 문제로 이어진다. 한편 게임의 효과에 대한 연구결과들도 있다. 2013년 발표된 논문에 따르면 2개월 이상 하루 30분 이상 슈퍼 마리오 64 게임을 한 그룹이 그렇지 않은 그룹에 비하여 일부 뇌 부위가 커졌다. 물론 모든 게임이 이런 효과를 가진 것은 아니고 논문에서 제시하는 한계점들도 있다.2013년 또다른 논문에 따르면 실시간 전략 게임이 인지 유연성을 향상시킨다고 한다.그러나 폭력적인 게임을 한 사람이 그렇지 않은 게임을 한 사람보다 폭력성을 가질 가능성이 크다는 연구결과, 게임을 많이 하는 아이일수록 문제 행동을 일으킬 가능성이 크다는 연구결과 등 비디오 게임의 부정적 효과에 주목하는 연구결과들도 많이 있는 상태다.비디오 게임은 원시 인공지능 기술이 들어간다. 그 이유인 즉 비디오 게임에 등장하는 적들은 가만히 냅둬도 자기들이 알이서 움직이며 플레이어의 유닛을 공격하기 때문이다. 플레이어의 위치와 스킬을 파악하고 그에 대응해서 움직이는 것이 원시적인 인공지능이다. +클린턴 리처드 도킨스는 영국의 동물행동학자 진화생물학자 및 대중과학 저술가이다. 그는 1995년부터 2009년까지 옥스퍼드 대학교에서 "대중의 과학이해를 위한 찰스 시모니 석좌교수"직과 옥스퍼드 대학교 뉴 칼리지의 교수직을 맡았으며 2009년에 정년 퇴임하였다.그는 역시 많은 저명한 언론매체의 편집장으로 일했으며 엔카르타 백과사전과 진화백과사전의 편집위원으로 활동했다. 그는 또 무신론적 박애주의자들이 발간하는 잡지의 수석편집위원으로 칼럼을 쓰고 있으며 과학적 회의론 잡지의 창립멤버로 편집이사회의 멤버이기도 하다. 그는 영국왕실이 수여하는 패러데이 상의 심사위원, 영국TV 아카데미상 심사위원을 맡고 있으며 영국과학발전협회의 생물학 부문 수장이기도 하다.도킨스는 진화에 대한 유전자 중심적 관점을 대중화하고 밈이라는 용어를 도입한 1976년 저서 《이기적 유전자》로 널리 알려졌다. 또한 1982년 그는 표현형의 효과가 유기체 자신의 신체만이 아니라 다른 유기체들의 신체를 포함한 넓은 환경으로 전달된다는 것을 보여준 저서 《확장된 표현형》으로 진화생물학계에서 폭넓은 인용을 받았다.도킨스는 무신론자이며 철저한 인본주의자 회의주의자 과학적 합리주의자 및 브라이트 운동 지지자이다. 그는 미디어에서 여러 차례 "다윈의 로트바일러" 로 불렸는데 이는 영국의 생물학자 토머스 헉슬리가 자연 선택을 지지하면서 "다윈의 불독"으로 불린 것에서 유추되었다. 2006년에 발표한 그의 책 의 영어판은 150만 권 이상 판매되어 그의 책들 중 1위를 기록했으며 31개의 언어로 번역되었다.도킨스는 생물학뿐만 아니라 여러 분야의 대중과학서를 집필했고, 텔레비전이나 라디오 프로그램에 출연해 다양한 주제들을 다루기도 했다.2004년 옥스퍼드의 베일리얼 칼리지는 그의 이름을 딴 도킨스 상을 만들어 인간에 의해 멸종위기에 빠진 동물의 행동양식과 복지에 기여하는 논문을 발표한 사람에게 수상하고 있다.리처드 도킨스는 1941년 3월 26일 케냐 나이로비에서 태어났다. 그의 아버지 클린턴 존 도킨스는 2차대전중 연합군으로 영국에서 케냐로 이주하였으며 도킨스가 8세가 되던 1949년에 영국으로 돌아왔다. 부모 모두 과학에 매우 흥미를 가지고 있었고 어린 도킨스의 질문들에 과학적 언어로서 답을 해 주었다고 한다.도킨스는 그의 어린시절을 전형적인 평범한 영국 소년이었다고 말하고 있지만 대략 9세 되던 무렵 신의 존재에 대해 의구심을 가지기 시작했다고 밝혔다. 하지만 얼마 후에 그는 자연에 있는 방향성 규칙성 목적성 질서와 이런 것들의 조합등을 인식하고 다시 신의 존재를 믿도록 되었다고 한다. 그러나 그는 다시 영국성공회의 관습들이 매우 불합리하다는 것을 깨닫기 시작했고 신보다는 윤리에 더 관심을 기울였다. 그리고 후에 그가 생물의 진화과정을 더 많이 이해하게 되었을 때 그의 종교적인 관점은 다시 변화하게 되었다. 그는 초자연적인 신의 존재 없이도 진화론의 자연선택이 생명의 복잡성을 잘 설명할 수 있다고 느꼈다.도킨스는 1954년부터 1959년까지 온들 스쿨을 다녔다. 그리고 옥스퍼드 대학교의 베일리얼 칼리지에서 동물학을 수학했는데 노벨 생리학·의학상 수상자인 동물행태학자 니콜라스 틴버겐교수의 가르침을 받았으며 1962년에 옥스퍼드를 졸업했다. 그 후 틴버겐의 지도하에 옥스퍼드에서 석사, 박사학위를 1966년에 받게 된다. 틴버겐은 동물행태연구의 개척자였는데 특히 본능의 문제들, 학습과 선택에 있어 선구자이다. 이 시기에 도킨스의 연구는 동물결정모델에 관한 것이었다.1967년부터 1969년까지 도킨스는 미국의 캘리포니아 대학교 버클리 동물학 조교수로 재직한다. 이 시기 UC 버클리에서는 당시의 베트남전에 대한 반전 운동이 거세었는데 도킨스도 행동가로서 베트남 반전 운동에 깊이 개입했다. 그는 1970년에 다시 옥스퍼드로 동물학을 강의하러 돌아 왔으며 현재까지 옥스퍼드 교수로 재직중이다. 1995년에 석좌교수에 임명되었는데 이 자리는 찰스 시모니가 과학을 대중에게 이해시키는 중요한 역할을 기대하며 기부함으로써 이루어지게 되었다.1976년 그의 저명한 저서 《이기적 유전자》를 시작으로 도킨스는 생명과학을 일반대중에 쉽게 설명하는 데 관심을 가지기 시작했다.1967년 도킨스는 동료 학자 매리언 스탬프와 결혼했고 1984년에 이혼했다. 그 해 도킨스는 Eve Barham과 재혼했으며 사이에 딸 Juliet Emma Dawkins를 두었으나 역시 이혼했다. Barham은 1999년 암으로 사망했다. 1992년에 그는 여배우 랠라 워드와 결혼했다. 도킨스와 워드는 그들의 공통 친구인 더글러스 애덤스를 통해 알게 되었다. 워드는 도킨스 책 중 절반 이상의 삽화를 그렸으며 두 책의 오디오버전의 나레이터를 맡았다.2009년 그는 옥스포드대학교에서 정년퇴임하였다.창조과학에 대한 비판.도킨스는 만물은 신이 창조했다는 종교적 믿음인 창조과학에 단호한 비판적 자세를 가지고 있다. 그는 창조과학을 불합리하고 지성을 축소시키는 잘못된 것이라고 비판한다. 그의 1986년에 나온 책 에서 창조론자의 중요한 논점인 설계론에 대해 지속적인 비판을 가하고 있다. 이 책에서 도킨스는 18세기 영국신학자 윌리엄 패일리의 저서 "자연신학"에서 주장되어 유명해진 시계공비유에 대해 반박했다. 패일리는 그의 저서에서 "시계는 너무 복잡하고 기능적이어서 단순히 우연의 산물로 출현할 수가 없다"고 주장했다. 그러므로 "시계보다 훨씬 더 복잡한 모든 살아있는 생물들도 당연히 누군가에 의해 미리 설계되었다"라고 확언했다. 하지만 도킨스에 따르면 진화론의 자연선택도 생물계의 규칙성과 복잡성, 그리고 기능성을 설명하는 데 충분하다고 주장한다. 그리고 이것은 자연에 있어서 지성을 가지지 않고 맹목적으로 작동하는 자동 시계제작자와 같은 역할을 할 수 있다고 말한다.1986년에 도킨스는 옥스퍼드 헉슬리기념토론회에 참석했을 때 젊은 지구 창조론자인 A. E. 윌더-스미스(A. E. Wilder-Smith), 성경적창조론회 수장인 에드거 앤드루스(Edgar Andrews) 등과 논쟁을 하기도 했다. 그러나 일반적인 경우 이라며 만류한 그의 동료 학자 스티븐 제이 굴드(Stephen Jay Gould)의 충고를 따라 이후 창조과학자들과 공식적인 토론에 참여하는 것을 거절하고 있다. 도킨스는 토론을 제의하는 창조과학자들이 그런 논쟁에서 완패당하든 아니든 관심이 없다고 말한다. 스티븐 제이 굴드에 따르면 그들에게 진짜 중요한 것은 공식적인 자리에서 진화학자와 논쟁을 벌임으로써 얻어지는 명성이었던 것이다.2004년 12월 미국 언론인 빌 모이어스와 인터뷰할때 도킨스는 이렇게 말했다. "진화는 우리가 아는 다른 어느 과학만큼이나 확실하다." 모이어스가 그에게 "이론"이란 단어의 사용에 대해 질문했을때 도킨스는 다음과 같이 설명했다. "진화는 이제까지 관측되어 왔다. 단지 그것이 일어나는 순간을 관측하지 못하고 있을 뿐이다." 그리고 그는 다음과 같이 부연했다. "그것은 살인범이 살인을 저지르고 나서 경찰이 그 범인을 잡는 것과 비슷하다. 실제 형사는 당연히 살인이 일어나는 순간을 보지 못했다. 그러나 형사는 많은 실마리와 엄청난 양의 상황증거로 사건을 해결할 수 있다.…진화는 진정한 과학자에게 마치 영어단어게임에서 하나 하나 스펠링을 불러주는 것 만큼이나 마찬가지로 명확하다."도킨스는 아이들의 과학교육에 지적설계를 포함시키는 것을 강력하게 반대했다. 왜냐하면 그것은 결코 과학적이지 않으며 단지 종교적 이론이기 때문이다. 그는 이라고도 표현했다.유전자 결정론을 비판한 책인 의 저자 런던 대학교 교수 스티븐 로즈는 도킨스를 초다윈주의자로 명명하면서, 유기체가 아닌 유전자 수준에서 여러가지 자연 선택과정이 일어날 수 없다고 주장하였다. 또한, 도킨스의 유전자론은 유기체의 독자성을 무시하고, 유기체를 유전자를 전달하는 단순한 매개체로 격하시켜 진화의 과정을 제대로 설명할 수 없다고 비판하였다.여기에 대해 도킨스는 로즈가 비판하는 유전자 결정론이란 사회생물학자들 사이에 실제로 존재하지 않는 가공의 이념임을 지적하고 로즈의 주장은 정치적 목적이 담겨있다고 답했다. '에덴 밖의 강'은 사이언스북스에서 '에덴의 강'으로 제목을 바꾸어 재판했다.도킨스는 또한 수많은 연설과 강의를 했는데 그중엔 헨리 시즈위크 기념연설 , 첫 번째 에라스무스 다윈 기념강의 , 마이클 패러데이 강의 , T.H. 헉슬리 기념 강연 , 어빈 기념 강의, 쉘든 도일강의 , 틴베르헨 강연 , 그리고 태너 강의등이 대표적이다. 1991년에 그는 어린이를 위한 왕실학교 크리스마스 특강을 했고 이것은 2007년에 이란 DVD 타이틀로 나왔다. +막스 루트비히 헤닝 델브뤼크은 독일 제국 베를린 출신의 미국의 생물학자이다. 1969년에 바이러스의 복제 기작과 유전적 구조를 발견한 공로로 앨프리드 허시, 살바도르 에드워드 루리아와 함께 노벨 생리학·의학상을 수상했다.델브뤽은 괴팅겐 대학교에서 천문물리학을 공부하다가 이론물리로 전향하여 박사 학위를 받았다. 박사 학위 취득 후 영국과 덴마크 스위스 등 여러 나라들을 순회했다. 볼프강 파울리와 닐스 보어를 만나 생물학에 관심을 갖게 됐고 1932년 베를린에 돌아와 리제 마이트너의 조수가 된다.1937년에 미국으로 이주하여 캘리포니아 공과대학교에서 초파리(drosophila) 유전자에 대한 연구에 착수했다. 제2차 세계 대전 기간 동안 테네시주 내슈빌의 밴더빌트 대학교에서 물리를 가르치며 미국에 머물렀다. 1941년 매리 브루스(Mary Bruce)와 결혼하면서 나중에 그녀와의 사이에서 네 아이를 얻었다.1942년 살바도르 에드워드 루리아와 함께 박테리아의 바이러스 감염에 대한 저항력이 잘 조절된 변화가 아닌 무작위적인 돌연변이에 의해 형성된다는 사실을 알아냈다. 이 공로로 1969년 앨프리드 허시와 함께 노벨 생리학의학상을 수상했다. 1950년대 이후 델브뤽은 유전학보다는 생리학쪽의 연구에 집중했고 또한 쾰른 대학교에 분자유전학 연구소를 세우기도 하였다.아버지는 베를린 대학교의 역사학 교수였고 어머니는 유스투스 폰 리비히의 손녀였다.수학에서 유리수는 두 정수의 비율 또는 분수의 형식으로 나타낼 수 있는 수이다. 단 분모가 0이 아니어야 한다. 특히 분모가 1일 수 있으므로 모든 정수는 유리수이다. 유리수체의 기호는 formula_1이며 몫을 뜻하는 영어 quotient에서 따왔다.유리수체 formula_1는 정수환 formula_3의 분수체이다. 이는 다음과 같은 집합으로 생각할 수 있다.엄밀히 말해 유리수체 formula_1는 다음과 같은 공리를 만족시키는 (동형 아래 유일한) 체이다.유리수체 formula_1는 구체적으로 다음과 같이 구성할 수 있다. 집합 formula_10 위에 다음과 같은 동치 관계 formula_11를 줄 수 있다.유리수체 formula_1는 집합으로서 몫집합 formula_14이며 그 위의 덧셈과 곱셈은 다음과 같다.체가 만족시켜야 하는 조건인 각종 연산 법칙과 덧셈 항등원 formula_17 및 각 유리수 formula_18의 덧셈 역원 formula_19 및 곱셈 항등원 formula_20 및 0이 아닌 각 유리수 formula_21의 곱셈 역원 formula_22의 존재가 성립하므로 이는 체를 이룬다.정수환과 유리수체 사이의 표준적인 단사 환 준동형은 다음과 같다.각 유리수 formula_18를 분수 꼴 formula_26으로 나타내면, 유리수를 마치 두 정수의 비율인 것처럼 다룰 수 있다.유리수는 두 정수의 비율이므로, 나눗셈 기호와 의미가 같은 분수 기호를 통해 나타낼 수 있다. 예를 들어, 1과 3의 비를 분수로 나타내면 이다. 분자와 분모를 동시에 그 공약수로 나누어 원래와 값이 같지만 꼴이 더 단순한 분수를 얻는 과정을 약분이라고 한다. 분자와 분모가 서로소이어서 더 이상 약분할 수 없는 분{sfrac|12|18}}을 최대 공약수 6으로 나눠 약분하면 기약 분수 을 얻는다. 분자가 분모보다 작은 분수를 진분수, 작지 않은 분수를 가분수라고 한다. 가분수는 정수와 진분수의 합으로 표현한 것을 대분수라고 한다. 예를 들어, 의 대분수 표현은 1이다.무리수는 두 정수의 비율로 나타낼 수 없으므로 분수 표현이 불가능하다.유리수의 진법 전개는 유한 소수이거나 순환 소수이다. 십진법 전개가 가장 흔하며, 그 예는 다음과 같다.분수를 소수로 전환하려면 나머지 있는 나눗셈을 통해 순환 마디를 구하면 된다. 유한 소수나 순환 소수를 분수로 전환하려면 = 0.1 = 0.01 = 0.001 및 = 0.111... = 0.010101... = 0.001001001... 따위를 이용하면 된다.반면 무리수의 진법 전개는 비순환 소수이다.유리수는 유한 연분수 표현이 가능하다. 예를 들어, 다음과 같다.분수를 연분수로 나타내려면 분자와 분모에 유클리드 호제법을 응용하면 된다.무리수의 경우 연분수 표현은 항상 무한 연분수이다.두 유리수가 같을 필요충분조건은 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.어떤 유리수가 다른 어떤 유리수보다 작을 필요충분조건은 다음과 같이 나타낼 수 있다.두 유리수의 덧셈에는 통분 기법이 쓰이며 이는 다음과 같다.유리수의 반수를 구하는 공식은 다음과 같다.두 유리수의 뺄셈은 반수를 더하는 것과 같다.분모의 최소 공배수를 공분모로 취하여 통분하면 더 간단히 구할 수 있다.두 유리수의 곱셈은 다음과 같다.0이 아닌 유리수의 역수는 다음과 같다.두 유리수의 나눗셈은 역수를 곱하는 것과 같다.집합 formula_1는 정수의 집합 formula_3으로 만든 분수체이며 따라서 formula_1는 사칙연산이 자유로운 체이다.집합 formula_1는 표수가 0인 가장 작은 체이다. 즉 표수가 0인 체는 formula_1와 동형인 체를 반드시 포함한다.서로 다른 어떤 두 유리수 사이에도 또다른 유리수가 존재하므로 집합 formula_1는 조밀 집합이다. 그러나 formula_1와 formula_3 사이에는 일대일 대응이 가능하므로, formula_1는 가산 무한 집합이다.유리수체에는 표준적인 절댓값과 p진 절댓값을 줄 수 있으며 이들에 의한 완비화는 각각 실수체와 p진수체이다. +피시방은 대한민국에서 널리 퍼진 LAN 게임 카페이자 다중 PC 카페이다. 보통 피시방은 시간당 요금 또는 정액 요금을 내고 컴퓨터로 인터넷, 온라인 게임 등을 이용할 수 있는 장소다. 또한 피시방의 시간당 요금은 지역마다 다르다. 대부분은 40~80분에 1000원 정도로 가격을 책정한다.대한민국 최초의 전자 카페는 혜화동에 김형준이 개업한 피씨카페이다. 피씨카페는 1988년 3월에 첫 개장하여 1991년에 폐장된 엠팔의 멤버였던 안상수와 금누리가 홍익대학교 근처에서 만든 ‘일렉트로닉 카페’이다. 당시 16비트 컴퓨터 두 대를 놓아 전화선으로 PC통신을 이용할 수 있었다.이후 세계 최초의 인터넷 카페는 1994년 4월에 정민호가 대한민국 서울특별시 서초구 서초동에 BNC라는 이름으로 첫 개장한, 인터넷카페이다. BNC 인터넷 카페는 당시 최초의 인터넷 카페로 많은 인기를 얻었다. 1988년부터 1993년까지 언론에서 소개한 인터넷 카페들은 전부 라는 용어가 사용되기 시작하였다. 다음해인 1995년 여름에 종로, 홍대 등지에 인터넷 카페가 만들어지면서 대학생들이 인터넷 카페를 이용할 수 있게 되었다. 당시 인터넷 카페에서는 ISDN과 전화모뎀을 이용한 PC통신으로 하이텔에 연결하여 텍스트 위주의 통신이 가능하였으며, 대형 텔레비전 모니터에 PC와 TV를 연결하여 모르는 사람이 통신을 이용한 바둑을 둘 수 있었고 쥬라기 공원같은 통신을 이용한 게임을 할 수 있었다.그 뒤, 1996년 여름에는 PC방이 처음으로 등장하였다. 다음해인 1997년 11월, IMF 시대를 맞이하게 되면서 피시방의 수는 빠른 속도로 증가하기 시작하였다. 당시 대한민국의 경제 상황이 IMF라는 커다란 혼란으로 침체된 상태에서 명예퇴직을 당했던 많은 사람들이 새로운 시장인 PC방 창업에 뛰어 들기 시작하였다. 그 영향으로 1998년부터 1999년까지는 창업 열풍에 맞추어 상승세를 타게 된다. 또한 1998년에 발매된 미국의 컴퓨터 게임 제작사 블리자드 엔터테인먼트의 전략시뮬레이션 게임 스타크래프트는 5년 동안 대한민국의 피시방 2만 곳을 설립하는데 기여하였다.PC방의 대중화로 인하여 1998년 여름부터는 PC방의 창업이 대한민국의 컴퓨터 산업이 호황세를 타게 되는 계기가 된다. 사업체들이 PC방을 시장으로 이용하였고 많은 사업들이 성공할 수 있는 블루오션으로 생각되었다. 비디오 게임산업이 발전하면서 그 비디오 게임에 맞는 컴퓨터 사양이 필요하였고 PC의 고사양화가 가속화되는 효과를 불러왔다. 2001년부터는 PC방 개인사업의 통신선 설치가 일반 가정집까지 연결이 될 수 있었기 때문에 초고속 인터넷망을 구축해나갈 수 있었다.대한민국의 피시방은 미국 블리자드 엔터테인먼트의 전략시뮬레이션 비디오 게임인 스타크래프트가 1998년 4월 발매와 동시에 엄청난 인기를 누리며 함께 널리 퍼졌다. 따라서 대부분의 인터넷에 연결되었고, 컴퓨터 게임을 하기에 적합해졌다. 2000년에 들어서는 화상 채팅이 퍼지면서, 많은 피시방들이 웹캠을 설치하였다. 또한 넥슨, 넷마블 등의 온라인 게임 서비스 업체들은 피시방을 중심으로 자사가 서비스하고 있는 온라인 게임을 이벤트 등의 방식으로 홍보하기도 하며, 피시방에서 온라인 게임을 이용할 경우 보너스 경험치 같은 혜택을 주기도 한다. 피시방은 컴퓨터를 비치하여 방문자가 이용하는 서비스를 제공하는 것 이외에도 스낵이나 음료수를 판매한다. 그러나, 2002년 이후 각 가정의 인터넷 접속 방법의 발달과 증가로, 현재 피시방은 사라지거나 또는 생존을 위해 이용료 인하, 시설의 고급화·대형화, 또는 플레이스테이션 4 같은 비디오 게임기를 비치하는 등 더 많은 고객을 확보하기 위해 경쟁이 심화되고 있다.피시방은 어린 학생들의 새로운 놀이터가 되었다고 할 정도로 이용자의 상당수가 청소년 및 어린이지만, 상당수의 피시방이 금연구역을 철저히 지키고 있지않아 간접흡연의 피해를 입고 있다. 또, 인터넷 중독 증세를 보이는 사람들이 피시방에서 장시간 사용하면서 생활을 망치는 경우가 있으며, 간혹 사망하는 경우도 있다.일부 피시방 사장들이 아르바이트를 구하는 학생들에게 노동착취 등의 문제를 일으키고 있다.또한 금연법의 시행으로 2014년 1월 1일부터 100m이상의 전 사업장 2015년 1월 1일부터는 100m이하의 전 사업장이 실시대상이 된다.또 주민등록번호나 개인 정보가 유출될 수도 있다. 일부 PC방에서는 회원가입시 주민등록번호와 이름 생일 전화번호와 집 주소를 수집하고 있으며 PC방의 메인 관리 컴퓨터가 해킹당하거나 업주의 악의적인 이용으로 피해를 받을 수도 있다.그러나 2014년 8월 7일부터 주민등록번호의 수집이 금지되면서 PC방에서의 주민등록번호 수집 역시 불법이 되었다. 이로 인해 회원가입 수단이 문자 인증으로 바뀌는 추세이긴하나 인증으로 인한 추가비용이 발생하는 등의 문제도 발생하고 있다.15세 이용가 게임인 오버워치가 유행할 당시 일부 PC방 손님들이 오버워치를 하며 PC방에서 소란을 피우고 있는 초등학생들을 신고하는 일이 다수 발생했다. 이로 인해 PC방 업주들과 경찰과의 갈등이 많이 벌어졌고 현재 PC방은 게임 이용등급을 지켜서 게임을 하라는 안내판을 부착하는 곳이 많다.피시방은 저녁 10시 이후에 청소년 출입이 불가능하며 20살이 되어도 고등학교 졸업을 해야지만 저녁 10시 이후에 출입이 가능하다.학교 근방에서 PC방 설치금지.PC방 업주들이 PC방은 더 이상 청소년유해시설이 아닌데도 학교정화구역 안에 일률적으로 설치를 금지하는 것은 직업 선택의 자유 등을 침해한다고 헌법소원을 제기하였지만 기각되었다. 헌재는 PC방을 학교 근방 200m이내에 설치할 수 없다는 법규가 기본권을 제한하지 않는다고 보았으며 또한 직업수행의 자유를 과도하게 제한하지 않는다고 보았다.사이버지식정보방 (知識情報房)은 대한민국 국군에 장병 복지를 위해 설치된 이용 시설로 사지방 혹은 싸지방이라 부른다. 사이버지식정보방 (사지방)에 개방형 리눅스 OS인 하모니카가 도입되었다.피시토랑은 피시방+레스토랑의 합성어로 피시방에서 게임을 즐기면서 음식을 주문해서 먹을 수 있다. 옛날처럼 컵라면과 같은 즉석식품만 있는게 아니라 직접 조리해서 주는 여러 종류의 덮밥과 라면, 핫도그, 떡볶이, 튀김 등 다양한 음식이 있고 음료수도 스무디, 에이드, 커피 등 종류가 다양하며 자리에서 주문하고 계산까지 편하게 할 수 있다. 가격도 일반 식당보다 저렴해서 많은 학생들에게 인기를 끌고 있으며 피시방에서 게임도 하고 밥과 커피 등을 같이 해결할 수 있다. +노동조합 또는 노조은 노동자들이 권리를 쟁취하기 위해 만든 노동자의 사회단체를 말한다.인간의 노동은 선사시대 이래 계속되어 온 것이나 임금을 받고 노동을 제공하는 임금 노동자 계급의 출현은 산업화 이후의 일이다. 노동자는 기업가와 더불어 산업사회의 가장 중요한 사회 집단이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 노동자는 산업혁명 초기부터 기업가에 비해 매우 불리한 사회적 위치에 놓여 있었다. 따라서 이들은 이후 자본가와 국가에 대하여 집단적인 조직체를 통하여 자신들의 이해를 관철시키고자 하였다.시드니 웹에 의하면 노동조합의 정의는 이다. 노동조합은 노동운동의 조직적인 기초가 되며, 직업·기업·산업별로 조직된다.시드니 웹의 정의에서 암시되어 있는 바와 같이 거의 대부분의 노동조합은 계급분화에 의한 자본주의 사회의 기본 질서에 도전하기 보다는 이를 인정하면서 협상을 통해 노동자의 삶을 개선하고자 한다. 그러나 마르크스주의 등에서는 노동조합이 자본가와 대립하는 노동자 진영의 주요 조직으로 파악한다.노동조합의 법적 지위를 인정하는 국가에서는 노동조합의 성격을 노동자의 자주적 단결체로서 노동자의 여러 이익 향상을 목적으로 하는 조직이나 연합단체로 보고 있다.산업혁명 이후 기계에 밀려 직조공과 같은 숙련 기술자들이 사라진 대신 비숙련 노동자들이 노동인구의 거의 대부분을 차지하게 되었다. 19세기 영국을 비롯한 산업화 국가의 노동자들은 매우 열악한 조건에서 근로하였으나 이들은 아무런 정치적 발언권이 없었다. 그러나 노동자의 수가 증가함에 따라 노동자의 권리를 요구하는 목소리도 커지게 되었다. 초기 노동조합 활동은 자본가와 국가의 탄압을 받았으며 법률적으로 엄금되었다. 최초의 노동조합은 17세기 영국에서 노동자들이 결성한 우애조합, 공제조합 등이었다. 영국 의회는 1799년 단결금지법을 제정하여 노동조합의 결성을 금지하였기 때문에 이들 조직은 비밀 결사의 형태를 띠었다. 초기 노동조합의 주요 활동은 일정한 조합비를 걷었다가 사고가 발생했을 때 지급하는 일종의 상호부조였다.미국에서는 19세기 여러 단위 노동조합들이 만들어지기 시작하였다. 자본가들은 최악의 경우 노동조합 간부를 청부살인하는 등 악랄하고 극심한 탄압을 하였으나 노동운동의 발전을 막지는 못하였다. 1869년 결성된 노동자 기사단은 후일 세계산업노동자로 개칭하였으며 이 단체의 마더 존스와 같은 노동운동가들은 미국 노동운동 역사에 큰 족적을 남겼다.8시간 노동제 쟁취.1886년 5월 1일 미국 시카고에서는 8만명의 노동자들과 그들의 가족들이 8시간 노동제를 요구하며 미시건 거리에서 파업집회를 가졌다. 19세기 미국 노동자들은 10-12시간의 장시간 노동, 저임금, 임금삭감으로 노동인권을 존중받지 못하고 있었으며, 석유사업 및 탄광사업가인 록펠러가 고용주인 슈일킬 탄광의 노동자들이 자신들의 생존권과 관련된 문제인 임금삭감에 항의하다가 주동자들이 교수형으로 처형되는 일도 있었다. 즉, 8시간 노동제를 요구하는 파업은 노동자들이 노동인권을 존중받기 위한 단결이었다. 이 날 노동자들은 평화적인 시위를 하였으나 경찰은 이들을 폭도로 몰아 탄압하였다. 이 과정에서 발포가 있었고 다수의 노동자들이 희생되었다. 당시 미국의 보수언론들도 미국 정부의 노동운동 탄압을 정당화하기 위해 빨갱이 딱지 붙이기 곧 공산주의 딱지를 붙이기를 했다. 이후 제2 인터네셔널은 이날을 노동절로 기념하게 되었다. 한국에서도 5월 1일을 노동절로 기념하고 있다. 이 사건은 큰 사회적 반향을 가져왔고 결국 노동자의 기본적 권리인 8시간 노동제가 실현되는 계기가 되었다.수 많은 노동자들의 노력끝에 1820년대 영국은 노동조합을 금지하는 법률을 폐지하였고 노동조합 활동이 합법화되었다. 이후 유럽과 미국 등 산업화된 국가에서 노동조합 운동이 계속되어 1890년 무렵에는 서구 열강 거의 대부분의 국가에서 노동조합이 합법화 되었다. 1890년 5월 1일 첫 노동절 기념집회가 프랑스 파리에서 개최되어 노동조합의 달라진 위상을 보여주었다.산업화가 세계적으로 확산됨에 따라 노동운동 역시 파급되었다. 동아시아에서 가장 빠른 산업화를 겪은 일본은 1912년 일본 노동운동 역사 처음의 노동조합인 우애회(友愛會)가 설립되었고 1925년 무렵에는 457개 노동조합에 25만여명의 조합원이 가입되어 있었다.한국에서는 일제 강점기이던 1920년대 산업화가 진행되면서 노동친목회 노동회 노우회와 같은 지역합동 노동조합이 생겨났다. 또한 인쇄공과 같은 숙련노동자들은 직업별 노동조합을 세웠다. 이러한 노동운동의 성장을 바탕으로 1924년 4월 조선노동총연맹이 출범하였다. 한국의 노동조합은 노동인권 쟁취를 위한 단결투쟁과 함께 식민지 지배에 대한 저항 운동을 벌였다. 일제강점기 노동계에서는 부두에서 짐을 배로 실어나르는 노동자들이 임금삭감에 항의하여 파업투쟁을 하는 등 노동자들이 노동인권을 쟁취하기 위한 투쟁이 활발하였다. 이러한 투쟁은 노동자들이 단결투쟁만이 노동인권을 쟁취하는 수단임을 깨닫는 아주 중요한 계기가 되었다.대표적인 노동조합 관련 운동으로는 1929년의 원산의 노동자들이 원산총파업투쟁이 있다. 제국주의의 침략에 의해 식민지가 된 제3세계에서 노동조합의 독립운동 참여는 일반적인 현상이었다.고무공장 노동자들의 투쟁.또한 1930년 고무공장 노동자들의 파업투쟁도 있다.고무공장 주주들은 15~20%의 배당이익을 챙기면서도 노동자 임금 10% 삭감을 결의하여 노동자들에게 희생을 강요하였다. 당시 노동자들은 130원의 저임금을 받아 3~4명의 가족을 부양하는 사람들이 많았으므로 사용자들의 임금삭감은 곧 노동자들과 그 가족들의 생존권을 위협하는 것이었다. 고무노조는 단체교섭을 시도하였으나 거절당하자 파업투쟁으로써 단결투쟁을 하였다. 평양 고무공장 노동자들은 1930년 8월 7일 국제고무공장을 시작으로 11개 공장 1천800명의 노동자가 동맹파업투쟁에 들어갔다. 당시 사용자들과 경찰은 대체인력 투입 빨갱이 딱지 붙이기 활동가 체포 용역 불량배를 통한 폭력으로써 노동자들의 생존권 투쟁을 방해하고 탄압했으나 노동자들은 현장복귀 거부와 선전전으로써 저항하였다. 또한 강주룡이라는 노동자는 모든 노동자들의 목소리를 대변하는 의미로 고공농성을 벌이기도 하였다.1970년대-80년대.1970년대 노동자 특히 여성노동자들은 자본가들과 이들의 편에 선 관리자들로부터 노동인권을 존중받지 못하였으므로 여성노동자들은 자본가들의 탄압 및 박정희 군부독재정권의 악선전에도 노동조합을 결성하여 단결함으로써 노동운동을 하였다. 이러한 노력으로 여성노동자들은 노동인권을 쟁취하여갔다.1980년대 노동자들도 단결하여 자신들의 권리를 쟁취하여갔다. 당시 노동자들은 단결함으로써, 시간외 수당 또는 초과노동수당을 주지 않는 착취근절, 어용노조 폐지, 한진중공업 노동자들의 불량도시락 거부투쟁, 임금인상 투쟁등을 실천하였다. 하지만 노동조합 활동가에 대해 노무관리라는 구실로 회사에서 감시, 가압류, 임금에서의 불이익, 회유를 하여, 2003년 1월 두산중공업의 노동자 배달호 열사가 분신자살을 하는 등 곧 헌법에서 보장된 노동자의 기본적 권리인 단결권, 단체교섭권, 단체행동권이 자본에 의해 탄압되는 등 노동조합은 해결할 과제가 많이 있다.20세기에 들어 영국의 노동당, 독일의 사회민주당과 같은 노동조합의 지지를 기반으로 하는 정당들이 생겨나면서 노동조합의 영향력 역시 증대되었다. 1924년 영국에서는 노동당이 총선에서 승리하여 램지 맥도널드는 최초의 노동조합 출신 영국 총리가 되었다. 또한, 1919년 국제노동기구가 설립되어 국제적인 노동 인권 문제를 다루기 시작하였다.1930년대 아돌프 히틀러의 나치 독일이 사회민주당의 활동과 노동조합의 활동을 전면 엄금 시키는 등 독일에서는 노동조합 운동의 큰 위기가 있기도 하였으나 2차대전에서 나치가 패망한 이후 다시 활동을 시작하였다.조직 대상에 따른 구분.노동조합의 조직 대상을 기업별로 하여 결성된 노동조합을 기업별 노동조합이라 하고 산업 직군에 따라 조직된 노동조합을 산업별 노동조합이라 한다. 산업별 노동조합은 산별노조라고도 한다.산업별 노조는 산업직군 곧 하는 일이 같은 노동자들이 노동인권을 존중받기 위해 만든 노조이다. 해당 산업직군에서의 노동을 위해 구직하거나 공부하는 노동자까지도 가입할 수 있는 산업별 노조도 있다. 본문에서는 이해를 돕기 위해 두 가지 산업별 노조를 소개한다.예를 들어 민주노총 금속노조는 자동차 기계 조선업 IT 전자 전기같은 금속노동을 하는 노동자들이 만든 산업별 노조이다. 금속노동자들은 정규직 사내하청 등의 비정규직 한국인 노동자 외국인 노동자 등의 구분없이 누구나 금속노조 조합원으로 가입할 수 있으며 산업별 노조이므로 조합원은 일다니는 회사에 어용노조나 유령노조가 있더라도 회사와 단체협약 곧 노동조건과 임금에 대한 약속을 체결할 수 있다.민주노총 건설노조는 건설업에 종사하거나 일하려는 노동자들의 산업별 노조이며, 산업별 노조이므로 조합원들은 단체교섭을 일다니는 회사와 체결함으로써 노동조건을 개선할 수 있다.건설노동자는 거의 대부분 일용직으로 일하는 노동자들이라 노동조합을 결성하여 단결하기 어렵기 때문에, 기업별 노조가 아닌 산업별 노조를 결성하여 활동하는 것이다.한편 현대중공업 노동조합과 같이 산업별 노동조합에 가입되어 있지 않은 노동조합은 기업별 노동조합이 된다.가입 유형에 따른 구분.노동조합은 조직 형태에 따라 다음과 같이 구분할 수 있다.거의 대부분의 노동조합은 오픈 숍의 형태로 운영된다. 클로즈드 숍의 인정은 각 나라의 법률에 따라 다르다. 영국은 산업의 종류에 관계없이 클로즈드 숍을 인정하는 반면, 미국은 1935년 뉴딜 정책의 일환으로 와그너 법을 제정하여 클로즈드 숍을 인정하였으나 1947년 새롭게 제정된 노사관계법인 테프트-하틀리 법에 의해 금지되었다. 대한민국에서는 항운노조연맹이 클로즈드 숍으로 운영되고 있다.특수 정체성에 따른 노동조합.대한민국에서 노동하는 대한민국 국적을 보유하지 않은 노동자 이른바 이주 노동자들은 차별 열악한 노동환경 대한민국 정부의 출입국 정책 등으로 노동인권을 존중받지 못하므로 민주노총 이주노동자 지회를 결성하여 활동하고 있다.또한 대한민국에는 소속 조합원 노동자의 연령에 일부 제한을 둔 대신 고용 형태나 소속기업을 따지지 않는 노동조합이 있는데 대표적인 조직은 청년유니온이다. 청년유니온은 상급단체를 두지 않은 독립된 노동조합 조직으로 활동하고 있다.전 세계 최대 노동조합 연대 기구로는 국제 자유 노동조합 연맹과 세계 노동 연맹을 합병하여 2006년 11월 결성된 국제 노동조합 연맹으로 전 세계 국가별 노동조합 305개, 노동자 1억 7,500만명이 151개국에서 가입하고 있다. 또 다른 노동조합 국제 연대 기구는 세계 노동조합 연맹이 조직되어 있다.대한민국의 노동조합 연맹체.대한민국에는 다음과 같은 노동조합 연맹이 존재하거나 존재했다. diff --git a/synthdog/resources/corpus/zhwiki.txt b/synthdog/resources/corpus/zhwiki.txt new file mode 100755 index 00000000..6c026eff --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/resources/corpus/zhwiki.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +数学，是研究數量、结构、变化以及空间等概念的一門学科，从某种角度看屬於形式科學的一種。數學利用抽象化和邏輯推理，從計數、計算、量度、對物體形狀及運動的觀察發展而成。數學家們拓展這些概念，以公式化新的猜想，以及從選定的公理及定義出發，嚴謹地推導出一些定理。基礎數學的知識與運用是個人與團體生活中不可或缺的一環。對數學基本概念的完善，早在古埃及、美索不达米亚及古印度內的古代數學文本便可觀見，而在古希臘那裡有更為嚴謹的處理。從那時開始，數學的發展便持續不斷地小幅進展，至16世紀的文藝復興時期，因为新的科學發現和數學革新兩者的交互，致使數學的加速发展，直至今日。数学并成为許多國家及地區的教育範疇中的一部分。今日數學使用在一些不同的領域中包括科學工程醫學經濟學和金融學等。數學對這些領域的應用通常被稱為應用數學有時亦會激起新的數學發現並導致全新學科的發展例如物理学的实质性发展中建立的某些理论激发数学家对于某些问题的不同角度的思考。數學家也研究純粹數學就是數學本身的实质性內容而不以任何實際應用為目標。許多研究雖然以純粹數學開始但其过程中也發現許多應用之处。西方语言中“數學”，此一希臘語被亚里士多德拿來指的概念。汉字表示的一詞大約产生于中国宋元時期。多指象數之學，但有時也含有今天上的數學意義，例如，秦九韶的。直到1939年，經過中國數學名詞審查委員會研究表示今天意義上的數學含義。數學有着久遠的歷史。它被認為起源於人類早期的生產活動中國古代的六艺之一就有數學一詞在西方有希腊语詞源。史前的人類就已嘗試用自然的法則來衡量物質的多少、時間的長短等抽象的數量關係，比如时间单位有日、季節和年等。算術也自然而然地產生了。古代的石碑及泥版亦證實了當時已有幾何的知識。更進一步則需要寫作或其他可記錄數字的系統如符木或於印加帝國內用來儲存數據的奇普。歷史上曾有過許多不同的記數系統。在最初有歷史記錄的時候數學內的主要原理是為了做稅務和貿易等相關計算為了解數字間的關係為了測量土地以及為了預測天文事件而形成的。这些需要可以简单地被概括为数学对數量结构空间及时间方面的研究。到了16世纪算术初等代数以及三角学等初等数学已大体完备。17世纪变量概念的产生使人们开始研究变化中的量与量的互相关系和图形间的互相变换微积分的概念也在此時形成。随着數學轉向形式化为研究数学基础而产生的集合论和数理逻辑等也开始发展。数学的重心从求解实际问题转变到对一般形式上的思考。從古至今數學便一直不斷地延展且與科學有豐富的相互作用兩者的發展都受惠於彼此。在歷史上有著許多數學發現並且直至今日都不斷地有新的發現。據Mikhail B. Sevryuk於2006年1月的期刊中所說「存放於數學評論資料庫中論文和書籍的數量自1940年（數學評論的創刊年份）現已超過了一百九十萬份而且每年還增加超過七萬五千份。此一學海的絕大部份為新的數學定理及其證明。」旁邊的馬雅數字 一個黑點代表一 一條黑直線代表五形成、純數學與應用數學及美學.每當有涉及數量、結構、空間及變化等方面的困難問題時，通常就需要用到數學工具去解決問題，而這往往也拓展了數學的研究範疇。一開始，數學的運用可見於貿易、土地測量及之後的天文學。今日，所有的科學都存在著值得數學家研究的問題，且數學本身亦給出了許多的問題。牛頓和莱布尼兹是微積分的發明者，費曼發明了費曼路徑積分，這是推理及物理洞察二者的產物，而今日的弦理論亦引申出新的數學。一些數學只和生成它的領域有關，且用來解答此領域的更多問題。但一般被一領域生成的數學在其他許多領域內也十分有用，且可以成為一般的數學概念。即使是。如同大多數的研究領域科學知識的爆發導致了數學的專業化。主要的分歧為純數學和應用數學。在應用數學內又被分成兩大領域並且變成了它們自身的學科——統計學和電腦科學。許多數學家談論數學的其內在的美學及美。「簡單」和「一般化」即為美的一種。另外亦包括巧妙的證明如歐幾里得對存在無限多質數的證明又或者是加快計算的數值方法如快速傅立葉變換。高德菲哈羅德哈代在《一個數學家的自白》一书中表明他相信單單是美學上的意義就已經足夠作為純數學研究的正當理由。我們現今所使用的大部分數學符號在16世紀後才被發明出來的。在此之前數學以文字的形式書寫出來這種形式會限制了數學的發展。現今的符號使得數學對於專家而言更容易掌握但初學者卻常對此望而却步。它被極度的壓縮少量的符號包含著大量的訊息。如同音樂符號一般現今的數學符號有明確的語法並且有效地對訊息作編碼這是其他書寫方式難以做到的。符号化和形式化使得数学迅速发展并帮助各个科学领域建立基础支撑理论。數學語言亦對初學者而言感到困難。如“或”和“只”這些字有著比日常用語更精確的意思。亦困惱著初學者的如“開放”和“域”等字在數學裡有著特別的意思。數學術語亦包括如“同胚”及“可積性”等專有名詞。但使用這些特別符號和專有術語是有其原因的數學需要比日常用語更多的精確性。數學家將此對語言及邏輯精確性的要求稱為「嚴謹」。但在现实应用中舍弃一些严谨性往往会得到更好的结果。嚴謹是數學證明中很重要且基本的一部份。數學家希望他們的定理以系統化的推理依著公理被推論下去。這是為了避免依著不可靠的直觀而推出錯誤的「定理」，而這情形在歷史上曾出現過許多的例子。在數學中被期許的嚴謹程度因著時間而不同：希臘人期許著仔細的論證，但在牛頓的時代，所使用的方法則較不嚴謹。牛頓為了解決問題所做的定義，到了十九世紀才重新以小心的分析及正式的證明來處理。今日，數學家們則持續地在爭論電腦協助證明的嚴謹度。當大量的計算難以被驗證時，其證明亦很難說是足夠地嚴謹。公理在傳統的思想中是，但這種想法是有問題的。在形式上，公理只是一串符號，其只對可以由公理系統導出的公式之內容有意義。希爾伯特計劃即是想將所有的數學放在堅固的公理基礎上，但依據哥德爾不完備定理，每一相容且能蘊涵皮亞諾公理的公理系統必含有一不可決定的公式；因而所有數學的最終公理化是不可能的。儘管如此，數學常常被想像成只是某種公理化的集合論，在此意義下，所有數學敘述或證明都可以寫成集合論的公式。卡爾弗里德里希高斯稱數學為許多哲學家相信數學在經驗上不具可否證性，且因此不是卡爾·波普爾所定義的科学。但在1930年代時，在數理邏輯上的重大進展顯示數學不能歸併至邏輯內，且波普爾推斷然而，其他的思想家，如較著名的拉卡托斯，便提供了一個關於數學本身的可否證性版本。另一觀點則為某些科學領域即認為科學是一種公眾知識因此亦包含著數學。在任何的情況下數學和物理科學的許多領域都有著很多相同的地方尤其是從假設所得的邏輯推論之探索。直覺和實驗在數學和科學的猜想建構上皆扮演著重要的角色。實驗數學在數學中的重要性正持續地在增加且計算和模擬在科學及數學中所扮演的角色也越來越加重減輕了數學不使用科學方法的缺點。在史蒂芬沃爾夫勒姆2002年的著作中他提出計算數學應被視為其自身的一科學領域來探索。數學家對此的態度並不一致。一些研究應用數學的數學家覺得他們是科學家而那些研究純數學的數學家則時常覺得他們是在一門較接近邏輯的領域內工作且因此基本上是個哲學家。許多數學家認為稱他們的工作是一種科學是低估了其美學方面的重要性以及其做為七大博雅教育之一的歷史另外亦有人認為若忽略其與科學之間的關聯是假裝沒看到數學和其在科學與工程之間的交互影響進而促進了數學在許多科學上的發展此一事實。這兩種觀點之間的差異在哲學上產生了數學是这指出了这两个领域被看作有緊密聯繫而非一樣。實際上數學家通常會在大體上與科學家合作但在細節上卻會分開。此爭議亦是數學哲學眾多議題的其中一個。如上所述，數學主要的學科最先產生於商業上計算的需要、了解數字間的關係、測量土地及預測天文事件。這四種需要大致地與數量、結構、空間及變化（即算術、代數、幾何及分析）等數學上廣泛的子領域相關連著。除了上述主要的關注之外，亦有用來探索由數學核心至其他領域上之間的連結的子領域：至邏輯、至集合論（基礎）、至不同科學的經驗上的數學（應用數學）、及較近代的至不確定性的嚴格研究。為了闡明數學基礎，數學邏輯和集合論等領域被發展了出來。數學邏輯專注於將數學置在一堅固的公理架構上並研究此一架構的結果。就數學邏輯本身而言其為哥德爾第二不完備定理所屬的領域而這或許是邏輯學中最廣為流傳的成果總是存在不能被證明的真命題。現代邏輯被分成遞歸論模型論和證明論且和理論電腦科學有著密切的關連性千禧年大獎難題中的P/NP問題就是理論電腦科學中的著名問題。數量的研究起於數，一開始為熟悉的自然數及整數與被描述在算術內的自然數及整數的算術運算。整數更深的性質於數論中有詳細的研究，此一理論包括了如費馬最後定理等著名的結果。數論還包括兩個被廣為探討的未解問題：孿生質數猜想及哥德巴赫猜想。當數系更進一步發展時整數被視為有理數的子集而有理數則包含於實數中連續的量即是以實數來表示的。實數則可以被進一步廣義化成複數。數的進一步廣義化可以持續至包含四元數及八元數。從自然數亦可以推廣到超限數它形式化了計數至無限的這一概念。另一個研究的領域為大小這個導致了基數和之後對無限的另外一種概念阿列夫数它允許無限集合之間的大小可以做有意義的比較。許多如數及函數的集合等數學物件都有著內含的結構。這些物件的結構性質被探討於群環-{zh-cn域zh-tw體}-等抽象系統中該些物件事實上也就是這樣的系統。此為代數的領域。在此有一個很重要的概念即廣義化至向量空間的向量它於線性代數中被研究。向量的研究結合了數學的三個基本領域數量結構及空間。向量分析則將其擴展至第四個基本的領域內即變化。创立于二十世纪三十年代的法国的布尔巴基学派认为：纯粹数学，是研究抽象结构的理论。结构，就是以初始概念和公理出发的演绎系统。布尔巴基学派认为，有三种基本的抽象结构：代数结构。空間的研究源自於幾何－尤其是欧几里得几何。三角學則結合了空間及數，且包含有著名的勾股定理。現今對空間的研究更推廣到了更高維的幾何、非歐幾里得幾何及拓撲學。數和空間在解析幾何、微分幾何和代數幾何中都有著很重要的角色。在微分幾何中有著纖維叢及流形上的微積分等概念。在代數幾何中有著如多項式方程的解集等幾何物件的描述，結合了數和空間的概念；亦有著拓撲群的研究，結合了結構與空間。李群被用來研究空間、結構及變化。在其許多分支中，拓撲學可能是二十世紀數學中有著最大進展的領域，並包含有存在已久的龐加萊猜想，以及有爭議的四色定理。龐加萊猜想已在2006年确认由俄罗斯数学家格里戈里·佩雷尔曼證明，而四色定理已在1976年由凱尼斯·阿佩爾和沃夫岡·哈肯用電腦證明，而從來沒有由人力來驗證過。了解及描述變化在自然科學裡是一普遍的議題，而微積分更為研究變化的有利工具。函數诞生於此，做為描述一變化的量的核心概念。對於實數及實變函數的嚴格研究為實分析，而複分析則為複數的等價領域。黎曼猜想－數學最基本的未決問題之一－便是以複分析來描述的。泛函分析注重在函數的（一般為無限維）空間上。泛函分析的眾多應用之一為量子力學。許多的問題很自然地會導出一個量與其變化率之間的關係，而這在微分方程中被研究。在自然界中的許多現象可以被動力系統所描述；混沌理論則是對系統的既不可預測而又是決定的行為作明確的描述。離散數學是指對理論電腦科學最有用處的數學領域之總稱，這包含有可計算理論、計算複雜性理論及資訊理論。可計算理論檢驗電腦的不同理論模型之極限，這包含現知最有力的模型－圖靈機。複雜性理論研究可以由電腦做為較易處理的程度；有些問題即使理論是可以以電腦解出來，但卻因為會花費太多的時間或空間而使得其解答仍然不為實際上可行的，儘管電腦硬體的快速進步。最後，資訊理論專注在可以儲存在特定媒介內的資料總量，且因此有壓縮及熵等概念。作為一相對較新的領域離散數學有許多基本的未解問題。其中最有名的為P/NP問題－千禧年大獎難題之一。一般相信此問題的解答是否定的。應用數學思考將抽象的數學工具運用在解答科學工商業及其他領域上之現實問題。應用數學中的一重要領域為統計學它利用機率論為其工具並允許對含有機會成分的現象進行描述分析與預測。大部份的實驗調查及觀察研究需要統計對其資料的分析。數值分析研究有什麼計算方法可以有效地解決那些人力所限而算不出的數學問題它亦包含了對計算中捨入誤差或其他來源的誤差之研究。數學獎通常和其他科學的獎項分開。數學上最有名的獎為菲爾茲獎創立於1936年每四年頒獎一次。它通常被認為是數學領域的諾貝爾獎。另一個國際上主要的獎項為阿貝爾獎創立於2003年。兩者都頒獎於特定的工作主題包括數學新領域的創新或已成熟領域中未解決問題的解答。著名的23個問題稱為希爾伯特的23個問題於1900年由德國數學家大衛希爾伯特所提出。這一連串的問題在數學家之間有著極高的名望且至少有九個問題已經被解答了出來。另一新的七個重要問題稱為千禧年大獎難題發表於2000年。對其每一個問題的解答都有著一百萬美元的獎金而當中只有一個問題和希爾伯特的問題重複。 +哲學是研究普遍的、基本问题的学科，包括存在、知识、价值、理智、心灵、语言等领域。哲学与其他学科不同之處在於哲學有獨特之思考方式，例如批判的方式、通常是系统化的方法，并以理性论证為基礎。在日常用语中，哲學可被引申为个人或团体的最基本信仰、概念或态度，不过此处并非此定义。英語詞語组合而成。一般认为古希腊思想家毕达哥拉斯最先在著作中引入这两个术语。“哲”一词在中国古代指那些善于思辨学问精深者如“孔门十哲”“古圣先哲”等“哲”或“哲人”意义类似西方近世所谓“哲学家”“思想家”。1874年日本啟蒙家西周在一語。英国哲学家罗素对哲学的定义是雖然哲學源自西方的傳統，但許多文明在歷史上都存在著一些相似的論題。東亞和南亞的哲學被稱之為東方哲學，而北非和中東則因為其和歐洲密切的互動，因此常被視為是西方哲學的一部份。對哲學的主題亦存在許多看法。一些人認為哲學是對問題本身過程的審查；另外一些人則認為實質上存在著哲學必須去回答的哲學命題。古希臘哲學家經常提出問題，他們所提出的問題大概可以歸類為三類，這三類問題分別形成了哲學的基礎學科——分别是形而上学、伦理学、知识论 。现代哲学上出現(认定本质不可知)这种现象将不可知论(世界上终究有人不能理解的存在)的重要程度提高了。自亚里士多德时代以来在古典或者现代哲学当中逻辑通常都扮演着重要的角色。特别是其提出的三段论对西方哲学发展有着深远影响。哲學可以分为很多不同的分支主要包括形而上學知識論倫理學邏輯學和美學。这些分支是应用在其他学科或者交叉学科的哲学研究。很多人类社群思考过哲学问题并且互相学习建立了各种哲学流派。东方哲学是通过每个地区的历史时期来组织的。西方哲学一般可以分为三个或更多时期，最重要的是古典哲学、中世纪哲学和近代哲学。印度哲學的歷史源遠流長，早在吠陀時代已經開始，至公元前6世紀為全盛時期。當時古印度的思想界百花齊放，其中最著名的包括佛教創始人釋迦牟尼佛、耆那教創始人笩駄摩那、阿耆多·翅舍欽婆羅、波拘陀·迦旃延、富蘭那·迦葉、數論派等。中國哲學的主要部分起源東周時期当时以诸子百家广为人知以孔子的儒家老子的道家墨子的墨家及晚期的法家為代表还有一些流派例如农家阴阳家和名家在之后则名声不显。在秦朝焚书坑儒后除了法家儒家道家外其他流派都不再活跃。在當代中國哲學仍然在亞洲文化扮演一定作用但是學理上仍在爭辯中國哲學是否應歸為哲學。如牟宗三曾對哲學下定義:「凡是對人性的活動所及，以理智及觀念加以反省說明的，便是哲學。」牟宗三認為，中國有數千年文化史，確有哲學。只是中國哲學重視主體性，西方重視客體性。因此如果以西方的邏輯和知識論等對哲學下定義，中國沒有這些。但如果以主體性方向對哲學下定義，中國文化就擁有哲學。反之西方對人生的哲學多表現在文學、藝術、音樂等等。就以西方哲學史來說，沒有一章特別談及耶穌。古希腊-罗马哲学是西方哲学的一个时期，时间为公元前6世纪到公元6世纪。它一般被分为三个时期：前苏格拉底时期、柏拉图和亚里士多德的古典希腊时期、和后亚里士多德时期：有时候会把新柏拉图主义和基督教哲学家们的古典时代晚期加入作为第四个时期。在公元前6世纪的希腊，西方哲学就从古代神话和诗歌中脱颖而出，逐步开始对宇宙的组成以及本源的思考而开始了独立发展。前苏格拉底时期的自然派哲學家们多关注自然界，被認為是西方最早的哲學家，不管他們認識以及解释世界的方式是否正確，但是他們的想法之所以有別於迷信的原因在於，這些哲學家是以理性輔佐證據的方式歸納出自然界的现象。诸如：公元前5世纪中期普罗泰戈拉和高尔吉亚等所形成的辯士學派将研究的重点由自然转移到人类本身。认为“人才是万物之本”。他们都不相信有真正的存在和真理。普罗泰戈拉认为是非善恶都是相对于人的感觉而言而高尔吉亚却认为所有的都是同样的假这是怀疑论的雏形。公元前6世纪末，以毕达哥拉斯为主的毕达哥拉斯学派所主张的哲学与前述的观点既相近又有不同。罗马古代的历史上记载毕达哥拉斯第一个称自己为哲学家，或者说是爱智慧。他认为。其意思就是说一切事物的实质和结构都是它们所包含的数字关系所决定的。他称平均、秩序和调和是宇宙的三大基调，并以音乐的调和说明宇宙的调和。他所在的学派将宇宙总结为十种性质相异的组合：有限与无限、奇与偶、少与多、左与右、男与女、静与动、直与曲、光明与黑暗、善与恶、方与圆。至此之后，数学的本质及其地位，一直都是哲学的主要问题之一，数学不受观察和实验造成的不确定性影响，而且是通过纯粹的思想加以理解的。其中关于变与不变的关系的争论，真实世界与直觉世界的差别，真理与意见的矛盾，导致产生了认识论的问题。在古典希腊时期西方哲学方法的关键特质被建立：依靠诉诸理性和论证，通过一种批判性的方法来接受或建立观点。这包括苏格拉底被称为蘇格拉底反詰法或方法的辩证法，他主要用其来检验例如善良和公平正義的关键道德概念。这种方法将一个问题分解成一系列的疑问，在对疑问的回答中逐步提取想要找到的答案，其极大影响可以从现在使用的科学方法中看出，在科学方法中假说是第一个阶段。苏格拉底没有直接教过人但之后的柏拉图深受其影响。而其整个哲学思想来源于两大理论其一永远不要做坏事其二一个内心真正善良且正义的人绝不会做相反之事。他认为真理有其客观性试图推翻智者们以个人主观感觉为真理的思想。然后提出德的概念以作为人生行事的方向。对于道德是什么的问题苏格拉底的回复为“知识即道德。”对于知识是何物的问题他回答说知识是透过理性而得的概念。苏格拉底开创了认识论和伦理学如此奠定了他的哲学地位。古典希臘時期的的哲学家中柏拉图和亚里士多德对后世的影响力最大，特别是柏拉图被认为是西方哲学的创始人。哲学家阿爾弗雷德·諾思·懷特黑德评价柏拉图：“欧洲哲学传统最被普遍公认的特点，就是它包含了一系列对柏拉图的注脚。我的意思不是怀疑学者们系统体系的思想是提取自柏拉图的著作。我暗示的是那些他们散落的一般思想的财富。”換言之即使數千年後，人們依舊在試著回答他所提出的問題，這也代表著人們依然為這些問題或是這些問題所延伸的更多問題而感到困惑。毕达哥拉斯的思想对柏拉图产生了显著地影响并通过柏拉图影响了整个西方哲学。柏拉图和亚里士多德作为最早的古典希腊哲学家批判地引用了其它的一些与那些更早更普遍的旅行教师——经常也通过自己的技艺来赚钱——之间的分水岭之后被建立。亚里士多德死后整个哲学界陷入了独立时期称为希腊化哲学时期。因为整个社会和政治陷入混乱。这段时期产生了斯多葛学派和伊壁鸠鲁学派以及怀疑主义派新柏拉图派和新毕达哥拉斯主义。这些学派的共同特点是伦理化。斯多葛学派主要是顺应自然和自制。伊壁鸠鲁学派则是把快乐作为生活的本质和善的标准。而新柏拉图派和新毕达哥拉斯派都是带有宗教主义的哲学并逐渐产生融化基督教和希腊哲学于一体的理论即为后来的基督教哲学。直到公元529年罗马皇帝查士丁尼一世尼命令关闭雅典的柏拉图学院。J.B.伯里称一些余下的学院成员逃入了萨珊王朝首都泰西封。印度哲學是指起源於印度次大陸的哲學思想包括佛教哲學等這些印度哲學具有一些共同且複雜的起源都有有關佛法及業的主題而且都希望達到個人的解放。這些哲學約在西元前一世紀到西元幾世紀的時間成形。中世纪哲学指的是西欧和中东在中世纪的哲学体系其时间范围没有定论大致上是从基督化的罗马帝国时期至文艺复兴时期。中世纪哲学被部分定义为对古典希腊和希腊化哲学的再发现和进一步发展另一部分是需要解决神学问题并把亞伯拉罕諸教的教条同世俗知识一同整合并推广。文艺复兴人文学者们排斥中世纪时期把它当作在希腊罗马的古典时代与古典文化的野蛮时期。然而在中世纪这将近一千年中哲学在欧洲仍取得了长足地发展。认为这个时代讨论的问题有信仰和理智的关系，神的存在与统一，神学话题和形而上学，关于知识、宇宙和个人的问题。中世纪的哲学家包括基督教学者希波的奥古斯丁波爱修斯安瑟倫皮埃尔阿伯拉尔罗吉尔培根圣文德托马斯阿奎那邓斯司各脱奥卡姆的威廉和让布里丹等犹太哲学家迈蒙尼德和还有穆斯林哲学家肯迪法拉比海什木伊本西那安薩里伊本巴哲伊本图费勒伊本赫勒敦和伊本魯世德等。中世纪的经院哲学传统一直到17世纪仍在活跃例如弗朗西斯科苏亚雷斯和等人物。其中托马斯主义之父阿奎那极大地影响了整个天主教欧洲他特别强调理性和论证是最先开始使用亚里士多德形而上学和知识论的著作的新译本的学者之一。他的工作明显远离了统治大部分早期经院哲学的新柏拉图主义和奥古斯丁的思想。从文艺复兴开始，人们的思想开始从清净的僧院走出，来到喧嚣的尘世。从而发展自然，也发展人类自身。从而形成人文主义和自然哲学两股既有联系又有区别的思潮。是对中世纪到近代之间过渡时期的通称那时对古典文献的重新学习帮助把哲学界的兴趣从对逻辑学形而上学和神学领域的钻研转移到包括道德语言学和神秘主义的更加广泛的研究。对经典和人文艺术例如历史学和文学的研究在基督教世界学术界中享有前所未有的兴趣这个趋势被称为人文主义它受到柏拉图主义希腊怀疑主义和罗马斯多葛主义的影响。人文主义者的哲学兴趣跟随彼特拉克转移到造物主与其美德上替代了中世纪时对形而上学和逻辑学的兴趣。那时对古典哲学的研究出现了两种新方式。一方面对亚里士多德的研究因为的影响而产生了变化。阿威罗伊亚里士多德主义者和更正统的天主教亚里士多德主义者譬如艾爾伯圖斯麥格努斯和托马斯阿奎那之间的分歧最终在文艺复兴发展出一种譬如伯多祿蓬波纳齐和的思想。另一方面在一些之前不为西欧所熟知的作品的重发现的帮助下对柏拉图和新柏拉图主义的研究作为另一个选择变得普遍起来。著名的文艺复兴时期的柏拉图主义者包括库萨的尼古拉还有之后的马尔西利奥费奇诺和若望皮科德拉米蘭多拉。文艺复兴也重新产生了对反亚里士多德的把自然看作一个有机的活生生的整体而不取决于神学的理论的兴趣例如在库萨的尼古拉尼古拉哥白尼焦爾達諾布魯諾还有托马索康帕内拉的著作中。在自然哲学中这样的运动与对神秘主义魔法赫尔墨斯主义还有占星学等兴趣重燃相契合它们被认为隐藏着收获知识和掌控自然方法的大门。这些新的哲学运动伴随着欧洲宗教和政治的剧变同时出现宗教改革和封建制的衰落。虽然参与宗教改革的神学家们对哲学没有直接的兴趣他们打破了神学和知识权威的传统基础。同时还伴随着信仰主义和怀疑主义的复兴体现在伊拉斯谟蒙泰涅和等思想家身上。同时民族国家政治上逐步的中央集权的过程得到了世俗政治哲学的响应如尼可罗马基亚维利（常被描述为第一个现代政治思想家或者是现代政治思想形成的关键点）托马斯莫尔伊拉斯谟尤斯图斯利普修斯让博丹和胡果格老秀斯等的著作。先秦諸子之后的兩漢經學、魏晉玄學等都是中國哲學的一部份，自唐朝起佛教也开始对哲学产生重要影响；不过中世纪中国哲学最主要的部分是宋明理學的发展。宋明理学反对汉代后开始影响儒学的道教和佛教中的迷信和神秘的元素，是一股倡导更加理性和世俗化儒学的哲学运动。尽管理学遭到道教和佛教徒的批评，理学仍借鉴了它们两个的部分术语和概念。然而和佛教和道教把形而上学看作心灵发展、宗教启示的催化剂并且是不朽的不同，宋明理学把形而上学当作建立一个理性的伦理体系的指导。宋明理学的起源可以追溯到唐朝：韩愈和李翱被视为宋代理学的先驱。宋代理学家周敦颐以道教形而上学理论为框架建立了他的伦理哲学体系，他被看作是宋明理学的创始人。在东亚的其他地方，日本哲学形成于本土的神道信仰和佛教、儒家以及另一些中国哲学和印度哲学学派混合发展。与日本类似，在中巫教的情绪化内容被混合到了从中国传入的理学当中。西方哲学史上的近代早期一般指17世纪和18世纪，其中18世纪常被称为启蒙时代。现代哲学不同于其前身，它和传统权威例如教会、学院、亚里士多德的关系更加独立，出现了对知识基础和形而上学体系建设的新兴趣；和摆脱了自然哲学的近代物理学的出现。从17世纪开始，近代哲学就以认识论为研究重点。由于经验论的争论，使物质与精神的关系作为认识论的首要问题突显出来。当时其他的哲学焦点包括精神的天性和其与身体的关系新的自然科学对诸如自由意志和神的传统上属于神学的话题的影响和伦理学和政治哲学的世俗基础。这种潮流最早被鲜明地体现在弗兰西斯培根的被称为用来扩展知识的新的经验主义的程序并很快在笛卡儿的机械主义物理学和理性主义的形而上学中建立了具有巨大影响力的形式。培根运用归纳法第一个提出思维的主体应该主动干涉自然来为人服务。近现代政治哲学的鼻祖托马斯·霍布斯最早将这套方法论系统地应用在政治哲学上，包括的近代理论。早期近代哲学的学术经典一般包括笛卡尔、斯賓諾莎、莱布尼茨、洛克、贝克莱、休谟和康德。同时其的其他思想家也对哲学做出了贡献，例如伽利略、皮埃尔·伽桑狄、布莱兹·帕斯卡、马勒伯朗士、艾萨克·牛顿、克里斯蒂安·沃爾夫、孟德斯鸠、皮埃尔·贝尔、托马斯·里德、让·勒朗·达朗贝尔和亚当·斯密，而让-雅克·卢梭是反启蒙运动的开创性人物。早期近代哲学的大致结束通常被确定为伊曼努尔·康德的试图限定形而上学范围、证明科学知识并用道德和自由来调和两者的体系。理性主义者中勒内·笛卡儿认为物质世界是由数学关系组成的单一体系，他企图将物理学转化为数学。他在其著作中，对整个经院哲学以及在他那个时代流行的教育与哲学体系加以讽刺。其认为“我思故我在”是认识论的无可怀疑之出发点。笛卡尔是割裂精神和物质的二元论者，为了厘清二者关系，他坚定认为在上帝那里，精神和物质是统一的。其理论被称为笛卡尔主义。斯宾诺莎是笛卡尔之后，又一位著名的唯理论者。他的认识论、几何学和机械观都来自于笛卡尔。但他不认同笛卡尔的二元论，认为精神和物质不过是唯一实体的两种属性。莱布尼茨作为唯理论者坚定地维护笛卡尔的学说并反驳约翰·洛克的理论。与笛卡尔不同的是，他认为万物的实体是“单子”，且互相没有关系，而是由于“前定和谐”才共存一体，即存在于神之中。“前定和谐”调和了笛卡尔之二元论和斯宾诺莎之实体双重性。洛克发展了经验论他不认同笛卡尔的“天赋观念”提出白板说他强调人们从感觉中抽象出普遍的概念认为感觉中的个别东西才是第一位的。不过他基本认同笛卡尔的二元论。贝克莱发展了洛克的哲学理论提出了“存在就是被感知”。他认为除了感知的主题和被感知的知觉之外什么也没有。他非常不赞同物质的抽象概念认为其既无客观实在也不能存在于人心。大卫休谟的理论比贝克莱的更进一步他不仅仅认为物质实体不存在更认为精神实体不存在。只承认知觉的存在。他还以自己的不可知论和怀疑论认为不存在统一性和普遍性的东西认定多样性和个别性才是最高原理。经验论与唯理论的争论也包含了唯物主义与唯心主义的争论。在18世纪时，法国的拉美特利公开宣布唯物主义是唯一的，而百科全书的主编德尼·狄德罗也拒绝承认神的存在。另外伏尔泰，孟德斯鸠和其他百科全书派的学者都有涉及政治和伦理领域。他们都认为机械主义才是最终形式——物质是唯一的且处于永恒运动的，精神只是人脑的属性。因此他们认为无机物与有机物不可逾越，人的思维是人感官的结果。不过他们仍然是经验主义者，在因果性上，他们认为只有必然性才是唯一的，这就成为唯心主义的观念。从18世纪中后期开始，直到19世纪初，哲学便进入了近代哲学的总结时期，这就是德国古典哲学时期。有两条线索标志着转折的到来：一、思维与存在的关系更加明确；二、产生了系统辩证法。其代表人物有I.康德、J.G.费希特、F.W.谢林、G.W.F.黑格尔等。康德给哲学带来了三个标志性的创造他受到休谟的诸多影响并为西方哲学带来一次革命。他认为哲学的研究核心就是规定理性的任务。康德同意休谟的理论并认为，存在一些原则，使得心灵对经验和认识加以组织，而证据皆可以在数学中找到。即是，包含在命题里的要比包含在原是概念的定义要多得多。他使用称之为批判哲学的先验方法，来展现经验的某些范畴和形式都必然地被预先存在于人们一切言谈之中。凭借着他的三部的著作为先验方法作出相应的结构他还为道德哲学奠定了新基础且他赋予了自由概念的新意义。因为其影响在现代依旧尚存其理论被人们称为康德主义。费希特本来承认斯宾诺莎的机械的因果决定论，但后来受到康德的影响，开始认为因果决定论只是表面，其实质为自我不是必然性的奴仆而是独立自由的主体。就此，他建立了主观的思维与客观的存在之统一说。谢林是从费希特理论出发的，但深受斯宾诺莎和文学上浪漫主义的影响，创立了自己的学说。即他认为自然和精神、存在和思维，客体和主体，表面相反，实则统一，是同一个“绝对”的不同发展阶段，这个“绝对”即是万事万物的根源。他认为艺术才是最直观的理性。黑格尔及其理论的出现将西方哲学的推上一个新高度他创立了西方哲学史上最庞大的客观唯心主义体系并系统地阐述了辩证法。他的理论和学说对近现代哲学产生了很深远的影响并被称为黑格尔主义。从黑格尔的思想体系中发展而成的多种哲学运动。其重点就是以历史和逻辑为主历史方面它从不同角度理解。黑格尔认为哲学的重点是放弃分裂，达到统一。他把以前的时代说成是思维与存在、理想与现实分裂，自由与必然，个人与社会、无限与有限、统一性与多样性分裂之时代。他从康德的又是对立的统一。他认为，为了达到这个，需要经过三个阶段，从逻辑、自然到精神，即是从思维到存在，再到两者统一的过程，从而完成他的统一论。就此，社会和历史的现象，便被赋予一种在哲学史上还是崭新的显赫地位。他还将伦理学划归到这个领域，从而在伦理学理论和对思想的理解中提出重要的路线。现代哲学（19-20世纪）.从19世纪中叶开始西方哲学就进入现代哲学阶段。因为在19世纪中期欧洲的工业革命几近完成。现代哲学特别是19世纪中后期的哲学流派有叔本华的意志主义新康德主义新黑格尔主义马克思主义。然而此時的哲學與後來的存在主義現象學等在當代一般歸為成為風格迥異的兩大西方哲學典範。20世纪的西方哲学上主流有两条现代哲学主要包含以下几种潮流。以黑格尔主义为主的潮流.“哲学只是持续地解释世界而与当下关联的则是改变世界。”唯心主義的各种变体在18世紀晚期至20世紀早期的哲学界相当流行。康德主张的先验唯心主义认为人们对事物的理解是有界限的，因为在客观判断条件下很多事情是办不到的。他在1781年發行的作品試圖調和18世紀兩大主要的哲學派別：經驗主義和理性主義，并且建立一个研究形而上学的新基础。德國唯心主義最著名的作品是黑格尔于1807年出版的。黑格尔承认自己的理念不是新的，不过他的目标是完成之前的哲学家们的不完整的体系。黑格尔认为哲学的重点是放弃分裂，达到统一。他把以前的时代说成是思维与存在、理想与现实分裂，自由与必然、个人与社会、无限与有限、统一性与多样性分裂之时代。他从康德的“心灵的合理性以及在经验中的积极作用”的概念出发，但反对康德的“超越经验世界和‘物自身’的世界”，并认为心灵和世界一样具有相同基础理性结构。他所认为的普遍性不是脱离特殊的抽象普遍，而是包含特殊在内之普遍，即为具体普遍；他所认为的统一也非脱离矛盾、对立的抽象统一，而是包含它们在内的统一，即为对立统一。上述综合在一起即是他的理论：最真实的无所不包的整体即是“绝对精神”，又是对立的统一。黑格尔认为需要经过三个阶段来达到这个“绝对精神”，从逻辑、自然到精神，即是从思维到存在，再到两者统一的过程，从而完成他的统一论。他还将伦理学划归到这个领域，从而在伦理学理论和对思想的理解中提出重要的路线。马克思主义哲学是马克思和恩格斯建立的以辩证唯物主义为核心的哲学体系。其认为实践是检验哲学之真理性的唯一标准哲学应伴随着社会科学技术和文化的发展而不断发展。其主要思想体系在19世纪70年代主要由恩格斯创立20世纪20年代在苏联形成完整体系——辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义这个体系在后来的社会主义国家推动下得以发展。马克思主义哲学宣称自己的理论体系具有科学性认为哲学可以成为科学的一部分。同时马克思主义哲学认为哲学还具有意识形态的性质。另外马克思主义在政治上也指各种不同的共产主义运动如由列宁所创立而被斯大林修改的苏联马克思主义称为马克思列宁主义为俄国革命以及后来建立的各种共产党之教义。它的旁系包括反斯大林的托洛茨基及其追随者的马克思主义毛泽东的马克思列宁主义等。實用主義產生於19世紀70年代的現代哲學派別，在20世紀的美國成為一種主流思潮。對法律、政治、教育、社會、宗教和藝術的研究產生了很大的影響。實用主義也試圖在理性主義及經驗主義找出一條中間道路來，是「經驗主義思想方法與人類的比較具有宗教性需要的適當的調和者。」現象學是由德國哲學家胡塞爾在1900年提出的理論強調對直接直觀和經驗感知的區分認為哲學的主要任務是釐清二者之間的關聯並且在直觀中獲得對本質的認識。现象学是对经验结构与意识结构的哲学性研究。作为一个哲学运动现象学于二十世纪早期由埃德蒙德胡塞尔创立之后被他在德国的哥廷根大学和慕尼黑大学中的一派追随者发展壮大。在此之后现象学传播到法国美国以及其他地区并远超出了胡塞尔早期著作的语境。 其他主要哲學家包括海德格莫里斯梅洛-庞蒂 以及伊曼纽尔列维纳斯。存在主义是一个哲学的非理性主义思潮，该术语被用在十九世纪晚期到二十世纪的一些哲学家的工作上，尽管他们的学说相差巨大，但他们都相信哲学思考开始于人类主体——而不仅仅是思维主体，而且包括行为、感知、人类个体。存在主义强调个人、獨立自主和主观经验，認為人存在的意義是無法經由理性思考而得到答案。在存在主义中，个体的出发点的特征是被称为，或一种面对显然是一个无意义的或荒谬的世界的迷失和混乱的感觉。很多存在主义者还认为传统的体系和哲学学术无论是内容和风格都过于抽象并远离人类经验。19世纪哲学家克尔凯郭尔和尼采被看作存在主义的先驱尽管他们没有使用这个术语。然而他们的影响延伸出了存在主义思想。克尔凯郭尔著作主要针对的是黑格尔的唯心主义哲学体系他认为其忽视或排除了人类的内在主观生命。相反克尔凯郭尔认为"真理是主观的"主张对一个现实的人类来说最重要的问题是处理个人与存在内在关系的问题。克尔凯郭尔作为一个基督徒相信宗教信仰的真相是一个主观问题而且人应该用热情去深思这个问题。 +文學（），在最廣泛的意義上，是任何單一的書面作品。更嚴格地說，文學寫作是一種藝術形式，或被認為具有藝術或智力價值的任何單一作品，通常是由於以不同於普通用途的方式部署語言。它的拉丁詞根"literatura"/"litteratura"（本身起源於"littera""letter"或"handwriting"）被用來指代所有的書面記錄儘管當代定義將術語擴展到包括口頭或唱歌的文本（口頭文學）。文學可以根據是虛構作品還是非虛構作品進行分類也可以根據是韻文還是散文進行分類可以根據長篇小說中篇小說短篇小說等主要形式進一步區分作品往往根據歷史時期或者遵守某些美學特徵或期望（藝術類型）進行分類。以语言文字为工具形象化地反映現實的藝術包括韻文散文劇本小说等是文化的重要表现形式以不同的流派表现内心情感和再现一定时期和一定地域的生活。這個概念隨著時間的推移而改變了意義：現在它可以擴大到非書面的口頭藝術形式，可以與語言或文字本身配合，因此很難就其起源達成一致。印刷技術的發展使得書面作品的分佈和擴散成為可能，最終導致了網絡文學。文學並不一定是客觀的一名成功的文學家能在自己的文學作品中展現自己對於文學的主觀看法抒發自己的情緒和感觸但藉由嘗試建立一個「客觀的標準」有時對能幫助作家了解「讀者的感受」以求將內心之情感與藝術表現完整的體現在讀者心中。有時也能藉作家主觀想法讓社會有不同面相去省思現況例如女性文學的興起。文學的歷史和文明發展有密切的關係。若將文學定義為用文字記錄的作品，最早的古代文學作品一般認為是古埃及文學及。古埃及文學中主要的文類，但詩歌的韻律不明。最早已知的文學作品是公元前2700年一篇由蘇美人创作的，當中描述英雄主義、友誼、損失及追逐永生。不同的歷史時期有著不同特色的文學。古代的文學中有許多有關世界起源及習俗起源內容也有一些其中有道德及靈性意涵的神話。铁器时代的荷马史詩及以較晚一些的有較多有關作者的資訊而許多的神話則是用口頭傳播的方式流傳下來。各種文學都可以視為是文字的紀錄文學本身可能是寫實或是虛構但都可以描繪出一些事實例如主角的動作及言語作者的寫作風格以及文字後的含義等。這些情節不只是娛樂性的其中也包括了經濟心理科學宗教政治文化及社學的相關資訊。在學習歷史時研究及分析當時的文學也是重要的一部份。研究過去的文學可以看到不同歷史時期時其社會和社會規範的演變甚至於也可助於瞭解現今的文學因為其中常常引用古希臘神話宗教典籍及相關文獻的資料。人們不止可以從各主題相關的文學中看到該主題隨著歷史的演進（例如從經濟史的書或介紹科學及演化的書）甚至連科幻小說中都可看到類似的內容。作者常常在其作品中加入一些歷史的內容例如拜倫勳爵在《Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage Canto I》中藉由主角Childe Harold提到西班牙文及法文也提到作者的一些想法。藉由文學人們可以繼續的發現有關歷史的新資訊這個從各個學科領域都有和文學相關的子領域可以看出。當人們將資訊用文字的方式紀錄下來就比較容易從這一代流傳到下一代留下來的資訊會越來越多。從這些資料人們可以研究文學提昇想法擴展知識也可以開始像醫學或是貿易等專業領域的研究。而隨著現代人們學習內容的增加及拓展文學也會有一些不同成為以後人們研究的基礎。許多古文明都有其對哲學或是相關觀點的文學，像是古中國、古印度、波斯及希臘羅馬古典时代的作品。許多古代的作品，就算是敘事的形式，都還是有道德或是教誨上的目的，像梵語的，後來戏剧及讽刺作品的受眾也變多，因此也開始有類似性質的文學創作。抒情诗常常是貴族圈的特性產物，特別在東亞，許多歌曲被貴族收集，成為詩歌。浪漫主義的異常特質在中世紀綻放。同時，理性時代造就了民族主義史詩與哲學短文。浪漫主義強調通俗的文學及情感的投入，慢慢被尋求真實的現實主義與自然主義文學所取代。到了20世紀，象徵主義抬頭，探索角色的描述和發展。在很长一段时间中国的文学与史学和神话并无明显的界限最早的文学是对历史和神话的记录。但纯粹的文学早在周时就已出现例如《诗經》。中國古代的文學主要著重在哲學史学史军事学農業及韻文。中國發明了造紙術及雕版印刷也是世界上第一個。中國的許多哲學思想是起源自春秋戰國時的诸子百家其中最重要的有儒家道家墨家及法家而軍事學書籍（如孙子兵法）也是在春秋戰國時開始出現。中国历史文學則從尚書春秋戰國策史記等一直延續下來而且有很詳細的資料記錄。中国的文学成就最大的是诗歌，从到唐代律诗，诗歌一直对中国文坛有着巨大的影响。后来诗、词、曲、小说等文学形式分别在唐、宋、元、明清达到高峰。民國時期由胡適和陳獨秀推動的新文學運動，認為作品不應只講求形式，應注重內容的充實、表達及情感，也推動白話文學。民国时期，武侠小说风靡海内外，成为当时最受欢迎的通俗小说。中华人民共和国时期在文化大革命後出現相關的反思文學及伤痕文学也有一批白话文诗人进行大量创作也取代古诗成为当时最受欢迎的诗歌作品。後來網路文學興起成為受歡迎的商業作品。中華民國在撤退台灣後在50及60年代出現了以四大抗戰小說為代表的戰鬥文藝小說都是以抗戰時期為背景後來又有反共文學的出現而60年代開始以瓊瑤為代表的言情小說也開始流行。70年代起逐漸開始有對於台灣社會研究的新現代文學以及強調鄉土的鄉土寫實文學1990年後也開始了網路文學的興起。中国古典文學分为诗和文文又分为韵文和散文中国的抒情诗和文言文最早而比较发达。文學一般分为小說、散文、詩歌、劇本，并称为四大文学体裁；劇本是另一种古老的文学形式，主要通过不同角色之间的对话来表达作者的思想和感情。劇本可以用于舞台的表演，也可以阅读。像元曲、京剧、昆剧都屬於這個部份。西方的戲劇許多都伴隨著音樂和舞蹈，例如歌劇及音樂劇，古希腊戏剧是目前已知最早期的西方戲劇，有悲劇、喜劇、悲喜劇等。有許多的文學獎，頒發給優秀的作家，表揚其文學的成就。因為文學的範圍很廣，許多文學獎項會依風格、文學類型、語言、國籍及其他特性再做分類。諾貝爾文學獎是依諾貝爾在1895年的遺囑所成立的獎項，是諾貝爾獎中的一項，一般是因為作者的整體作品而獲獎，而非著重特定的作品。其他不分國籍的獎項有：纽斯塔特国际文学奖、布克國際獎及卡夫卡獎。是文學創作者應用在文學中，製造特別效果的方式。文學技巧的範圍很廣，包括作品是否要用第一人稱或是其他人稱、用傳統的線性敘事或是、或是文類選擇都包括在內。這可以讓讀者感受到一些熟悉的結構及架構，例如傳統犯罪小說，不過有些作者會特別選擇一些文學技巧來讓讀者有意外的感受。文學技巧的使用也可能會產生新的文類就像塞繆爾理查森寫的早期現代小說讓大家再次注意到一個以往曾出現但沒有這麼受注意的文類。文學技巧和文学手段不同，有點類似軍事戰略和軍事戰術之間的關係。文学手段是在敘述中用的特殊結構，像是隐喻、明喻、省略、敘事及託寓等，甚至單純的諧音都可以作為文学手段。也可以視為是文学手段，例如意識流敘事。文學批評是指文學批評者對其他人作品的評論和評估有時也會用來改進及提昇文學作品。也可以對作者帶來類似的作用。有許多不同種類的文學批評背後會有其理論基礎不同種類的文學批評可以評論文學作品的各個部份或是各個層面。 +歷史（现代汉语词汇古典文言文称之为史）指人类社会过去的事件和行动以及对这些事件行为有系统的记录诠释和研究。歷史可提供今人理解過去作為未來行事的參考依據与伦理哲学和艺术同属人类精神文明的重要成果。历史的第二个含义即对过去事件的记录和研究又称历史学”或简称“史学”。隶属于历史学或与其密切相关的学科有年代学编纂学家谱学古文字学计量历史学考古学社会学和新闻学等参见历史学。记录和研究历史的人称为历史学家简称“史学家”中国古代称为史官。记录历史的书籍称为史书如《史記》《汉书》等粗分為「官修」與「民載」兩類。广义的历史泛指一切事物的发展過程包括自然史和社会史。不一定同人类社会发生联系。在哲学上这种含义下的历史称为历史本体例如宇宙历史地球历史世界历史中国历史等等。通常仅指人类社会的发展過程它是史学研究之對象一般説來关于历史的记述和闡釋也称為历史。而狭义的历史则必须以文字记录为基础即文字出现之后的历史才算历史在此之前的历史被称为史前史。又可以称为人类史或社会史而脱离人类社会的过去事件称为自然史。一般来说历史学仅仅研究前者即社会史。由此引申則代表被史官被紀錄的事換句話說即所有被文字紀錄的過去事情。研究史的學問稱史學。“歷史”一詞出現較晚在《三國志》裴松之注中首次提到歷史二字。《南齊書》中也提到這個名詞是歷代史書之意。明代嘉靖年間李廷機與葉向高編輯《歷史大方通鑑》是中國第一本以歷史二字為名的書袁了凡為此書寫的〈歷史綱鑑補引〉解釋歷史是指諸史也就是歷代史書之意。1895年，禮部侍郎于式枚在奏章中，提到歷史這個名詞，將它作為歷史事件之意。1896年，皮錫瑞《經學歷史》出版，其中的歷史二字，也明確將它定位為歷史事件之意。因此，在1890年代前後，歷史這個名詞在中國開始被明確當作歷史事件來使用。明治維新後，日本學者為翻譯，譯為歷史二字，使其成為對應詞。1870年代成為流行用語。1902年光緒皇帝接受吏部尚書張百熙建議頒佈〈欽定學堂章程〉其中尋常小學課目中有史學輿地二項。張百熙派吳汝綸赴日本考察教育後1903年負責教育改革的張百熙張之洞榮慶向皇帝建議重訂學堂章程。在重訂章程後尋常小學依日本語改稱初等小學而史學輿地二科則改稱歷史地理。之後歷史這個名詞在中國流行。在歐美，多數語言的“歷史”一詞源出自一書以此為名。对于历史的含义和性质有很多种不同的诠释以下列举其中一些。历史并不是归类于人文科学或社会科学中，而是其间的桥梁，合并了两大领域的研究方法。一般来说，史学家通过研究各种书面文字但并不局限於此，努力并尝试解答和历史有关的问题。历史知识的原始资料分为三种：文字记载的、口头流传的、保留下来的历史遗迹，通常历史学家会综合三种方法进行研究，而文字记载经常被作为强调的重点，因为它普遍纪录了发展的时间。这种强调引申出了一个新领域，史前史，也可称为史前学，研究的是没有书面纪录的那一个时期。由于世界各地文字出现的时间各不相同，所以史前史和历史的主要区别是根据具体的论题而决定。学者们为了易于研究，根据过去人类的范围将其划分为不同的阶段。划分过去的方法繁多，包括按年代分类，按文化习俗分类，按不同主题分类。这三种分类经常会有重叠，比如“阿根廷的劳工运动的演变，1930-1945”。尽管历史研究倾向于一些专门的地点时间和主题历史学家也同时会关心其他普通的一些内容。而对于其他人来说历史已经成为一个非常普通的词语就是研究过去人类的所有事情甚至于现在更兴起了一门所谓的广义历史。过去研究历史都是为了应用或者理论的目的而现在还多了一条那就是对人类过往的好奇。历史学家在自己的时代背景下写作并考虑当前如何解释过去的主流思想有时是为自己的社会提供经验而写作。用贝内德托克罗齐的话来说“所有历史都是当代史”。通过叙述和分析与人类有关的过去事件通过形成“过去的真实话语”来促进历史发展。历史的现代相关学科致力于这种论述的制度化生产。所有以某种真实形式记忆和保存的事件均构成历史记录。历史论述的任务是找出最有用的资料来源以便对过去作出准确的说明。因此历史学家档案的构成是通过使某些文本和文档无效使用（通过伪造它们来代表“真实的过去”）而限制了更为普遍的档案。历史学家的作用之一就是巧妙客观地利用过去的大量资料这些资料通常都是在档案中找到的。创造叙事的过程不可避免地会产生沉默因为历史学家会记住或强调过去的不同事件。历史研究有时被归为人文的一部分有时被归为社会科学的一部分。它也可以被看作是这两个领域之间的桥梁结合了两者的方法论。一些个人历史学家强烈支持其中一种分类。在20世纪法国历史学家 费尔南布罗代尔通过使用经济学人类学和地理学等外部学科使历史学发生了革命性的变化。传统上历史学家以书面形式或通过口述传统记录过去的事件并试图通过研究书面文件和口头陈述来回答历史问题。从一开始历史学家就已经使用了诸如纪念碑题词和图片之类的资料。但写作是区分历史和过去的标志。考古学是一门特别有助于处理埋藏的遗址和物体的学科这些遗址和物体一旦出土将有助于历史的研究。 但是考古学很少独立存在。它使用叙事来补充其发现。但是考古学是由一系列独立于历史的方法论和途径构成的。也就是说考古学并不是在文本资料中意识形态但通过研究整个历史环境证明了奴隶的拥有和财富的不平等现象仍然存在。历史的组织方式有多种包括按时间顺序文化按地区和按主题排列。 这些划分不是相互排斥的并且经常存在重要的交叉点。尽管现代趋势已趋向于专业化但历史学家可能会同时关注非常具体和非常普遍的问题。被称为大历史的领域抵制这种专业化并寻找普遍的模式或趋势。 历史的研究通常是出于某些实际或理论但也可能出于简单的求知欲而进行研究。世界歷史是世界各地人類過去經驗的總和而且這些經驗主要是透過文字的方式保存下來。相對而言史前是指一地區已有人類產生但還沒有出現文字的時代。藉由研究當時的绘画素描雕刻或其他工件可以在沒有文字記錄的情形下得到一些當時的資訊。自從二十世紀起研究者開始重視史前的研究以免歷史研究隱性的排除一些特定的文明例如撒哈拉以南非洲及前哥倫布時期的美洲。在西方的歷史學家不成比例的專注在西方世界的研究。1961年時英國歷史學家愛德華霍列特卡爾認為此定義下的歷史也包括一些當時沒有文字記錄但對歷史有強烈興趣的民族像在和歐洲人接觸之前的澳大利亚原住民及紐西蘭的毛利人雖沒有文字記錄但用口傳歷史的方式將歷史傳給下一代。以历史为认识对象所形成的一门学问，叫史学或历史学，也可以用。历史编撰学。第三它可以指代产生历史的原因历史哲学。作为对过去描述的元分析第三个概念可以与前两个概念相关因为该分析通常集中在叙述解释世界观和证据的使用或其他历史学家的陈述方法。专业的历史学家们还争论着是否可以将历史作为一个连贯的叙述或一系列相互竞争的叙述来教授的问题。史学方法包括历史学家使用第一手资料和其他证据进行研究并书写历史的技术和指南。哈利卡那索斯的希罗多德。在他的历史方法中，修昔底德强调年代学、名义上中立的观点、以及人类世界是人类行动的结果。 希腊历史学家也认为历史是周期性的。希波的奥古斯丁在中世纪初期对基督教和西方思想产生了影响。 在中世纪和文艺复兴时期，人们通常通过神圣或宗教观点来研究历史。1800年左右，德国哲学家和历史学家黑格尔在历史研究中引入了哲学和更世俗的方法。在1377年著作序言中，阿拉伯历史学家和早期社会学家伊本·赫勒敦指出了历史学家经常犯下的七个错误。在他的这段批评中，他认为过去是陌生的、是需要解释的。伊本·哈尔敦的独创性在于声称另一个时代的文化差异必须支配对相关历史材料的评价，区分可能尝试进行评估的原则，最后，除了理性原则之外，还需要经验，以便评估过去的文化。伊本·哈尔顿经常批评。在西方，历史学家在17和18世纪发展了现代史学方法，尤其是在法国和德国。1851年，赫伯特·斯宾塞总结了这些方法：斯宾塞所说的“富矿”是指科学的历史理论。 同时，亨利·巴克尔表达了历史成为科学那一天的梦想：与巴克尔的梦想相反，对方法影响最大的19世纪历史学家在德国成为利奥波德·冯·兰克。 他将历史限制为“真正发生的事情”，从而使该领域远离科学。对于兰克，应仔细收集历史数据，进行客观检查并结合严格的要求。但是，这些程序“仅仅是科学的前提和前提。科学的核心是寻找被检查数据的顺序和规律性，并制定关于它们的概括或定律。”在20世纪，学术历史学家较少关注史诗般的民族主义叙事，而这些叙事往往倾向于美化国家或伟人理论，对社会和知识力量进行更为客观和复杂的分析。 20世纪历史方法论的一个主要趋势是趋向于将历史更多地视为一种社会科学而不是一种艺术，传统上就是这样。 作为社会科学的历史学的主要倡导者是各种各样的学者，其中包括费尔南·布劳岱尔、埃马纽埃尔·勒鲁瓦·拉迪里、漢斯-烏爾里希·韋勒、罗伯特·福格尔、呂西安·費夫爾、。 作为社会科学的许多历史倡导者因其跨学科的方法而受到关注。布劳德尔将历史与地理相结合，布莱克尔将历史与政治学相结合，福格尔将历史与经济学相结合，将同性恋历史与心理学相结合，将触发历史与考古学相结合，而韦勒，布洛赫，菲舍尔，斯通，弗弗尔和勒罗伊·拉杜里则以不同的方式将历史与社会学融合在一起，将地理，人类学和经济学也一起融合。然而，这些多学科方法未能产生历史理论。迄今为止，只有一个历史理论来自于专业的历史学家。 我们有其他领域的专家撰写。 最近，数字史学领域开始研究使用计算机技术对历史数据提出新问题并产生数字奖学金的方法。一些反对把历史当作社会科学的历史学家，如休·特雷弗-罗珀、约翰·卢卡奇、唐纳德·克莱顿、格特鲁德·希梅尔法布和格哈德·里特，认为历史学家工作的关键是想象的力量，因此主张将历史理解为一门艺术。与年鉴学派相关的法国历史学家介绍了定量历史，使用原始数据来跟踪典型个体的生活，并且在文化史的建立中起着举足轻重的作用。Martin Broszat，Ian Kershaw和Detlev Peukert等学者试图研究20世纪德国，特别是纳粹德国时期。马克思主义历史学家，例如埃里克·霍布斯鲍姆、爱德华·帕尔默·汤普森、、Herbert Aptheker、和克里斯托弗·希尔试图验证马克思的理论是从马克思主义的角度分析历史。为了回应马克思主义对历史的解释，诸如FranoisFuret，Richard Pipes，Roland Mousnier，和罗伯特·康奎斯特提供了反马克思主义的历史解释。女权主义者历史学家，例如Joan Wallach Scott，Natalie Zemon Davis，Sheila Rowbotham，Elizabeth Fox-Genovese和Lynn Hunt都认为，研究过去女性的经验很重要。近年来，后现代主义者质疑历史的有效性和历史研究的必要性，因为所有历史都基于对来源的个人解释。Richard J. Evans在1997年的著作。今天大多数历史学家开始在物理或数字平台上的档案中进行研究。他们经常提出一个论点并用他们的研究来支持它。 提出历史是一个争论这创造了进行变革的可能性。诸如Google之类的数字信息公司引发了有关网络审查在信息访问中的作用的争议。马克思主义理论的历史唯物主义理论认为，社会从根本上是由任何给定时间的“物质条件”决定的——换句话说，人与人之间的关系是为了满足基本的需要，例如吃饭、穿衣、住房，以及维系他们自己和他们的家庭。总体而言，马克思和恩格斯声称已经确定了西欧这些物质条件发展的五个连续阶段。马克思主义史学曾经是苏联的正统思想，但自从1991年苏联的共产主义垮台以来，米哈伊尔·科罗姆说，其已经衰退到了学术领域。历史产生中的潜在缺陷.许多历史学家认为历史的产生是有偏见的因为历史上的事件和已知事实可以用多种方式来解释。认为历史通过沉默本身的实践与政治联系在一起。 的说法历史过程植根于档案中因此沉默或被遗忘的历史部分可能是叙事策略中有意组成的部分它决定了如何记住历史领域。历史遗漏可以多种方式发生并且可以对历史记录产生深远的影响。信息也可以有意排除或意外遗漏。历史学家创造了多个术语来描述省略历史信息的行为包括“沉默”“选择性记忆”和“擦除”。 二十世纪的历史学家将她的大部分工作集中在涉及妇女及其成就的历史遗漏上她解释了这些遗漏对少数民族的负面影响。环境历史学家提出了三种方法来消除偏见并确保真实准确的叙述叙述不得与已知事实相抵触它们必须具有生态意义发表的著作必须经过学术界和其他历史学家的审查才能确保问责制。中国是世界上书载历史的传承最完备的国家，其对历史的记录不仅时间长，而且内容精确详细。中国历史自传说中的黄帝以来已经有4千多年，而自西周共和时代。魁奈说：“历史学是中国人一直以其无与匹伦的热情予以研习的一门学问。没有什么国家如此审慎地撰写自己的编年史，也没有什么国家这样悉心地保存自己的历史典籍。”原始社会中人类没有文字只能通过诸如结绳记事和口传等方法作记录一些历史的痕迹通过“传说”保存了下来例如中国上古传说“黄帝战蚩尤”“女娲补天”“大禹治水”等。国家出现后则开始有掌管祭祀的“巫”他们同时兼任记录时事起草公文和掌管文书等相关职能可以说是最早的史官。之后随着国家职能的不断演进与发展出现了职能独立的史官专门记录历史事件掌管典籍。在这个时期中国出现了世界上最早的史书内容是历代政治文件汇编并无特定的历史记录体裁。从西周共和元年等重视人类社会活动从而使历史基本摆脱了神学和宗教的影响。西汉时司马迁撰写了是叙事长达一千三百六十二年的编年体通史是中国史学史上的奇葩。西方的历史学开始于公元前5世纪，古希腊作家希罗多德在中记录了前218年至前146年73年间罗马帝国周围地中海沿岸各国、各民族的历史，是第一部通史。历史哲学是哲学的一个分支主要考虑人类历史的最终意义。更进一步的它考虑人类历史的可能的目的论的结局。换句话说它追问人类历史的过程中是否存在着一个设计目的指导原则或是定局。 +计算机科学用于解决信息与计算的理论基础以及实现和应用它们的实用技术。计算机科学（，有时缩写为）是系统性研究信息与计算的理论基础以及它们在计算机系统中如何实现与应用的实用技术的学科。 它通常被形容为对那些创造、描述以及转换信息的算法处理的系统研究。计算机科学包含很多分支领域；有些强调特定结果的计算，比如计算机图形学；而有些是探討计算问题的性质，比如计算复杂性理论；还有一些领域專注于怎样实现计算，比如程式語言理論是研究描述计算的方法，而程式设计是应用特定的程式語言解决特定的计算问题，人机交互则是專注于怎样使计算机和计算变得有用、好用，以及随时随地为人所用。有时公众会误以为计算机科学就是解决计算机问题的事业，或者只是与使用计算机的经验有关，如玩游戏、上网或者文字处理。其实计算机科学所关注的，不仅仅是去理解实现类似游戏、浏览器这些软件的程序的性质，更要通过现有的知识创造新的程序或者改进已有的程序。著名计算机科学家艾兹赫尔戴克斯特拉曾经指出“计算机科学并不只是关于计算机就像天文学并不只是关于望远镜一样。”设计部署计算机和计算机系统通常被认为是非计算机科学学科的领域。例如研究计算机硬件被看作是计算机工程的一部分而对于商业计算机系统的研究和部署被称为信息技术或者信息系统。然而现如今也越来越多地融合了各类计算机相关学科的思想。计算机科学研究也经常与其它学科交叉比如数学工程学认知科学和经济学等。计算机科学被认为比其它科学学科与数学的联系更加密切，一些观察者说计算就是一门数学科学。 早期计算机科学受数学研究成果的影响很大，如库尔特·哥德尔、艾伦·图灵、，阿隆佐·邱奇等数学家的研究，这两个领域在某些学科，例如数理逻辑、范畴论、域理论和代数，也不断有有益的思想交流。早期计算机科学建立的基础得追溯到最近电子计算机的发明。那些计算固定数值任务的机器，比如算盘，自古希腊时期即已存在，而用于加快计算的算法更是在算盘等古老的计算仪器发明之前就已被广泛使用。Wilhelm Schickard在1623年设计了世界上第一台机械计算器，但没有完成它的建造。布莱兹·帕斯卡在1642年设计并且建造了世界上第一台可以工作的机械计算器Pascaline。1673年，莱布尼兹开始了的建造工作并于1694年竣工，他也因为记录了二进制系统而被认为是第一个计算机科学家和信息理论家。埃达·洛夫莱斯协助查尔斯·巴贝奇在维多利亚时代设计了差分机。1900年左右，打孔机问世。然而以上这些机器都局限在只能完成单个任务，或者充其量是所有可能任务的子集。到了20世纪40年代随着更新更强大的计算机器被发明术语开始用于指代那些机器而不是它们的祖先。计算机的概念变得更加清晰它不仅仅用于数学运算总的来说计算机科学的领域也扩展到了对于计算的研究。20世纪50年代至20世纪60年代早期计算机科学开始被确立为不同种类的学术学科。 世界上第一个计算机科学学位点由普渡大学在1962年设立。随着实用计算机的出现很多计算的应用都以它们自己的方式逐渐转变成了研究的不同领域。虽然最初很多人并不相信计算机可能成为科学研究的领域但是随后的50年里也逐渐被学术界认可。IBM公司是那段时期计算机科学革命的参与者之一。在那段探索时期IBM发布的IBM 704以及之后的IBM 709计算机被广泛使用。“不过使用IBM电脑工作仍然是一件很沮丧的事情。如果你弄错了一条指令中的一个字母程序将会崩溃而你也得从头再来。”20世纪50年代后期计算机科学学科還在发展階段这種問題在当时是一件很常見的事情。随着时间的推移，计算机科学技术在可用性和有效性上都有显著提升。现代社会见证了计算机从仅仅由专业人士使用到被广大用户接受的重大转变。最初，计算机非常昂贵，要有效利用它们，某种程度上必须得由专业的计算机操作员来完成。然而，随着计算机变得普及和低廉，已经几乎不需要专人的协助，虽然某些时候援助依旧存在。虽然计算机科学被认定为一门正规学科的历史很短暂，但它对科学和社会做出了许多根本性的贡献事实上，计算机科学与电子学一样，是信息时代的奠基科学，也是資訊革命的驱动力，被视为继工业革命之后人类技术进步的第三次重大飞跃。提出计算机科学可以分成三个领域数学工程学科學。Amnon H. Eden提议了三种范式应用于计算机科学的各个领域作为一个学科计算机科学涵盖了从算法的理论研究和计算的极限到如何通过硬件和软件实现计算系统。 CSAB的代表组成确立了计算机科学学科的4个主要领域"计算理论""算法与数据结构""编程方法与编程语言"以及"计算机组成与架构"。CSAB还确立了其它一些重要领域如软件工程人工智能计算机网络与通信数据库系统并行计算分布式计算人机交互计算机图形学操作系统以及数值和符号计算。广义的理论计算机科学包括经典的计算理论和其它專注于更抽象逻辑与数学方面的计算。算法指定义良好的计算过程，它取一个或一组值作为输入，经过一系列定义好的计算过程，得到一个或一组输出。算法是计算机科学研究的一个重要领域，也是许多其他计算机科学技术的基础。算法主要包括数据结构、计算几何、图论等。除此之外，算法还包括许多杂项，如模式匹配、部分数论等。按照Peter J. Denning的说法，计算机科学的最根本问题是计算理论的研究就是專注于回答这个根本问题，关于什么能够被计算，去实施这些计算又需要用到多少资源。为了试图回答第一个问题，递归论检验在多种理论计算模型中哪个计算问题是可解的。而计算复杂性理论则被用于回答第二个问题，研究解决一个不同目的的计算问题的时间与空间消耗。著名的“P=NP?”问题，千禧年大奖难题之一，是计算理论的一个。信息论与信息量化相关由克劳德香农创建用于寻找信号处理操作的根本极限比如压缩数据和可靠的数据存储与通讯。编码理论是对编码以及它们适用的特定应用性质的研究。编码被用于数据压缩密码学前向纠错近期也被用于网络编码。研究编码的目的在于设计更高效可靠的数据传输方法。编程语言理论是计算机科学的一个分支，主要处理编程语言的设计、实现、分析、描述和分类，以及它们的个体特性。它属于计算机科学学科，既受影响于也影响着数学、软件工程和语言学。它是公认的计算机科学分支，同时也是活跃的研究领域，研究成果被发表在众多学术期刊，计算机科学以及工程出版物。形式化方法是一种特别的基于数学的技术用于软件和硬件系统的形式规范开发以及驗證。在软件和硬件设计方面形式化方法的使用动机如同其它工程学科是通过适当的数学分析便有助于设计的可靠性和健壮性的期望。但是使用形式化方法会带来很高的成本意味着它们通常只用于高可靠性系统这种系统中安全或保安是最重要的。对于形式化方法的最佳形容是各种理论计算机科学基础种类的应用特别是计算机逻辑演算形式语言自动机理论和形式语义学此外还有类型系统代数数据类型以及软件和硬件规范和验证中的一些问题。计算机体系结构与计算机工程.计算机系统结构或者数字计算机组织是一个计算机系统的概念设计和根本运作结构。它主要侧重于CPU的内部执行和内存访问地址。这个领域经常涉及计算机工程和电子工程学科选择和互连硬件组件以创造满足功能性能和成本目标的计算机。操作系统是管理电脑硬件与软件资源的电脑程式，同时也是电脑系统的核心与基石。作业系统需要处理如管理与配置记忆体、决定系统资源供需的优先次序、控制输入与输出装置、操作网路与管理档案系统等基本事务。作业系统也提供一个让使用者与各电脑设备互动的操作介面。并发并行与分布式系统.并发性是系统的一种性质，这类系统可以同时执行多个可能互相交互的计算。一些数学模型，如Petri网、进程演算和PRAM模型，被建立以用于通用并发计算。分布式系统将并发性的思想扩展到了多台由网络连接的计算机。同一分布式系统中的计算机拥有自己的私有内存，它们之间经常交换信息以达到一个共同的目的。计算机网络是管理遍及全球的计算机连接成的网络的计算机科学分支。计算机安全是计算机技术的一个分支，其目标包括保护信息免受未经授权的访问、中断和修改，同时为系统的预期用户保持系统的可访问性和可用性。密码学是对于隐藏信息的实践与研究。现代密码学主要跟计算机科学相关，很多加密和解密算法都是基于它们的计算复杂性。数据库是为了更容易地组织、存储和检索大量数据。数据库由数据库管理系统管理，通过数据模型和查询语言来存储、创建、维护和搜索数据。计算机图形学是对于数字视觉内容的研究，涉及图像数据的合成和操作。它跟计算机科学的许多其它领域密切相关，包括计算机视觉、图像处理、计算几何与可视化，同时也被大量运用在特效和电子游戏。科学计算是关注构建数学模型和量化分析技术的研究领域，同时通过计算机分析和解决科学问题。在实际使用中，它通常是计算机模拟和计算等形式在各个科学学科问题中的应用。多媒体技术是指通过计算机对文字数据图形图像动画声音等多种媒体信息进行综合处理和管理使用户可以通过多种感官与计算机进行实时信息交互的技术又称为计算机多媒体技术。这个计算机科学分支旨在创造可以解决计算问题，以及像动物和人类一样思考与交流的人造系统。无论是在理论还是应用上，都要求研究者在多个学科领域具备细致的、综合的专长，比如应用数学，逻辑，符号学，电机工程学，精神哲学，神经生理学和社会智力，用于推动智能研究领域，或者被应用到其它需要计算理解与建模的学科领域，如金融或是物理科学。人工智能领域开始变得正式源于Alan Turing这位人工智能先驱提出了图灵试验，以回答这样一个终极问题：“计算机能够思考吗？”软件工程是对于设计实现和修改软件的研究以确保软件的高质量适中的价格可维护性以及能够快速构建。它是一个系统的软件设计方法涉及工程实践到软件的应用。计算机科学和软件工程的关系是一个有争议的话题随后关于什么是“软件工程”计算机科学又该如何定义的争论使得情况更加混乱。David Parnas从其它工程和科学学科之间的关系得到启示宣称计算机科学的主要重点总的来说是研究计算的性质而软件工程的主要重点是具体的计算设计以达到实用的目的这样便构成了两个独立但又互补的学科。NAACL 其为ACL的北美分会作为高等教育的二级专业.主要进行计算和算法推理的研究。其中包括计算理论算法分析形式化方法并行理论数据库计算机图形学以及系统分析等。通常也教授程序设计但仅仅将它看作是支持计算机科学其它领域的媒介而不是高级研究的重心。的计算机科学课程则主要侧重于训练高级编程而不是算法和计算理论。这些课程着重教授那些对于软件工业很重要的技能。像这样的计算机编程过程通常被叫做软件工程。然而尽管计算机科学专业日益推动着美国经济但是计算机科学教育依然不存在大多数美国K-12课程中。2010年10月由ACM和计算机科学教师协会被建立以影响联邦和政府政策比如Computer Science Education Act要求政府拨款以制定计划完善计算机科学教育及支持计算机科学教师。在中国是工科（一级门类）下的二级专业。一般可细分为三级专业 +在漢語中民族一詞具有多重指涉可以表達種族國族族群等近似概念用法受到政治意識型態的影響容易相互混淆。不同學科對於民族的定義也有許多歧異。民族一詞在以中文翻譯外語時也十分容易混淆。例如民族主義精確翻譯應為等。在中华人民共和国官方一般认为民族是文化概念而不是血缘概念但卻將父母的民族成分作為認定公民族屬的前提因而民族被當成。而中华民族這一概念本身较为偏向国族概念。辛亥革命之前革命党人试图以當時漢族地區为界建立一个汉民族国家來反抗清廷的民族壓迫此时的中华和汉族的意义等同为族群概念。而革命党人提出五族共和后中华民族轉變為表示全中国内的所有族群成为国族概念。“民族”一词可以追溯至南朝梁时期萧子显“愚人得之以倾宗社灭民族”但其含义为民众。近代日本譯者翻譯歐洲著作一詞替代。馬克思去世之後，恩格斯在1884年所出版的，被視為馬克思主義民族學的第一本經典著作。提到了民族形成的規律。人結合成群；由血緣關係組成原始的家庭型式並形成親屬制度，逐漸排除同胞的性交關係；共祖的血族團體結成氏族，氏族結成部落，進而結成部落聯盟，融合成組成的國家。從氏族到國家形成的論述脈絡才有它的地位的。民族國族既然依附於國家體制的產生相應於資本主義社會只是特定歷史發展階段中的一個產物。等到國家體制所服務的資產階級對無產階級的壓迫出現之後中所謂就讓位給了階級利益在階級對立中只要能消滅最基本壓迫型式的階級壓迫其他型式的壓迫就會隨之解決。等到那個時候民族國族將會像國家一樣失去存在的必要而自然消亡。1912年，時任真理報編輯的史達林，為了解決第二國際及俄共內部對民族自治、國族自決的爭議，被列寧派到維也納去寫國族問題的小冊子。其成果就是被馬克思主義國族理論引為提出了定義：日後，中華人民共和國建國之後，即引史達林定義的這四項國族特徵，為中國境內的少數民族進行民族識別和民族認定。2005年中華人民共和國對民族的定義中華人民共和國將血統視為認定公民的民族成份的大前提。戏剧」和是四者當中最重要的元素他是角色的代言人必須具備扮演的能力戲劇與其他藝術類最大的不同之處便在於扮演了透過演員的扮演劇本中的角色才得以伸張如果拋棄了演員的扮演那麼所演出的便不再是戲劇。即使在動畫、木偶戲、皮影戲等沒有演員現身的戲劇中，演員不過是隱藏在觀眾的視覺之外的地方演出。戏剧的表演形式多种多样，常见的包括话剧、歌剧、舞剧、音乐剧、木偶戏等。由于文化背景的差别，不同文化所产生戏剧形式往往拥有独特的传统和程式，比如西方歌剧、中国戏曲、印度梵剧、日本能乐、歌舞伎等。戏剧的起源實不可考，目前有多种假说。比较主流的看法有二：一為原始宗教的巫术仪式。比如在上古汉语中，“巫”、“舞”、“武”三字可能同源。其有可能是对一种乞求战斗胜利的巫术活动的合称，即戏剧的原始形态。另一為劳动或庆祝丰收时的即兴歌舞表演，这种说法主要依据是古希腊戏剧被认为起源于酒神祭祀。现代的戏剧观念强调舞台上下所有演出元素统一表现以实现綜合的艺术效果。演出元素包括演员、舞台、道具、燈光、音效、服裝、化妆，以及劇本、導演等的一切總稱，也包括台上演出與台下互動的關係。文学上的戏剧概念是指为戏剧表演所创作的脚本，或稱之為剧本。中文戲劇一詞的字源來自於的合稱戲指的是戲文劇指的是雜劇是在元代以前在中國南方與北方不同的政局與文化環境下所形成的不同表演藝術將兩者合稱則是明代以後才出現的用法。世界各國語文中與的意義。世界上三種古老戲劇文化包括希臘的悲劇和喜劇印度的梵劇及中國的戲曲。西方戏剧的曙光普遍认为是古希腊悲剧而古希腊悲剧则是源于古希腊雅典城邦在公元前5世紀在神戴歐尼修斯的慶祝典禮上舉行過戲劇比賽。在祭典中人們扮演戴歐尼修斯唱。古希腊悲剧都是诗剧严谨古雅庄重大气。表演时有歌队伴唱史实表明歌队先于演员存在。关于这个起源也可以参考德国哲学家尼采的早期哲学著作。其中有五位古希臘戲劇作家十分有名，他們的作品雖然只有一小部分，但是仍保留到到今天。埃斯庫羅斯的歷史悲劇是現存最古老的戲劇，它在公元前472年的城市酒神節比賽中獲得首獎，但埃斯庫羅斯花了超過25年致力於這份劇本。悲劇戲劇家呈現戲劇的四部曲的方式，通常包括三個悲劇和一個羊人劇。喜劇從487到公元前486年的比賽中正式受到肯定。連環劇作家在城市酒神節比賽。雅典的戲劇文化可分為三種風格悲劇喜劇和撒特劇。 悲劇探討自由意志與神諭命定對立等宗教哲學議題。參考Sophocles。 喜劇：古典時期的舊喜劇多議論當代社會、時政及文學、哲學思潮。參考：Aristophanes 撒特劇以之前上演的悲劇或神話故事為題材旨在透過撒特歌隊嘲諷擔任主角的貴族或神祇。希臘戲劇繼續在整個羅馬時期進行的在公元前240標誌著定期羅馬戲劇的開端。古羅馬時期的娛樂活動相當豐富多元除了官方支持的正規戲劇以及形制短小的亞提拉鬧劇優劇默劇之外還包含了雜耍賽車賽馬水戰獸鬥…等訴諸感官刺激的娛樂競技。這些誇奇腥膻的活動一方面反映出古羅馬觀眾的口味一方面也影響了正規戲劇的風格。古羅馬藉由取消歌舞隊、將音樂打散至全劇，並以方式來鋪陳戲劇情節，使戲劇性獲得進一步開展，建立西方劇場話劇傳統的雛型。此外，並有將戲劇區分為五幕的慣例。戲劇類型大致可分為喜劇、悲劇。 喜劇以家庭糾葛或角色性格為題材而所有的戲劇活動一律發生在街上。Plautus 的作品巧用誤認模式動作性大於語言性趨近於鬧劇風格如。 悲劇Seneca 的悲劇多取材自希臘悲劇但文藻疊麗富道德意識劇中人經常在強烈的動機驅使下做出極端的行為而戲劇動作充斥著駭人聽聞的暴行與天人交感的異象挑動觀眾感官。就西方的定义来说，中国没有的传统。不过一般在讨论中国戏剧时，若不以严格的定义划分，中国古代的戏曲应归入戏剧的大类。中国戏曲的根源在可以追溯到先秦到汉代的巫祇仪式，但是宋代南戏的发展才有了完备的戏剧文本创作，现存最早的中国古代戏剧剧本是南宋时的。元代时以大都、平阳和杭州为中心，元杂剧大放异彩。后世形成了诸多戏曲形式，也就是各剧种。明代起源於蘇州的昆曲经过发展，首先得到士族大夫的追捧和喜爱，他们大量创造剧本，不断修改曲谱，同时修正昆曲的戏剧理论，并使得传奇剧本成为一种新的主流文学形式。随后昆曲又得到晚明和清代宫廷皇室的喜爱，成为贵族生活的一部分，成为获得官方肯定的戏剧艺术，故称“雅”；而以各地方言为基础的地方戏，广受民间喜爱，则称“花”。于是在清代形成了“花雅之争”，实际上是戏曲共同繁荣的局面。这丰富了戏曲艺术的门类，也形成了各自的艺术特色。近年來台灣的戲劇研究學者曾永義提出一套說法，認為在討論中國戲劇起源時，應該要區分，大戲是成熟的戲曲，而小戲則是戲劇的雛型。大戲是在到了金元雜劇之後才發展完成，而之前的宋雜劇、唐代的代面、踏搖娘、缽頭、參軍戲、樊噲排君難等，都可列入小戲的行列，而中國在非常早之前，就有小戲。中国在与近代西方有文化接触前，没有西方意义上的“戏剧”传统。中国传统的戏剧为一种有剧情的，“以歌舞演故事”的，综合音乐、歌唱、舞蹈、武术和杂技等的综合艺术形式，也就是戏曲曲艺。根据不同的分类标准戏剧可以被分成不同的類型• 按長度現代媒體一般為短劇單元劇1~數集的劇場在電視台一週連續數月播放的連續劇類似MV或廣告片的網絡微電影以及有完整主題意識跟故事在電影院上映的電影創作。不过最基本、使用最多的分类是悲剧、喜剧和悲喜剧，其中悲剧出现的时间早于喜剧：• 悲剧审美价值“将人生有价值的东西毁灭给人看”。有價值的戲劇是透過表演、各種題裁與創作，用濃縮的內容或設定來反映或呈現現實生活中可能與不可能的喜怒哀樂，進而深刻描述人生的悲歡離合或人類情感各階段的成長領悟，或對現時當下社會價值觀矛盾的探討，又或呈現現實人生中應對命運或無奈的現況，或以不存在或不可能的假設情況來嘗試可能發生或發展成的因果效應或後果而能引發觀眾的感動與省思…進而成為一種意識或感受或達到相當程度的娛樂效果！戏剧文本（即）是一出戏剧的基本要素，是一台戏的先决条件。剧本最重要的是能够被舞台上搬演。戏剧文本不算是艺术的完成，直到舞台演出之后现代戏剧中也出现了没有剧本的演出实例。戏剧的文学本在不演出的状态下可以作为单独的文学样式欣赏。隨著西方現代戲劇在導演以及演員训练體系上的实践戲劇理论逐渐从戏剧文本的討論擴大到劇場整體進而產生“場面調度”等新觀念。其中比较著名的提法是20世纪70年代英国戏剧导演彼德布鲁克在其专著中提出的观念戏剧活动发生的必要条件.无论戏剧一词如何定义，只有满足以下的条件，才可视为一次戏剧活动。只要是一個空間便可以成為戲劇演出的場所一般称为“剧场”。歷史上有許多專門供戲劇活動使用的場所有的在戶外有的在室內。這些專供戲劇演出的場所包括劇場戲院舞台等。在中國古代，所謂的舞台最早是用在歌舞儀式上，舞者進行儀式時所站的一塊以土推成的高台，隨著戲劇發展逐漸成熟，而出現了戲棚、戲台、戲亭、勾欄等演出場所。西方戲劇的演出從希臘的露天劇場古羅馬的圓形劇場等。目前多以演員稱呼戲劇中的表演者。在中國歷史上，還有許多稱呼戲劇表演者的稱呼，例如戲子、優伶、娼優、伶人、散樂等，而因為在中國過去戲劇的表演者身份並不高，這些稱呼許多也有著刻意貶損的意味，而以稱呼戲劇表演者，固然是因為表演者是歌者，但是在歷史上有長的時期戲劇表演與娼妓之間的確關係密切。而戲劇表演者所組成的組織，多稱為戲團，過去多稱為是戲班，而如果是某一戶富有人家自己經營，為了自己的娛樂所訓練出的戲班，叫做家班，家班在明代之後普遍。 +电影（/ ）特点是运动／移动的画面（）是一种视觉艺术作品用来模拟通过使用动态图像来传达思想故事感知感觉美或氛围的体验。这些图像通常伴有声音更少有其他感官刺激。電影中看起來連續的畫面，是由一幀幀單獨的照片完成的，至於關於電影中運動的感覺，是因為人們因為視覺上的飛現象對運動的連續階段的感知。電影製作本身是藝術也是產業。電影可以由電影攝影機拍攝真實影像再製作而成也可以利用傳統的動畫技巧繪製圖畫再拍攝圖畫而成甚至可以利用電腦成像及计算机动画製作電影也可以在電影中利用上述所有的技術及其他視覺效果。電影技術發展初期有各種不同的放映速度但現時電影都多以每秒二十四格圖像作放映標準。路易斯普林斯于1888年10月14日使用改进版的单镜头摄影机拍摄了电影。他在利兹的汉斯莱特区的惠特利工厂以及惠特利位于朗德海的家奥克伍德农庄展出了他这第一部电影。电影成为第七艺术的来由是意大利诗人和电影先驱者，將電影放在建築、雕塑、繪畫、音樂、詩之後，他後來又加入了早在電影之前就有的舞蹈，因此电影就成為第七藝術。也有一些說法是將早在電影問世前就有的戲劇放在电影之前，以此方法來算，電影就成為第八藝術。如今許多電影仍然用能把影像記錄到膠捲上的攝影機來拍攝。膠卷經過沖洗之後再用放映機來運行膠卷。放映機可以發出光線透過膠卷這樣影像就在銀幕上顯示出了。自從有聲電影發明以來大多數的電影都是有聲電影。最近許多電影都用數碼攝像機來拍攝放映的時候可以用數位放映機也可以把數位影像轉置到傳統的膠片上。这种方法可避免膠片長時間存放的失真。1895年一套真正有演員演出的電影出現拍攝當時工人下班的景象。早期的電影都是時，表示出他說的內容。這使得講評人的必要性大打折扣。事實上電影院老闆經常替換掉講評人請樂師在電影放映時伴奏若電影院有相應樂器的話通常是鋼琴師或風琴師。伴奏的音樂應該隨時符合電影的情節氣氛。後來，技術的進步允許製片人創作與電影畫面同步的音軌，使得電影進入了有聲時期。史上第一部有聲故事電影是。音軌的錄製可以與拍攝電影相分離，但真人電影音軌錄製，許多部分是與拍攝畫面同時進行的。有聲電影發明後，無聲電影和電影院裡的樂師迅速銷聲匿跡。電影發展中一個重要步驟是彩色電影於1930年左右引入市場，而被世界上第一部公认的彩色电影片是等。這通常都是出於藝術或戲情的考量，特意拍成黑白電影。在電影製作初期電影的特別效果鏡頭加以各項技術來配合。到如今電腦已大量配合應用在電影製作上一些鏡頭演員僅需端坐在特製椅子上做一些表情和動作即可而出現在銀幕上的背景和劇情簡直不可想像因為以電腦來做編輯影片的工作取代一味繁瑣的步驟使最後出廠的拷貝品質與已往的產品亦不可同日而語了。電影理論的目的是以電影為一個藝術來研究，發展簡明且系統化的概念。以電影為藝術形式的概念起源自的的。鲁道夫·阿恩海姆、贝拉·巴拉兹及齊格弗里德·科拉考爾開始的強調電影和現實的不同，因此可以視為是美術。不過安德烈·巴赞反對此一理論，認為電影美學的本質是在有能力機械性的複製現實，而不是其和現實不同的的部份，這就產生了現實主義理論的分析，以及其和之間的關連性。電影有其使用的語言。曾寫了一篇電影理論中的經典文章標題是就是提到此一概念。導演英格玛伯格曼曾說過一句著名的話。這種語言的一個例子是一連串來回出現的畫面其中一個畫面是一個演員在畫面的左側另一個畫面是一個演員在畫面的右側觀眾可以了解這種語言知道這代表這二個人的對話。這描述了另一個電影理論利用視覺的組合及恰當的剪輯電影可以讓觀眾有似乎身在現場觀看主角之間對話的能力。经典好莱坞电影就包括了這種敘事理論因為在電影經典時期位在好莱坞的各片廠早已反覆的使用此一手法。另一個電影語言是將鏡頭拍攝一個演員畫面無聲然後鏡頭切換到另一個較年輕長相類似的另一個演員這代表了演員在回憶以前的情形電影中敘述一些在較早時間發生的事情。電影評論是有關電影的分析以及評估。一般而言電影評論會分為二類：由電影研究者提出的學術電影評論，以及在報紙、雜誌或其他媒體上常見到的雜誌電影評論。撰寫報紙、雜誌及廣播媒體上影評的電影評論者多半會看許多新上映的電影。一般每部片只會看一次，而且一天只看一部到二部片，才有足夠時間來撰寫電影評論。影評對電影本身有很大的影響，尤其對特定片種的電影更是如此。一般大眾口味的動作片、恐怖片、喜劇片的票房不太會受到電影評論的影響。電影評論的主要內容是劇情概要及對電影的描述，這也是大部份人決定是否要看特定電影的原因。對於一些經典電影，電影評論的影響相當大，糟糕的電影評論可能會毀掉一部電影，而且造成電影公司的經濟損失。電影評論是否影響票房表現一事仍是爭議中的議題。有些人認為因為如此激烈資金充足電影評論者很難影響電影的票房。不過有些重金行銷的電影被影評批評的一文不值結果票房非常差也有一些獨立製作或是小成本行銷的電影因為影評的讚譽因此有意外的成功因此在一些情形下影評可能還是會影響票房。也有人注意到影評者的正面評論會讓大眾注意到一些較不為人知的影片。相對的也有一些電影公司可能因為對電影信心不足因此不安排對影評者的試映會避免影評者的評論破壞大家對電影的印象。不過這多半會有反效果電影評論者相當聰明此情形下可能會警告大眾這部片不值得一看而常常電影也的確如影評預期的不好看。電影製作的方式是依製片者想要表達的內容以及呈現內容的設備而不同。拉洋片只需要在紙卷上有一連串的圖案即可。電影製作最簡單的方式是一個人加一台電影照相機或是由上千名演員臨時演員及劇組及許多道具及設備組成。幾乎每一部電影都會需要經過概念、計劃、拍片、修改及發行的流程。在典型好萊塢電影的製作週期中，會有以下主要的步驟。一般一部電影會需要三年的時間頭一年腳本發展第二年是前期製作及電影製作第三年是後期製作及電影發行。是指讓閱聽人可以看到電影的過程。一般會由專門的進行，他們會決定電影的行銷策略、影片将要展出或可供观赏的式，以及決定時間等。電影除了在電影院供人觀看外，放在隨選視訊上，或是透過廣播聯賣方式作成电视节目。其他發行的方式包括個人購買或是出租電影的VHS、DVD或藍光光碟，是在互联网上下載。 +音樂，廣義而言，就是指任何以聲音組成的藝術。英文Music一詞源於古希臘語的女神的藝術。而中文的音樂二字，許慎解釋為認為音樂和聲音的區別，在於音樂需要透過人心去想像和創造。音樂可分為創作、演奏、聆聽三個過程，在不同文化和社會，對於音樂的過程及其重要性都有不同的理解，例如在西非鼓樂里，每個人皆是參與者，人們不會區分作曲者、演奏者和聆聽者的身份；不過所有的人類文化都有音樂，也就是說，演奏音樂是所有文化當中普遍存在的現象。音樂的主要元素有音高節奏和音色。音樂可以分為不同種類但每種種類的區別常常是含糊和具爭議的而不同種類的音樂會不同程度地強調或忽略某些音樂元素。至於何謂聲音或者樂音和噪音的區別則沒有公認的標準也因著文化與社會背景而有所不同。許多在當時代具突破性或前衛的音樂被時人批評為例如貝多芬的大賦格以及早期的爵士樂等等。但近代有不少音樂家不認同傳統的理解例如二十世紀美國作曲家約翰凱吉認為任何聲音和靜默皆是音樂。音樂可以用樂譜描述，依據樂譜演奏，但也有不少音樂類型如民歌或爵士樂是由演奏者即興創作的。樂譜作為一種符號的語言，只能描述聲音的屬性或指示演奏所需的技巧，卻無法記錄聲音本身。因此在錄音技術出現之前，欣賞音樂必需現場聆聽，或自己親身參與演奏。傳統上欣賞音樂有特定的場所，從古時的宮庭、教堂、廟宇到今天的音樂廳、酒吧等等。十九世紀末，留聲機的發明令聲音可以记录和複製，改變了欣賞音樂的模式；一般認為錄音、通訊技術和大眾媒體是流行音樂形成的主要因素，從早期的唱片、音樂錄像及無線電，到當今的影音網站或串流平台，都是人們接觸音樂的管道。演奏音樂需要透過歌唱或樂器。廣義的樂器包括一切可以發出聲音的工具在石器時代人們已經開始製作原始的樂器。今天電腦和不少電子音樂產品可以透過MIDI製作音樂。音樂是一种需要學習的技能，而在不少國家的基礎教育中包括有音樂課，而一些音樂學院則提供專業的音樂教育。音乐学是一個歷史的科学的研究音乐的广阔领域，其中包括音乐理论和音乐史。另外自十九世紀末開始有民族音樂學，研究各地不同的音樂文化。而音樂產業也包含了許多面向：音樂的創造者（作曲家與填詞人），音樂的演奏者（樂團樂手、歌手或指揮），音樂的錄製者（包含音訊工程師），音樂活動的籌備者，以及音樂資源（唱片或樂譜）的販售者。音樂要素的不同组合组成了每首音乐独特的性格使人在聆听不同音乐时能瞭解其結構及表情盡可能察覺是哪个民族地区時代與類型的音乐。每個國家對於音樂要素的官方定義不盡相同但大致共有的要素包括不同頻率的聲音在不同時間所發出，形成旋律；不同頻率的聲音在同一時間或在極短時段內發出，形成和弦。拍子的快慢構成速度，規律性的強拍和弱拍形成節拍，音符之間的連貫狀況則謂之銜接。常用的音高形成音階和調性若要豐富音樂的織體可以藉由對位法與和聲法。對位是令多條不同的旋律線同時和諧奏出和聲則探討多個和弦的連續搭配這兩種手法某程度是相對的。音樂的織體主要有三種類型。單音音樂。最後每种乐器和每个人声都有自己独特的音色不同音色的乐器组合賦予音樂独特的音響效果情緒以及象徵意義安排这些乐器的组合叫做配器。音乐是一种符号，一种声音符号，表达人的所思所想。是人们思想的载体之一。音乐是有目的的，是有内涵的，其中隐含了作者的生活体验，思想情怀。音乐从声波上分析它介于噪声和频率不变的纯音之间，从效果上讲它可以带给人美的享受和表达人的情感。音乐是社会行为的一种形式通过音乐人们可以互相交流情感和生活体验。在歌曲中这种作用表现得最为突出。在中国古代就有完善的乐礼制度古代圣贤的君主会通过来归顺百姓身心与言行达到治理国家作用。儒家讲人们也能通过音乐与天地及万物沟通从而得到智慧的提升与身心的净化。现在的科学家研究古典音乐对调理人的身心有很大的好处特别是莫扎特的音乐对人的大脑有益处还可以减少癫痫病患者的发病的机率所以好的音乐对人会起到调理身体减少疾病发作的功效。古希腊哲学家毕达哥拉斯，将音乐解释为的和谐在时间中的表达。古代伟大音乐家的创作和民歌的流行基本是凭借灵感产生的后来的学者在研究这些能流行多年的音乐逐渐总结出理论其后的音乐家就在这些理论的指导下进行创作。音乐理论证明哪些音乐能被大多数人接受，使人感到悦耳。现代并结合物理声学的研究结果，使理论不断发展完善。音乐主要有两种形式：用人声唱的声乐和用乐器奏的器乐，不论是声乐或器乐都有许多种结合的方式，如独唱、合唱、对唱，独奏、协奏，交响乐等。两者也可以混合，声乐用乐器伴奏，或在器乐交响乐中混入人声等等。聲樂是由一個或多個歌手表演的音樂形式，使用樂器伴奏與否皆可，而人聲是作品的重點。含有人聲但重點不在其上的樂曲一般稱作器樂。沒有樂器伴奏的的合唱曲則通常稱為無伴奏合唱。對於聲樂而言，相當多聲樂作品（部份或全部）為模仿其他聲音或純粹內容抽象，而運用非語言音節甚或是噪音，然而一般人特別注意歌詞的使用。較短小且含有歌詞的聲樂作品常稱為歌曲。聲樂也許是最古老的音樂形式，因為它不需要任何樂器，僅僅人聲便可。在各種音樂文化中都存在著某種形式的聲樂。語言和音樂目的雖不同，皆有共同的音樂因子。人聲又因性別音域的高低音質等不同分成以下幾種声部器乐是相对于声乐而言完全用乐器演奏而不用人声或人声处于附属地位的音乐。演奏的乐器可以包括所有种类的弦乐器木管乐器铜管乐器和打击乐器有的器乐曲也应用部分人声一般没有歌词只是作为效果但部分作曲家有时也加入一些人声例如贝多芬写作的但正確来说交响曲大部分為器乐而做較少為了声乐而做。西方音乐主要指欧洲的音乐，由于欧洲历史上统治阶层比较重视音乐，因此许多音乐家都得到资助和保护，发展出比较完善的音乐理论。目前西方的音乐理论在全世界的音乐界占有主导地位，欧洲音乐界发展的记谱法和作曲的程式得到世界的公认。先秦時代禮樂制度被賦予維繫社會秩序的功能。在中國傳統思想裡音樂與人心情感間的關係受到很大的重視尤其儒家思想認為音樂對人性具有教化啟迪的作用這在《詩經》大序《禮記樂記》《荀子樂論篇》《史記樂書》等作品中均可了解。甚至十三經中的《樂經》對音樂的功能也做了更深入的說明惜今已失傳。中国地域广阔，民族繁多，各地的民间音乐素材非常丰富。现代中国吸收了西方音乐的理论来整理古代的文献和民间音乐，编写民族乐器的曲目，使中国音乐有了很大的发展。中国古代音乐家的地位不高，没有统治阶级对音乐的有效保护，所以虽然很早就发明了记谱法，但许多有名的作品没有能够流传下来，大部分流传下来的作品都是依靠民间艺人口传心授。但另一方面，古代大量士人官僚本身却精通音乐，如孔子、周瑜、阮籍、苏轼等皆是有名的琴人。音乐是自从人类出现后就伴随着人类的进化而发展的因此世界各地都有自己独特的音乐形式和乐器虽然世界各地的音乐理论发育并不平衡但音乐风格各异都有自己的发展道路。现代音乐广泛吸收了世界各地的音乐素材各地的音乐对世界音乐的发展都有自己的贡献。二十世紀中期以後的流行音樂.二十世纪中期以后发展起来的流行音乐违背了古典音乐的理论，吸收了世界各地的地方音乐成分，强调了群众参与，听众再也不是静静地聆听音乐的旁听者，而是热烈的参与者。音乐回归到原始的载歌载舞的形式，更能调动人们的情绪，因此受到年轻人的热烈欢迎，打破地域、民族、国界的限制，在全世界广泛流行。作曲家创作的音乐可以通过几种媒体传播；最传统的是现场体验，作为观众或者演奏者之一。现场音乐也可以通过无线电、电视或者因特网广播。有些音乐风格注重为表演而发音，有些则注重产生录音然后用于后期混响合成，它们从不被“直播”。现场表演风格的音乐在录制时也经常采用编辑和分离的功能以产生听起来比实际演出“更好”的效果。由于引入了保护演奏者，作曲家，发行商和制作人的法律，譬如美国的1992年家庭录制法案（Home Recording Act），以及英国1979年修订的用于保护文学和艺术作品的Berne规范，录音和现场演出也变得更易通过计算机，设备，和因特网用一种通常称为音乐随选（music-on-demand）的形式获得。在很多文化中，有些音乐的表演和聆听没有很大的区别，因为现场每个人都以集体形式通过某种方式涉及到音乐活动中来。在工业化的国家，通过录制形式，譬如听音乐录音或是观看音乐录像，成了最为普遍的感受现场演出的形式，这种形式大致开始于20世纪中叶。有时现场演出采用了预先录制的声音。例如DJ可以使用唱片来制造刮碟效果而有些20世纪的作品用独唱或独奏表演和预制的磁带音乐同时进行。计算机和或多键盘乐器可以用来编程产生和播放MIDI音乐。听众也可以通过卡拉OK成为演出者这种形式为日本人创造它采用录像和无声乐的音轨这样演出者就可以将他们自己的声音加上去。音乐是初等教育的一个重要组成部分，是培养孩子们艺术素养的有效工具，在世界各地一般从幼儿园音乐教育都已经开始了。古代中国將音樂視為士大夫應具備的六藝才能之一，至於現今中國正规音乐教育持续到九年义务教育结束，即初中毕业。普通高中一般也开设音乐课。作为专业音乐人员一般要经过专门的高等音乐教育不过在目前从事通俗歌曲和流行音乐的专业人员大部分都没有经过音乐专门的高等教育都是依靠本身的才能和自我学习。 +經濟學。經濟學的分析也被用在其他各種領域上主要領域包括了商業金融和政府等但同時也包括了如健康犯罪教育法律政治社會架構宗教戰爭和科學等等。到了21世紀初經濟學在社會科學領域各方面不斷擴張影響力使得有些學者諷刺地稱其為。在現代對於經濟學的定義有數種說法，其中有許多說法因為發展自不同的領域或理論而有截然不同的定義，蘇格蘭哲學家和經濟學家亞當·斯密在1776年將政治經濟學定義為，他說：讓-巴蒂斯特賽伊在1803年將經濟學從公共政策裡獨立出來並定義其為對於財富之生產分配和消費的學問。另一方面托马斯卡莱尔則諷刺的稱經濟學為不過這一詞最早是由马尔萨斯在1798年提出。约翰斯图尔特密尔在1844年提出了一個以社會科學定義經濟學的角度阿尔弗雷德·马歇尔則在他1890年的一書中將經濟學分析的領域從單純財富創造擴展出去，並且包含不只是社會上、同時也是個體上的層次：羅賓斯爵士則在1932年提出了被認為是羅賓斯認為此定義注重的不是以經濟學。一些人批評此定義過度廣泛而且無法將分析的範圍侷限在對於市場的研究上。然而自從1960年代起由於理性選擇理論和其引發的賽局理論不斷將經濟學的研究領域擴張這個定義已經獲得廣泛認同儘管仍有一些對此定義的批評存在。經常以經濟學作為分析其他領域學科的經濟學家蓋瑞貝克則認為理想的經濟學定義應該個體經濟學研究經濟體系中最基本單元的經濟行爲。微觀經濟學重視需求與供給，如何影響個人，達成交易，並形成市場中的均衡價格。微觀經濟學關注人們的決定和行爲影響物品和服務的供給和需求、誰負責決定價格、或者反過來，價格怎樣決定物品和服務的供給量和需求量。微觀經濟學的目的在於透過分析形成衆多物品和服務相對價格的市場機制以及這些有限資源如何配置在不同的用途上在這裏效率問題並非首要。微觀經濟學並不太重視經濟效率問題因爲那可從規範經濟學獲得答案。不僅如此微觀經濟學還分析市場失靈究竟市場哪處無法產生有效率的結果及在完全競爭的條件下描述市場的理論上應當的狀況。這學科的重要範圍包括一般均衡理論信息不對稱下的市場博弈論的經濟活動應用和市場系統內的經濟物品彈性問題。經濟發展指的不只是一個經濟體裡生產的增加和總體成長也包括了這些發展對於體制內所帶來的改變亦即均衡的變動以及新的均衡的達成。經濟發展是一種個體經濟學的概念並且與經濟成長有密切關係經濟成長可以在沒有經濟發展的情況下達成但經濟發展永遠會導致經濟的成長。個體經濟學是以經濟角度研究個體決策者在市場上的行為和市場的形式這包含了私人民間公家等為決策單位個體經濟學研究這些決策單位如何在市場上進行互動（假設交易的東西有稀缺性存在）。一個市場有可能是在交易產品（例如蘋果鋁或手機）也可能是在交易生產要素的服務。個體經濟學認為市場的總體是由眾多個體的買家和賣家所組成也因此可以對財貨的可能價格（亦即供給和需求）做出詳細研究。透過市場上決策者的互動研究個體經濟學認為市場的供需會隨著時間趨向於均衡。個體經濟學同時也研究各種市場的結構，完全競爭指的是在一個沒有個別參與者可以透過市場力量單邊設立價格的市場結構，更簡單的說，在完全競爭下每個買賣家都是價格的接受人，他們的買賣行為對於市場的價格不會有影響。不完全競爭指的則是完全競爭不存在的情況，例子包括了壟斷。與完全競爭不同的是，在不完全競爭下，市場力量是不平均分配的。也因此，在不完全競爭下的公司有可能成為價格的，也就是說，透過他們高度的市場佔有率，他們可能可以影響價格的形成。個體經濟學對於個體市場的研究，是建立在單一市場裡的行為並不影響其他市場的假設上，這種分析又稱為局部均衡分析，這種做法將經濟行為的總和放在一個市場之上。一般均衡理論則是研究各種市場的行為，研究的領域則包含所有的市場，研究的是市場裡的改變、以及趨向均衡的過程。在個體經濟學裡生產指的是從投入到輸出的過程這是一種透過投資來創造可以直接使用或用以交易的財貨的過程。生產是一種具有時間性的過程也因此並不是即時的而是經過一段時間產出某種數量的產品。這個過程中可以區分的包括了消費產品以及國防生產與民間生產的取捨。機會成本指的是生產的經濟成本換句話說就是選擇不進行某一樣生產而其省下的資源可以用來進行的次要理想的生產。由於資本和時間都是有限的人只能從許多看起來理想又可行的方案中選擇一樣進行這種問題又反映出了稀缺與選擇之間的消長。由於任何經濟行為都有機會成本存在這使得有限的資源必須要被有效的利用也因此進行經濟行為的理性準則並不是某一項行為。對於機會成本的計算不只限於金錢上或金融上的考量更包含了計算實際成本的因素其他生產可能的損失以及休閒等會構成機會利益的因素。生產中使用的投入包括了主要的生產要素例如勞動、資本（可以長期用於生產的要素例如工廠）、土地（包括自然資源），其他的投入包含了中間產品－亦即那些用於生產最後產品過程中使用的東西（例如生產汽車所需的鋼鐵）。經濟效率指的是在特定的資源投入和技術下，一個經濟體生產輸出產品的效能。如果在同樣的投入情況下產出提高了，那經濟學就稱此為效率的提高，換句話說，的情形，在那種情況下，任何的改變都只會導致效率的減低。生產可能性曲線，顯示出了在既定的投入和技術之下，於兩種財貨生產中取捨所會產生的不同產出。在圓弧上的點代表了可能的產出量，也就是說，若是一種產品生產多少、另一種產品就只能生產多少的情況。稀缺指的是人們想要達成但是現有情況和資源下無法達成的生產情況亦即超出了生產可能性曲線圓弧的地方例如圖中的X點。如果生產某產品的輸出增加那麼生產另一項產品的輸出必然會減少於是形成互相排斥的情況。這是因為生產某樣產品所需的投入會占用到生產另一樣產品的資源也因此減少了另一樣產品的產出。生產一樣產品所帶來的另一樣產品輸出的減少也被稱為。換句話說如果右圖的情況下生產100單位的大炮那麼機會成本就是生產100單位的黄油。PPF說明了在一個生產曲線上選擇生產更多的一樣產品會導致另一樣產品的減少。在一個市場經濟下隨著生產可能性曲線移動的經濟脈象是因為對產品的需求改變而產生的。生產可能性曲線的圓弧代表了某一種生產分配下最有效率的生產狀態如果我們選擇在圓弧內的生產分配例如圖中的A點這雖然是可以達成的但卻會造成生產的低效率因為那仍然有可能與消費者的需求不一致。實用經濟學理對於公共政策的研究大多聚焦於如何增進一個經濟的效率找出如何調整社會組織以達成最有效的資源生產被認為是專精是一種無論在經濟理論上和觀察上都已經被認定是經濟效率重要來源的現象，不同的個體和國家可能對生產各種產品和服務有不同的機會成本，舉例來說，某國可能有比較多的高教育人才、而另一國可能有更多的森林和煤礦。專精理論指出在機會成本差異存在的情況下，生產的各方可以透過分工來達成比較優勢，而使得生產一定產品的成本都會相對地降低。要注意的是，就算某個國家在所有產品的投入和輸出效率上佔有絕對優勢，它仍然可以透過專精和與他國貿易，來達成更高的輸出總和。也因此，即使是最有效率、最發達的國家，仍然可以與最沒效率、最落後的國家一起進行分工生產。在觀察上，許多擁有類似科技水準和多元投入要素的高發展國家，仍然在互相之間保持大量的貿易往來，這也使得許多經濟學的研究專注在解釋經濟裡的規模和聚集，以解釋在分工的狀況下，生產不同產品的國家是如何促成貿易各國的利益。專精的理論可以套用在個體、農場、工廠、服務業、乃至經濟整體上。在這些生產體系裡，不同團體的專精和互動都可能存在著各自的分工，或者是透過不同資本或土地的投入達成類似的效果。以專精為例子，一個專精於高科技產品生產的已開發國家，可以與一個專精於較廉價勞動生產的國家進行交易，兩者之間機會成本的差異，會使得他們交易後得到更大的產出量。與他們閉門造車各自生產高科技和廉價勞動產品相比，兩者都可以從中獲利。投入和產出的市場價格決定了分工的各方要如何分配生產的投入廉價的投入會被用於較廉價的產出上單在這個過程中產出總合就有可能因為設計或附加價值而有所提升。這種生產上的分工造就了貿易利得的機會使得資源的擁有人透過貿易把某種投入換成更為具有價值的產品也因此而獲利。要衡量在貿易中獲得的利益則是以衡量一個貿易所帶來的收入水準的增加。價格和供給數量被認為是觀察一個市場經濟裡生產產品最直接的切入點，供給與需求的理論解釋了價格如何調節一個產品的生產和消費。在個體經濟學裡，這是假設了完全競爭的情況，也就是說，沒有其他買家或賣家有足夠市場力量單方設定價格。在一個市場裡的財貨指的是所有買家要以特定價格購買一單位產品時的互動因素需求通常是以圖表方式形容價格和數量的需求。利益在這裡指的是個體消費者如何在眾多產品之間做取捨而他們取捨的結果會將產品做排序並且以此進行購買。需求定理指的是在一般情況下，一個市場裡的需求的數量與價格成反比。也就是說，一個產品的價格越高，越少人會想進行購買。隨著一個產品的價格下降，消費者會更願意购買它，而不是其他較為昂貴的替代品。另外，因為價格下降而導致的購買力上升連帶使得消費者購買能力提高。其他的因素可能改變需求，舉例來說，收入的增加會使得對於正常物品的需求曲線向外擴張。在進行這種分析的時候，經濟學家假設其他的因素保持不變。供給指的是一個產品的價格以及在那個價格下會出現在市場上的產品數量供給也可以由圖表方式形容價格和數量。在這種模型下生產者（比如公司）被假設是在追求利潤的最大化也就是說他們會試著生產和提供市場的產品數量是他們認為會取得最大利潤的。供給通常被表達為價格和供給數量之間的關係（假設其他情況不變）換句話說一個產品可以被販賣的價格越高生產者便會越樂意提供這樣產品如右圖所示。更高的價格使得生產這樣產品可以帶來更高利潤如同需求曲線供給曲線是可以移動的比如生產要素的更動或技術的創新都會導致供給曲線的移動。需求定理指出若是其他情況不變價格的提高將會導致供給的提高而價格的滑落將會導致供給的減少。在這種分析下經濟學家同樣是假設其他的條件維持不變比如說替代品的價格生產成本以及其他眾多會影響生產的因素在分析時都假設是不變的。市場均衡指的是當供給數量和需求數量達到平衡的時候，如同右圖裡所示兩條線的交叉點。當價格低於均衡時，產品的需求會開始高過供給，這會使得價格開始提高。而當價格超過均衡點時，對產品的供給會開始高過需求，於是使得價格降低。這種模型預估在任何供給和需求的曲線上，價格和供給會在一個可以使產品需求等同產品供給的價格上找到平衡點，同樣的，這個理論預估當供給或需求任何一方產生變動時，新的價格會產生以反映出新的平衡點。對任何一種消費者產品來說，需求曲線的位置決定了一個產品的邊際效用，它決定了消費者要獲得一個產品所需要付出的代價。供給曲線上的點則代表了邊際成本，也就是對生產者來說提供一個產品需要付出的成本。在均衡點上的價格是由供給與需求所決定，而在完全競爭的假設下，供給與需求將會等同均衡點上的邊際成本和邊際效用。而在市場的供給面，影響生產的因素則被稱為是生產變數，這些變數在短期內決定了產出的數量。有些投入變數可以被輕易更換，例如電力、原始資源、加班工作等等，其他的變數則比較難更換，例如工廠和機械或是重要的資深員工。在長期來說，所有的投入都可以透過管理加以更改。短期和長期的分別又構成了供給的價格彈性，也就是供給面如何應對供給或需求方的更動而產生新的價格均衡點。邊際主義描述消費者如何在不同的財富和收入水準限制下達成對他們最有利的位置而生產者也會在各自生產的限制下所產生的差異便是上進行也就是說他們的互動關係的改變都是相對的而不是絕對的。供給與需求理論的應用包含了伴著生產要素調整的收入分配包含了勞動與資本在市場上的互動。在一個有競爭性的勞動市場下在特定勞動價格。勞動經濟學檢視的是勞工與雇主之間透過這樣市場的互動以此解釋工資和其他勞動收入勞工流動性失業人力資本的產能以及其他相關的公共政策的變動與特徵。供給與需求是用來解釋完全競爭下的市場行為然而它仍然可以用來比較其他型態的市場。它也可以被用來解釋經濟體各層面的變因舉例來說這包含了總體經濟學下研究的國內生產毛額以及物價。經濟學家也可以透過供給與需求來說明要在何種特定條件下市場才能有效的分配資源。人們往往不會在市場上直接交易，而是透過公司進行工作和生產。最明顯的公司是企業、合夥、以及信託。依據罗纳德·科斯的說法，當透過公司生產的成本低於自行生產時，個體便會選擇透過公司生產。公司綜合了勞動和資本，並且可以達到比個人交易更高的規模經濟。在完全競爭的研究模型下生產者眾多而且對於市場價格都沒有決定性的影響。產業組織研究的則是當某些生產者的確擁有決定性影響時公司之間的競爭行為它包含了對於市場以及公司之間的互動。常見的對於市場結構的分析除了完全競爭以外還有壟斷性競爭以及其他如寡占双头垄断等情形。管理經濟學是以個體經濟學角度研究公司或其他管理單位進行商業決策的過程這門研究相當倚賴數據上的統計比如對於運籌學的研究以及其他統計方法例如在沒有完整資訊和確定性下的回歸分析。其研究的特色是對於商業決策最佳化的追求包括了如何降低成本最大化利益等當然這是假設在其他情況例如科技和市場需求不變的條件下。不確定性在經濟學上是指對於未來收入或損失無法預測的本質不管這是不是屬於風險。若是沒有了不確定性個體的經濟行為就會完全脫離工作和收入的不確定性金融和資本市場也會淪為單純的市場階段媒介而通訊產業則會完全消失。由於不確定性的型態眾多在經濟學上有許多不同方式用來代表不確定性以及經濟決策者對其的應對。賽局理論是應用數學的一種它研究的是不同決策者之間的戰略互動這也是屬於不確定性的一種。賽局理論提供了產業組織理論的數學根基用以架構公司的各種行為舉例來說它可以用來研究寡占的產業行為也可以套用在工資談判討價契約立定和其他各種決策者數量少到他們會對彼此產生可見影響的情況上。賽局理論是一種行為經濟學非常頻繁使用的方法它假設了個體們在至少有部分利益衝突的條件下分別選擇對他們最有利的戰略。透過這種分析它可以將個體尋求利益最大化的舉動用來研究例如供給與需求的模型同時也考慮到資訊的不確定性。這門研究最早追溯至1944年约翰冯诺伊曼的理論。賽局理論對於眾多領域都產生影響包括了核子戰略倫理學政治學甚至是演化生物學。風險厭惡也會在一個發達的經濟裡促使專門管理風險和提供風險資訊的產業，例如保險業市場、期貨交易、金融商品、金融經濟學、或純粹的金融市場便是針對風險而生的產業。這塊領域同時也研究金融市場和公司的資本結構、金融市場的效率和健康性、金融危機、以及政府對此的管制等等。有一些市場組織也會因為不確定性而產生低效率，依據乔治·阿克洛夫的「檸檬市場」理論，這種低效率的典型例子之一是二手車市場。由於消費者不確定一台車是否是有潛在問題，他們往往會壓低了一台好的二手車的價格低於其實際品質。資訊不對稱使得賣家即使有這方面的資訊，也沒有動機告知買家。相同的保險業在這方面的問題則是逆向選擇，也就是說那些很容易冒風險的人（也因此最容易出事），往往是那些最傾向於投保的人，也因此導致了道德風險，使得保險反倒促使更冒險的行為。這些問題都可能造成保險成本的上升，也因此驅逐了部分原本可以從此服務獲利的人（不完整市場）。而且，若是試圖解決單一問題，例如強制所有人保險，那麼仍然不能解決、反而會創造出更多道德風險的問題。資訊經濟學便是對於這些問題的研究，這在許多領域如保險、契約法、机制设计、貨幣經濟學、以及健保上。可以應用的研究成果包括了解決或減少法律和市場上的風險的措施，比如說產品保固、政府規定的部分保險、資本重組或破產法、以及其他對於資訊透露的管理。包括了許多不同的問題，許多這些問題可能與經濟學既有的假設互相衝突。儘管經濟學家對於市場失靈的定義有所差異，以下的分類經常被提出：資訊不對稱和不完整市場可能會導致經濟的低效率，但這有可能透過市場、法律、或其他政策辦法加以修正。自然壟斷或者稱為是一種競爭失靈的極端例子。這種問題描述了既然生產一個產品時生產越多單一成本越低，那麼依此推斷每個產品最終應該只有一個生產者才是最有效率的。公共物品依據市場失靈理論是一般市場是所缺乏供給的這種失靈的最主要特色是人們可以使用公共物品而不必直接付費。外部性指的則是市場價格所沒有反映出來的外部社會成本或利益。舉例來說汙染會造成負面的外部性而（政府付費的）教育則會創造正面外部性（如更高技術勞工）。政府經常向有製造負面外部性可能的經濟活動課稅或進行禁止並且向正面外部性的受益者課稅以企圖矯正市場。另外基本的供給與需求理論解釋了均衡的達成但並沒有解釋達到供需均衡所需要花費的時間。一些人則主張粘性价格證明數量而不是價格決定了供給與需求的短期改變，這也是許多總體經濟學裡對於景氣循環的標準研究。研究者通常聚焦於討論粘性价格的成因以及達到長期均衡的過程。有一些經濟學領域專注於對市場失靈的研究，比如公共經濟學便是研究政府以調節市場失靈為名對市場進行的干預。解決市場失靈的政策方式包括了根據成本收益分析立定的政府管理，或者提供市場誘因以進行改變，比如收取排放稅。儘管如此許多經濟學家的研究則提出質疑市場失靈的理論。例如公共選擇學派便提出了與市場失靈相反的例子－政府失靈認為政治上的經濟干預和特殊利益才是導致市場失靈的主因。而奧地利經濟學派則更進一步主張低效率的壟斷只有在政府主導之下才會形成並且主張市場的低效率只有透過尋求利潤的企業家精神才能消除而政府並不能做出正面影響。公共財政是研究政府公家機關如何進行預算和稅收的經濟學領域，研究的包含了稅制的制定、政府開支活動的成本效益分析、金融政策、政府對於經濟效率和收入分配的影響。公共選擇理論便是以個體經濟學角度研究公共產業的學派，分析各自尋求利益最大化的政治個體，例如政客、選民、官僚、和利益團體，以及他們在政治過程中的互動。大部分的經濟學都是實證為主的以描述和預測經濟現象為重點而規範經濟學則研究經濟。福利經濟學便是規範經濟學的一種以個體經濟學的角度分析收入分配的效率並且以社會裡個體的經濟行為來衡量社會福利。總體經濟學將經濟看作是一個整體，並且透過一般均衡理論用的角度檢視經濟的總和與互動。這些總和包括了對於一國經濟體的總投入與輸出、失業率、以及通貨膨脹，其他的小總和則包括了消費和投資總和等。總體經濟學也專注於研究貨幣政策和財政政策上。自從1960年代以來，總體經濟學也被引進一些個體經濟學的劃分方式，例如分析個體的理性、效率市場假說、以及不完全競爭等，這些發展解決了部份對於這些領域的不一致性質疑。總體經濟學同時考量影響成長和國家收入的因素，這些因素包括了資本累積、科技進步、以及勞動力的成長等。「成長經濟學」研究的是造就經濟成長的因素亦即一個國家人均生產輸出在長期的提高。同樣這個因素也被用來解釋各國之間存在的人均生產輸出的差異尤其為何某些國家成長得比其他國家快而為何某些貧窮國家的成長率比已開發國家高。許多被廣泛研究的因素包括了投資的比例、人口成長、以及科技變革。這些研究包括了理論上和觀察上的形式以及增长核算。對於經濟蕭條的研究促使了總體經濟學的誕生。在1930年代的經濟大恐慌時约翰梅纳德凯恩斯出版了一書建構了凱恩斯主義的主要理論。凱恩斯認為在經濟蕭條時對於產品的總需求可能有不足的現象導致高失業率以及可能的產能流失。他於是認為應該增加政府在公共產業的活動包括了以中央銀行實行擴張性的貨幣政策和財政政策以穩定景氣循環。也因此凱恩斯主義的一大結論為在某些情況下市場本身並不能將產出和雇傭推到充分就業的程度。约翰希克斯的IS-LM模型便是解釋凱恩斯理論的經典例子。隨著時間發展，對於景氣循環的認知也逐漸增進並擴張到其他領域，大多是作為對凱恩斯理論的回應。新古典綜合學派便是綜合凱恩斯經濟學與新古典主義經濟學，認為凱恩斯主義雖然在短期上是正確的，但新古典主義則在中長期更有解釋說服力。新興古典經濟學派則從凱恩斯景氣循環理論中脫出，認為市場的蕭條是因為不完全資訊所造成的，持這種立場的包括了米爾頓·傅利曼對於消費的恆常所得假說以及小罗伯特·卢卡斯提出的理論。相較之下新興凱恩斯學派則保留了對理性預期的假設但將景氣循環歸咎於市場失靈上。新興凱恩斯學派認為價格和工資是有的亦即他們不會隨著經濟情況的變動而很快做出調整。也因此新古典主義學派認為價格和工資會自動調整以達成充分就業而新興凱恩斯學派則認為充分就業只有在長期上才會自動達成也因此短期內必須要有政府和中央銀行介入。另一方面與凱恩斯學派對立的奧地利經濟學派則認為景氣循環是由於政府透過中央銀行釋出過多的借貸資金因而導致資本借貸的過度容易從而致使企業家的錯誤投資和資本的錯誤分配因而形成信用泡沫。他們認為景氣循環裡的擴張期是對於資本的濫用期而緊接而來的衰退期才是經濟復甦的開始。奧地利學派的理論不被凱恩斯學派或新古典主義學派所重視然而在學界仍然有部分支持者。一個經濟體裡的失業人數可以由失業率來計算亦即有多少勞工在積極的尋找工作退休者正接受教育者或因為其他因素而放棄尋找工作者並不包含在失業者裡。失業可以依據幾種型態來分類古典式失業指的是當工資太高因而導致雇主不願雇用更多勞工時工資太高的原因可能是最低工資法規或是工會的活動導致。依據古典式失業說法摩擦性失業則是當市場有應對的工作存在但在配對工作的過程中勞工所需要尋找和等待的時間。結構性失業則包含一系列導致失業的原因比如勞工有的技能與市場需要的技能不同時。當一個經濟體的產業正進行大規模的轉變時因為許多勞工既有的技能與新興產業不同許多結構性失業便有可能發生。無論經濟體所處的情況某些程度的失業都有可能持續存在不過凱恩斯學派主張當經濟停止成長時因為總需求不足所產生的週期性失業就有可能發生奧肯法則便是對於失業率與經濟成長的觀察。原始的奧肯法則指出3%的經濟產出成長便會降低1%的失業率。在大多數市場經濟下，貨幣是一種用以作為交易媒介的工具。假設在沒有通貨膨脹的情況下，貨幣比起其他形式的交易媒介要更來的有價值穩定性、可切分性、簡便性、以及更流動的供給。貨幣包含了大眾持有的紙鈔和積蓄、以及銀行和政府具有的備用資金。貨幣就好比是像語言一般的社會媒介，其價值存在於與他人互動的功能上，若是沒有其他交易的對象，那麼再多的錢也等同廢紙。作為一種交易媒介貨幣讓交易變得更為容易它使人們可以更簡單的估價產品和服務同時也促使儲蓄的產生。與貨幣對比的是以物易物的交易方式沒有了貨幣便要以更困難的物質配對交易雙方的需求。由於貨幣的通用性它使得交易的交易成本得以降低如此一來生產者便可以輕易將產出換為市場通用的價值而不需轉換必須進行二次交易的物品。對一個經濟體而言貨幣供給與總生產的面值和物價水準有密切關係也因此管理貨幣供給是貨幣政策的重要課題。凱恩斯學派認為政府應該透過對於財政政策的操弄來調整總需求他們主張當總需求低於經濟體存在的生產潛能時這種沒有使用到的生產能力便形成了產出浪費。依據這種說法政府透過增加財政支出的方式來鼓勵總需求成長如此一來便運用到沒有被使用的生產潛能。舉例來說即使在沒有實際需要的情況下政府也可以雇用失業勞工來興建高速公路如此一來便會發揮他們的。而這種支出也有乘數效應亦即為應付擴張性財政政策而產生的商機構成了多出的經濟活動。當然，這種理論是根基在沒有考慮到擠出效應的假設上。如果產出浪費並不存在，那經濟體便是以完全的產能在運作，這時如果政府介入增加財政支出，便會擠壓到民間產業的經濟活動，也因此不會產生經濟增長。支持擴張性財政者認為擠出效應只有在沒有產出浪費時才會出現，而反對的經濟學家認為這種效應是永遠存在的，並且指出李嘉图等价理論，他們主張政府借貸必然需要以未來的課稅增加來償還，而任何因為政府財政政策所引起的需求增長，都會因為民間為應付未來高稅率的儲蓄而被消除。國際經濟學研究國與國之間的貿易往來並且研究國際貿易可以帶來的貿易利得重要的政策研究包括了關稅以及貿易壁壘對於進出口和經濟成長的影響。國際金融學則是整體經濟學裡一門專門研究資本如何在各國之間流動的領域並且研究匯率。國際貿易的增長各國分工的增強和密集化是全球化重要的來源。發展經濟學則是研究在發展程度相對落後的開發中國家，並且研究產業改變、貧窮、和經濟成長。與其他經濟學領域不同的是，發展經濟學經常結合社會與政治的議題作為考量。經濟體系是經濟學裡研究各國經濟體系差異的領域研究的重點包括了各國在經濟路線發展策略產權保護以及經濟資源分配等指標上的差異。這門領域的研究是以一個作為最基本的研究單位。在當代經濟體系裡，經濟組織的兩大不同路線為社會主義體制和資本主義體制，一者是以國家統御經濟、另一者則是以自由市場來進行，而這兩者之間的中間路線為混合經濟。研究經濟體系與政治體制之間的互動，也被稱為政治經濟學，指的則是衡量不同經濟體系之間的經濟行為和成長差異。當代的經濟學經常使用數學作為研究手段之一，經濟學家使用的研究工具包括了微積分、線性代數、統計學、賽局理論、以及電腦科學。學術界的經濟學家一般都有使用這些工具的基本能力，少數經濟學家則專注在數理經濟學和其他數學的方式。主流經濟學理論依靠的是先驗的經濟模型，並從中衍生眾多概念。這些經濟論述通常假設在「其他情況保持不變」之下，研究聚焦的變數是如何因應各種條件進行改變。當進行經濟學論述時，經濟學家重視的是尋找可以以最少觀察資訊來實證、最為明確表達、同時可以衍生出其他研究的理論。在個體經濟學下主要的研究概念為供給與需求邊際主義理性選擇理論機會成本預算線效用以及公司研究。而總體經濟學早期則聚焦於對於總體變因的模型建構然而隨著時間發展這種路線逐漸被淘汰取而代之的研究則更注重於以個體基礎出發的總體研究。個體經濟學的許多概念對總體經濟學的領域都起了重大影響例如貨幣政策上貨幣主義主張的貨幣數量論指出對貨幣的供給擴張會因為市場的理性預期而造成通貨膨脹。在發展經濟學中已開發國家一般被預測會有比較小幅度的經濟成長因為資本投資的邊際回收會隨著發展程度而開始下降這種趨勢就在亞洲四小龍的發展上被觀察到。有時候這些經濟假說所主張的只是一種「定向」或「趨勢」而非絕對的數據改變。在近幾十年，賽局理論於社會科學領域的急速擴張也對經濟學產生巨大影響，透過例如納什均衡點作為研究經濟個體決策的基準，經濟學家可以在不依靠實際世界資料的情況下對許多領域做出分析和預測。標準的賽局理論經濟學論述通常先設計一個與現有經濟問題類似的，經濟學家並以賽局裡的單方行為和多方互動來研究他們如何在不同規則下進行利益最大化。經濟理論經常被用觀察上的方法加以驗證，通常是透過計量經濟學來檢視經濟數據。一般實體科學常見的封閉實驗在經濟學上是很難達成而且很少見的，也因此，經濟學家通常倚賴觀察既有資料的方式來測試他們的理論，雖然這樣觀察實驗的結果沒有封閉實驗來的準確、也比要容易被質疑。儘管如此，實驗經濟學是一門逐漸在成長的領域，而且對既有模型的觀察也在增加。統計學的研究方法例如回歸分析也很常見，使用者用此方法來估計規模、經濟重要性、以及統計顯著性，藉此來提出假說、並且控制變因的影響。透過這種作法，一個假說有可能因此獲得支持，儘管其準確性仍然只是機率上的、而不是絕對的，判斷研究的標準則是依靠其可否證性以及證偽結果。由於實驗結果的不確定性，這些觀察研究並不一定要對其研究問題提出決定性的結論，甚至也不一定要提出主要的發現。在實用經濟學領域上，以線性規劃來進行投入-產出模型的研究相當常見，為了研究某種政策對各方面的影響，經濟學家常將大量資料交由電腦統計分析。專業的同行評審和對於結果的重新生成也能進一步確保觀察實驗不會產生有偏見的錯誤的或輕率概化的結果儘管經濟學許多研究領域都常被批評是無法重生研究結果的。如同純粹的理論對於統計實驗的使用也會受到批判分析儘管如此在過去40年間單純為批評其他研究結果的文章在如美國經濟評論的期刊上一直減少這被認為是期刊試圖增加其引用數量的一種結果。實驗經濟學也造就了許多以封閉式對照實驗為方法的研究，直接測試一般被視為真理的一些經濟學理論，這將傳統上經濟學與自然科學的區分給縮小了，例如最後通牒賽局的實驗結果便證實了人們會拒絕接受不平等的分配方式。在行為經濟學上，心理學家丹尼尔·卡内曼與阿摩司·特沃斯基一起因為他們對於展望理論和認知偏差的發現而獲得2002年的諾貝爾經濟學獎，在神經經濟學上的觀察實驗也證實了類似結果。另外一個例子則是對照傳統的私利偏好假設與一個可以測試自私、利他、與合作傾向的模型。這些研究的進展使得一些人主張經濟學也是的一部分經濟學這一領域的專業化，反映在這個領域的研究所課程的成長上，並且被稱為是。大多數主要的大學和院校都有一個專精的經濟院所並頒發經濟學的學位，不論是在通識教育、商業或其他專業領域上，經濟學課程往往是必修的課程。諾貝爾經濟學獎在每年會依據其專家評審頒發給對這個領域有重大貢獻的經濟學家。在私人企業經濟學家通常擔任顧問的角色尤其是在銀行業和金融業。經濟學家也替眾多政府部門服務例如國庫中央銀行和統計組織。經濟學是社會科學的一門，同時也影響了眾多其他領域的學術發展，例如經濟地理學、經濟史、公共選擇理論、家庭經濟學、以及制度經濟學。法律經濟學是一種以經濟理論角度切入研究法學的方式，包含了以經濟學解釋法律產生的經濟影響、研究法律是否有助或有害於經濟效益、以及預測未來經濟法走向。罗纳德·科斯在1961年的文章裡就曾主張，對於產權的良好保護可以克服市場的外部性。政治經濟學是一門結合經濟學法學以及政治學的研究針對在探討政治制度政治環境以及經濟體制之間的互動。政治經濟學研究的包含了如壟斷和尋租行為以及外部性與政府政策的關係。歷史學家有時會使用政治經濟學一詞來描述研究在歷史上有特定利益的個人或團體是如何利用政治手段來取得利益。經濟學的社會學分支也透過經濟社會學發展出來主要是根基在爱米尔涂尔干马克斯韦伯格奥尔格齐美尔等人的作品上用以分析經濟發展和經濟現象對於社會傳統的影響。重要的作品包括了马克斯韦伯的《新教倫理與資本主義精神》格奥尔格齐美尔的《貨幣哲學》等書。對經濟學的研究最早可以追溯至美索不達米亞古希臘古羅馬中國波斯以及阿拉伯文明。14世紀之前知名的學者包括了亞里斯多德考底利耶湯瑪斯阿奎那伊本赫勒敦等人。受到亞里斯多德寫作的啟發阿奎那對其後代14至17世紀的經院哲學有許多貢獻由經院哲學所衍生的薩拉曼卡學派也成為中世紀末第一個有系統性地以自然法研究貨幣利息以及價值理論等經濟法則的經濟學派。在文藝復興之後，經濟學的發展開始由重商主義和重農主義兩派所支配，這兩個學派都對歐洲經濟民族主義和現代資本主義的發展有相當影響。重商主義在16至18世紀盛行於一些商人和政客之間，主張一國之財富是靠著累積金銀而來的，而沒有天然金礦銀礦的國家則只能靠著出口產品並且限制進口金銀以外貨物來累積財富。重商主義主張進口便宜的原始資源以用來生產出口的貨物，並且以關稅防止來自國外產品的競爭。重農主義則是一群18世紀的法國思想家組成，並認為經濟體是一個收入和產出不斷循環的圈圈，他們主張只有農業生產才能夠產出超過成本的價值，也因此農業是所有產業的根基。他們反對重商主義對製造業和出口的重視而忽略了農業。重農主義者並且主張淘汰耗費大量成本的稅金收取制度，改以地主的所得稅替代之。比起重商主義，重農主義者更支持自由放任的政策，認為政府不該干預經濟。亞當斯密被認為是現代經濟學的開端他對於當時的重商主義提出眾多批評並認為重農主義儘管但仍然是更為接近經濟學真相的框架。亞當斯密在1776年出版的一書被認為是這本書將土地勞動以及資本視為是生產的三大要素以及生產一國財富的來源而拋棄了重農主義認為只有農業活動才有生產性的理論。斯密討論了分工可以帶來的經濟好處，包括了勞動產能的上升以及貿易利得，無論是鄉村或是都市、或是不同國家之間都可以藉此獲利。他的理論認為分工的程度是由市場的需求所決定，這也成為了後代經濟學家對於公司和產業組織的主要理論來源。亞當·斯密提出了被廣泛認為是經濟學裡最重要的命題：亦即在競爭之下，資源的持有人。斯密認為所有個體會利用他們持有的任何資本來增進其自身的利潤和福利而非。斯密並且主張個體尋求利潤的動機是生產過程中所不可或缺的他們獲得的利潤就代表了他們所生產出的價值。他這樣說道因此，由於每個個人都會盡力把他的資本用以支持並管理國內的產業，這些產業的生產於是便能達到最大的價值；每個個人也必然竭力的使社會的年收入盡量擴大。確實，他通常並沒有打算要促進公共的利益，也不知道他自己促進了這種利益至何種程度。由於寧願支持國內的產業而非國外的產業，他只是盤算著他自己的安全；他管理產業的方式在於使其生產的價值能夠最大化，他所盤算的也只是他自己的利益。在這些常見的情況下，經過一雙看不見的手的引導，他也同時促進了他原先無意達成的目標。並非出自本意並不代表就對社會有害。藉由追求他個人的利益，往往也使他更為有效地促進了這個社會的利益，而超出他原先的意料之外。我從來沒有聽說過有多少好事是由那些佯裝增進公共利益而干預貿易的人所達成的。亞當·斯密提出的看不見的手的概念與他對於經濟發展和經濟成長的重視有密切關係，他認為經濟上的增長使得社會大眾可以進行更多更有價值的消費，這在他心目中才是「所有生產的唯一目的」。斯密並且以看不見的手來評論眾多的經濟學領域，包括了政府對於競爭、貿易的限制，以及銀行和利息，並提出他認為是「自由的既定體制」包括了國防、公平的司法制度、一些可以造福全社會的公共工程以及提供教育、道路、水壩等等。現代的經濟學教科書常把亞當·斯密的看不見的手作為解釋經濟學的最基本概念。同時期的托馬斯馬爾薩斯則利用報酬遞減來解釋生活水平他預言人類人口會以幾何方式倍增但糧食生產卻只會漸進的增加如此一來有限的土地便會導致暴增的人口勞動力產能報酬遞減於是便會導致生活水平大幅退步的人口過剩出現。馬爾薩斯並且質疑市場經濟的調節性能批評市場本身無法達成完全就業並且稱經濟體傾向於過度存款而導致消費不足這一理論後來也被凱恩斯加以利用。亞當·斯密注重在財富的生產上，而大衛·李嘉圖則注重在收入的分配。李嘉圖認為地主與資本和勞工之間必然會有衝突存在，他主張隨著人口的成長和生產增加，有限的土地必然會使得租金逐漸上漲，於是減低資本獲得的利潤、以及勞工的工資。李嘉圖是第一個提出了比較優勢的經濟學家，依據此理論，無論一國是否在生產上每個層面都比他國優越或落後，邊際的生產成本差異使得他們都可以從國際貿易過程中獲利。比較利益到今天一直被經濟學家認為是解釋貿易利得的最基本框架。到了古典經濟學的末期一些人開始對其假設提出質疑比如約翰斯圖爾特密爾便提出市場分配收入的問題他認為市場扮演了兩個主要的角色資源的分配以及收入的分配。他認為市場在分配資源上可能是最有效的但不一定可以最好的分配收入於是產生社會介入的需要。價值理論是古典經濟學重要的一部分，亞當·斯密常被認為是提出一個產品的交換價值是由其勞動所決定的人，不過，斯密其實在這方面有所保留，比如他說：「所有東西的真正價值，取決於取得這樣東西的難度。」斯密認為除了工資以外的因素也影響了產品的價格。儘管如此，許多古典經濟學家開始以斯密為基礎提出了勞動價值理論，主張勞動是價值的主要或唯一來源。馬克思主義經濟學是從古典經濟學裡衍生而出的，卡爾·馬克思提出了其理論的基本模型。馬克思在1867年出版了一書，以勞動價值理論為基礎，主張資本主義的生產模式必然會產生剩餘價值，也就是資本對於勞工的剝削。依據勞動價值理論，一個產品的價值是由生產過程中所必需的社會勞動所決定的，而剩餘價值理論則主張勞工的工資只構成了產品價格裡的勞動力价格，即让劳动力再生产的部分，從此認為有剝削存在。從1870年至1910年之間，一系列經濟學家開始對古典經濟學的假設提出挑戰，這一系列的變革後來被稱為是「邊際革命」。由英格兰的威廉姆·斯坦利·杰文斯、奥地利的卡尔·门格尔和瑞士的利昂·瓦尔拉斯所各自提出，邊際主義否定了古典經濟學的勞動價值理論，認為價值是由邊際效用而非勞動所決定的。邊際主義不但解決了古典經濟學所無法解釋的鑽石與水悖論，同時也促生了成為現代新古典經濟學骨架的主觀價值理論。19世紀末的邊際革命是經濟學的一大分水嶺。古典經濟學重視的是社會活動間的因果關係，例如財富的生產和分配，以及透過政治經濟學分析不同政體下財富分配結構。隨著邊際效用概念的提出，對於生產和交易的研究得以從社會理論中分離出來，而迈向“纯粹观察现象并提出假说”的研究路径。這種改變使得經濟學得以脫離受到價值判斷影響的規範經濟學，从以往的社会经济，進而成為不具鲜明立场性和政治性的學問。凯恩斯主义经济学發展自約翰梅納德凱因斯1936年出版的《就業利息與貨幣的一般理論》一書此書確立了總體經濟學一領域的獨立。凱恩斯在此書中研究許多在短期（亦即長期的經濟均衡達到之前）影響總收入和生產的因素他認為高度的失業可能會因為市場缺乏有效需求而無法自行調整並且主張為了增加總需求政府應該透過擴張性的財政政策來克服這種情況。在當時經濟大恐慌的環境下凱恩斯的此一理論對經濟學界產生重大影響。隨著時間發展，凱恩斯學派出現兩個分支。後凱恩斯學派注重於研究總體經濟學的彈性缺乏以及調整過程，另外他們在個體經濟學上則以實際世界的觀察例子來作為研究基礎，而非透過利益最大化的模型，該學派的主要人物有瓊·羅賓遜等人。新興凱恩斯學派同樣也是衍生自原始的凱恩斯主義此流派同意其他經濟學家利用利益最大化來解釋個體經濟學的模型但提出了價格和工資黏性的理論用以更新原始的凱恩斯主義儘管他們對原始框架的支持已經轉變為強調其持續出現特徵而不是堅持其存在的本質。邊際革命促生了主導當代主流經濟學的新古典主義經濟學，阿爾弗雷德·馬歇爾提出了的研究，用以對照之前的政治經濟學。這種轉變就有如在當時數學模型對於自然科學的影響。新古典主義經濟學將供給與需求作為分析市場均衡下價格和供給數量的模型，以此解釋產出以及收入的分配。比起古典經濟學，新古典主義重視的是市場的邊際需求。到了20世紀，新古典主義經濟學遠離了古典經濟學以基數作為分析個體之間生產關係和社會總和利益的方式。在個體經濟學方面，新古典主義認為動機和機會成本構成了決策的最重要基準，例子之一是消費者理論分析價格（也就是成本）以及收入是如何影響需求的數量。而在總體經濟學上，與凱恩斯主義綜合的新古典綜合學派成為當今總體經濟學的主流。新古典主義經濟學經常被稱為是，現代的主流經濟學教科書大多是以新古典主義為基礎，雖然在許多方面也有改動或是重視不同的領域，例如計量經濟學、賽局理論、對於市場失靈和不完全競爭的分析等。1970年代出現的停滯性通貨膨脹直接挑戰了凱恩斯主義的基本假設。依據菲利普斯曲線，凱恩斯主義認為通貨膨脹會使得物價提高，由此帶動產業雇用更多勞工以增大產能，而更高的雇用度則會帶動需求面。然而，在1970至1980年代同時出現了通貨膨脹和高失業率，這使得原先支配總體經濟學的凱恩斯主義開始備受質疑。在這種背景下芝加哥經濟學派和其衍生的貨幣主義開始挑戰凱恩斯主義。依據該學派的米爾頓傅利曼等人的說法市場經濟在貨幣供給持平的條件下可以自行調整供需。依據這種理論政府的角色是透過中央銀行調控在經濟體中流通的貨幣數量除此之外不需要干預自由市場的活動。芝加哥學派以及後來小罗伯特卢卡斯提出的理性預期理論大幅度取代了凱恩斯主義在總體經濟學的支配地位。前美國聯邦準備理事會主席本伯南克便是支持傅利曼解釋景氣循環說法的經濟學家之一。當代的主流經濟學經常被二分為美國東海岸與西海岸大學代表的鹹水學派與芝加哥等內地大學代表的淡水學派。米爾頓·傅利曼基本上採納了許多亞當·斯密和其他古典經濟學家提出的個體經濟學概念並且將之現代化，比如他在1970年曾主張一個企業的社會責任是要，這一說法與亞當·斯密認為市場通過私利可以最好達成社會總利益的看法一致。一些在主流經濟學以外的經濟學派和研究方式也對經濟學領域有重大和持續的影響，比如奧地利經濟學派、洛桑學派、後凱恩斯學派、斯德哥爾摩學派等。與新古典主義經濟學平行發展的奧地利經濟學派，便是衍生自邊際革命的重要人物卡爾·門格爾的理論，而其許多研究框架也與主流經濟學有高度重疊。在總體經濟學上有顯著討論而自成一派的還包括了如新興古典經濟學派和供給面學派等。除此之外，一些比較不受主流經濟學討論的研究包括了生態經濟學、制度經濟學、演化經濟學、依賴理論等。19世紀維多利亞時代歷史學家托马斯·卡莱尔曾諷刺的稱經濟學為是屬於政治學的領域。在一書中，亞當·斯密大力抨擊那些他認為是依賴政治權力來影響市場運作的個人或團體，在斯密的年代這些人通常被稱為，今天則是我們所熟知的利益團體例如政黨、銀行、公司、工會等等。作為社會科學的一部分，經濟學研究應該要獨立於政府政策或其他決策團體的影響之外，然而，政策制定者和政治人物經常以特定經濟學的理論或說詞來正當化他們推動的政治議程，許多時候往往脫離他們公職的負責領域。經濟學理論在實踐上與政治不可避免的密切關連經常被拿來做為批評的對象，批評者往往將經濟學作為一個學術領域的角色與特定議題或價值觀混為一談。儘管如此，經濟學對於政府經濟政策的形成是理所當然有影響力的，而且在某種程度上可以說是政治經濟學的分支。許多學術界的期刊經常探討經濟學者之間對於某種政策的共識或主流立場為何，希望以此增加專業意見在政治決策上的角色。事實上，當今的主流經濟學界與一些普遍存在政治討論的看法往往抱持截然不同的立場，舉例來說，貿易保護主義在大眾輿論和政客之間普遍流傳，然而經濟學家卻一面倒的認為自由貿易才是增進社會整體利益的方式。依據美國經濟學會的調查，美國經濟學家之間已達成明顯共識的議題包含了支持自由貿易、支持沃爾瑪等大型連鎖店商業自由、反對政府強制雇主提供勞工健保、允許商業化的器官轉移、開放賭場、反對補貼生物燃料等等。其他議題例如中央銀行的獨立運行以及政府在透過中央銀行影響財政政策和貨幣政策上的做法乃至總體經濟學上的眾多政策也經常是爭議的焦點和對於主流經濟學批評的來源。而一些學者例如Deirdre McCloskey則提出許多透過數據觀察進行的經濟學實證研究在方法或結果上都有問題此點批評在經濟學界受到不少重視不過也有某些依賴先驗而拋棄實證觀察作為研究方法的經濟學者和學派存在例如奧地利經濟學派便是一例。一些人則責怪經濟學家無法準確預言未來的經濟走向或經濟危機的到來舉例來說在2007年－2013年环球金融危机便引發許多人批評主流經濟學的教科書與現實脫離。國際貨幣基金組織在2002便曾發表他們對一群經濟學家調查他們對未來經濟蕭條的預測結果提出97%在1990年代受調查的經濟學家沒有成功預測未來一年的經濟緊縮而即使成功預測的人也經常低估了緊縮的嚴重性。經濟學長久來持續被質疑是依靠不實際的無法驗證的或是過度簡化的假說來做為理論依據質疑者主張這種簡化過程免除了經濟學家提出結論所要舉出的證據。經常被質疑的假說例如利潤最大化理性選擇等等。不過資訊經濟學包含的就是這方面以數學研究和行為經濟學來研究個體在利潤最大化以外的行為。另外一些主流的經濟學家例如凱恩斯也曾觀察到大部分的經濟學領域都是透過概念上的而非數據上的證據來建立也因此無法像其他自然科學一樣透過數據來驗證。近年來，批評新古典主義經濟學的女性主義者也開始浮現，促使了女性主義經濟學的誕生。女性主義經濟學批評經濟學一般對於實證和客觀的假設，認為現有的模型和方法只反映出男性社會的偏好。女性主義經濟學經常提出的批評包括經濟學忽視家庭主婦的家事勞動價值、家庭的經濟掌管和收支。一些從物理學角度出發的科學家則批評經濟學依靠的是19世紀的物理學假設，例如便從熱力學裡提出了與能源經濟學有關的熵理論，以區別他認為主流經濟學依據在牛頓物理學上所建構的理論框架。他的理論對於熱力經濟學和生態經濟學有相當的影響。一些人例如納西姆·尼可拉斯·塔雷伯則批評經濟學的理論方式，認為經濟學過度倚賴柏拉圖的理型論研究模型，並主張經濟學理論錯誤的結果可能會對人類整體造成龐大災害，他以隨機性和不確定性問題來質疑許多既有的經濟模型。然而如同其他的批評，並非所有經濟學家倚賴的都是新古典經濟學的模型和假設。而一些經濟學家也正視了塔雷伯提出的問題，例如諾貝爾經濟學獎得主丹尼爾·卡內曼便對塔雷伯的理論讚譽有嘉。而儘管這些批評的存在，主流的經濟學研究所課程已經發展得越來越趨向於技術化和數學化的研究方式。 +政治科学是一门社會科學學科以研究政治行為政治體制以及政治相關領域為主。在西方政治學在學術領域裡的研究也被稱為政治科学政治研究或只有政治兩字。基本是同义的但是“政治科学“更侧重指代以经验主义为基础的实证研究尤其是定量研究。政治学的研究者被称为政治学家或政治学者、國外政策、美國國會權力、和最高法院在一些議題上的立場等。對政治的研究最早開始於古希腊政治學一詞誕生於社会科学之後。不過這門學科的前身明顯是伦理学政治哲学和歷史以及其他圍繞著研究國家特色和功能的學術領域。在幾乎每一個歷史時代和在每一個地方我們都能看到一些專門研究和學習政治的人士。政治學的前身甚至能追溯至柏拉圖和亞里士多德之前的年代尤其是在希羅多德荷马赫西俄德修昔底德和欧里庇得斯等人的著作裡。後來柏拉圖開始分析希腊城邦的政治制度將他們原本以文學和歷史為方向的研究分析抽取出來應用至我們目前所稱的哲學上。同樣地亞里士多德在柏拉圖的分析上又建立了以歷史經驗為根據的研究及發展了以比較方式研究政治也就萌生了日後的比較政治理論被譽為政治學之父。而柏拉图的更被认为是政治学的创始之作。尤其是亚里士多德在相当程度上指出了后来西方政治学研究的正确方向。在羅馬統治時期，随着斯多葛学派的兴起，著名的歷史學家如波里比阿、蒂托·李维、普魯塔克也記載了羅馬共和崛起過程，和其他國家的組織及歷史，以及恺撒和西塞罗等政治家，使我們得以更加了解當時羅馬的政治和戰爭。在當時對政治的研究主要是以對歷史的學習、政府治理的手段、和描述政府運作的情況為方向。而西塞罗更是对国家概念进行了界定，设计出了权力制衡的运作模式，并发展了自然法思想。隨著羅馬帝國的衰落政治研究的舞台更加擴散。一神教的崛起尤其是西方文化裡基督教的崛起在政治和政治行為上產生更多研究空間。到了中世纪时期，基於當時歐洲奉行政教合一，政治學尚未成為一獨立學科，對於政治問題都傾向由宗教教義來解釋，故此，當時所謂的政治學，乃隸屬於神學。但是，教會和朝廷間對政治的研究仍然相當廣泛。当时的政治研究以希波的奧古斯丁的教父神学和托马斯·阿奎那的经院哲学为代表。希波的奧古斯丁所著的《上帝之城》一書綜合了當時基督教的哲學和政治傳統，重新定義了宗教與政治間的領域界線。大多數這個時代的政治議題都圍繞於教會與國家間的立場澄清和互相競爭。而阿奎那将希腊哲学和基督教神学进行了有机结合，并且论证了信仰、理性、道德和政治界分的可能性。在中東和後來其他的伊斯蘭地區欧玛尔海亚姆所著的以及菲爾多西所著的國王的史詩裡都提供了對政治的分的而其他亞里士多德派的伊斯蘭學者如阿维森纳也繼續研究亞里士多德的分析和经验主义寫下許多針對亞里士多德作品的評論。而在古代中国对政治的研究主要是制定礼乐兵刑职官等典章制度与现代的政治研究存在相当大的差异。文艺复兴是西方政治学研究的重要转折点。政治学开始摆脱神学的束缚，人们以理性和经验的眼光来观察和解释政治现象。意大利的尼可罗·马基亚维利樹立了現代政治學的研究重點，針對政治機構和政治參與者做直接的觀察，其著作《君主論》，教導君主其只顧後果不顧過程的政治手段，內容與基督教教義衝突甚大。《君主論》的完成，被視為政治學由基督教中完全分離的一個里程碑。後來在啟蒙時代裡，學術領域的擴張進一步的拓廣政治學的研究範圍，超過了原本只是針對決策基準的研究。法国政治思想家让布丹则对主权问题进行了系统地探讨。他在中认为主权是国家的基本属性是至上和不可分割的。并且认为为了避免社会动荡有必要加强君主的绝对权威。他的政治理论仍未摆脱中世纪的影响但是他的主权理论促进了现代民族国家的形成也是理性主义政治学的先驱。在18世紀牛頓的出現，開始建構現代科學理論的時候，政治學也跟隨其他學科一樣開始進行科學化的研究，在牛頓的世界裡，利用實驗方法得出的結果來歸結為知識、相信自然、訴諸數學解釋等等，都對政治學的研究開出了一條新的方向。与此同时出现的一大批思想家、政治家的各种政治思想主张，包括了天赋人权、社会契约、分权制衡等学说以及自然法、自然权利、主权、自由、民主、平等、幸福等观念，成为了其后政治学研究的主导框架。当霍布斯和约翰·洛克从不同的假设出发探讨政府的起源及其正当性问题时，西方政治学开始进入逻辑理性主义传统。19世纪的思想家在一定程度上继承了启蒙运动的思想传统，包括了历史主义者黑格尔、孔德和马克思，以及进化论社会学的斯宾塞、梅因、滕尼斯等。随着政治研究日益成为一门科学，研究者更加注重于对历史事实的归纳和分析来解释政治现象。约翰·密尔、罗伯特·米歇尔斯、马克斯·韦伯等人是其典型代表。现代政治学的专业化则发端于20世纪的美国。政治學在大學裡成為一門正式的學科和系所開始於1880年代，以哥伦比亚大学成立政治研究院为标志。將過去的政治研究整合為一門學科的過程不斷進行著，政治學的歷史也替政治學的基準和實證提供了豐富的研究領域，學科裡的每一個部分都有著一些共同的歷史前身。但此時已研究國家公法學、政治制度、歷史為主，以德國的國家學最為知名。起初，政治學本包括解釋經濟現象，並未有經濟學的建構，但在現代科學發展底下，經濟學遂由政治經濟學分家出來，經濟學傾向研究人們在市場交易的行為，政治學研究的領域，則更專注於權力分配、國家、制度身上。第二次世界大战结束后，政治学与社会学、经济学和法学密切相关的一个政治学分支，国际关系开始变得越来越重要。随着时间的演化，国家关系或国际政治的研究方法也已经与政治学有了较大的差别。在1950年代和1960年代間大卫伊斯顿加布里埃尔阿尔蒙德等倡導的行為主義革命促使學術領域裡針對個人和團體的科學研究從原本有系統而嚴厲地學科裡逐漸游離。同時政治學的分析領域也朝向更深層和複雜的部分也使政治學與其他不同的學科的研究關係更加緊密尤其是社會學經濟學歷史人類學和统计学。政治行為的研究者也越來越倚賴以科學的方法做學術研究如量化研究方法學等根基在對政治走向的經驗證實和推斷的假設前提上並歸納針對人類與團體的政治行為解釋。在上一個世代裡政治學科越來越注重與現實間的關聯或以使用新的方法和途徑來研究如何解決政治和社會上的問題。當代政治學家們專注研究社會上對決策權力的轉移和分配以及政治的制度和其所扮演的角色—包括一般的政府和國際組織政治行為和公共政策。他們藉由檢驗許多因素來評估治理和特定政策的成功性包括穩定性司法物質財富以及和平。一些政治學家試圖分析政治來追求進一步的實證科學題材。其他的政治學家則以基準的題材分析政治以提出特定的政策建議。基于对政治的不同看法对政治学的研究对象也有不同的见解。国家学派认为政治本身是一种国家活动，因此政治学是研究国家现象的科学。而以大卫·伊斯顿为首的政治学者则认为政治学的研究对象是权力與权威性的价值與利益分配，这种观点對於後來的政府研究以及多元主義的發展都有極大影響。另外一个影响较大的观点是，认为政治学是研究人类社会的政治关系的科学。也有人认为政治学的研究对象是公共事務。而则认为政治学的研究对象是政府與公共政策。传统上，政治学研究一般分为传统的政治哲学和现代的政治科学两大类。传统的政治哲学研究政治问题主要从哲学思辨的角度，从形而上的角度探讨政治生活中的最高准则，民主、正义、自由、平等等价值取向和相应的政体设计是其研究的重点。大多数政治学家一般先通过先验设定抽象出一个普遍化的人性，然后通过逻辑推演设定出一套符合人类至善生活的最高准则，再根据这个准则设计出相应的政治制度。早期的制度主义者受到传统政治哲学和欧洲大陆国家学影响，主要关注自上而下的制度设计问题。认为制度是影响人类行为的基本因素，对政治机构运作的研究主要通过对政治制度中权力分配和人类行为的法律与机构约束地了解。主要通过制度研究法和历史比较法进行研究。制度研究法以政治制度为研究对象主要研究立法行政与司法等政治机构研究的主要资料是宪法法律政府文件议会日程等资料从这些资料中分析特定社会的政治价值并设计出符合某种目的的政治机构或制度。制度研究法所欠缺的普遍归纳性，历史比较法正好能够弥补。历史比较法注重于比较不同国家之间的制度，对不同制度进行比较，以及对各国制度的历史变迁进行比较，通过归纳得出普遍化法则。行为主义反对政治哲学研究中的思辩与演绎方法也反对制度主义的静态描述和简单写实认为政治学的研究对象应该是实际存在并且可以观察到的政治行为。行为主义注重数据的收集和整理常常运用数学模型模拟实验直接探查实地观察技术手段进行研究。主要原则包括了精确性纯科学量化研究和价值去除。其主要理论包括理性选择理论也像行为主义一样从个体出发来观察和分析政治现象但并不采取归纳的方法而是先假定一个寻求自身利益最大化的个体然后在各种情境下计算和演绎按照功利最大化原则行动的个体可能会采取的行动。理性选择理论起源自公共选择理论。包括了詹姆斯·布坎南的公共选择模型，安东尼·唐斯的官僚经济学，奥尔森的集体行动理论和赖克的政治联盟理论。其后逐渐发展出联盟理论、交易理论、博弈理论、投票分析和科层决策等理论形态。結構主義認為，世界上存在著不同的結構影響著政治現象。結構的因素包括地緣因素、經濟力量、社會規範、價值觀等等，環境因素催生、侷限著不同的政治現象，甚至使個體無法作出自主的決定。環境可以隨時間、人們的影響而變更。在政治學界一直存在著結構主義與理性選擇的論爭，結構主義者認為環境決定了人們一切選擇，理性主義者卻認為人們的決策才是影響環境的因素。這使解釋政治現象無法避免平衡量方面的因素。1980年代以来美国兴起了新制度主义学派重新强调制度主义的研究路径注重研究制度的动态运动对政治活动的影响尤其是制度与行为和观念的关系。作为对行为主义的反动新制度主义认为从个体出发从而研究整体的观念是错误的整体并不是个体的简单相加。其主要流派有比較政治以各種方法研究不同的政府形式間的差異。以美國和加拿大為例還會包括對於當地區域的研究也就是對於特定州省或行政區域的研究。政治理論包含了針對政府意識形態政權政治運動以及政治哲学的問題的基準研究。国际关系專注於研究國與國之間的關係最近也開始研究跨國的議題如自然環境人口走私貿易社會運動生產過程的分工以及對恐怖主義的打擊。政治與經濟間的複雜關係則反應在政治经济学的領域裡政治經濟學家們試著理解經濟架構和理論與政治間的關係。政治社会学研究政治与社会之间的互动关系。生物政治学研究生物学上的人与其政治行为的关系。政治地理学从地理的角度分析政治现象。政治人类学从文化人类学的角度研究政治制度和政治行为。針對政治精英政治行為以及兩者間的互動的研究則是政治心理學的領域。公共行政研究公共政策的實行決策和結果。試圖解釋政治架構所扮演的角色官僚政治和利益集团對公共政策的影響以及實體的公共世界執行政策的成果。 +法學又称法律学法律科学是社會科學中一門特殊的學科研究法律此一特定社會現象及其本质与規律。所有的秩序都可以說是一種例如自然規律倫常邏輯法則或美學而法學就是研究法律的法則。雖然許多法學家例如認定法學沒有學術性質然而法學演進至今仍包含有法律哲學法律史學以及法律科學等三大部門。此外又因為研究對象都是社會上的現象因此法學與政治學經濟學財政學社會學和心理學等社會科學有相當程度的密切關連。法學思想最早淵源於東周時期的法家哲學思想如管子主張荷蘭法學家格勞秀斯認為法學是人類研究遵從正義而生活的學科。文藝復興時期法學於大學中備受重視為當時學術界最具地位的科系之一與醫學及神學三足鼎立。在歷史演進過程中先有習俗然後由倫理分離出道德最後才有法律但是相對於習俗與道德法律具有固定以及強制的特性也包含人民生活中現實可行的權力企圖解釋理想世界的應然法則。法學從古代拉丁語中的演變而來原意是法律的研究知識或學問其中juris是jus的所有格意思是法律的prudentia是慎重亦即考慮周到先見細心特別是在實際行事中運用高明判斷之意。在美國語境中法學通常指稱法律哲學主要有四大研究面向首要是尋求分析解釋釐清與批判法律本體第二種在於比較法律以及其他種學問如文學經濟宗教社會科學的內容第三為解析法律特定主題的歷史道德或文化背景最後則是專注於回答等抽象問題。在中國從西周開始，就有完整行政制度，而周禮一書，可謂集公法與私法之大成，也是實體法與程序法的總匯，而且學術上百家爭鳴，思想自由發達，從管仲開始，包含商鞅、申不害、尹文、慎到、韓非等人，後人稱之為法家，多因重法而使得其國昌盛。法學一詞，在先秦時被稱為刑名之學，自漢代開始有律學的名稱，到唐代則是成熟時期，先後有武德律、貞觀律、永徽律及開元律等法典，而中的解釋：人的行為中都有某種應然的法則，而規範人類意志和行為的倫理法則可以區分為道德、習俗以及法律。前述法律是三者之中唯一具有下列四項特性的法則，外在關心取向、外在判斷方式、外在目的主體以及外在效力來源。也就是說，法律關心行為所產生的結果而不是內心的意圖，只要行為符合法律條文就屬於合法行為，而法律領域中有相對權利義務的主體，並且有立法者與仲裁者。德國著名法學家古斯塔夫·拉德布魯赫認為，法律具有三大價值：公共利益、法明確性以及正義，然而因為人的不完美這三大價值並不總是和諧共存於每部法律之中。從道德習俗法律國家科學藝術和宗教這些文化內容中依照不同的學派曾有三大體系來討論法律的目的造就法治國家文化國家以及威權國家等不同型態的法律內容。首先是十八世紀末康德席勒洪博特等人認為自由的倫理人格是最高的價值而藝術和科學只是人格教養的工具法律和國家只是它的保護機制於是法律僅僅具有個人主義倫理的從屬價值而沒有自身的價值這就是法治國家中普遍認為法律只是理性目的的技術性規範。在威權國家中多以為民族國家權力及其成長是人世間最高的使命國家賦予所有個人道德的內容所有文化成果都是為國家服務如黑格爾這些理論家都把國家視為一個整體人類就是肢體而肢體是為了整體而存在法律具有超乎個人的自身價值。最後是文化國家如斐迪南滕尼斯在中描述生命的最高使命不在於個人或集體的人格上而在創造和遺留下來的成就以及成就的總和也就是文化而國家的最高使命也在於保護這些文化工作。法律的制訂不僅由有組織的族群或國家的成文法也可以從沒有組織的社群中凝聚習慣而成然而國家不僅是法律的主要來源它同時也是法律的產物國家的立憲及其在法理上的地位是從憲法和相關法律演繹得到的。也就是說國家預設了憲法而憲法又以國家為前提。事實上國家與憲法是一體兩面就像有機物和它的組織很難彼此分離。立憲思想見於孟德斯鳩的三權分立說他主張如果國家不想由法治淪為專制則國家的三種權力就不能完全落到同一個國家機關手中也就是人民參與立法行政必須合法司法必須獨立。因此立憲國家所奠立的自由除了人民參與國家事務的積極面外還有國家保證不能觸犯個人自由的消極面。警察國家不知道國家權力的界限他們不僅是要保護人民免於他人的侵犯還要免於自身無知的危害因而犧牲人民的自由以保障其福祉。但當立憲國家默默地不再過問某些領域的事務時便打破這種監護制度這些領域是1789年的後在憲法或其他法律中明白宣示不可侵犯的權利如法律之前人人平等個人自由居住和通信隱私不受侵犯信仰和文化自由學術及理論自由集會結社自由出版自由就業自由遷徙自由等。形式上憲法是國家根本大法效力優於普通法律其他一般法律均須根據憲法而制訂不得與憲法抵觸否則即失其效力。古典資本主義社會中經濟法的本質是為了確保市民對經濟活動有自由放任的權利特別堅持所有權自由契約自由與人格平等之法律基本原理法律主要內容是要求國家權利給予人民最大的經濟活動自由並藉由市場自動調節機制即所謂來確保整體市場合理的經濟秩序與實現均衡的經濟循環。自有人類社會以來就存在著犯罪，剛開始還沒有法律觀念，對於犯罪行為時常訴諸武力以求自立救助，而形成「以牙還牙，以眼還眼」的復仇制度，此即刑罰的原始型態。在法治國家以及專制國家中，刑法仍多以權威思想為建構方向，以報復和威嚇主義為思路，使得罪行明確對應於應處之刑罰，同時演扮演著維護法律安定性的角色，以對抗統治者濫用權威。隨著自由主義和國家主義的思想轉變成社會主義的人民國家時，社會保護與教育防範之刑法目的取代了上述傳統，即使是以社會教育保護刑法為訴求的刑事政策，也有司法信賴危機的疑慮。而今日的爭論已不再是何者優先，而是刑事司法中之權利保障以及提高法官的裁量空間，以及在於舊式狹義的法治國家或福利文化國家間的抉擇。然而刑罰的問題還涉及刑法本身的根源。刑罰意味著故意對人施惡任何人想使用刑罰就必須明白自己被託付更高層次的重任。每個犯罪行為都是兩個因素下的產物個人性格和環境狀況。依據犯罪行為的主要動機可將犯罪行為人分成兩大類機會犯人以及常習犯人。機會犯人的行為是由外在刺激或誘因所引起的不具長期犯罪的傾向常習犯人則想要犯罪或基於習慣天性而具有犯罪的本性。對於後者經驗顯示很多都會辜負教育者的努力並再度犯罪因此刑罰只能將他們除掉永久或是長時間隔離以確保社會安全。對於機會犯人則應表達明確訓斥用以警告他們。因此根據犯罪者分成三類也可將刑罰目的分成三類刑罰要警告時機犯罪者要改善能改過的性格犯罪者以及隔絕無可救藥的性格犯罪者。相對於一般教育青少年罪犯應該要以教養為主。現代的法學是指研究法律的科學但是關於法學與科學的關係有不同的看法這主要涉及價值論的研究是不是科學的問題。近代德國人把人文社會科學提高到與自然科學對等的地位的柏林洪堡大學以來的現代大學推動了社會科學的發展。法學被理解為科學與這一背景有關。法學以價值論為主要核心內容如同丹麥法學家所說。法學肯定法律對於社會的規範和調整。除此之外，法學也與政治學有密切關連，法學研究法律為主要內容，而法律往往反映國家政治的措施。政治的型態與體制，常以法律具體表現。政治學以研究國家為主要對象，並認為國家是一個法人，具有法律上的權利義務，與法學上認定自然人和法人有權利義務的概念完全相同。因此，法學與政治學有不可分離、互為表裡的關係。法學如何分類依各學者不同，有以研究範圍廣狹為區別標準，分為一般法學與特別法學兩種，一般法學研究關於法學的全體概念，例如法學緒論、法學通論、法學概要，特別法學研究關於特種法律現象的學問，例如憲法學、民法學、刑法學、行政法學、商法學、國際法學等。也有以研究內容作為區分標準，分為法律哲學、法律史學與法律科學三種，法律哲學是研究法律的原理原則，探求法律的終極理想及其實用價值，各大學之法律科系，多設有法理學一科來探討法律哲學的範疇。法律史學，又稱為法律沿革學，主要研究法律的變遷過程及未來趨勢，現在法律科系多有法學史、法律學史或法制史等類學科，變屬於法律史學範疇。法律科學探討國家現行法律的共同原理原則，以及各種法律的概念、內容及適用範圍，其中又可分門別類研習，如憲法、行政法、民法、刑法與其他各種法律研究。法律教育以傳授法律知識法學知識體系和培養法律職業為目的的教育制度和途徑。現代法律教育一般分為法學教育和法律職業培訓兩個基本部分。法學教育之目的係在法學範疇上的知識培育，範圍包括各種法學理論及術科。有些人將法學教育分為法學本科教育和法學研究生教育，前者係指法學方面的第一學歷（法學士和法律博士），後者則為供法學本科畢業後繼續進修的法學教育，如法學碩士及法學博士。惟有些人則認為法律博士雖為法學方面的第一學歷，但卻是一個研究生學歷，因此認為分類應以基礎法學教育和進階法學教育為名。法律職業培訓分為兩大類：清朝滅亡後，在民國初年，各式大學紛紛建立起來，當中包括不少法學院。其中，國立的法學院仍以前身為京師大學堂法律學門的北京大學法律系最為著名，而私立的法學院則以东吴大学法学院和朝陽大學朝阳大学法学院最為著名，有之美譽。中華人民共和國成立後，中國的教育界經歷多種變遷，法學院以亦已成為法學院。由於中國古代學生在仕官的晉身途徑中並不要求對法律的知識因此中國古時對法律教育並不非常重視。及至清末科舉制度被取消以後在沈家本主持的法律改革下投身京師大學堂成為入仕的最理想途徑加上為法律改革所帶來的機會京師大學堂法律學門遂成為最多學生爭相入讀的學校之一。及至現在中國的法學教育機構數量龐大單就中國而言至2008年11月已有634所法學院系在改革開放的三十年中法學學生和法學教師的人數分別增加了100倍和10倍。目前臺灣較具代表性的法學院：僅有研究所而乏大學部的法學院所在臺灣，大學院校法律有關系所畢業者，具參加司法官（法官、檢察官）、律師考試的資格，因此法律學系成為三個類組中較熱門的科系之一，在各大學第一類組的科系裡（包括政治人文藝術設計、商管會計、其他社會科學等相關學科）錄取分數往往是最高的。近年前臺灣曾考慮修法比照國外，將參加司法官（法官、檢察官）考試的應試資格提高到必須具備法律專業研究所畢業才得以報考，若假以實施勢必影響高中升大學法律有關學系錄取的分數，至今仍未更動。在香港於香港大學法律學院香港中文大學法律學院香港城市大學法律學院等三所大學均有開辦法律教育。在澳門，於澳門大學法學院、澳門科技大學法學院二所大學有開辦法律教育。美国的法学院提供三种学位的法学教育法律博士法学硕士法学博士。法律博士是美国法学教育的核心既培养法律实践者亦培养法律研究者几乎美国所有的律师法官法学院教授都是法律博士毕业。 +社會學起源於19世紀末期是一門研究社會的學科。社會學使用各種研究方法進行實證調查和批判分析以發展及完善一套有關人類社會結構及活動的知識體系並會以運用這些知識去尋求或改善社會福利為目標。社會學的研究範圍廣泛包括了由微觀社會學層級的機構或人際互動至宏觀社會學層級的社會系統或結構社會學的本體有社會中的個人社會結構社會變遷社會問題和社會控制因此社會學通常跟經濟學政治學人類學等學科並列於社會科學領域之下。社會學在研究題材上或研究法則上均有相當的廣泛性其傳統研究對象包括了社會分層社會階級社會流動社會宗教社會法律越軌行為等而採取的模式則包括定性和定量的研究方法。由於人類活動的所有領域都是由社會結構個體機構的影響下塑造而成所以隨著社會發展社會學進一步擴大其研究重點至其他相關科目例如醫療護理軍事或刑事制度網際網路等甚至是例如科學知識發展在社會活動中的作用一類的課題。另一方面社會科學方法的範圍也越來越廣泛。在20世紀中葉以來多樣化的語言文化轉變也同時產生了更多更具詮釋性哲學性的社會研究模式。然而自20世紀末起的科技浪潮也為社會學帶來了嶄新的數學化計算分析技術例如個體為本模型和社交網路。因其興起的歷史背景社會學研究的重心很大一部份放在現代性社會中的各種生活實態或是當代社會如何形成演進以至今日的過程不但注重描述現況也不忽略社會變遷。社會學的研究對象範圍廣泛小到幾個人面對面的日常互動大到全球化的社會趨勢及潮流。家庭各式各樣的組織企業工廠等經濟體城市市場政黨國家文化媒體等都是社會學研究的對象而這些研究對象的共通點是一些具有社會性的社會事實。雖然的定義在不同學派之間仍有爭執但社會事實外在於個人且對個人的行為跟認知有影響這一點是大致上為社會學者所共同接受的。在19世纪初期，孔德認為過去神學及崇尚武力的社會慢慢消失，以理性、科學、工業為主的年代正在抬頭，兩者之間的衝突正是社會動盪的源頭。在社會制度轉變的時期，這種過渡性的衝突及混亂是無可避免。在舊制度消失前，人們無法體驗新制度，往往需要多次社會轉變才能改組社會。社會學就是針對社會改組的問題而發展成為一門社會科學。涂爾幹學派的社会学家不但希望了解什么使得社会团体聚集起来，更希望了解社会瓦解的发展过程，從而作出。糾正的觀念並不暗示社會學家預設一個的判斷標準。社會學家需要不斷觀察與分析，不是找出模板，宣稱終極事實就結束。相反地法兰克福学派的社會學家並不探索對糾正社會的方法。因為他們認為對社會病疾提出的糾正方案往往是以一個小群體的觀念強加到絕大多數人的身上這不但解決不了問題還會使問題加重。20世紀初如霍克海默與阿多諾等人受到上一代如韋伯與齊美爾學說影響加之參考馬克思理論針對現代社會與資本主義制度產生悲觀看法其中尤其看到社會雖然高度分工卻也產生生活的分裂化。尤其是在藝術文化領域大量複製技術的出現造成藝術精神的喪失。法蘭克福第二代哈伯瑪斯繼承上述觀點並參照美國结构功能主义與符号互动论歐陸的現象學等提出溝通行動論與第一代悲觀觀點不同認為必須致力建構一個可溝通的社會才是悲觀現代性的出路。而上述的觀念類似社會衝突論知名人士如達倫道夫也是以馬克思對社會階級分析為主認為社會有掌握資源的階級以及受統治的階級惟不同的是馬克思認為資產階級握有生產工具無產階級因無工具而受宰制需要反抗革命觀點較屬於政治經濟學但衝突論者結合韋伯對階層──加入社會地位等角度認為社會不平等源自多方面不只經濟不平等。今天社會學家對社會的研究包括了一系列的從宏觀結構到微觀行為的研究包括對种族民族阶级和性别到細如家庭結構个人社会关系模式的研究。社會學系分成更多更細的研究方向包括像犯罪和离婚在微觀方面例如有人與人之間的關係。一些社會學家使用定量研究的方法从数量上来描述一个社会总体结构以此来研究可以预见社会变迁和人们对社会变迁反应的定量模型。这种由拉扎斯费尔德倡导的研究方法现在是社会学研究中的两个主要方法论之一。社会学研究方法的另外一个主要流派是定性研究包括歷史社會學参与观察深度访谈专题小组讨论等收集资料的方法以及基于扎根理论内容分析等定性资料的分析及歸納方法。从事定性分析的社会学家相信这是一种更好的方法因為这可以加強理解“离散”性的社会和独特性的人文。这种方法从不寻求有一致观点但却可以互相欣赏各自所采取的独特方式并互相借鉴。主流的观点认为定量和定性这两种研究方式是互补的而不是矛盾的。涂爾幹與韋伯都強調兩者的重要性──亦即從主觀交錯研究到後來的象徵互動派大師布魯默相當強調質化的影響力。社會學的角度就是讓我們通過社會學看事物的方法去認識自己及分析社會。其中兩種比較著名的社會學角度就是「社會學的想像力」(Sociological Imagination)及「破解謎思」(Debunking)。至於。這句話指出了社會學家是關注所有的人類活動但他們關注的層面並不是一般人所關注的事實之表面而是以一個質疑的心態去思考及破解一件事情的謎思。人类对社会变化发展的整体研究源远流长社会学的逻辑和理念早在其形成学科基础之前就已经出现。对社会的分析和研究基本上是源于西方文化哲学思想的长年累积并至少在早于柏拉图时代之前产生。而更加正规的社会统计调查的起源更可以追溯到至少早在1086年的。另一方面在中世纪的伊斯兰社会也有早期社会学的踪影不少研究均指出历史上第一位社会学家是一位十四世纪来自北非的阿拉伯学者——伊本赫勒敦其最著名的著作首次介绍了有关社会凝聚力和社会冲突议题的社会科学理论。到了十七世纪以笛卡儿为代表的理性主义者即注意到科学拥有发现真理的能力而开始尝试运用科学方法来研究社会现象。社会学一词的英语（social physics）一词，但后来被别人挪用，其中包括著名的比利时统计学家朗伯·阿道夫·雅克·凱特勒。孔德寄望通过对社会领域整体的科学认识，而令历史学、心理学和经济学形成一体化，社会学正式由此而生。社会学作为一门独立的学科确立于十九世纪中叶其出现并非历史的偶然而是与剧烈的社会变迁引起的社会运行状态失调有着密切的关系。自十八世纪末开始先后发生了两次来自欧洲的大革命第一次是以1789年法国大革命为标志的政治思想大革命另一次是从英国开始一直扩展到欧洲和美国的工业革命这两件重大事件使西方社会发生了根本性转型。资本主义确立后一方面生产力得到突飞猛进的发展令社会的经济基础思想观念和政治制度都发生重大变化另一方面社会运行也暴露出许多不协调因素如周期性经济危机失业犯罪等。对于这些问题传统方法和原有科学体系无法作出满意的解释和回答于是社会学作为一门不同于其他社会科学的独立新学科便应运而生。孔恩德所身处的年代适逢法国大革命之后的持续动荡他认为社会上的各种弊病和问题可以透过社会学实证主义消除这是在其著作而發展成為一門社會科學它在社会转型中产生以解决社会运行和发展中的不协调因素以寻求社会良性运行和协调发展的规律为内容并且将这条主线贯穿于整个社会学发展历史。总体而言，1830年代到19世纪末叶普遍被视为西方社会学的创立时期。这一时期的社会学特点是：。当时孔德和马克思双方均提出在欧洲实现工业化和世俗化之后，发展一种科学上合理的社会制度，但同时马克思又否定了以孔德为首的社会学实证主义。在孔德提出社会学构想的同时，马克思在中已经形成了新的唯物主义历史观。马克思认为人与自然界的关系是以劳动为中介的，他从经济学上分析了在生产资料私有制度下，人的劳动本性异化的表现，提出了劳动的解放将标志着人性的复归和社会的人性化，从而使对资本主义的经济学批判转入到在社会学上关于资本主义对人限定的地位的批判。马克思唯物史观社会学的产生，使社会学在本质上变成为批判的、革命的科学，与孔德强调秩序、均衡，目的在于维护和改良现存制度的实证主义社会学形成鲜明的对立。这也是马克思本人一直拒绝把自己的社会理论称为。十九世纪末期开始，社会学开始蓬勃发展，归功于法国社会学家爱米尔·涂尔干出版大量社会学研究专著，为社会学的规范化和科学化奠定坚实基础，并为确立社会学的学科地位作出重大贡献。他一生致力推动社会学发展，将源自孔德的实证主义发展成实际社会研究的基础。1895年，涂尔干在法国波尔多大学创立欧洲首个社会学系，并出版影响后世的重要著作中，他以罗马天主教教徒和新教教徒人口自杀率的差异为例，引证社会学角度和心理学、哲学角度在分析社会事实上的区别，另外此著作也进一步发展结构功能主义理论。对涂尔干来说，社会学可以被形容为：踏入20世纪，社会学的学术地位迅速提高，欧洲各地的大学相继成立社会学部。英国第一个社会学系在1904年创建于伦敦政治经济学院，这里也是英国社会学杂志的创刊地。1907年起，英国第一位社会学教授伦纳德·特里劳尼·霍布豪斯开始在伦敦大学担任社会学讲师。1909年，德国社会学家斐迪南·滕尼斯和马克斯·韦伯共同成立，随后，韦伯又在1919年于德国慕尼黑大学设立德国首个社会学系，并首次提出了反实证主义社会学的理念。在1920年于波兰创立波兰首个社会学系。1923年，法兰克福大学设立了社会研究院（Institut fr Sozialforschung）。与此同时，美国在社会学方面也有长足的发展。美国社会学家于1875年在耶鲁大学开始教授名为“社会学”的课程。1890年2月，法兰克·威尔森·布莱克默（Frank Wilson Blackmar）在美国堪萨斯大学设立“社会学元素”（Elements of Sociology）课程，并延续至今。1892年，芝加哥学派的代表人物——阿尔比昂·伍德伯里·斯莫尔（Albion Woodbury Small），在芝加哥大学创立社会学系。社会心理学始创者之一的喬治·賀伯特·米德，于密歇根大学任教时遇到查理斯·霍顿·库利和约翰·杜威；米德和杜威两人在1894年转往芝加哥大学任教，这使得社会心理学、象徵互動論（symbolic interactionism，或称符號相互作用論）获得极大的发展。1895年，阿尔比昂·W·斯莫尔创办美国首份社会学学术期刊——美国社会学杂志（American Journal of Sociology）。1905年，美国社会学协会（American Sociological Association，ASA）成立，并成为现今世界上规模最大的社会学家学会。深受涂尔干和马克斯·韦伯思想所影响的美国社会学者塔尔科特·帕森斯，一生致力推动社会学的专业化以及在美国的发展。受地理和历史因素影响，相比起欧洲的经历，美国社会学的发展在历史上较少受到马克思主义的影响，这个文化传统一直延续至今，而美国社会学更着重统计学上的研究方式。在中国上海沪江大学于1913年创立中国大学第一个社会学系开设包括人类学理论与应用社会学社会调查与社会问题以及公民学在内的诸多课程之后在1917年设立的沪东公社则是中国第一个大学社会学实验基地被视为中国社会工作服务的前身。第一次关于社会学的国际合作发生于1893年。法国政府国会核数师创刊国际社会学杂志，其中国际社会学研究所后来与创立于1949年的国际社会学协会合并。总体而言，社会学形成学术规模的成长期大约处于19世纪末到20世纪30年代。社会学的发展历程可以被看作为对例如工业化、城市化、世俗化等现代性问题的积极回应，或是对社会理性化，即以英语为主的地区。与此同时，社会学确立自己的研究范围和方法，独立的学科体系基本形成，而研究范围越来越具体化和专门化。很少早期的社会学家会限定于特定、狭隘的研究主题，例如经济学、法学、心理学、哲学等理论相关领域也是其关注范围。自社会学在十八世纪奠基以来，社会学的认识论、方法、研究架构等一直经历着扩展和分歧，形成百家争鸣的情况。这一时期形成了以埃米尔·涂尔干为代表的实证主义路线，以马克斯·韦伯为代表的反实证主义路线和以美国芝加哥学派为代表的社会调查的传统的社会学研究局面。涂尔干的社会学理论以社会关系和社会团结为主线展开，坚持社会唯实论和社会整体观，主张在社会整体层次上进行实证性研究。同时他还对社会反常现象和社会偏离行为产生兴趣。韦伯则是倾向于个体主义，即主张对特定的社会行动和社会现象背后的个人动机及隐藏的秘密进行解释。他试图验证任何社会现象背后都有一种无形的、精神的力量在支撑。当代社会学的发展时期大致从20世纪40年代至今。这一时期的特点是：社会学理论经过一百多年的发展尽管存在着缺乏完整的理论构架和很多彼此矛盾的方面但已经成为成熟丰富且脉络清晰的理论体系其中很多理论都有着鲜明的实践指向并在现实生活中发挥了有益的作用。也有很多理论虽然现在还很抽象概要但也不乏启发性的地方。依照发展程度和时间顺序社会学理论一般分作古典社会学理论现代社会学理论和当代社会学理论。古典社会学理论很大程度上是一些著名社会学家的理论，也就是说这一时期的社会学理论还缺乏完备的理论流派，单个社会学家的理论就能代表这一流派的特征。所以，人们在阐述这一阶段的理论的时候，多是介绍某几个社会学家的理论成果。不过这样的弊端也显而易见，单个社会学家理论成果对整个理论体系的代表在一些情况下过于勉强。所以，通过对其特征的归类和总结，将其归纳为以下四个理论框架。这样一来在对这一时期的理论有较为明晰的认识之后，又能与下一阶段的流派分类衔接。但要对各个理论有深入的了解，还是要回到这些社会学家身上。经过古典阶段的积淀社会学理论摆脱了对哲学和其他社会科学的依赖真正走上了特色鲜明的学科发展之路。现代社会学理论在取得重大发展的同时其中的古典社会学理论影子依然清晰可见这也说明二者的延续性和承袭性。事实上现代与古典的阶段划分并非是界限分明的二者除代表性人物和理论流派之外都存在不少的交集。社会学理论在古典时期的四个理论框架在此有不断的丰富和发展随着特征差异增大这些流派又不断分化形成新的框架体系。社會学理論當中常常用一些抽象和甚至複雜理論框架來解釋和分析社會樣式和宏觀社會結構。社會学理論總跟經典的學科有一個令人不安的關係就是大部分的重要社會學家從未擔任大學職務。現今社會理論被認為社會學分支涉足多個科學區域譬如人類學經濟神學歷史等等。第一種社會理論幾乎跟社會學同時誕生。社會學之父——孔德創立第一社會理論——社會演化理論。在19世紀三大社會理論分別是社會進化論社會週期論和馬克思主義的歷史唯物主義。雖然它們現在被認為是過時但是它們卻產生了新理論像社会积淀论新進化論現代化的社會生物學後工業化的社會理論及多邊理論。跟实验性的自然科學不同社會理論家很少使用自然科學方法及其他事證方式來證明論點。反而他們面對非常大型的社會走勢時候都使用一些假說。可是這些假說需要很長的時間來證明。這正是反對者所批評的重點。對於解構主義者及後現代主義者他們更質疑所有的研究及方法都是錯誤地承襲下來很多時候社會理論被認定為不可證明的。实际上社会实践是检验社会学说的唯一标准。社会学说在社会实践中产生在社会实践中检验在社会实践中发展。发生在古希腊社会剧烈的社会转型，促使当时的思想家们不得不认真思考人以及有人组成的群体的问题，黄金时代的提出就是这样一个例子。当时的思想家对于奴隶制度的黑暗也甚为愤慨，但苦于没有更好的制度来替代，对人类命运的发展趋势也难以把握，于是追述往昔，希望回到奴隶制形成之前的社会，恢复人在社会中的尊严。其中两位哲人的社会思想尤其能说明问题。柏拉图眼中的人类社会是有机统一的，国家的各个组成部分组成了国家的功能，也从属于整体的调配，社会是一个分工的和不平衡的统一体。圣贤则是居于社会最顶端掌控国家机器的最佳人选，因为他有足够多的经验和知识，能够超越具体部分的利益，实现整个社会的最大福祉。在柏拉图看来，私有财产和家庭这样分散且独立的因素应该为社会整体的发展发挥自己的作用。亚里士多德与此相反。在中一系列对人类社会和国家的看法虽然还较为混沌，但其中的社会学思想却是显而易见的，他就认为社会各个部分的独立要素在构成社会整体的同时，也能保持各自的独立性。他指出，社会起源于人的社会本性，即人有集合为群体的本能，但复杂、且异常分化的社会并非由个人组成的，它是建立在一个个群体的基础上，这样有相应的功能和财产的共同体最终组成了社会。启蒙思想对于西方文明的影响不言而喻，诸多社会科学在一次次的思想解放和突破中诞生，对社会转型产生的社会问题的关注，很大程度上也助推了整个启蒙思想的发展。社会契约论是这一时期最重要的社会思想，诞生于与教权和王权思想斗争中，由此发展出来的一种契约义务和社会关系结构的世界观，成为社会学起源的直接动因之一。由“天赋人权”为逻辑起点，从而推演出社会发展的趋势，是从自然状态向社会状态的不断演进，人们相互订立契约、建立国家来保障自己天赋之权，并由此发展对私有财产、自由、平等和享乐权利的认识。同时，众多思想家中还有很多对于人类社会的洞见都对之后的社会学思想产生重要影响。孟德斯鸠关于自然地理条件对社会、国民心态影响的论述，及由此发展的历史演进理论，合同三权分立学说共同构成了他的社会整体论。伏尔泰的自然法权论则是在寻找符合人自然本性的社会立法原则。狄德罗的小康社会思想，让-雅克·卢梭关于社会发展阶段的思想，休谟关于权威对社会影响的观点，亚当·斯密研究的关于商业社会中产生社会分化的命题，福格森关于市民社会的研究，圣西门在工业社会方面的研究以及对实证主义的运用等等，都是这一时期的思想家们对社会思想发展的重要贡献。社會研究主要有“定性研究”和“定量研究”两大类。會用各種方法搜集經驗實證包括問卷面談參與者觀察及統計研究。历史社会学研究属于定性社会研究方法。同样的社会学与人类学学科的交融催生越来越多社会学家运用民族志的方法对现代社会进行研究。不同的方法所面對的困難是它們都根據研究員各自採納的理論基礎來解釋及了解社會。作為功能主義者艾彌爾涂爾幹喜歡以社會大規模結構來解釋任何東西。如果他是符號互動者他便專注人們如何理解別人。馬克思主義者或新馬克思主義者把什麼都化作階級鬥爭。現象學家只是思考大眾對現實如何建立自己的意義。當各方都面對現實社會問題時常常爭論誰對誰錯而實際上會把不同方法學結合。一般觀點將社會學區分為宏觀或微觀兩類，認為分析單位如國家發展，就屬於前者；分析個人精神與家庭等，較屬於後者。這是相當僵化的解決看法。事實上，所謂微觀並非依照研究單位的規模看，微觀較屬於處理社會學基本原型的東西，更觀察在不同單位之間的互動，事實上，在企業之間、乃至於國家之間，也可以視為是一個個個體，研究他們之間的互動關係，以微觀方式處理之─諸如用象徵互動論、現象學方法等。互聯網是社會學家的興趣所。陳德維一般歐美注意到互聯網問題，較傾向從媒介角度出發。認為它不僅是一個溝通工具而已，更在於改變人們互動的模式，一如20世紀以前，貨幣出現連帶影響人們的現代都會生活等；或像古騰堡印刷術在歐洲蓬勃之後，對歐洲知識與教育等面向的改變。社會學與其他社會科學.社會學家研究時常常分析群體，如社会阶级、社會組織、宗教組織、政治組織及商業組織。他們研究社會群體間的互動、跟蹤源頭及發展過程、分析群體活動對各個成員的影響。社會學家關心社會群體的特徵、群體間或成員間的互動影響及社會特徵對日常生活所帶來的效果。這些社會研究結果能夠協助教育家、立法者、行政人員、社工等解決社會問題並制定公共政策。大部分的社會學家都有多項專長，例如社會組織、社會分層及社會流動、種族關係、教育、家庭、社會心理學、城市、農村、政治及比較社會學、性別角色及關係、人口地理學、老年學、犯罪心理學及社會學應用。近年来，很多社会学家也开始研究性别、阶级和种族相结合而产生的种种社会不平等问题。.今天社會學研究人類組織社會群體社會互動等等都使用大量比較方法。社會學的發展對其它科學帶來額外的需求這對研究現代工業社會是十分重要。近年得到了人類學的啟示加速了對多元文化及多元國民的研究。另一方面，社會學朝著微社會結構發展，例如：種族、社會階級、性別及家庭。因為有很多罪案發生、家庭問題產生了很大的社會壓力，急需要社會學來尋找解決方法。社會學家透過定性研究和定量研究來研究社會關係以預測社會變動。他們希望透過質性研究，如面談及小組討論，對社會運作有更深入的理解。有些社會學家正辯論着從中作出平衡填補兩者之間的空隙。例如：定量研究描述大型社會現象，而定性研究描述個人如何理解大型社會現象。在二十世紀早期，社會學家及心理學家曾對工業社會作出研究，對人類學作出了貢獻。要留意一點的是人類學家都曾對工業社會作出研究。今天社會學及人類學主要分別在於研究不同的理論和方法而不是對象。社會生物學是綜合社會學及生物學的一門新科學。雖然它很快獲得接受，但仍然有很多爭論的地方因為它嘗試使用進化及生物過程來解釋社會行為及結構。社會生物學家常被社會學家批評過份倚賴基因對行為的影響。社會生物學家卻說在自然之間和哺育存在一個複雜關係。故此社會生物學跟人類學、動物學、進化心理學有密切關係。這仍然是其他科學所不能接受的。一些社會生物學家像Richard Machalek要求使用社會學來研究非人類社會。社會學跟社會心理學有關係，前者關心社會結構，後者關心社會行為。 +军事学与甚多範疇有關主要與战争有关。此外軍事學本身包含了各種學問。军事是政治的一部分战争是政治的一种延续是一国或者集团用暴力手段达到自己目标和目的的方式而目标和目的往往与利益有关。战争是军事的集中体现但不是唯一的体现。第二次世界大战后的美国和苏联冷战就是一种威慑基础上的回避战争方式的斗争。在人类可以看到的未来军事始终是政治生活中重要的方面并在科学技术上对人类生活予重大影响人类很多科技成就往往先产生于军事领域然后普及到非军事领域的。現代軍事包括軍事理論和軍事科技兩大部分。中華人民共和國教育部门的学科分类.根据中华人民共和国教育部的定义其下属的一级学科有军事思想及军事历史战略学战役学战术学军队指挥学军制学军队政治工作军事后勤学军事装备学军事训练学。信息科学，主要是指以信息为研究对象，包含資訊的分析、收集、分類、處理、儲存、檢索、傳播和保護。從發展脈絡來看，信息科學與計算機科學、心理學、科技和情報機構有相當的關聯，但是信息科學還包括了檔案學、圖書資訊學、博物館學、認知科學、商業、法律、語言學、管理學、數學、哲學、公共政策和社會科學等各個領域，是以扩展人类的信息功能为主要目标的一门综合性学科。作为一门新型的综合性学科信息学的理论主要是建立在数学中的离散数学之上的。因为信息学所研究的对象信息本身即是离散体。在某些特定的条件下信息学与计算机科学是等价的。物理學是研究物質能量的本質與性質的自然科學。由於物質與能量是所有科學研究的必須涉及的基本要素所以物理學是自然科學中最基礎的學科之一。物理學是一種實驗科學物理學者從觀測與分析大自然的各種基於物質與能量的現象來找出其中的模式。這些模式稱為經得起實驗檢驗的常用物理理論稱為物理定律直到有一天被證明是有錯誤為止。物理學是由這些定律精緻地建構而成。物理學是自然科學中最基礎的學科之一。化學生物學考古學等等科學學術領域的理論都是建構於這些物理定律。物理學是最古老的學術之一。物理學化學生物學等等原本都歸屬於自然哲學的範疇直到十七世紀至十九世紀期間才漸漸地從自然哲學中分別成長為獨立的學術領域。物理學與其它很多跨領域研究有相當的交集如量子化學生物物理學等等。物理學的疆界並不是固定不變的物理學裡的創始突破時常可以用來解釋這些跨領域研究的基礎機制有時還會開啟嶄新的跨領域研究。通過創建新理論與發展新科技物理學對於人類文明有極為顯著的貢獻。例如由於電磁學的快速發展電燈電動機家用電器等新產品纷纷涌现人類社會的生活水平也得到大幅提升。由於核子物理學日趨成熟核能發電已不再是藍圖構想但其所引致的安全問題也使人們意識到地球環境生態與人類的嬌弱渺小。的含義已演化為學術之理包括自然科學的各門領域與人文學的部分領域。清朝鴉片戰爭後，西方科學傳入中國，此時的譯者將似乎有道理。中国战国哲学家名家惠施、邓析和公孙龙，以及墨家，曾努力钻研宇宙间万物构成的原因。惠施有十个命题，主要是对自然界的分析，其中有些含有辩证的元素。他说：“至大无外，谓之大一；至小无内，谓之小一。”。“大一”是指整个空间大到无所不包，不再有外部；“小一”是指物质最小的单位，小到不可再分割，不再有内部。名家的思想合同异以惠施为代表，认为“天与地卑，山与泽平”，万物“毕异”本为“毕同”，并无区别。后期墨家认为物质世界是由微小的不可再分割的物质粒子所构成。从古代以來，人们就尝试着了解大自然的奥妙：为什么物体会往地面掉落，为什么不同的物质会具有不同的性质？如此等等。從觀測與分析大自然的現象，早期人們找到其中的樣式，並針對這些樣式提出了各种理论，试图解释大自然的奥妙，然而他們所提出的大多數理論都不正确。以現代準則來看，早期的物理理论更像是一些哲学理论：现代的理论都需要经过嚴格的实验檢驗，而那些早期的理论并没有经过严格证实。像托勒密和亞里士多德提出的理論中，有些就与日常所能观察到的事实相悖。儘管如此仍有許多古學者貢獻出相當正確的理論。古希臘哲學家泰勒斯曾經遠渡地中海在美索不達米亞埃及學習天文學與幾何還加以推廣延伸發揚光大。他預測出公元前585年發生的日蝕還能夠估算船隻離岸邊的距離又從金字塔的陰影計算出其高度。泰勒斯拒絕倚賴玄異或超自然因素來解釋自然現象他主張任何事件的發生都有其不變與普適的因果關係。公元前5世紀古希臘哲學家留基伯與學生德謨克利特率先提出原子論认为所有物質皆是由不會毀壞不可分割的原子所構成。古希腊的思想家阿基米德在作用力方面推导出许多正确的定量结论如對於槓桿原理的解釋。中世紀伊斯蘭世界的物理學.從西元850年至950年間，大量希臘學術被翻譯成阿拉伯文。穆斯林科學家從希臘人繼承了亞里士多德物理學。在伊斯蘭黃金時代，他們將這些學術發揚光大，特別強調觀測的動作，發展出一種早期形式的科學方法。.肯迪海什木伊本西那等等科學家在光學與視覺領域給出創新理論。海什木在著名著作裏堅定地駁斥了古希臘的視覺理論——發射說並且給出新理論。倚賴蓋倫關於眼睛內部解剖結構的信息他說明了光線如何進入眼睛如何被聚焦與投射至眼睛的後部他認為眼睛就如同光線進入一個小洞後在暗室形成顛倒影像。很明顯地在這裡他所指的是針孔相機或暗箱。他還描述怎樣用暗室來觀測日蝕。海什木的成就在阿拉伯世界並沒有得到應有的重視。十二世紀，他的著作被翻譯成拉丁文，書名為。直至十七世紀，這著作在歐洲是光學的標準參考書，強烈影響了後來约翰内斯·开普勒、威特羅、羅傑·培根等等科學家的研究。經典物理學指的是不涉及到量子力學或相對論的物理學，例如，牛頓力學、熱力學、馬克士威電磁學等等。經典物理學的盛期開始於十六世紀的第一次科學革命，終止於十九世紀末。尼古拉·哥白尼打響了科學革命的第一槍，他於1543年提出了描述太陽系統的日心說，這理論推翻了托勒密的地心說。在1609年與1619年期間，約翰內斯·克卜勒發表了主導行星運動的定律，他用數學方程準確估算出從天文觀測獲得的行星繞著太陽的公轉數據，從而給予日心說強而有力的理論支持。伽利略·伽利萊做實驗研究物體運動，發現落體定律，並且展示出實驗方法對於科學研究的重要性。他倚賴使用實驗或觀測所獲得的證據，而不是倚靠純粹推理，來證實任何假說的正確性。他強調使用數學來描述物理現象，大自然的語言是數學，假若不懂數學，則無法明白大自然。1687年，艾薩克·牛頓提出的牛頓運動定律和萬有引力定律为經典物理學奠定了穩固的基础，他和戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨創建了微積分，給出一種新的高功能數學方法來研析物理問題。他為第一次科學革命畫上了完美的終止符。物理學展現出兩個獨門特徵：使用實驗證據來檢視物理定律、採用數學語言來表述物理定律。物理學逐漸發展進步，成為一門獨立學科。二十世紀初期，物理學者發現經典物理學存在著極嚴重的瑕疵：邁克生-莫立實驗的零結果不符合經典物理學的預測，黑體輻射譜不符合熱力學的預測，經典電磁學無法解釋光電效應與原子光譜，放射性物質的物理性質貌似與經典物理學的決定論背道而馳。這些瑕疵給學術界帶來了一場前所未有的考驗，徹底地動搖了舊理論體系的基石，導致了二十世紀物理學兩大理論體系相對論和量子力學的出現，进而開始了現代物理學的紀元。相對論和量子力學對於這些難題給出合理解答。不僅如此，物理學者應用相對論和量子力學於像原子、分子等等的微觀系統，以及各種凝聚態宏觀系統，從而更為深切地揭示大自然的工作機制，並且促進物質文明蓬勃發展。雖然物理學的研究範圍十分廣泛，物理學者時常會使用到某些物理學的核心理論。這些理論皆已通過很多不同實驗的多次檢驗，並且對於自然現象的預測被認為足夠準確，例如，經典力學的理論能夠準確地描述物體的運動，但必須滿足兩個前提，一是物體尺寸超大於原子、二是物體運動速度超小於光速。當今，這些核心理論仍舊是很熱門的研究領域。例如，二十世紀後半期，即在牛頓表述經典力學整整三個世紀之後，學者發現與創建了混沌理論，其揭示了力學系統的決定論可預測性是一個錯誤的觀念。這些核心理論大致包括於經典力學量子力學熱力學統計力學電磁學狹義相對論等等基礎物理學領域是進階研究專門論題的重要工具。經典物理學包括那些在二十世紀初已成熟的傳統學術分支領域：經典力學、聲學、光學、熱力學、電磁學等等。經典力學研究受力物體的運動狀況。牛頓定律是經典力學的基礎定律。經典力學分為靜力學、運動學和動力學。靜力學論述處於靜力平衡的物體所感受到力與力矩。運動學描述物體的運動，完全不考慮力或質量等等影響運動的因素。動力學研究改變物體運動的因素與物體運動如何因此改變。按照表述方式的不同，經典力學又可分為向量力學與分析力學。向量力學著重於論述位移、速度、加速度、力等等向量間的關係，而分析力學則從受力物體運動時的拉格朗日量或哈密頓量來分析物體的運動行為。聲學是研究聲音的製造、控制、傳播、接收與效應的學術領域。超聲波學，與是聲學所包含的一些重要現代分支領域。超聲波學研究超過人類聽覺能力的高頻率聲波，在醫學診斷與醫學治療方面有很多重要用途。生物聲學研究涉及動物的聲波。電聲波學研究電聲設備的操控。光學專注於光的性質與行為的物理學分支領域。光在幾何光學裡被視為光線，能夠以直線移動，直到遇到不同介質時，才會改變方向。反射、折射等現象都可以用幾何光學的理論來解釋。光在物理光學裡被視為光波，能夠用來描述衍射、干涉、偏振等等現象。熱力學主要研究熱量與機械功彼此之間的轉換。在熱力學裏，通常透過描述物理系統平均性質的宏觀變量，像溫度、內能、熵、壓強等等來解釋自然現象。熱力學研究這些宏觀變量彼此之間的關係、以及它們的改變對於物理系統的影響。學習熱力學的起跑點是熱力學定律。熱力學不研究物質的微觀性質，這屬於統計力學領域。從統計力學的理論可以推導出熱力學定律。統計力學應用機率論來研究由大量粒子組成的系統的物理行為。統計力學將單獨原子或分子的微觀性質橋接至大塊物質的宏觀性質，對於這些宏觀性質給出微觀層級的詮釋。在大尺度的實驗中可以測量到這些宏觀性質。電磁學描述帶電粒子與電場、磁場的交互作用。電磁學的分支有靜電學、靜磁學、電動力學等等。靜電學研究靜止帶電粒子彼此之間的交互作用。靜磁學研究所有涉及常定磁場的現象。電動力學研究所有涉及加速度帶電粒子、電磁輻射、時變電場與時變磁場的現象。經典電磁學的基礎理論是馬克士威方程式與勞侖茲力方程式。光波是电磁波的一種，可由帶電粒子的加速度運動產生。經典物理學通常用以闡述日常可觀察尺寸的系統現象而現代物理學通常用以闡述極端或非常大尺寸非常小尺寸的系統現象。例如化學元素可以被辨識的最小尺寸是原子物理學或核子物理學探索物質所操作的尺寸。而粒子物理學操作的尺寸則更為微小它論述的是基本粒子或由基本粒子組成的粒子。由於使用大型粒子加速器來產生基本粒子需要非常巨大的能量所以通常粒子物理學又稱為高能量物理學。對於粒子物理學所研究的物理系統那些關於空間時間物質能量的普通常識不再適用必須加以修改。現代物理學的兩種核心理論給出關於空間、時間、物質、能量的崭新繪景。量子力學論述發生於原子層級與亞原子層級各種現象的離散性質，以及在關於這些現象的描述裏的粒子與波動的互補性質。相對論闡述，處於某參考系的觀察者，所觀察到在另外一個以相對速度移動的參考系發生的現象。相對論又可分為狹義相對論與廣義相對論。狹義與廣義相對論的區別在於所討論的問題是否涉及重力（彎曲時空），即狹義相對論只涉及那些沒有重力作用或者重力作用可以忽略的問題，而廣義相對論則是研討那些涉及重力的論題。經典物理學與現代物理學之間的差異.-{zh-hant:; zh-hans:;}-物理學的一大研究目標是在發現即毫無例外的規律但似乎每一種物理理論都只適用於某些明確值域。大致而言經典物理學的定律能夠準確地描述長度超大於原子尺度速度超小於光速的系統。在這適用範圍以外實驗結果與理論預測並不相符合。狹義相對論徹底地丟棄了絕對時間與絕對空間的概念且以四維時空取而代之因此得以準確地描述速度接近光速的系統即相對論性系統。量子力學不似經典物理學一般決定性地描述宏觀物體的物理行為而是統計性地描述微觀系統的物理行為它成功地通過了當今任何檢試其正確性的精密複雜實驗。量子場論統一了量子力學和狹義相對論，是粒子物理學不可或缺的基礎理論。電磁交互作用與弱交互作用也已被合併為電弱交互作用。物理學者期望在不久的未來，電磁交互作用、強交互作用與弱交互作用能夠被收斂在大一統理論的論述內。廣義相對論將時空延伸為動態的彎曲時空，能夠描述大質量系統和宇宙的大尺寸結構。但是，廣義相對論與其它種基礎相互作用表述尚未能被統一為單一理論；科學家仍舊在發展幾種可能的量子引力理論。與其它學術領域之間的關係.數學是研讀物理必備的工具之一，這包括幾何、代數、微積分等等。應用這些數學工具，物理學者可以從物理定律推導與演算出很多有意思的結果。例如，1912年，圖利奧·勒維奇維塔獲知阿爾伯特·愛因斯坦在探索重力的相對性理論中，遇到一些挫折，他便力勸愛因斯坦學習張量微積分。愛因斯坦採納了勒維奇維塔的建議，勤學張量微積分，并於1915年成功創立了廣義相對論。如同大多數英國的理論物理學者，羅傑·潘洛斯讀大學時專修數學，因此有深厚的數學造詣，能夠將拓撲學方法引入相對論研究，證明在每一個黑洞的中心存在著一個奇點，這就是在宇宙學裏著名的奇性定理。數學在物理學裏的主要角色並不是推導與演算的優良工具，它還扮演了一個更關鍵的角色：作为一種抽象語言，担当精準地表述物理定律之任。實際而言，物理定律必須先用數學語言來表述，然後才能將數學工具的功能發揮至極。伽利略在1622年著作裏也有類似的表示，他认为，不知道數學的人很難真正地理解大自然的美，尤其是最深刻的自然之美……假如你想知道任何有關大自然的事物，或者想鑑賞大自然，就必須瞭解大自然所用的語言數學語言在表述物理定律的同時，也表述出內含的數學概念。例如，根據量子力學的數學表述，在量子力學裏，有兩個基礎概念：物理系統的量子態是以希爾伯特空間的單位向量來代表，從觀察物理系統得到的可觀察量是以作用於這些向量的厄米算符來代表。一旦找到了這兩個基礎物理概念的對應數學概念，整個線性代數的理論都可以立刻應用於量子力學。這凸顯出數學的重要性與適應性。在數學理論裏瀰漫著數學語言其伴隨的數學概念往往會指出前進的道路有時甚至會衍生出經驗預測。這並不只是巧合而恰恰反映出在數學與物理之間無比深奧的關係。例如1915年广义相对论最初创立之时尚没有甚麼牢靠的经验性观测基础它在当时所能解释的最著名现象就是牛顿力学无法解释的水星近日点的反常进动。1919年天体物理学者亚瑟爱丁顿爵士观测到了广义相对论预言的光线在太阳引力场中的偏折这在当时是对广义相对论最有力的支持。時至今日广义相对论的理論預測已由實驗測量結果证实。物理學是一门基礎科學，不是應用科學。物理學也被認為是基礎科學中的基礎科學，因為其它自然科學的分支，像化學、天文學、地球物理學、生物學的理論都必須遵守物理定律。例如，化學研究物質的性質、結構、化學反應。結構的形成是因為粒子與粒子之間彼此相互作用。能量守恆、動量守恆、電荷守恆等，這些物理定律主導了物質性質和化學反應，以往化學家只能使用各種模糊的概念建立的理論也都因量子物理的發展而得到更為正確的了解。應用物理學指的是針對實際用途而進行的物理研究。應用物理學的課程規畫通常會選修一些應用學科的課程，像地質學或電機工程學。應用物理學與工程學不同，應用物理學不會特別地設計某種元件或機器，而是用物理理論或從事物理研究來發展某種新科技或解析某問題。工程學應用到很多物理理論。例如，在學習建造橋樑與其它建築物的技術之前，必須先學會靜力學的理論。設計世界一流的音樂廳，必須先學會聲學。設計與製造更優良的光學元件必須先精思熟讀光學。經過考慮種種物理因素而設計出來的飛行模擬器、電子遊戲、電影等等，會顯得更加維妙維肖、栩栩如生。化學研究物質的性質、組成、結構、以及变化规律。化學研究的對象涉及物質之間的相互關係，或物質和能量之間的關聯。傳統的化學常常都是關於兩種物質接觸、變化，即化學反應，又或者是一種物質變成另一種物質的過程。這些變化有時會需要使用電磁波，當中電磁波負責激發化學作用。不過有時化學都不一定要關於物質之間的反應。光譜學研究物質與光之間的關係，而這些關係並不涉及化學反應。准确的说，化学的研究范围是包括分子、电子、离子、原子、原子团在内的核-电子体系。隨著量子物理的發展，化學也吸收了量子物理的理論建立了更完備的理論基礎。物理學使用的一些探本溯源格物致知的方法也可用於跨學科領域。物理學或多或少地影響了很多重要學術領域例如經濟物理學應用大量物理學裏的理論與方法來解析經濟學問題這些問題時常會涉及不確定性或混沌。科學方法是一種用來解答問題的系統性程序，通過這種程序，可以發展出對於大自然現象的合理解釋。從觀察自然現象、閱讀書籍或討論中，時常會找到有意義的問題。假若問題過於複雜，則必須剝除其無關緊要部分，找到核心思想，將問題簡化，進而發展出能夠解釋這問題並且被實驗檢試的假說。經過實驗檢試後，或許需要對於假說加以改善或駁回。這嚴格過程可能會重複多次，直到假說的預測能夠符合實驗結果為止，這假說才能被學術界接受成為科學理論。實驗檢試必須擁有抓出科學理論的瑕疵的能力。卡爾·波普爾強調，科學理論必須具有可證偽性。換句話說，必須能夠對於理論預言與實驗結果做比較，假若兩者不一致，則不能承認這科學理論的正確性。然而近期，有些弦理論學者與宇宙學學者主張，一個足夠精緻並且能夠對相關問題給出解釋的理論不需要通過實驗檢試，例如，至今為止，弦理論是唯一能夠統一四種基本相互作用的理論，但是它所提出的額外維度概念，是無法做實驗觀測到的。在宇宙學方面，多重宇宙論、前大爆炸理論都涉及到無法觀測到的論述。理論物理學者保羅·斯泰恩哈特表示，宇宙暴脹理論不是科學理論，因為所有觀測結果都會與它的預測相符合，換句話說，它不具可證偽性。對於這些理論是否為科學理論這問題，必須更加仔細研究與辯論。物理學研究大致分為理論研究與實驗研究。理查費曼表明兩者的相同與不同之處理論研究和實驗研究一般是分開進行的，然而它們彼此之間息息相關、缺一不可。實驗結果對於理論發展給出建議，理論預測對於實驗設計給出引領。過去幾百年來，實驗結果驅使了理論物理的進展，最近幾十年來，物理學的演進方式已大幅度改變，在某些物理學分支領域，理論預測驅使了實驗物理的方向。通常而言，當實驗者發現一個新現象，而已知理論無法解釋這新現象時，或者當根据新理論所作出的預測，可以通過設計精緻實驗來檢驗時，持著大膽假設，小心求證的研究態度，物理學往往會有所進展。例如，在大型強子對撞機進行的各項研究完美地展示出理論物理學與實驗物理學的互助互補。由於先前理論物理學者預測希格斯玻色子存在，實驗物理學者才會堅持不斷地做實驗探索其蹤跡，在經過幾十年努力後，終於證實了希格斯玻色子確切存在。當今，理論物理學者正等待更多實踐數據來指示未來的理論研究方向。實驗物理學者設計與完成實驗來檢試理論的預測與探索新的物理現象。實驗物理學者探索大自然奧秘的方式有兩種，一種是消極方式，如同天文觀測者的作法，因為無法操控宇宙星體的物理行為，另一種是積極方式，如同粒子實驗者的作法，操控粒子來展示其行為與性質。實驗物理學擴展了工程學與科技，也被工程學與科技所擴展。涉及基礎研究的實驗者，在做實驗時，時常會接觸到像粒子加速器或激光一類的先進器材；而那些涉及應用研究的實驗者，時常會在工業就職，开發像正電子發射計算機斷層掃描、電晶體一類的科技。有時候，某些很有意思的區域，雖然理論物理學者尚未探索論證，實驗者也會先行做實驗檢驗測試。理論物理學者試圖發展數學模型，這模型必須能夠合理地解釋其所針對的物理現象，這模型的預測還必須與實驗數據相符合。理論物理學應該可能是影響最大、成本最少的基礎研究領域。理論物理學推進了人類對於大自然的基本知識，又對於明日科技撒播了珍貴的種子。半導體、太阳能电池、激光、全球定位系统、發光二極管、核裂變、核磁共振等等對於人類文明有重大貢獻的科技皆是源於理論物理學者給出的突破。唯象專家努力探索理論與實驗之間錯綜複雜的交集區他們專注於研究從實驗所觀測到的複雜現象試圖找到這些複雜現象與物理理論之間的關係。唯象專家計算理論模型的預測並將這些預測跟實驗數據做比較。物理學涵蓋廣泛的自然現象，從微乎其微的基本粒子到龐大無比的超星系團都是研究對象。很多千變萬化的現象，都可用更基礎的現象來做合理的描述與解釋。物理學是一門基礎科學，物理學者致力於追根究底，發掘這些現象的根本原因，並試圖尋覓其中任何連結關係。物理學者努力研究所得到的結果大致可歸納為一些明確的基礎定律。其它許多學術領域，像生物學、化學、地質學、工程學等等，所涉及的物質系統都遵守這些基礎定律。但是，這些基礎定律仍不完全。物理學對於自然現象所給出的描述與解釋，只是近似事實，而不是絕對事實。舉例而言，古希臘人知道像琥珀一類的物質，當與毛皮磨擦時，會出現吸引力，使得這兩種磨擦物互相吸引。這性質後來稱為電性。在十七世紀，學者開始慎密地研查這性質。另外，在亞洲大陸的那一端，古中國人觀測到某些石頭，會通過某種看不見的作用力互相吸引。這性質後來稱為磁性。也是在十七世紀，學者開始嚴格地窮究其起因。經過燃膏繼晷、廢寢忘食的努力，物理學者終於明白了這兩種自然現象的基本成因——電和磁。但是，在二十世紀，經過更深入的研究，物理學者發現電和磁是電磁相互作用的兩種不同表現。今天，這統一各種各樣相互作用的程序仍舊方興未艾，物理學者認為電磁相互作用和弱相互作用是電弱相互作用的兩種不同表現。物理學者的終極目標是找到一個完美的萬有理論，其能夠解釋大自然的一切本質。現代物理研究大致分類為天文物理學原子分子与光物理学粒子物理學凝聚態物理學應用物理學等等。有些大學的物理系也提供物理教育研究。自20世紀以來物理學的各個領域越加專業化大多數物理學者整個職業生涯只專精於一個領域像阿爾伯特愛因斯坦（1879–1955）和列夫朗道（1908–1968）這樣的全才大師現在寥若晨星。粒子物理學研究組成物質的基本粒子它們的結構與它們彼此之間的交互作用。另外粒子物理學者設計與發展進行研究所需要的高能量加速器探測器與探用分佈式處理系統的電腦程式。由於在大自然的一般條件下許多基本粒子不存在存在的生命周期極短或無法單獨出現需待物理學者使用極高能量的粒子加速器碰撞來產生這些基本粒子因此粒子物理學也被稱為高能物理學。標準模型可以正確地描述基本粒子之間的交互作用。這模型能夠說明12種已知粒子。標準模型還預測了希格斯玻色子的存在。2012年，歐洲核子研究組織宣布，探測到希格斯玻色子。原子分子与光物理学專注於研究原子、分子與光，以及研究光与物质之間、物質与物质之間的相互作用。闡明物理的基礎定律、了解物質是怎樣在原子與分子層次組構而成、明白光與物質之間的相互作用、發展出新技術與新器件，這些是原子分子与光物理学的中心目標。原子分子与光物理学發展出的實驗與理論技術，時常會被應用於其它科學領域，例如，化學、天文物理學、生物學、醫藥學等等。對於很多其它科學領域，通過發展關於控制與操縱原子、分子與光的方法，或通過精確測量與分析它們的物理性質，或通過發展出新方法來製成具有某種特定性質的光，原子分子与光物理学扮演著賦能的角色。原子物理學研究原子的結構與物理性質。原子物理學的研究主要分為三種趨勢。第一是研究自然基礎定律這通常會涉及到高精確度測量。第二是了解原子的結構以及原子與光的相互作用。第三是研究原子與電子之間原子和離子之間的相互作用。分子物理學嘗試了解分子的結構與物理性質分子與分子之間怎樣相互作用與進行反應以及更複雜的物質狀態例如液體等等。分子物理學是跨立於物理與化學之邊界的一門學問其常用的重要工具有光譜學衍射共振分子束質譜學等等。分子物理學的主要研究目標為分子的形狀與結構分子的對稱性分子的內部能量態分子的光學性質與電磁性質探測分子的方法在科技與生物學與醫藥學領域的應用。光物理學研究光的性質光與物質之間的交互作用這包括光的生成與探測線性與非線性光學過程光譜學。光物理學的內容與應用光學光工程學很鄰近。光物理學專注於光的基礎物理研究應用光學注重於應用相關科技在其它科學領域而光工程學則注重於光學器件的設計與發展。一些前瞻性研究領域為激光激光光譜學量子光學與量子相干激光冷卻激光捕捉等等。凝聚態物理學研究物質的宏觀物理性質例如從測量物質的密度磁化強度電導率熱導率等等所獲得的數據可以得知它們對於外界影響的反應。在粒子與粒子之間的相互作用都是已知的交互作用的前提下凝聚態物理學對於分析與描述多粒子系統給出工作框架。凝聚態物理學專注於多粒子系統凝聚態指的是由大量粒子組成並且粒子與粒子之間存在很強的交互作用的系統。常見的凝聚態有固態和液態由於原子與原子之間因電磁力而形成的化學鍵才會出現這些物態。比較罕见的凝聚態包括發生於非常低溫系統裏的超流體和玻色-愛因斯坦凝聚態在某些物質裏的傳導電子展現的超導態 在某些磁性物質內部因為定域於原子晶格的自旋而出現的鐵磁態和反鐵磁態。守恆定律與對稱性破缺主導了物質的宏觀性質這是凝聚態物理學的一個重要概念。在由大量粒子組成的孤立系統裡粒子數能量動量電荷量等等都是守恆量。在足夠高溫度狀況下這系統具有較高的對稱性例如在自由空間裡的旋轉對稱性與平移對稱性。假設降低溫度則會凝聚出新的熱力學穩定態其具有越來越多的對稱性破缺因此對稱性會變得越來越低。凝聚態物理學起源於十九世紀固體物理學和低溫物理學的發展，當今是物理學的最大分支，與化學、材料科學、纳米科技有相當程度的重疊。天文物理學主要研究的是宇宙星體的性質與結構。這包括恆星行星星系星雲暗星黑洞等等。天文學與宇宙學是它的姊妹學術領域很難將它們做嚴格區分。簡略而言天文學測量星體的位置運動光度等等例如某恆星的位置與光譜天文物理學嘗試了解星體的本質例如某恆星的內部結構與形成機制宇宙學企圖解釋宇宙的整體或大尺度結構的本質例如大爆炸或宇宙暴脹的機制。由於天文物理學是一門很廣泛的學問，天文物理學者通常需要用到很多不同的學術理論，例如，經典力學、電磁學、統計力學、量子力學、相對論、粒子物理學等等，將這些學術理論應用於天文研究，例如，類星體、緻密雙星、大尺度結構、恆星動力學等等，時常可以得到很有意義的答案。雖然物理學是最古老的學術之一時至今日仍有許多具突破性的劃時代研究在物理的各個分支領域夜以繼日如火如荼地進行中。在凝聚態物理學領域裡，某些物質在溫度高於50 K仍舊具有超導電性，物理學者不清楚促成這高溫超導現象的機制為何。很多凝聚體實驗的目標是製成可使用的自旋電子學元件和量子計算機元件。在粒子物理學領域，支持後標準模型物理学的實驗证据已開始陸續出现。在這些結果之中，比較重要的是微中子具有非零質量的徵象。這實驗結果合理解答了矚目已久的太陽微中子缺失問題，即有些微中子在從太陽傳播到地球的路途中，會轉換為實驗無法偵測的別種類微中子的现象。帶質量微中子的物理研究是很熱門的理論與實驗題目。辨明微中子震盪與反微中子震盪的不同之處也是個重要題目，其可以對於為什麼宇宙裡到處都是物質，而不是反物質這個宇宙學難題給出解答。很多實驗都在尋找惰性中微子的蛛絲馬跡。高能量大強子對撞器已開始偵測14TeV能量域精緻的後標準模型超對稱理論所預測的粒子或是約占宇宙物質85%的暗物質這些都是大強子對撞器的探索目標。歐洲核子研究組織宣布大強子對撞機已發現希格斯玻色子但數量有限無法詳細觀察其性質未來通過蒐集更多數據例如希格斯玻色子的各種衰變管道的頻率預期將能夠發現任何不符合標準模型之物理行為以及找到任何不同種類的希格斯玻色子。在理论物理学領域，理論物理學者嘗試將量子力學和廣義相對論統一成為量子引力理論。這研究已延續了大半個世紀，但至今仍未得到滿意的答案。現今幾個比較成功的理論為M理論、超弦理論、圈量子引力论。在天文物理学領域許多天文和宇宙現象仍舊沒有找到合意的解答如超高能量宇宙射線重子不對稱性星系自轉問題等等。.以下列出一些重要論題雖然高能物理量子物理天文物理等領域有很大的突破與進展但對於許多涉及複雜系統混沌湍流等等日常發生的現象科學家仍是一知半解。地震斷裂生命等等現象只會發生於離平衡很遠的狀況其所出現的系統稱為。很多關於平衡系統或近平衡系統的物理行為都已被了解但是物理學者只知道些許主導離逖平衡系統的基本原理。 +天文學是一門研究天體和天文現象的自然科學。它使用數學物理和化學來解釋它們的起源和演化。感興趣的天體包括行星衛星恒星星雲星系和彗星。相關現象包括超新星爆炸伽馬射線暴類星體耀變體脈衝星和宇宙微波背景輻射。 更通俗地說天文學研究起源於地球大氣層之外的一切事物。宇宙學是天文學的一個分支從整體上研究宇宙。天文學是最古老的自然科學之一。歷史記載中的早期文明對夜空進行了系統的觀測。其中包括巴比倫天文學、希臘天文學、、、中國天文學、瑪雅文明和許多古代美洲原住民的天文學。在過去，天文學包括多種學科，如天體量測、天文航海、觀測天文學和製作曆法。如今，專業天文學通常被與天體物理學畫上等號。專業天文學分為觀測和理論兩個分支。觀測天文學的重點是從對天體的觀測中獲取數據然後利用物理學的基本原理對這些數據進行分析。理論天文學的面向是發展電腦或分析模型來描述天體和現象。這兩個領域相輔相成。理論天文學尋求解釋觀測結果而觀測結果被用來證實理論結果。天文學是少數幾個業餘愛好者發揮活躍角色作用的科學之一。這對於瞬變事件的發現和觀測尤其如此。業餘天文學家幫助了許多重要發現，例如發現新的彗星。漢語中就是指自然現象。"天文學"和"天體物理學"是同義詞。根據嚴格的詞典定義"天文學"是指"對地球大氣層外的物體和物質及其物理和化學性質的研究"而"天體物理學"指的是天文學中處理"天體和現象的行為物理性質和動力學過程"的分支。在某些情况下正如徐遐生在介紹性質的教科書時所"天文學"可用於描述該學科的定性研究而"天體物理學"則用於描述該學科的物理導向版本。然而由於大多數現代天文學研究涉及與物理學有關的學科因此現代天文學實際上可以稱為天體物理學。在有些領域例如天體測量學是純粹的天文學而不是天體物理學。科學家對這一課題進行研究的各個部門可能會使用"天文學"和"天體物理學"部分取決於該部門在歷史上是否隸屬於物理部門許多專業的天文學家擁有物理學學位而不是天文學學位。該領域主要科學期刊的一些標題包括"天文期刊""天文物理期刊"和"天文與天體物理學報"。在早期的歷史時期，天文學只包括觀察和預測肉眼可見物體的運動。在一些地方，早期文化聚集了大量可能具有天文用途的文物。除了儀式上的用途外，這些天文台還可用來確定季節，這是知道何時種植作物和瞭解一年長度的重要因素。在望遠鏡等工具發明之前，早期對恒星的研究是用肉眼進行的。隨著文明的發展，最顯著的是美索不達米亞、希臘、、、中國天文學、和中美洲，天文觀測站被建立起來，關於宇宙性質的想法開始發展。大多數早期天文學包括繪製恒星和行星的位置圖，這門科學現在被稱為天體測量學。經由這些觀測，形成了關於行星運動的早期想法，並從哲學上探討了太陽、月亮和地球在宇宙中的性質。當時，地球被認為是宇宙的中心，太陽、月亮和恒星圍繞地球旋轉。這被稱為宇宙的地心模型，或以托勒密為名的托勒密體系。早期，一個特別重要的發展是數學和科學天文學的開始，它始於巴比倫人，為後來在許多其它文明中發展起來的天文傳統奠定了基礎。巴比倫人發現月食在一個稱為沙羅的重複週期中反覆重現。繼巴比倫人之後，古希臘和希臘化世界在天文學方面取得了重大進展。希臘天文學的特點是從一開始就尋求對天體現象的理性和物理解釋。西元前3世紀，阿里斯塔克斯估計了，他提出了地球和行星圍繞太陽旋轉的太陽系模型，現在稱為日心說模型。在西元前2世紀，喜帕恰斯發現了歲差，計算了月球的大小和距離，並發明了已知最早的天文設備，如星盤。喜帕恰斯還創建了一個包含1,020顆恒星的綜合目錄，北半球的大部分星座都來自希臘天文學。安提基特拉機械（約西元前150-80年）是早期的類比計算機，設計用於計算給定日期的太陽、月亮和行星的位置。複雜性類似的科技人工製品直到14世紀才重新出現，當時在歐洲出現了機械的天文鐘。中世紀期間幫助了天文學的進步有助於哥白尼在幾十年後發展日心模型。與此同時天文學在伊斯蘭世界以及世界其他地區蓬勃發展。這導致9世紀初穆斯林世界出現了第一個觀測站。964年波斯穆斯林天文學家阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼蘇菲在他的"恒星之書"中描述了仙女座星系這是本星系群中最大的星系。由埃及阿拉伯天文學家和中國天文學家於1006年觀測到的超新星SN 1006是有記錄以來視星等最明亮的恒星事件。一些對科學做出重大貢獻的著名伊斯蘭天文學家包括巴塔尼塔比伊本庫拉阿卜杜勒-拉赫曼蘇菲比魯尼以及馬拉蓋天文台和。在那段時間裡西方天文學家引入了許多。人們還認為大辛巴威和廷布克圖的廢墟可能也設有天文台。在後古代史的西非，天文學家研究了恒星的運動及其與季節的關係，根據複雜的數學計算，繪製了星圖以及其他行星的精確軌道圖。 桑海的歷史學家在1583年8月記錄了一場流星雨。歐洲人此前認為，在殖民統治前的中世紀，撒哈拉以南非洲沒有天文觀測，但現代發現情况並非如此。六個多世紀以來，羅馬天主教會為天文學研究提供的財政和社會支持可能比所有其他機構都多。 教會的動機之一是定出每年復活節的日期。文藝復興期間尼古拉哥白尼提出太陽系日心說。伽利略伽利萊和約翰內斯開普勒再在哥白尼的基礎上進一步完善日心說。伽利略首次利用望遠鏡觀察天體發現月球表面佈滿了凹凸的山而不是光滑一片。1610年伽利略發現木星的四顆衛星這是對地心說的重大打擊。約翰內斯·開普勒是最早用科學定律正確解釋日心說的科學家，但他無法解釋這些定律背後的科學原理。之後，伊薩克·牛頓發明天體力學和萬有引力定律，才從根本上解釋了行星的運行。反射望遠鏡也是由牛頓所發明。英國天文學家約翰佛蘭斯蒂德彙編的星表收錄了超過3千顆恆星。隨著望遠鏡大小和質量的提高天文學家陸續發現更多的星體和天文現象。法國天文學家尼可拉路易拉卡伊的星表收錄了將近1萬顆南天恆星。威廉赫歇爾彙編了星雲星團星表並於1781年發現第七顆行星天王星。這是自遠古時期以來第一顆被發現的新行星。1838年弗里德里希威廉貝塞爾利用視差原理測量天津增廿九的距離是為首次成功測得恆星的距離。18至19世紀，李安納·歐拉、亞歷克西斯·克勞德·克萊羅、讓·勒朗·達朗貝爾研究三體問題，對月球和行星的運行作出了更準確的預測。約瑟夫·拉格朗日和皮耶爾-西蒙·拉普拉斯在此基礎上，從衛星和行星的軌道擾動推算出它們的質量。在光譜儀和天文攝影等新技術出現之後，天文學有了飛快的發展。1814至15年，約瑟夫·夫琅和費在太陽的光譜當中觀察到大約600條譜線。古斯塔夫·基爾霍夫在1859年解釋，這些譜線是由不同化學元素產生的。人們發現，恆星其實類似於太陽，只不過有著不同的溫度、質量和大小。到了20世紀，科學家才認識到地球所身處的銀河系是一個獨立的星系，並且在銀河系外還存在別的星系。這些星系都在遠離銀河系，科學家以此發現宇宙正在膨脹。奇異的星體現象陸續被發現，如類星體、脈衝星、耀變體和電波星系等。理論天文學家則提出黑洞、中子星等天體來解釋這些觀測現象。物理宇宙學也在20世紀蓬勃發展，其中的大爆炸理論，已得到宇宙微波背景輻射、哈勃定律以及宇宙化學元素豐度的充分支持。太空望遠鏡的發射意味著，科學家能夠通過電磁波譜中一般被大氣層所遮掩的部分來觀察宇宙。2016年，雷射干涉引力波天文台宣佈首次直接探測到源自黑洞碰撞的引力波訊號，展開了以引力波作天文觀測的時代。光，乃至電磁輻射，是人類對天象的主要觀測途徑。觀測天文學的不同領域可依電磁波譜的區域所分，其中有的波長可從地球表面觀測，稱之大氣窗口，有的則須要在高海拔甚至在地球大氣層以外才能有效觀測。射電天文學利用波長超過1毫米左右的電磁輻射進行觀測。和其他類型的觀測天文學領域不同的是射電天文學所觀測的無線電波可以視為波而不是單獨的光子所以相對較短波長的輻射更容易測定波幅和相位。儘管天體自身的熱輻射也會發出無線電波但是絕大部分的無線電波都是同步輻射所致也就是電子在磁場中運動時發出的輻射。此外還有星際氣體所產生的某些譜線也處於無線電波的波長範圍內特別是氫的21cm譜線。可通過無線電波觀測的天體包括超新星、星際氣體、脈衝星和活動星系核等。紅外天文學通過紅外輻射進行天文觀測，此類輻射的波長比紅光更長，位於人類肉眼的觀測範圍以外。紅外天文學能最有效觀測溫度較低、無法發出可見光的天體，例如行星、星周盤及光線被塵埃遮蔽的星雲等。紅外輻射的波長較可見光長，所以可以穿透可見光所無法穿透的塵埃雲，有助於研究分子雲深處的年輕恆星和星系核。例如，廣域紅外線巡天探測衛星已成功觀測到多個銀河系內的原恆星和這些恆星所在的星團。除了十分接近可見光的紅外光以外，大部分紅外輻射都會被地球大氣層吸收；大氣本身也會產生較強的紅外輻射，進一步影響觀測。因此，紅外天文台都必須在海拔高、濕度低的地點建造，甚至是作為衛星發射到太空。某些分子在紅外輻射範圍有較強的譜線，這有助於研究天體的化學成分，如彗星所含的水。自遠古起，人類便利用肉眼作可見光天文觀測。最早的觀測都是以圖畫記錄下來。19世紀末，人們開始對天象進行攝影。現代天文攝影技術一般使用數碼探測器，特別是感光耦合元件（CCD）。雖然可見光的波長範圍大約在4000至7000（即400nm至700nm）之間，但可見光攝影設備也可以用來觀測一部分的近紫外線和近紅外線。紫外線天文學利用波長在100至3200（10至320nm）間的紫外輻射進行觀測。此類輻射會被地球大氣層吸收所以觀測只能在大氣上層或太空中進行。紫外線天文學最適合研究發射紫外線的高溫藍色恆星（OB星）包括銀河系以外的藍色恆星以及行星狀星雲超新星遺跡等等。不過紫外線會被星際塵埃吸收所以取得的數據必須再利用其它方法加以校準。X射線天文學在X射線範圍觀測天體。宇宙中的X射線來自於同步輻射。發出X射線的天體有X射線聯星脈衝星超新星遺跡橢圓星系星系群及活動星系核等。由於X射線會被地球大氣層吸收所以X射線觀測必須用火箭或X射線天文衛星進行。伽馬射線天文學所觀測的是電磁波譜中波長最短的輻射。伽馬射線可通過康普頓伽瑪射線天文台等衛星或來觀測。切倫科夫望遠鏡不直接探測伽馬射線而是觀測大氣吸收伽馬射線時所產生的可見光閃光。伽馬射線暴是突然發出伽馬射線的天體，持續時間從幾毫秒到幾千秒不等，大部分伽馬射線源都屬於此類。只有一成的伽馬射線源為持續性射源，這包括脈衝星、中子星及活動星系核等可能為黑洞的天體。不以電磁輻射觀測的領域.除了電磁輻射以外，還能通過一些別的方法研究天象。中微子天文學利用屏蔽效果極佳的地下中微子探測器測量中微子的流量。這類設施包括組成在進入地球大氣層時會衰變或被吸收過程中會產生一系列的衍生粒子。現今的天文台可通過探測此類粒子來研究宇宙射線。未來的中微子探測器能力將會提高有望探測到宇宙射線衝擊大氣時所發出的粒子。引力波天文學通過觀測引力波來研究遙遠的大質量天體，是一門新興的天文學領域。雷射干涉引力波天文台的引力波訊號。科學家可結合電磁輻射中微子和引力波等不同方法研究同一個天體這種做法稱為。天體測量學與天體力學.天文學乃至所有科學中最古老的一個領域是對各天體位置的測量。在歷史上準確測量日月行星恆星的位置有天文航海和制訂曆法等作用。18世紀開始天文學家以精確測定的行星位置作為基礎發展出完善的引力攝動理論可以極精確地推算過去和未來的行星位置。這門學科稱為天體力學。今天科學家對近地天體進行大規模追蹤目的是預測這些天體何時會近距離略過地球以及評估與地球相撞的風險。太陽系周邊恆星的視差是宇宙距離尺度的起始點。在用視差測量附近恆星的距離後，可以通過比對，推測遙遠恆星的各種屬性。通過測量恆星的徑向速度和自行，天文學家可以繪出銀河系內恆星的運行軌跡，從而算出銀河系暗物質的分佈。1990年代，天文學家開始利用多普勒光譜學觀察太陽系周邊恆星的擺動。這種方法可以用來發現一些較大的系外行星。理論天文學家的研究手段包括數學模型及用電腦做數值模擬，即天體物理學。數學模型一般能揭示天文現象背後更深層次的原理，數值模擬則可以演示現實中難以觀察的現象。太陽離地球約8光分或稱之天文單位是距離地球最近也是天文研究最為關注的恆星。太陽是一顆典型的主序矮星屬於G2V類年齡有46億年。雖然太陽不是一顆變星但太陽粒子數會上下波動每11年為一太陽週期。太陽粒子是太陽表面上溫度較平均低的區域一般有強烈的磁場活動。自進入主序至今，太陽的亮度已增加了40%，期間它的亮度有過週期性波動，對地球上的氣候有著極大的影響。例如，蒙德極小期很可能導致了中世紀期間的小冰期。在結構上人們一般所能見到的太陽表面稱為光球光球以外是一層薄薄的色球色球以外有一層薄薄的過渡層溫度劇烈上升直到最外面的超高溫日冕。太陽的中心有著極高的溫度和壓力足以產生持續的核聚變。包圍著中心的是輻射層這裡的等離子體以輻射的形式把能量傳遞出來。輻射層以外是對流層這裡的氣體以對流的形式把能量傳遞到外層。科學家相信對流層氣體的翻滾運動所產生的磁場活動導致了太陽粒子的形成。太陽時時刻刻都從表面向外噴射大量的等離子體粒子，就是所謂的太陽風。太陽風會一直達到太陽系的邊緣──太陽層頂。太陽風在經過地球時會與地磁場相互作用，會因此轉向，但也有一部分會被困在環繞地球的范艾倫輻射帶中。當太陽風粒子沿著磁場線進入地球兩極的大氣層時，就會產生極光。行星科學的研究對象除了有太陽系內的行星衛星矮行星彗星小行星等等還包括太陽系外行星。科學家最先通過望遠鏡觀察太陽系內的天體再通過航天器如今已對太陽系自身的形成和演化有了較好的認識。從內向外，太陽系可分為內行星、小行星帶和外行星。內行星包括水星、金星、地球和火星，均為類地行星；外行星包括木星、土星、天王星和海王星，均為氣態巨行星。在八大行星以外，還有柯伊伯帶和可能延續1光年的奧爾特雲。太陽系行星是在46億年前的原行星盤中誕生的。經過相互吸引、碰撞和吸積，原行星盤中逐漸積累起大塊物質，這些物質慢慢演變為原行星。太陽風大部分的離散物質，只有質量足夠大的行星才得以保留其大氣層。在接著的後期重轟炸期期間，行星繼續受到太陽系剩餘物質的劇烈碰撞。這些碰撞的歷史遺跡在月球上的諸多撞擊坑中就有跡可循。其中一些原行星也互相碰撞，科學家相信，月球就很有可能是在此類碰撞中形成的。當行星達到一定的質量後其內部的物質會根據不同的密度而分離這段過程稱為行星分化。分化的結果是行星的中心為石質或金屬核可分為固態和液態核外層為幔和外殼。有些行星核可以產生磁場避免大氣層被太陽風剝離。行星和衛星內部高溫的原因包括行星形成時碰撞的殘留熱量放射性物質的衰變以及其他天體所造成的潮汐力。一些行星和衛星的內部熱量足以推動火山作用等地質活動擁有大氣層的行星和衛星還會經受表面侵蝕。較小的天體如果不受潮汐力的影響會比大天體更快地降溫。除了受隕石撞擊以外小天體的地質活動會隨溫度的降低而息止。研究恆星和恆星演化，對人們了解宇宙有著重要的意義。科學家對恆星的了解來自於觀察、理論以及對恆星內部的電腦模擬。恆星會在稱為暗星雲的高密度塵埃和氣體中形成。當星雲的穩定性受到破壞時，塵埃和氣體就會在自身引力下坍塌形成原恆星。當原恆星核心的密度和溫度達到一定程度後，就會啟動核聚變，使恆星形成。幾乎所有原子量大於氫和氦的化學元素都是在恆星核心中形成的。恆星的屬性主要取決於它開始時的質量質量越大亮度就越高氫在其核心聚變成氦的過程也發生得越快。隨著時間的推移氫會完全轉化為氦此時恆星會進入演化過程中的下一個階段。恆星核需要有更高的溫度才能使氦聚變。核心溫度足夠高的恆星會一邊使外層膨脹一邊增加核心密度形成紅巨星。紅巨星會迅速用盡氦燃料因此壽命不長。質量更大的恆星會逐步以更重的元素進行聚變再經過一連串的演化階段。恆星的質量決定了它最終的歸宿8個太陽質量以上的恆星會坍縮成為超新星而8個太陽質量以下的恆星則會噴出外層的物質形成行星狀星雲。超新星爆炸後的殘骸是一顆密度極高的中子星如果恆星質量超過3個太陽質量則超新星殘骸將會是一個黑洞。相互公轉的聯星會有更加複雜的演化過程例如白矮星會從其伴星不斷吸取物質最終可引發超新星爆炸。行星狀星雲和超新星都有助於把恆星內部經聚變產生的分散到星際介質當中。全靠這兩者包括太陽系在內的行星系統才會由氫和氦以外的多種元素所組成。太陽系所處的銀河系屬於棒旋星系是本星系群中的一員。銀河系由氣體塵埃恆星等各種天體所組成這些天體繞銀河系的中心公轉並通過相互引力束縛在一起。太陽系位於銀河系一個螺旋臂的外端因此銀河系有很大部分受塵埃的阻擋觀測不易。銀河系中心是一個棒形隆起物，稱為核球。科學家相信在核球的最中心處有一個超大質量黑洞。從核球起有四條主螺旋臂向外輻射至外端，此處的恆星形成非常活躍，含較多的第一星族恆星。這些結構都基本位於同一平面上，平面以外還有一個扁球形銀暈，主要含年齡更大的第二星族恆星，亦含數以百計的球狀星團。恆星和恆星之間的空間充斥著低密度的物質，稱為星際介質。其中由氫等元素組成的分子雲是恆星誕生的區域，密度相對較高。高密度的星前核心或暗星雲坍縮，形成原恆星。大質量恆星出現後，分子雲變為由發光氣體和等離子體形成的電離氫區。這些恆星產生的恆星風和超新星爆炸最終使雲團疏散開來，往往留下若干年輕的疏散星團。這些星團慢慢分散開，其中的恆星融入銀河系眾多的恆星當中。在研究過銀河系及其他星系中物質的運動情況後，科學家發現普通的可見物質只是星系總質量的一小部分。圍繞星系的暗物質暈組成星系的大部分質量，但暗物質的本質仍然是一個未解之謎。對銀河系以外天體的研究分支包括：星系的形成和演化、星系分類、活動星系觀測以及星系群和星系團的觀測。對星系群和星系團等的觀測對了解宇宙大尺度結構有重要的意義。大部分星系都可根據形狀具體劃分為螺旋星系、橢圓星系及不規則星系。顧名思義，橢圓星系的截面呈橢圓形。星系中的恆星沿著隨機軌道，而不是一個特別的方向運行。在橢圓星系中，星際塵埃幾乎不存在或完全不存在，恆星誕生的區域少，恆星普遍較老。橢圓星系常見於星系團的中心，很可能是大星系相撞的產物。螺旋星系呈扁盤形，沿一個方向旋轉，中心有一個凸起的球狀物或棒狀物，從中伸出若干條螺旋臂，向外放射。螺旋臂發亮，充滿塵埃，是恆星誕生的區域，其中的年輕大質量恆星呈藍色。螺旋星系外圍一般是由老恆星組成的暈。銀河系和鄰近的仙女座星系都屬於螺旋星系。不規則星系是外表混亂，無法歸為螺旋或橢圓星系的星系。宇宙中有四分之一的星系都屬於此類。混亂的形狀很可能是引力擾動的結果。活動星系會發出巨大的能量，但這些能量並不來自它的恆星、塵埃或氣體，而是來自它的緻密核心。科學家相信，星系中心的超大質量黑洞在吸入物質後發出大量輻射，形成活動星系核。電波星系會發出大量的無線電波，並散發出羽狀或葉狀的巨大氣體結構。其他的活動星系則會發出波長較短的高能輻射，如西佛星系、類星體和耀變體。類星體是可觀測宇宙中持續亮度最高的天體。宇宙在大尺度上的結構由星系群和星系團組成。最大的星系集體稱為超星系團。宇宙中的物質在最大尺度上形成纖維狀結構和長城，之間則是巨大的空洞。宇宙學的研究對象是整個宇宙。物理宇宙學家通過觀測宇宙大尺度結構，對宇宙的開端和演化有了深入的認識。現代宇宙學的核心思想是大爆炸理論：宇宙在138億年前誕生，自此後不斷膨脹至今。1965年，科學家發現宇宙微波背景輻射，奠定了大爆炸的觀測基礎。宇宙在膨脹期間經歷了多個發展階段。宇宙學家猜測，宇宙最初曾有過極快速的宇宙暴脹，使波動的初始條件得以勻化。接著的核合成過程產生了早期宇宙的各種原子核（見核宇宙編年學）。此時宇宙充斥著離子光子不可穿透。直到中性原子形成太空才變得。第一次不受阻擋穿透太空的光線至今仍游離於宇宙中形成宇宙微波背景。有相當一段時間由於恆星還未形成宇宙是漆黑一片的。不同區域的物質質量密度有微乎其微的差異，物質因此開始聚合，形成各個尺度上的階級式結構。密度較高的物質成為了氣體雲和最早期的恆星──第三星族恆星。這些大質量恆星激發了再電離過程，製造了早期宇宙中的許多重元素。重元素在衰變後成為輕元素，使核合成週期可以延續下去。在引力的作用下物質形成了大尺度纖維狀結構和巨大的空洞。氣體和塵埃逐漸聚集形成早期星系。這些星系不斷納入更多的物質並互相形成星系群和星系團再組成超星系團。暗物質和暗能量的存在對宇宙的結構有著決定性作用。兩者合起來，共佔全宇宙質量的96%之多。因此，科學家正在極力試圖探究其背後的物理原理。天文學和天體物理學與其他科學領域有著密切的跨學科關係。考古天文學利用考古學和人類學證據研究遠古或傳統天文學在文化中的角色和地位。天體生物學研究生物系統在宇宙中的起源演化和分佈並特別關注地外生物能否存在人類又如何能探測這些生命這些問題。將統計學方法應用在分析不可勝計的天文觀測數據上。天體化學研究宇宙中化學物質的形成和反應。宇宙化學專門研究太陽系內化學物質的分佈來源以及同位素比率的變化。利用天文學的知識，解答法律、歷史上的疑問，例如驗證拍攝照片的日期或確認有關天文藝術作品的創作時間。天文學是眾多科學領域中業餘者能夠最大程度參與的領域。業餘天文學家可以對各種天體和天文現象進行觀測有的甚至會自己搭建觀測器材。最普遍的觀測對象包括日月各大行星小行星彗星流星雨恆星以及星團星系星雲等深空天體。業餘天文俱樂部分佈在世界各地有的會為成員提供各種幫助從搭建器材乃至完成觀測梅西耶星表中的所有天體。天文攝影是業餘天文學的一個分支。許多業餘天文學家會選擇專門觀測某一類天體或某一類天文現象。大部分業餘天文學家都在可見光範圍內做觀測，但也有一小部分用可見光以外的波長進行觀測，包括在傳統天文望遠鏡上加上紅外濾光片，或使用射電望遠鏡。卡爾·央斯基在1930年代開始在無線電波長進行觀測，開創了業餘射電天文學。業餘天文學家不但可以使用自己的器材，還可以使用開放給業餘者的專業射電天文望遠鏡。與大多數現代科學領域不同的是，業餘天文學家至今仍在為天文學作出重大的貢獻。比如，他們通過掩星的方法提高小行星軌道的測量精度，發現新彗星，又對變星做定期觀測。隨著數碼科技的提升，業餘天文攝影也有了極大的進步。儘管隨著天文學的驚人發展，人類已經對宇宙的認知有了翻天覆地的變化，但是在今天仍然有一些至關重要的天文學未解之謎。要解答這些謎題，有可能需要新的地面或太空觀測儀器，乃至理論和實驗物理上的新發展。 +力学（）是物理学的一个分支，主要研究能量和力以及它们与物体的平衡、变形或运动的关系。人们在日常劳动中使用杠杆、打水器具等等，逐渐认识物体受力，及平衡的情况。古希腊時代阿基米德曾对杠杆平衡、物体重心位置、物体在水中受到的浮力等，作了系统研究，确定它们的基本规律，初步奠定了静力学，即平衡理论的基础，古希臘科學家亞里斯多德也提出作用力造成運動的主張，即物體不受力，必將停止。自文藝復興之后科學革命興起伽利略的自由落体运动规律以及牛顿的三大运动定律皆奠定了动力学的基础。力学从此开始成为一门科学。此后弹性力学和流体力学基本方程的建立使得力学逐渐脱离物理学而成独立学科。到20世纪初在流体力学和固体力学中实际应用跟数学理论的互相结合使力学勃起来创立了许多新理论同时也解决了工程技术中大量关键性问题。力學主要可分為古典力学及量子力學。若以發現的時間來看，古典力学較早被發現，啟源於牛顿的三大运动定律，量子力學則是20世紀初才由許多科學家所創立。古典力学主要研究低速或静止的宏观物体。开普勒伽利略尤其是牛顿是古典力学的奠基人。量子力學應用範圍較廣不過主要是針對微觀的物質。根據對應原理量子數相當大的量子系統可以與古典力学中的行為模式相對應使得量子力學及古典力学不會相衝突。量子力學可以解釋及預測分子原子及基本粒子的許多行為。不過針對一般常見的巨觀系統若使用量子力學會複雜到無法處理粒子間的交互作用因此巨觀系統透過古典力学的方式處理仍較為恰當。量子力學將力学延伸到经典力學以外的範圍而愛因斯坦的廣義相對論及狹義相對論也將原來牛頓及伽利略的力學擴展到更大的範圍。在物體速度接近光速時因相對論而產生的效應會主導物體的行為也會使其速度不會超過光速。量子力學也需要配合相對論進行修正量子场论就是量子力学和狭义相对论的结合。不過量子场论和广义相对论目前仍無法整合這是大一統理論希望可以克服的問題。在力學中，常用到一個名詞。物體可能是質點、拋體、太空船、星体、某些流體、某些固體、某些機械或某些土木建築。力學中的一些分支也和所探討的「物體」特性有關。例如質點就是小的物體，在古典力學中只視為一個有質量的點。而剛體有固定的大小及尺寸，不允許形變，和質點比較，剛體增加了一些稱為自由度的參數，例如在空間中的方向。物體也有可能是可允許形變的半剛體，如彈性體，或者根本沒有固定的形狀，如流體。這些物體可利用古典力學的方式研究，也可以利用量子力學來分析。例如一顆棒球的運動常使用古典力學來分析，而原子核內質子及中子的行為則通常會用量子力學來描述。在物理學的研究中，也有用來描述物質的行為，稱為場論。其描述方式和力學使用的方式有些不同，可分為古典場論及量子場論。不過在實務上，場論及力學要探討的內容常常有密切的關係。例如作用在物體上的力常常是因為電磁場或重力場而產生，而當物體對其他物體產生作用力時，也常常會產生場。事實上，若以量子力學的觀點，物體也是場，可以用波函數來描述。 +化學是一門研究物質的性質組成結構以及变化规律的物理的子學科。化學研究的對象涉及物質之間的相互關係或物質和能量之間的關聯。傳統的化學常常都是關於兩種或以上的物質之間的接觸和其後的變化即化學反應又或者是一種物質變成另一種物質的過程。這些變化有時會需要使用電磁波當中電磁波負責激發化學作用。不過有時化學並不一定要關於物質之間的反應。光譜學研究物質與光之間的關係而這些關係並不涉及化學反應。准确的说化学的研究范围是包括分子电子离子原子原子团在内的核-电子体系。因為化學為部分科學學門的核心連接物理概念及其他科學如材料科學纳米技术生物化學等。研究化學的學者稱為化學家。在化學家的概念中一切物質都是由原子或比原子更細小的物質組成如電子中子和質子。但化学反应都是以原子或原子团为最小结构进行的。若干原子通过某种方式结合起来可构成更复杂的结构例如分子離子或者晶體。在中國一词最早出现在1857年墨海书馆出版的期刊一书时发明的。最早的化學要算是人類對火的研究。對於當時的人來說火可以將一種物體變成另一種物體所以成為了當時人最有興趣研究的現象。如果沒有火人類不會發現到鐵和玻璃的炼制方法。人類發現了黃金這種貴重的金屬之後，很多人轉移研究怎樣把其他物質變成黃金。公元前300年至1500年，煉金術士皆研究如何將一些便宜的金屬轉化成黃金，因此累積了金屬的提取和處理有關的觀察和技術。有些煉金術士主要的工作是製造藥物，中國當時亦有所謂煉丹術。2000年前，人類已廣泛使用金、銀、汞、銅、鐵和青銅。當時的人類文明，對於陶瓷、染色、釀造、造紙、火藥等在工藝方面已有一定成就，在技術經驗上，對物質變化的理解已有一定觀察和文獻累積。早期化學家收集了很多不同物質的資料。在17世紀以前，化學成就並不大（燃素說、煉金術），其中較有成就者如羅伯特·波義耳。到了1750年，化學仍帶有神秘色彩，並為不正確的理論支配著。直到1773年，安托万-洛朗·德·拉瓦锡提出了質量守恆定律，並以氧化還原反應解釋燃燒現象，推翻了盛行於中世紀的燃素說，才開啟了現代化學之路；他因此被尊崇為「化學之父」。接著道尔顿整合當時的化學知識，並以自身的實驗所得提出了劃時代的原子說。此後，一些化學家相繼發現了各種化學元素，後來門得列夫建立了元素週期表令化學視界更臻完備。1901年，化學家諾貝爾以其遺產成立了諾貝爾化學獎，以表揚在科學領域及其他重要領域對人類有較大貢獻者。现代化學始於20世紀初期蓬勃發展的量子力學。萊納斯鮑林引進量子力學解釋化學鍵的本質得以用波函數的線性疊加來描述。質子中子和電子的發現使化學真正由原子尺度來理解化學反應。量子力學和電子學的發展使得許多新型儀器得以開發來探索和分析化合物的結構和成分如光譜儀色谱仪核磁共振仪和質譜儀等。當代化學大致分為四大學門，各學門又有許多延伸的子學門和應用化學領域。一粒原子是由原子核及外圍帶負電荷的電子組成的粒子一般而言是化學研究的最小尺度範疇。原子核通常是由質子和中子組成。与通常的物理概念不同的是单一的质子在化学领域被认为是1H（氕)原子核也就是说原子核内必然含有质子但可能不含中子。電子帶負電荷質子帶正電荷個數相同使得電荷平衡令整個原子呈电中性。当核外电子数与原子核内质子数不相同时则形成离子。通常认为离子也是原子的一种。拥有相同质子数的同一类原子被称为。例如，氫這種元素中所有原子都是只有一粒質子。這個概念換過來說亦可：所有原子核中有六粒質子的原子都是碳，所有原子核中有九十二粒質子的都是鈾。元素亦有另一定義，就是所有不可以用化學方法分解的物質都是元素。在這麼多種列舉元素的方法中，最常用和最方便的莫過於元素週期表。週期表根據原子序數來排列原子，而原子序數就是一粒原子中質子的數量。因為這個奇怪的排列，排在一起的元素，無論是同一個直行、同一個橫行還是純粹在附近，都有一些大致上固定的關係。同一種元素可能有很多個不同的核素。它們的质子数相同而中子数不同因而化学性质相同。但由于它们的中子数不同造成原子核稳定性不同而造成某些核素具备放射性。同一种元素的不同核素在元素周期表内占据同一个位置因此同一种元素的不同核素互称同位素。例如1H互称同位素。化学物质是指一种物体它既确定了其化学组成也确定了它的化学性质。严格的来讲混合的化合物元素等都不能算是化学物质只能说是化学药品或者说化学制品。大多数我们日常生活碰到的化学品都是混合物比如空气合金生物制品。物质的命名法在化学语言当中是最严格的一环。早在很久以前化合物的命名是由其发现者自行决定的这样则导致了命名的困难和混乱。而现在我们最常用的还是国际纯粹与应用化学联合会 () ()命名方法。它用一个命名系统让所有的化合物都有一个独有的名称和代码。有机化合物通过有机命名系统命名而无机化合物通过无机命名系统命名。而通过化学索引服务（）我们可以轻松的通过CAS号()来找到每一个化合物的性质特性命名和结构。一個分子是化合物的最基本结构不用化學方法是拆不開的。大部分分子都是由兩個或以上原子組成但是都有些特例例如氦氣分子只有一個原子。這些原子如果多於一個是通过化學鍵結合。離子是带电荷的物质，可以由原子或分子失去或得到电子形成。正離子。气相的离子通常被称为等离子体。物质可以被分类为一种酸或者是一种碱。通常我们有几种进行酸碱分类定义的理论。其中最简单的要数阿累尼乌斯理论则认为酸是能够在化学反应中给其他物质氢离子的物质而碱则是相应能得到氢离子的物质。第三种理论被称作是路易斯酸碱理论（)它是基于形成化学键之上的。路易斯理论认为酸是在键的形成当中接受了一对电子而碱则是在形成键的过程中给予了其他物质一对电子。因此一个物质如果对于不同的酸碱理论来说可能在此是酸在另外一个理论来说却是碱。酸性强度的衡量方法主要有两种：第一种是阿累尼乌斯定义的也就是我们最常用的pH，它是通过衡量一个溶液当中氢离子的浓度来确定酸性的大小。它的计算方法是pH=-log10，也就是pH等于氢离子浓度的负对数，它衡量的是物质作为酸的时候给予氢离子的能力。因此一个酸性越强的物质，其Ka更高，更具有给予氢离子的的倾向。同样的我们可以用pOH代替pH, Kb代替Ka来说明碱性强度。氧化还原的概念和一个物质的原子获取或者给予电子的能力有关。物质拥有氧化其他物质的能力就被成为氧化性而此物质被成为氧化剂（)或者成为氧化物。一个氧化剂能够将电子从其他的物质上移走。相应的具有还原其他物质的物质被称作有还原性而成为还原剂有关－－其实真正的给予或者获取完成的电子并不存在。所以氧化过程被定义为增加了氧化数而还原则是降低的氧化数。簡單來說氧化反應指還原劑失去電子化合價上升而還原反應是指氧化劑得到電子但化合價下降。氧化和還原反應必須同時進行。化學品泛指一切有確實化學構造及化學成份的物質，所以又稱化學物質。它們可以是元素、化合物或混合物。日常生活中，我們會遇到的東西多數都是混合物，例如合金。化合物是一些以不同元素用固定比例結合而成的物質。成份的比例決定了它的化學特性。例如水是用氫同氧以二比一組合而成，组成水分子的三個原子之間构成了104.5度的健角。不同化合物及元素之間的變化稱為化學反應。摩尔是物质的量的国际单位符号为mol。1摩尔是所含基本微粒个数与12克的碳-12中所含原子个数相等的一系统物质的量。使用摩尔时应指明基本微粒可以是分子原子离子电子或其他基本微粒也可以是基本微粒的特定组合体。1摩尔物质中所含基本微粒的个数等于阿伏伽德罗常数符号为NA数值是6.0214129×1023常取6.02×1023。一种物质的摩尔质量与分子量，在使用国际单位制时，在数值上相等。化學鍵是指組成分子或材料的粒子之間互相作用的力量其中粒子可以是原子離子或是分子。化學鍵的物理本質來自於粒子和粒子之間的静電力量子力學上意指原子間電子的波函數線性疊加。化學鍵是化學最重要的概念之一物理理論本質由萊納斯鮑林建立。化學家為能簡潔表述化學鍵並規避量子力學的複雜性將化學鍵分類為共價鍵離子鍵和金屬鍵較弱的鍵結如氫鍵及较特殊的配位相互作用等。無論分類為何其物理本質都是相同的。分子间力是不同分子之间的作用力，主要有氢键，范德华力，亲水作用／疏水作用等，这种作用力比化学键弱，容易打开或重新组合，但是是形成分子空间排列和架构的重要作用力，是现代化学的重要研究方向之一。物質有時會是液體，有時會是固體，有時會是氣體，這些叫作物質的相態。一件物質是否軟、透不透光、透光的話它的折射率是多少，這些都是一件物質的物理特性。總而言之，物理特性即是一種物質不靠化學作用都可以斷定到的特性。化學反應亦称化学变化是一種物質轉變為另一種物質的過程涉及分子中原子的交換和化學鍵的轉移形成或消失。化學反應形成的改變既可令很多獨立的分子結合也可將一個較大型的分子拆開成為很多獨立的小分子甚至是同一分子內有原子移動即使原子的數量沒有改變但仍會構成化學反應。化學变化，亦称化学反应是一種物質轉變為另一種物質的過程，涉及分子中原子的交換和化學鍵的轉移、形成或消失。化學变化形成的改變既可令很多獨立的分子結合，也可將一個較大型的分子拆開成為很多獨立的小分子，甚至是同一分子內有原子移動，即使原子的數量沒有改變，但仍會構成化學变化。雖然平衡概念在科學各領域都得到廣泛的應用，但在化學中，化學平衡是指化學成分中出現多種不同狀態的可能性，例如在可以彼此反應的幾種化合物的混合物中，或當物質可以以多於一種相態存在的時候。即使有著不變的化學組成，但在平衡系統中的化學物質通常並非處於靜止狀態；這些物質的分子會互相繼續進行反應，從而產生動態平衡。因此，化學平衡描述了諸如化學成分之類的參數隨時間保持不變的狀態。化學反應的守恆必須符合物理守恆定律反應前後應符合化学工业是当代经济活动当中重要的一部分。全球50大化学品制造商在2004年共销售了5870亿美元的业绩，其中利润占据了8.1%，其中研发成本占据了2.1%其他还有诸如放射分析化学、同位素化学、辐射化学、核燃料、反应堆和裂变产物化学、地球化学、海洋化学、大气化学、环境化学、宇宙化学、星际化学、药物化学、神经化学、农业化学、石油化学、木材化学、土壤化学、煤化学、食品化学、化学地理学、天体化学、岩石化学、空间化学及胶体与界面化学等 +地理學（）是探索地球及其特徵、居民和現象的學問，研究地球表層各圈層相互作用關係，及其空間差異與變化過程的學科體系。中國古代稱則是指山川方域的地勢、外貌。最早的地理书籍有等。英語geography一詞源自古希臘語，他用此詞表示研究地表景物的學問。日本在明治維新後，將英語geography一詞譯為地理，之後傳入中國。1902年，光緒皇帝接受吏部尚書張百熙建議，頒佈《欽定學堂章程》，故一般小學課目有史學、輿地二項。1903年，張百熙派吳汝綸赴日本考察教育後，負責教育改革的張百熙、張之洞、榮慶向皇帝建議重訂學堂章程。在重訂章程後，一般小學依日本語改稱初等小學，而史學、輿地二科，則改稱歷史、地理。之後，地理一詞在中國廣泛流傳。古代的地理学主要探索测量地球形状大小的方法描述已知的国家和地区。傳統上地理學有四個基本的研究範疇相比之下，現代地理學則是涵蓋多重學科的大學問。歷經科學化的辯證和計量革命──不僅僅只是。一般認為地理學家與地圖學家同屬都是研究地名與數字。雖然許多地理學家都有地名學及地圖學訓練但兩者都不是地理學的主旨。地理學家研究現象過程特徵以及人類和自然環境的相互關係之於空間及時間上的分佈。空間及時間涉及的主題包羅萬有例如氣候生態經濟故地理學是一門跨學科的學問。地理學可略分為二自然地理學及人文地理學。自然地理學著眼自然環境如地形的形成過程有關氣候土壤水生態植被等的各種現象及其相互關係。人文地理學則著眼人造環境例如人類如何開拓管理和看待空間。自然與人的關係難解難分故此立環境地理學旨在基於自然地理學與人文地理學的研究成果分析自然與人的相互關係並提出人類適應改造自然以切合自身永續發展。自然地理學屬自然科學，專門探索大自然（岩石圈、大氣圈、水文圈、生物圈）的變化模式，可分類為以下範疇：人文地理學則探討人與環境的相互影響，研究人與社區、文化、經濟的關係，故可歸社會科學一類。雖然人文地理學的少有談及地貌：人類學問與日俱增，時有他學之新猷用於人文地理学研究，如：環境地理學從空間層面描述人類與大自然的關係連結人文地理學和自然地理學。環境地理學不單牽涉兩者的學問亦會從哲學層面思考對人類有利的自然環境條件使之概念化。此外全球化及科技發展等則是為理解此轉變之法。地理資訊學（geomatics）是地理學的一門分支，它在1950年代的地理學計量革命（quantitative revolution）中首先出現。地理資訊學包含利用地圖學及測繪學所使用的傳統空間技術及電腦應用。地理資訊學與其他利用地理資訊系統及遙感方法的學科一起成為一門普遍的科目。地理資訊學亦引起部分地理部門的復興，此現象特別在1950年代經歷地理部門衰退的北美洲更為顯著。地理資訊學包含大範圍的學科包括空間分析，例如地圖學、地理資訊系統、遙感探測及全球定位系統。區域地理學是地理學的一門分支她研究地球上不同大小的區域。其主要目的是去理解或定義個別地區包含人類及自然因素的獨特性或特色。區域地理學的注意力亦有放在區域化上包括適合的的方法把空間分界成為區域。區域地理學亦被認為是研究地理科學的必然方式，詳細參見地理學歷史。因為空間的相互關係對於作為一門概要性科學（synoptic science）的地理學十分重要所以地圖是一個主要工具。地理學分析除了利用經典的地圖學外亦融合現代化的方法即以電腦為基礎的地理信息系統（GIS）。地理學家在其研究中使用四個相關的方法：地圖學研究地球表面利用符號的表示方法。雖然其他分支學科需要利用地圖表示她們的分析，但是實際的地圖製作理論已經十分足夠從其他學科分別開來。地圖學由起草技術的集合成長為實際的科學。地圖學家必須學習認知心理學及人因工程學去理解那種符號表達地球的資訊最為有效而學習行為心理學則可以引導地圖讀者對資訊作出行動。她們必須學習大地測量學及頗為高階的數學去理解地球的形狀如何影響地圖符號的變形從而反映在平面上作觀察。地圖學可以毫無爭議地被視為地理學中的大型學科的種子。大部分地理學家在幼年時對地圖充滿幻想視為一個她們將會窮一生精力去追尋地理學的早期表徵。地理資訊系統，即利用地理資訊系統的軟件和技術去代表、分析及預測空間關係的科學。遙測可以被定義為一門取得從遠處量度出來的資訊的技術和科學。遙測的資訊由多方面而來包括衛星地圖航空攝影及手提感應器。地理學家不斷增加利用遙測去得出的地球表面海洋及大氣資料。其原因為遙測得到的資料可以獨立分析或是與其他數碼資料層面一併分析。地質統計學十分依賴。地理學家在地理數量技術中有顯著參與。地理質性方法及深入訪問取得質性資料。米利都的阿那克西曼德的構想被後期的希臘作家認為是地理學的始創人，而現在只能夠以其承繼者的片段才可以得知其一二。阿那克西曼德的貢獻包括發明晷針等方面去探究地理學。第一個指出地球為球體的人有究竟是巴門尼德或是畢達哥拉斯的爭議。阿那克薩哥拉雖然能夠利用解釋日蝕論證出地球是圓形，但他和其他當代學者一樣認為地球是平面的。埃拉托斯特尼是其中一個最初估計地球半徑的人。第一個最初準確的經緯線系統被認為是喜帕恰斯。他利用巴比倫數學推演出一個六十進位法及使用56.5英里作為一度。伊斯蘭世界及中國所領導的地理學.羅馬帝國在中世紀瓦解時地理學的演化由歐洲轉移至伊斯蘭世界。學者包括製作詳細地圖的阿布·阿卜杜拉·穆罕默德·伊德里西作為以上用途。三世紀直到13世紀，中國歷史上的地理學研究方法及地理學文學寫作都比起歐洲的大幅度地複雜很多。中國地理學家例如劉安、沈括、范成大、周達觀、徐霞客等寫出很多重要的專著，但是在17世紀後，西方的地理学觀念及方法大多都被中國所採用。在16世紀至17世紀的地理大發現時期探險家如克里斯托弗哥倫布等發現及佔據新土地需要令地理資料更為準確與及一個更為堅固的理論基礎。由杰拉杜斯麦卡托（Gerardus Mercator）和伯恩哈德瓦倫紐斯（Bernhardus Varenius）的著作《地理學概論》（Geographia Generalis）正正是新出現的科學化地理學的一流例子。眾多地理學協會的成立.地理學在18世紀及19世紀被認同為一個獨立學術科目並成為歐洲的影響可以被視為地理學由哲學轉變為學術科目的一個轉捩點。在經歷兩個世紀的科技進步如電腦等引致地理資訊學的發展和引進新方法如參與觀察及地質統計學作為地理研究的工具。在20世紀的西方地理學科經歷四個過程環境決定論區域地理學計量革命及批判地理學。因為地球科學追求以一個全面涵蓋的視界理解世界的關係跨學科連接在地理學地質學經濟學社會學人口統計學間大量加強。 +地质学是对地球的起源探討壓力與時間、历史和结构进行研究的学科。主要研究地球的物质组成、内部构造、外部特征、各圈层间的相互作用和演变历史。在现阶段，由于观察、研究条件的限制，主要以岩石圈为研究对象，并涉及水圈、大气圈、生物圈和岩石圈下更深的部位，以及涉及其他行星和衛星的太空地质学。-{zh-hant:;zh-hans:}-地质时间尺度涵盖了整個地球历史。其起點開始於最早的太陽系材料生成時，約在4.567Ga，地球的出現約在4.54 Ga，一開始稱為冥古宙，最年輕的地質年代則是全新世。如果把地球诞生到现在的大约45亿年缩小到1年，則人類存在的時間只有極短的兩分鐘。对地球的物质成分的研究最早至少可以追溯到古希腊泰奧弗拉斯托斯的著作。在古罗马时期，老普林尼详细的描述了常用的一些矿物和金属，还正确的解释了琥珀的来源。一些现代学者提出陆地形成的假说。他在一个离海洋几百公里远的山中的看到，在一个地质地层里有贝壳类生物化石。由此他推论，陆地是由山脉的侵蚀和淤泥的沉积所形成的。很早以前，地质学的知识比较零星分散。关于这方面的知识，如从地中开采金属、黏土、煤和盐的一些知识，早已为矿工和有关的人们所知晓，而自然哲学家们则大都脱离这些实践，独立形成自己的思辨性的地质理论。地质学在18世纪开始成为一门独立的科学，并在19世纪早期达到成熟阶段。1790年至1830年这一段时期被称为“地质学的英雄时代”。在这个时期，在考察岩层顺序以及岩层所含矿物和化石上，人们做了大量工作。在现阶段，由于观察、研究条件的限制，主要以岩石圈为研究对象，并涉及水圈、大气圈、生物圈和岩石圈下更深的部位，以及涉及其他行星和衛星的太空地质学。。工作方法的一大进步表现在用根据化石内容来进行岩层分类。地质学史上有三场著名的争论。其一为水成论与火成论之争发生在18世纪末。争论的焦点在于岩石的形成理论一方以德国科学家亚伯拉罕戈特洛布维尔纳为代表强调形成岩石过程中的水的作用另一方以苏格兰科学家赫屯为代表强调火的作用。现今已经知道岩石主要由三大类构成除了水成为主的沉积岩和火成为主的岩浆岩还存在一类变质岩。水成过程和火成过程在岩石的形成中都扮演了重要角色。其二为灾变论与渐变论（也称均变论）之争，发生在19世纪早期。持灾变论观点的学者认为，地球历史上曾发生过多次大的灾难，是灾难导致了旧的物种的灭绝和新物种的再创造。持渐变论观点的学者认为，物种演化的动力来自于微弱的地质作用在地球演变过程中的长期积累，不依靠大型的灾难也能够发生。第三场争论是固定论与活动论之争。固定论学说认为地壳的位置是永远不变的，其运动方式以垂直运动为主。传统的地槽、地台学说就是一种固定论学说。活动论学说认为地壳的运动是以水平运动为主的，垂直运动虽然存在，但是是水平运动过程中派生出来的。活动论随着板块构造学说的发展，逐渐被学者所认同。 +气象学是把大气当作研究的客体，从定性和定量两方面来说明大气特征的学科，集中研究大气的天气情况和变化规律和对天气的预报。气象学是大气科学的一个分支。第一位建立氣象學的人是古希臘哲學家亞里士多德。在他的專書中，他最先敘述和粗淺地解釋了風、雲、雨、雪、雷、雹等天氣現象，而這書是世界上最早的氣象書籍。直到18-19世紀，由於物理學和化學的發展以及氣壓、溫度、濕度和風等測量儀器的陸續發明德國人布德蘭繪製了第一張地面天氣圖，開創了近代天氣分析和預報方法。1835年，法國人科利奧里提出風偏轉的概念；而1857年荷蘭人白貝羅提出風和氣壓的關係，他們的概念都成為大氣動力學和天氣分析的基礎。1854年11月14日克里米亞戰爭期間，一場暴雨使亨利四世的軍艦及商船毀壞殆盡，造成400人死亡，當時的國防部長瓦揚請天文學家-{于}-爾班·勒維耶負責找出原委。經過研究後，-{于}-爾班證明這場暴風雨在11月12日即已存在，且在兩天之內便自西北往東南方向襲捲整個歐洲。因此他指出影響天氣的大部份因子都具有遷移性。此次事件使他認為有必要發展氣象學，他促使這門學科在1855年獲得正式地位，現代氣象學就此踏出第一步。1920年前後挪威的皮耶克尼斯父子提出了一套名為的理論來說明中緯度地區的天氣變化情況。這套理論在1920年代發表之後至今已有百多年但仍然是今日作天氣預報的主要理論依據亦為分析和預報未來1-2天的天氣奠定了理論基礎。1930年代無線電探空儀的廣泛使用真正開始了三維空間的大氣科學研究。根據大量探空資料繪製的高空天氣圖發現了大氣長波。1939年卡尔-古斯塔夫罗斯贝提出了長波動力學他的理論亦對天氣預報有莫大的貢獻。到了1950年代至60年代電腦天氣雷達衛星和遙感的技術的應用使大氣的各種現象大至大氣環流小至雨滴的形成過程都可依照物理學和化學的數學形式來表示例如熱力學第一定律偏微分。從而使大氣科學有了突飛猛進的發展。觀測研究是藉觀測去了解不同的大氣現象，可以說是氣象學理論的其中一塊基石，亦是一般氣象愛好者所關注的。觀測方法亦有很多種，氣象站、高空氣球、衛星雲圖、雷達回波圖等。觀測研究不只是觀測，也有一定程度的歸納和分析，例如一句，便是一種分析。此外，繪製天氣圖、整理熱帶氣旋路徑、氣候區域分類等，亦是觀測研究所要做的。理論研究有三大部份，除觀測外，物理和數學對理論研究亦很重要。理論可以從兩方面產生，一方面是從觀測數據中直接建立出來的，例如分析熱帶氣旋強度的德沃扎克分析法，另一方面是從物理理論或其他氣象理論演化出來的，例如地轉方程、氣壓梯度方程等。物理理論很多時需要數學的幫助，反過來說，數學語言有時更能使我們明白物理和氣象理論。現代的天氣預報即是建立在數值模式上數值模式透過非線性方程式以及超級電腦的插點格運算反演出一地區未來數天天氣。數值模式研究是較少人所認識的它們都需要相當的理論知識電腦程序技巧和實驗技巧。數值模式研究會把不同的物理和氣象方程以電腦程序的方式放進電腦裡再計算出未來溫度濕度氣壓風向等變化以協助天氣預報或理論研究。比较有名的天气数值模式有：實驗研究同樣是較少人所認識的實驗研究因-{}-數值模式研究的出現而比往日式微但亦有其存在價值例如要驗証某些理論數值模式研究是做不到的。 +生物學是自然科學的一大門類由經驗主義出發廣泛研究生命的所有方面包括生命起源演化分佈構造發育功能行为與環境的互動關系以及生物分類學等。現代生物學是一個龐大而兼收並蓄的領域由許多分支和分支學科組成。然而儘管生物學的範圍很廣在它裡面有某些一般和統一概念支配一切的學習和研究把它整合成單一的連貫的領域。在總體上生物以細胞作為生命的基本單位基因作為遺傳的基本單元和進化是推動新物種的合成和創建的引擎。今天人們還了解所有生物體的生存以消耗和轉換能量調節體內環境以維持穩定的和重要的生命條件。生物學分支學科被研究生物體的規模所定義和研究它們使用的方法所定義生物化學考察生命的基本化學分子生物學研究生物分子之間錯綜複雜的關系植物學研究植物的生物學細胞生物學檢查所有生命的基本組成單位細胞生理學檢查組織器官和生物體的器官系統的物理和化學的功能進化生物學考察了生命的多樣性的產生過程和生態學考察生物在其環境如何相互作用。最終能夠達到治療診斷遺傳病提高農作物產量改善人類生活保護環境等目的。生物學之英语单词源於希臘文，，意為生命，以及字尾，"-logia"，意為學問，合併為“研究生命的學問”。1802年，法国博物學家拉马克最早提出这個名词。现代生物學的五大基础，也是主要的研究方向：细胞學说認為細胞是生物的基本單位而且所有生物都是由一至多個細胞以及細胞分泌的物質組成在細胞分裂時也會傳遞給其他的細胞。现代生物學認為生命是從演化而來，所有已知的生物都有一共同起源。演化論假設所有地球上活著及已絕種的生物都是來自一共同起源或一基因庫。所有生物最晚的共同起源約出現在約35億年前。目前已有壓倒性的證據支持演化的真實性，學界普遍認為演化是事實，而不僅僅是理論或假說，對於演化論的真確性，存在有強烈的科學共識，演化以外任何關於物種起源或人類起源的學說，目前都不獲支持。絕大多數的科學社群和學術團體，都認為演化論是唯一能完全滿足在生物學、古生物學、分子生物學、遺傳學、人類學及其他各領域中所觀察到的現象的理論。一項在1991年所作的蓋洛普民調顯示，只有大約5%的科學家認為自己是創造論者。截至目前為止，沒有任何反對演化論且經過科學方面同行審查的論文，名列科學與醫學期刊搜尋引擎PubMed當中。基因是生物體遺傳的基本單位基因對應一特定區域的DNA以特定方式影響生物的某一部位或某一機能。從細菌到動物的所有生物體都有同様複製DNA並依此產生蛋白質的能力。細胞將DNA的基因轉錄為對應的核糖核酸然後核糖體將RNA轉譯為一串由胺基酸組成的蛋白質。由RNA轉換為胺基酸的遺傳密码在大部份生物中是相同的但有些生物仍有少許差異。例如若將人類對應胰島素的DNA放在植物中也可以產生胰島素。體内平衡：平衡是一個開放系統可以藉由許多彼此相關機制的動態平衡調整，使得其內在情形維持在穩定的狀態。所有的生物，不論是單細胞或是多細胞生物，都有體内平衡的機制。一个活的生物體的生存依赖于能量的连续输入。生物體是靠化學反應來從食物中提取能量才能維持身體機能並建立新的細胞。在上述反應中組成食物化學物质的分子扮演两个重要角色。第一這些分子中有些可以藉由生物體內的化學反應產生能量。第二有些則可以組成生物分子中的新的分子结构。负责引进能量到生态系统的生物被称为生产者或自养生物。几乎所有的这些生物體最初都从太阳吸取能量。生物學家從很多面向研究生物因此產生很多研究領域。例如生物學本身不斷的快速發展，與其他學科的關聯整合也越來越多。一大原因是分子生物學在近代突飛猛進，終於導致人類基因序列定序基本完成。由此，為了解讀巨大数量的基因資訊，促成了基因组學。為了探究基因和蛋白質的交互作用，開創出蛋白質组學。這些新的研究領域幫助解決疾病、糧食、環境生態等問題。其眾多的研究資訊和积累海量研究数据則需要新的電腦演算法來處理。分子生物學是在分子水平的生物學研究。该领域与生物學的其他领域重叠特别是遺傳學和生物化學。分子生物學主要关注的是理解一个细胞内的各种系统的相互之间的相互作用包括DNARNA和蛋白质的合成和學习这些相互作用如何被调节。细胞生物學研究细胞的结构和生理學特性，包括它们的行为，相互作用和环境。解剖學考虑的是宏观结构的形式例如器官和器官系统。遺傳學是研究基因、遺傳和生物體的变异的科學。雙名法是學名的命名方法，英文為 Binomial Nomenclature。它給每個物種訂立兩個文字，前字是該物種的屬名，後字是它的種小名 ，兩者合為種名。除了前字須首字母大寫，其餘字母都要小寫。一般使用拉丁文，或以其他語言詞作語源，再加上拉丁化後綴。例如中國近來發現的恐龍，有些學名是用中文拼音做語源的。有些物種因為環境隔絕或發生突變，必須再往下細分出亞種。為了方便區別，科學界給亞種設計一套 三名法，英文為 Trinomial Nomenclature。生态學研究生物与其环境之间的相互关系的科學。环境包括生物环境和非生物环境，生物环境是指生物物种之间和物种内部各个體之间的关系，非生物环境包括自然环境：土壤、岩石、水、空气、温度、湿度等。生物學家对于生命现象的研究通常采用观察和实验的方法，通常这两种方法是一起使用的。实验方法是人为地干预、控制所研究的对象，并通过这种干预和控制所造成的效应来研究对象的某种属性。17世纪前后生物學中出现了最早的一批生物學实验，如英国生理學家威廉·哈维关于血液循环的实验，扬·巴普蒂斯塔·范·海尔蒙特关于柳树生长的实验等。到了19世纪，物理學、化學比较成熟了，生物學实验就有了坚实的基础，因而首先是生理學，然后是细菌學和生物化學相继成为明确的实验性的學科。19世纪80年代，实验方法进一步被应用到了胚胎學，细胞學和遺傳學等學科。尚未解决的生物學基本问题.尽管我们近几十年来对于生命的的基本过程的认识取得了的深刻进步，一些基本的问题仍然没有得到解决。例如，在生物學的主要未解决的问题之一是性别的主要自适应功能，和特别是在真核生物中它的关键过程，减数分裂和同源重组。一种观点认为，性别主要是发展成为一个适应增加遺傳多样性（请参阅参考资料如）。另一种观点认为，性别是一种适应于生殖细胞系DNA促进准确的DNA修复，并且增加遺傳多样性主要是可能是从长远来看是有用的一个副产品。（参见有性生殖的演化）。在生物學另一个基本未解决的问题是老化的生物學基础。目前没有任何衰老的根本原因共识。各种竞争的理论列在老化#衰老理论。這些是生物學的主要分支這些是生物學的主要分支 +心理学是一门研究人类和动物的心理现象、意识和行为的科学。它既是一门理论学科，也是一门应用学科，包括理论心理学与应用心理学两大领域。心理學研究涉及意识、感覺、知覺、認知、情绪、人格、行為和人際關係等眾多領域，影響其他學科的發展，例如：教育学、管理學、传播学、社会学、经济学、精神病学、统计学、以及文學等等。心理學一方面嘗試用大腦運作來解釋個体基本的行為與心理機能，同時，心理學也嘗試解釋個體心理機能在社會行為與社會動力中的角色。心理學家從事基礎研究的目的是描述、解釋、預測和控制行為。應用心理學家還有第五個目的——提高人類生活的品質。這些目標構成了心理學事業的基礎。有些領域的心理學家為了研究人類的行為，會對動物進行實驗，以推測環境、生理（如：大腦損傷、運動是否能增加多巴胺等）以及一些特定因素所產生的影響。心理學家也會使用核磁共振、斷層掃描、及發展較成熟的問卷調查等方式來研究人類的心理。有時會有腦部部分損傷的病人，他們也藉由觀察這些人的腦部活動，去了解腦袋各部位的功能為何。西语中的“心理学”所组成最早由克罗地亚诗人马尔科马鲁利奇使用。漢譯譯名之來源，透過歷史學與心理學之相關考證，證明與中國明代心學、宋代理學、及宋明儒學東渡日本有直接關係。1890年，威廉·詹姆斯将心理学定义为。几十年来，这个定义一直广为流传。然而，这一含义受到了一些激进行为主义者的质疑，尤其是约翰.B.沃森等激进行为主义者。沃森在1913年的宣言中将心理学定义为获取对控制行为有用的信息。同样，自从詹姆斯定义了它，这个词更强烈地暗示了科学实验的技术。早期的心理學研究是属于哲学的范畴称为哲學心理學。哲學心理學的研究可以追溯到埃及希腊印度和華夏等古代文明。中國古代認為人的性情思想是由一定的器官承擔的並且其活動會在器官上反映出來如等思想在是西方最早的一部论述心理学思想的著作。經由長久的演變慢慢的產生各式各樣不同的學科包括了現在人所了解的心理學。哲學心理學主要是在探討心身關係天性與教養自由意志與決定論知識來源等四大議題。其早期的理論有一元論二元論環境決定論精神決定論等。近代的哲學心理學則是有三大思想流派包括了理性主義經驗主義與浪漫主義。正如德国心理学家艾宾浩斯所说。在中世纪的伊斯兰医学与心理学中已经开始进行临床的精神科治疗和实验研究。虽然心理学实验可以追溯到阿拉伯学者海什木的著作——，在序言裡大膽宣稱：；冯特也因此被称为“心理学之父”。1875年，莱比锡大学聘馮特為教授；1879年，他在莱比锡大学建立世界第一个专门的心理实验室，吸引了來自世界各地的學生。10餘年後，也就是1890年代，美國各大學風起雲湧地仿傚此舉，建立數十座心理學實驗室，尤其1892這一年就成立了20座，這一年也是美國心理學會的成立年。通常将1874年作为科学心理学诞生的时间，这一时间比许多自然科学脱离哲学而形成独立学科的时间为晚。冯特也是第一个把自己称为心理学家的人。其他早期而重要的心理學家包括艾賓浩斯等。19世纪末、20世纪初，西格蒙德·弗洛伊德的精神分析学派兴起。德国心理学家威廉冯特被认为是将实验引入心理学研究的人被誉为“实验心理学之父”。1879年他在莱比锡大学建立了第一个心理学实验室。冯特着重于将心理分解成为基本的元素这是由于当时化学的进步后者在分析物质元素与结构上取得突破。虽然冯特自己不是构造主义者他的学生愛德華B鐵欽納成为了构造主义的思想家与机能主义者对立。鐵欽納是美国早期心理学家的重要人物。机能主义相对于结构主义而生并受到美国哲学家科学家心理学家威廉詹姆士影响颇多。詹姆士认为心理学应该有实用价值心理学家应该找到有益於人的科学方式。他的著作于1890年出版其中有许多铺垫性问题为后续科学家提供了方向。其他主要机能主义者包括约翰杜威和。其它19世纪的杰出人物有德国心理学家赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯，他是研究記憶实验的先驱，在柏林洪堡大學创立了学习与遗忘的量化模型。苏俄心理学家伊万·彼得罗维奇·巴甫洛夫，他在对狗进行实验时发现了的发展奥地利医生西格蒙德弗洛伊德自十九世纪90年代开始研究精神分析学直到自己1939年去世为止。精神分析学是一种研究意识解释经历的方法是一种关于人类行为的理论系统是一种针对心理情绪的治疗方法特别是对潜意识中的冲突进行心理治疗。弗洛伊德的精神分析中的很多理论基于解释法内省法以及临床观察。精神分析法广为流传因为它的研究对象涉及性别压抑心理发展中的潜意识等。这些问题在当时都被列为社会禁忌弗洛伊德则提供了催化剂使得问题可以在正式社交中得以公开讨论。在临床上弗洛伊德是自由联想的先驱他对释梦治疗也很有研究。弗洛伊德对瑞士精神科醫師卡尔荣格的影响很大后者的分析心理学与深度心理学互补。20世纪中叶心理学者们研究精神分析心理学精神病治疗以及哲学。这些著名的学者包括爱利克埃里克森梅兰妮克莱因唐纳德威尼科特卡伦霍妮埃里希弗罗姆約翰鮑比以及弗洛伊德的女儿安娜弗洛伊德。在整个二十世纪里精神分析衍生出不同的分支学派它们中很多被划分为新弗洛伊德学派。精神分析及其治疗受到诸多人士的批评，如心理学家汉斯·艾森克、以及哲学家卡尔·波普尔。波普尔是位科学哲学家，认为精神分析作为科学是错误的，，而艾森克则称精神分析原理与实验数据不符。到二十世纪末，美国高等院校心理学院变得更加倾向于实证主义，将弗洛伊德理论边缘化，并蔑称其为 +在整个20世纪的上半叶等。当今世界主要的心理学学派有五大观点每一个观点都强调行为及心理过程的不同方面。其主要包括[[神经科学|神经心理学]][[精神分析|精神分析学]][[行为主义|行为主义心理学]][[人本主义|人本主义心理学]][[认知心理学]]。二十世纪50年代在行为主义与精神分析的影响下人本心理学应育而生。应用现象学剖析了人本主义对其更进一步的科学分析。成为细小的元素，而是坚持经验作为整体的重要性，认为总体不同于部分相加的和。完形心理学不应与的相混淆后者只在外表上与完形心理学有关联。在二十世纪50到60年代，美国原精神分析学家。存在主义心理学不同于其它人本学派，即、或是讲述方式改变。对于死亡及未来的真实性，通常会鼓励人们接受自由意志，尽管令人焦虑。奥地利存在主义精神病医生、。瑞士精神分析学家和梅一道也被认为是存在主义学派学者。[[Image:Working memory model.svg|thumb|right|250px|]]认知主义心理学派研究心理活动，包括的一部分，这个心理学分支与其它学科有密切联系，包括神经科学、哲学、语言学等。称儿童的生活环境有助于行为的改良。与此同时成为了流行分支。认知心理学认为隐蔽的心理活动应该使用科学的方式进行研究，心理学家创立了两种概念：和精神病学家亚伦·T·贝克创立而成。认知心理学与其它学科，如精神哲学、计算机科学、神经科学，一道被归入的上层学科认知科学。[[生物心理学]]或行为神经科学从生物角度研究行为和心理过程。生物心理学中有不同的专业分支。例如[[生理心理学]]运用动物模型特别是老鼠来研究神经基因细胞机能在学习记忆恐惧中产生的作用。[[認知神經科學|認知神经科学家]]利用神经成像工具研究神经与人类心理活动之间的关系[[神经心理学|神经心理学家]]使用心理测评来进行科学研究如大脑损伤带来认知缺失的程度与表现形式。临床心理学的研究与应用包括理解、预防、缓解心理痛苦与[[精神病|紊乱]]，促进[[心理健康]]和个人成长。虽然临床心理学家也会参与研究、教学、咨询、出庭作证、程序编订与管理，但该分支的中心是心理测评与[[心理治疗|治疗]]。一些临床心理学家会着重于对[[脑损伤]]的病人进行临床监护，这一领域被称为。在许多国家里，临床心理学是受到管制的[[心理健康专业]]。临床心理学家所做的努力受到诸多治疗方案的影响所有方案都包括专业人士与患者之间的正式关系。不同的治疗实践方案与不同的理论观点相互关联采用不同的流程来建立治疗组合探究心理病因鼓励新的方法来思考感受行动。四大治疗理论观点包括和。目前有趋势表明一部分心理家正在努力整合各个治疗派系特别是在对文化性别精神性取向的理解加深的情况下这个趋势更加显著。在丰富的研究成果下有证据表明各大治疗派系的效果趋于等同并共享相同的基础元素可以形成强大的心理治疗组合。正因为如此更多的心理学培训课程采取了。绿 红 蓝 紫 蓝 紫蓝 紫 红 绿 紫 绿指出读出文字的颜色第一组的要比第二组的简单很多。認知心理學研究心理活動中的認知。[[知覺]]、[[注意]]、[[理智]]、[[思維]]、[[解決問題|解題]]、[[記憶]]、[[學習]]、[[語言]]、[[情緒]]都在它的研究領域之中。經典認知心理學與[[認知主義]]學派有相互聯繫，根據[[機能主義]]與[[實驗心理學]]，[[認知主義]]支持心理信息處理模型。在更廣域的層面上，認知科學是一種跨學科範疇，包括[[認知心理學]]、[[認知神經科學]]、[[人工智能]]、[[語言學]]、[[人機互動]]、[[計算神經科學]]、[[數理邏輯]]與[[人類學]]。[[計算機模擬|計算機]]常被用於模擬這類實驗現象。 [[計算機模擬]]為研究思維的功能組織提供了工具，神經系統科學則為大腦活動提供了度量衡。比较心理学指对非人类动物的科学研究，特别是与系统发展史、适应值、行为发展相关的领域。在此领域的研究讨论许多问题，使用许多不同的方式，探索不同物种的行为，从昆虫到灵长类动物。比较心理学与其它研究动物行为的学科，如[[动物行为学]]有紧密联系。比较心理学的研究有时会给人类行为研究带来启发，但是有时两者的关联却十分矛盾，例如[[艾德華·威爾森]]所提出的[[社會生物學]]。动物模型常常被用来研究与人类行为相关的神经处理过程，例如在[[認知神經科學]]就常常应用动物模型。）。发展心理学家设计了一整套心理学理论来支持他们的研究。 +教育心理学是研究人类在[[教育]]过程中的学习、效率、授课心理以及[[学校]]作为一个组织的社会心理。儿童心理学家，如[[利維·維谷斯基]]、[[讓·皮亞傑]]、[[杰罗姆·布鲁纳]]、伯纳德·罗斯金(Bernard Luskins)等人对教授方式与教学实践都有重要影响。在许多国家里，教育心理学都是教师的必修课。组合了教育心理学和[[临床心理学]]，试图理解、应付有学习障碍的学生；培育[[资优]]生；促进青春期行为；或是提倡安全、互助、高效的教育环境。学校心理学家在许多领域，如教育行为评估、干预、预防、咨询等都有了解、有的在研究领域颇有造诣。为其它心理学领域提供了最为近似的发展性解释。应用心理学概念与方法优化工作场所的人类潜能。作为I–O的分支人事心理学应用心理学原理与方法对员工进行筛选与评估。I–O的另一分支组织心理学研究工作环境与管理风格对工作积极性成就感和生产力的影响效果。[[人格心理學]]关注个人持续性的[[行为]]、[[思想]]、[[情绪]]——这些被称作是[[人格]]。人格理论因学派不同而有所不同，他们就潜意识的作用及儿时经历的重要性有不同的假设。根据弗洛伊德，人格是基于[[本我、自我与超我]]之间的互动而产生的，此即所謂的[[精神分析]]學派。与之相反，[[特质理论]]则尝试使用离散统计数据来进行研究，所提出的特质种类也大有千秋。早期的[[汉斯·艾森克]]模型提出人格由三种基本特质组成：[[外向性与内向性]]、[[情绪不稳定性|神经质]]、。[[雷蒙德·卡特尔]]则提出了。如今，人格维度模型受到越来越多的重视，例如。目前集大成的為[[社會認知]]學派，其實最初稱為[[社會學習]]論，是從[[行為學派]]作為延伸：人格的形塑就是人與人、環境的互動所學習到的行為，而後美國心理學家班杜拉從中把行為學派的理論更加擴大，加入了人的內在活動─認知成分，形成了社會認知理論。社会心理学研究人类彼此之间的看法以及它们是如何产生联系的，社会心理学家研究课题包括他人对个体行为的影响（例如：[[從眾行為|从众]]、）、信仰的建立、[[态度]]、或更大層面來說，不只人與人之間的互動，也有人與一個群體的互動等，就像[[刻板印象]]的建立與強化，會引起之後的[[歧視]]行為，就是一個經典的例子。将认知心理学与社会学的元素联系在一起，试图理解人们如何处理、记忆、扭曲社会信息。群体动力学研究揭示领导能力、交流及其他的本质及其优化潜质。近些年来，许多社会心理学家对[[內隱態度]]、、个人与社会价值互动所致行为倍感兴趣。因此，对人类社会的研究可以发现导致心理紊乱的潜在原因。一些被应用到心理紊乱的社会学概念包括社会角色、病人角色、阶层、生活事件、文化、迁移等等。正向心理學從有更好的效果。情感心理学（Psychology Of Emotion）是心理學中研究[[情緒]]的分支主要研究如何消除紧张和[[心理壓力|压力]]的情绪恢复健康健全的人格。心理学研究倾向于的产物。心理学家会展开[[基础科学|基础研究]]来进一步理解心理学的某一领域或是进行应用研究来解决临床工作场所等其它问题。硕士级别的临床专业会同时教授学生研究方式与[[循证实践]]。心理学专业协会也会协助设立规范标准如道德培训研究方式专业操作等。另外根据不同的国家和地区心理服务或“心理学家”这一职称受到相应法律的规范从事对外服务的心理学家也常常被要求取得从业执照。根據理論或觀察作出假設，在控制實驗情境中各種情況下操縱自變量觀察因變量的結果。對結果進行統計分析，控制無關變量產生的效果後檢驗假設，並進行推論：自變量是否對因變量產生效果，即自變量和因變量間是否有因果關係。亦會根據數據分析，找出兩者的相關係數，然後判斷是否有研究價值。以人类为对象的实验受到了一些管制，例如必须征得被实验对象的同意、保证自愿参与的原则。对权威的测试实验等。[[File:Operant_Conditioning_Involves_Choice.png|缩略图|263x263像素|鴿子做[[古典制約|制約]]實驗]]动物学习实验对于研究人类心理学有很重要的辅助作用，例如知觉、感情、学习、记忆等等。十九世纪90年代，俄罗斯心理学家[[伊万·彼得罗维奇·巴甫洛夫]]利用狗的实验来展示[[古典制約|经典条件反射]]。非人类动物如灵长类、猫、狗、鸽子、[[小白鼠|鼠]]以及其它[[啮齿类动物]]常常被应用于心理实验中，特別是[[行為心理學]]的研究。理想状态中，实验控制组一次只给出一个[[變因|自变量]]，以显明它对因变量的作用。这些在实验室里可以得到最为近似的结果。与之相反，人类的生存环境与基因环境差异太大，变量太多，以至于在人群中难以控制重要的变量数据。当然，把动物实验的结果往人类身上生搬硬套是明显不可取的。动物实验会受相关約束，需要遵守心理學會所定的道德原則。心理学绝大多数的领域遵循标准的进行研究。心理質性研究方式包括[[訪談法]]、[[觀察法]]等。克雷斯維爾(Creswell，2003)定義了五項主要的質性研究，包括[[敘述]]、[[現象學]]、[[民族誌]]、案例分析和基礎理論。質性研究員有時會努力豐富解釋，或是對[[符號]]的[[批判理論|批判]]、主觀經驗或[[社會結構]]。類似的[[解釋學|解釋]]或批判觀點會被應用與，如[[埃里希·弗羅姆]]的或[[斯坦利·米爾格拉姆]]的[[米爾格倫實驗|權力屈服實驗]]。心理定量研究常常利用統計學來測試假說。設計定量研究常常包括[[實驗]]准實驗橫斷設計[[病例對照研究]]和縱貫研究。實驗構造中的度量與[[操作定義]]也是十分重要的。統計方式包括[[皮爾遜積矩相關係數]][[方差分析]][[線性回歸]][[Logit模型]]結構方程建模[[等級線性模型]]等。该研究旨在回答个人的想法感受行为被称之为“描述性研究”。描述性研究的取向可以是定量的也可以是定性的。“定性研究”是描述性研究中着重于对发生事件的观察描述目的在于捕捉每日行为的一点一划并期望在粗略实验中遗失的现象中重新得到发现或理解。 +正如[[珍·古道尔]]的研究包括观察[[黑猩猩屬|黑猩猩]]的社交、家庭那样，心理学家通过观察人类社会、专业、家庭来进行研究。有时，参与者会察觉到自己受到监视，有时候则相反。但无论如何，在观察研究正在进行时，研究人员必须保证遵循严格的道德准则，不能做出有悖伦理的尝试。心理学上统计调查可被用来度量态度特质监视情绪的改变检查试验的效度以及其它相关研究项目等等。心理统计员可以使用传统纸张电话电子邮件或是目前流行的网络等围绕主题制定好问卷按一定比例进行人群调查随机调查重点调查抽样调查。类似的调查方式也被用于其它应用场所如临床评估人事评估等。发展心理学的研究設計.神經心理學研究方法將心理活動、行為與大腦結構、功能進行對比。這些方法包括測試、和等。计算模型作为工具常被应用与和认知心理学，即用计算机模拟某一特定行为。这种方式有其独特的优势。由于现代计算机处理信息的速度极快，可同时运行多个模拟程序，在短期内生成大量的统计数据。模型可以帮助心理学家观察心理事件的假设值，这在平时活动中是不易观察到的。应用过程中有许多不同的模型可供选择。[[联结主义]]利用[[人工神经网络|神经网络]]来模拟大脑。另一种方式是形象模拟，利用变量和规则模拟不同的心理活动。其它种类的模型包括[[动力系统]]和[[随机过程]]等。档案研究法是指依据一定目的收集大量现有资料通过分析找出某些现象与心理之间关系的一种度.档案研究法有广义和狭义之分广义的档案研究法除了传统的参考资料还包括视听影像资料狭义的档案资料包括报纸杂志会议记录政府公文个人书信等文字材料。档案研究法的使用能弥补其他一些研究方法的不足但有其缺点需要视情况而定。对研究的批评常常包括指责心理学是“软”科学。科学哲学家的1962批判中暗示心理学仍处在前范式形态缺乏像成熟的化学物理学那样的支撑性理论。由于心理学的一些领域依赖于之类的研究方式，批评家们认为心理学不够客观。其它观点认为心理学家所研究的人格、思维、情绪不可能被直接测量，其结果不过是调查对象的主观报道。另一些批评家则认为统计假说被误用。一些研究记录表明心理学家常常混淆统计的与实践之间的关系，而前者在实践上常常无关紧要。有时，辩论发生在心理学界内部，例如实验室研究人员与从事实践的临床医生之间的争执等。有的观察者发现了某些理论与实践上的冲突——例如，一些临床实践没有理论支持。批评家们认为越来越多的心理培训课程没有足够的科学依据。一些质疑者认为，像“婴儿孤独症協助性溝通”；被用于记忆恢复的塑身锻炼；再生疗法等，虽然十分风行，但却令人怀疑，而且可能有害健康。 +在今天的道德准则框架内，一些研究实验不允许进行。这些实验违反了[[人体实验|美国心理学会道德准则]]（Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association）、加拿大涉及人类实验道德准则（the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans）、以及。目前，道德准则规定，对非人类动物的研究只能在效益大于伤害的情况下进行。所以心理学家在动物实验中的研究方式不能用于人类。大学心理学院设有道德委员会，以保障研究对象的权益与尊重。心理研究员在进行实验之前必须获得准许，以保护人类参与对象或实验动物的权益。1959年统计学家西奥多斯特林（Theodore Sterling）计算發现97%的心理实验支持了它们最初的假设暗示了[[抽屉问题|偏差]]存在的可能。与之类似贾内尔（Fanelli 2010)发现91.5%的精神/心理研究得到了证明所得出的问题（阳性结果）是[[空间科学|空间]]或[[地球科学]]的5倍大。贾内尔认为较科学的研究人员就他们的意识与潜意识中的偏差缺乏束缚。2010年一组研究人员公布了心理研究中的系统性实验对象偏差WEIRD 。虽然全球范围内之后1/8的人属于WEIRD范畴但实验人员称心理学60–90%的实验在WEIRD对象上进行。报告显示在上WEIRD对象与部落对象的实验结论差异巨大。心理学所包含的研究领域甚为宽广，并使用许多不同的方法来心理过程与行为。心理学主要分为理论心理学和应用心理学两大领域，其下又可分为许多次领域，例如等。[[Category行為科學|P]][[Category:自然史|P]]中醫學，亦稱漢醫學，是一種起源於中國漢族且至今已有過千年歷史的傳統醫學。與現代西方醫學相比較时，其常被歸入傳統醫學的範疇。因此，現今世界上的中醫學的发展目标，多是追求自身的科學化和現代化。按照中華人民共和国全国科学技术名词审定委员会审定的名词中医学是“以中医药理论与实践经验为主体研究人类生命活动中健康与疾病转化规律及其预防诊断治疗康复和保健的综合性科学”。2017年中國大陸首部中醫藥法施行。中医的理论和实践并非以西医研究理论为基础以部分西方西医的观点被定性为庸医。在現代，廣義的中醫學，是指中華民族統治範圍内的所有的民族醫學和宗教醫學。如漢醫、藏医、蒙医、苗医、彝医、维医、哈萨克医、佛医等；狹義的中醫學，則是指漢醫。一詞，一是來自日本之稱，一是來自清代的稱呼。又稱漢醫學或漢方醫學，是在中國地區發展出的傳統醫學思想及治療技術，因為它是漢民族發展出的醫學傳統，所以稱呼它是漢醫學。隨著漢文化的發展，它被傳播至韓國、越南、日本等地，與當地醫學結合，形成各種不同的流派。最早使用來作區分。清朝時也使用這個名詞來稱呼中國的傳統醫學。1949年之前汉医一词比较普遍。清後民國也用國醫來稱呼。在中國更常用。但在日本及韓國等地仍然使用這個較中性的名詞。日本的漢方醫學，南韓的韓醫學，北韓稱的高麗醫學、越南的東醫學都是以中医为基础发展起来的。中醫學以阴阳五行作为理论基础，将人体看成是气、形、神的统一体，通过望、闻、问、切，四诊合參的方法，探求病因、病性、病位、分析病機及人体内五臟六腑、经络關節、氣血津液的变化、判斷邪正消長，進而得出病名，歸納出證型，以辨證論治原則，制定“汗、吐、下、和、溫、清、補、消”等治法，使用中藥、针灸、跌打、推拿、按摩、拔罐、氣功、食療等多種治療手段，使人体達到陰陽調和而康复。中醫治療的積極面在於希望可以協助恢復人體的陰陽平衡，而消極面則是希望當必須使用藥物來減緩疾病的惡化時，還能兼顧生命與生活的品質。此外，中醫學的最終目標並不僅止於治病，更進一步是幫助人類接近中所提出的四種典範人物，即真人、至人、聖人、賢人的境界。近年各地政府都開始對專業中醫行業進行監管以保障公眾健康。中華人民共和国政府于1988年设立国家中医药管理局管理中医药行业，是隶属于卫生部的副部级国家局。为继承和弘扬中医药，保障和促进中医药事业发展，保护人民健康，经十二届全国人大常委第二十五次会议通过了，于2017年7月1日起实施。中医在港英政府时期无合法行医地位但能以等属于行医范围的名称因此中医师无权签署死亡证也不能在处方上开任何西药更不能使用注射否则被认为是违法行为。香港政府根據《中醫藥條例》，在1999年成立香港中醫藥管理委員會，用作規管中藥買賣和中醫師的專業水平，以保障公眾健康和消費者權益。根據《中醫藥條例》，所有在香港執業的中醫師，必須向中醫藥管理委員會註冊。在中醫師之前註冊制度生效之前，除了提供全科診治及開方,以「中醫」掛名應診的從業員之外，還有後來被納入中醫註冊制度，當時俗稱為「跌打師傅」、「跌打佬」的從業員。其起源沒有一個統一說法，有一說法是與上世紀香港盛行的武館風氣有關。 後來由於此行業傳統的師徒制日漸式微，以及《中醫藥條例》和中醫註冊制度的實施，規管關乎中醫藥的活動或事宜，包括中醫的註冊等等，而跌打師傅已被納入為中醫的骨傷科專業，以後成為註冊中醫(骨傷科)的人士須具認可資格並受正式訓練，所以老式的跌打館，有逐漸式微的趨勢。香港中醫師的註冊條件包括完成認可的、至少為期五年的全日制中醫學士學位課程，並獲得三十週的臨床實習經驗，以及通過執業考試。另外，中醫藥管理委員會要求註冊中醫師，每三年為其執照續期，而續期手續包括完成60個持續進修學分，以保障註冊中醫師的專業水平。澳葡时期殖民政府对华人社会基本不干预因此澳门当地有不少自发组织的中医行医者和中医药房。1994年澳葡政府颁布正式对中草药交易进行规管。澳门回归后当地政府亦出台法规对中药市场进行监管。2000年澳门科技大学与南京中医药大学合作设立的中医药学院开办中医及中藥专业学士学位课程。中華民國目前約有中醫師6000餘人，由中華民國衛生福利部中醫藥司進行監管，法源來自於等，同時設置衛生福利部國家中醫藥研究所進行中醫藥研究。美國目前有大約三萬多名執照針灸師（部份州份稱為針灸醫師或東方醫學醫師），五千多名西醫師另外獲得應用針灸執照。美國有嚴格的針灸執照發放制度，但由於美國實施聯邦制，各個州份均各自有當地的法律，監督針灸師執照的發放。因此，各個州份的執照發放的要求都不一樣，但一般都要求申請人在認可的針灸或中醫學校學習針灸的相關課程，由1700到4000學時不等，以及一般要求擁有950小時的臨床實習經驗，方可獲允許參加針灸執照考試。另外，各個州份一般都要求針灸執照的持有者，於每年或每兩年為其針灸執照續期，否則其針灸執照將會被取消。針灸執照續期的手續，除了包括更新資料外，還要求針灸師提供持續進修的證據，一般都要每年數十個小時的專業持續進修課程，方可獲得續期。在美國大部份州份，沒有持有有效執照，而又宣稱為專業針灸師，又或者提供中醫治療，是刑事罪行。違例者會面對監禁和罰款。直到2012年，美國有六個州份沒有法律監管中醫，一般稱為，早在1976年加州便開始向針灸師發放專業執照。但值得注意，在英文中的「針灸學（Acupuncture）」或「針灸師（Acupuncturists）」一詞，意思等同於「中醫」和「中醫師」。以首個州份立法監管針灸學的加州為例，根據《商業和專業條例（Business and Professions Code）》第4937條，「針灸師」是指為改善、保持和復原健康，而提供針療、電力針療、中式按摩、穴位按摩、灸療、拔罐、呼吸技巧療法、運動療法、熱療、冷療、磁力療法、營養學療法、飲食療養、草藥療法、植物療法、動物療法、礦物療法、膳食補充療法等治療的專業人員。所以，美國的「針灸師」就是「中醫師」。中医学目前是否为最早的传统医学还无法确定。中国的中医学自称其起源于三皇五帝时期相传伏羲发明了针灸并尝试草药神农炎帝更是尝尽百草并且用茶来解毒。中医研究者自称相传在公元前3000多年中国的轩辕黄帝写下了人类第一部医学著作——则在世界上第一个提出了这一防病养生保健康的预防医学观点。在周代兽医四种但这样的医学分科制度却落后于美索不达米亚医学几百年。医师总管医药行政并在年终对医生进行考核记载“歲終則稽其醫事以制其食”就是说医生每年都要通过年终考核增减俸禄。当时的患者已经分科治疗而且建立病历。“死终则各书其所以而入于医师”规定在死者病历上要写明死因然后送交医师存档以便总结医疗经验提高医疗技术。这也是世界上已知最早的病历制度。在春秋战国时期名医辈出秦国有名医医缓与医和齐国有长桑和他的徒弟扁鹊。扁鹊发明了中医独特的辨证论治并总结为。在秦朝出现了世界上最早的专门法医——"令史"。秦律规定，死因不明的案件原则上都要进行尸体检验，司法官如果违法不进行检验，将受到处罚。秦代的对法医鉴定的方法、程序等有较为详细的记载。在人命案件中，鉴定检验的主要内容有尸体的位置、创伤的部位、数量、方向以及大小等。令史检验完成之后，必须提交书面报告，称为“爰书”，是世界上现存最早的法医鉴定和现场勘察报告。秦代还在世界上第一个建立传染病医院——“疠迁所”，并制定了最早的治疗传染病的隔离制度。据1975年湖北省云梦睡虎地出土秦简中记载：当时规定，凡经医生在给病人检查后发现有鼻梁塌陷、手上无汗毛、声音沙哑、刺激鼻腔不打喷嚏等症状者，一律送至疠迁所隔离治疗。这说明中国古代对传染性疾病的治疗措施，很早就已经是得力有效的。到了西汉时期。在汉代还出现了专门性的妇科医院，西汉时的“乳舍”，是世界上已知最早的妇产医院。南北朝时期，太医令秦承祖创建了世界上第一个医学院。到了公元6世纪，隋朝完善了这一医学教育机构，并命名为，署内分医、药两部，太医令是最高官职，丞为之助理，下有主药、医师、药园师、医博士、助教、按摩博士、祝禁博士，在校师生最多时达580人之多。北宋年間隨着中國與阿拉伯之間貿易的高度發展阿拉伯香藥也開始大量輸進中國一次輸入的阿拉伯乳香竟以萬斤計伊斯蘭醫藥學也隨之對中國產生明顯影響。傳統中醫自古不分科但在北宋年間太醫院在培訓醫生時也如古希臘和阿拉伯醫學那樣分成了內外婦兒口腔等十三科這可能是受到阿拉伯－伊斯蘭醫學的橫向影響。傳統中醫以湯藥為主但北宋的等。究其原因乃是使用從阿拉伯－伊斯蘭國家進口的香藥大量增加而香藥含有揮發性物質若用煎湯法其有效成分就會失掉故只能製成丸散膏酊。可見這類處方的出現是阿拉伯－伊斯蘭藥理學對中醫藥影響的結果。在唐朝，孙思邈总结前人的理论并总结经验，收集药方多达5000多个，出版了三本医学著作，后世尊称他为药王。唐朝以后，中国医学理论和著作大量外传到突厥、高句丽、日本、中亚、西亚等地。到了在唐末宋初，儿科专著。元朝時期，元政府很重視伊斯蘭醫藥學，採取中醫學與回醫學同時並舉的方針。在太醫院中有專門研究和使用伊斯蘭醫藥的中，就載有回回醫官開刀為頭痛難忍的兒童從腦中取出腫瘤，動手術治癒腹部膨脹的馬等傳奇故事。這些來華的醫師還攜帶來很多伊斯蘭的醫學書籍。在明朝著名医学家李时珍的医学巨著。清初至鼎盛時期，醫藥學進步所表現在很多方面，基本上是明朝醫藥盛況的延續。如對經典著作的研究、本草學、方劑學、診斷治療學、醫案整理等，均較明朝更成熟。各家學派的紛爭也逐漸緩和，大多醫家能採各家之長折衷於臨床。但也不乏固守，金朝劉完素創河間學派。自清朝末年，现代医学开始湧入中国，严重冲击了中医发展。开始出现中西医并存的局面。现代，中医在中国仍然是治疗疾病的常用手段之一。受到西方衝擊後大多認為中醫是充滿偏方與迷信的醫學但上个世纪50年代中醫開始引進西醫的研究系統并且透過對療程的原理的科學性分析重新解釋中医而這樣系統化的整理導入西方生物分子醫學等概念成就了現代中醫從空虛的陰陽調和概念改變為著重學理基礎。在国际上中医针灸作为中医学的一个部分引起医学界的兴趣有學者認為针灸已被证实在减轻手术后疼痛懷孕期反胃化疗所产生的反胃和呕吐牙齿疼痛方面是有效的且其副作用非常低针灸对痛证神经性疾病疗效非常显著。。世界卫生组织认为只有部份的傳統藥學包含针灸和草药在臨床實驗裡得到比較有力的結果支持其功效其他傳統療程與草藥仍需進一步的研究不能忽视传统疗法存在的安全性及危险性的風險乃至於偷獵保育類藥材而且生物體內的麻醉劑毒素積累近年來被逐漸發現被證明很有可能弄巧成拙以至於致人於死的案例多次上演也因為本身就是地下經濟存在冒充假藥獲取暴利等问题。WHO在2002年5月26日發表邀請全球180餘國將替代醫學納入該國的醫療政策。WHO世界衞生大會將於2019年推出第11版全球醫學綱要，並首次將中醫傳統醫學納入其中。此舉意味着中醫在全球或躋身主流療法，而非僅僅作為手術、放射治療等準備療法之外的補充療法。全球醫學綱要又稱為，在全球範圍擁有極大的影響力。中醫理論按照其理論基礎可以分為三個時期 分別為湯液經法時期今文尚書時期古文尚書時期。我們今日主流社會所看到的是以今文尚書經學家代表的《黃帝內經》學說。漢武帝時置五經博士提倡今文經學。後來漢武帝獲漢景帝之子劉餘壞孔壁後來的孔壁古文就是後來的古文尚書。簡而言之《古文尚書》與《今文尚書》的出現皆與漢朝宗室控制社會有關。漢武帝後湯液經法家隱於民間流傳下來的只有今文經學家。在二十世紀初年《輔行訣臟腑用藥法要》出土。重新發現了湯液經法學派的基礎理論。在時序上湯液經法家理論最早完成其次是今文尚書與古文尚書許慎在五經異義中提到古文尚書由伏生所傳而今文尚書由歐陽和伯所傳。臨床實驗證明湯液經法家理論與人體的體液味道是一致的。這證明了現今流行的中醫理論基礎實際上是晚出的今文經學的著作，而五行相剋說是戰國時期出現於齊國，而五行相生說是劉向時期出現，所以完善的黃帝內經完成時間絕不可能早於漢宣帝時期。後來採用湯液經法的稱為神仙家，採用今文尚書的稱為醫經家或稱為針炙家，利用今文尚書與湯液經法雜煣的稱為經方家。以下是三個不同時期中醫理論的對比：在或者殷商正統哲學之中：春夏為陰，秋冬為陽。以肺居太陰金，腎居太陽水，脾居少陰火，肝居少陽木。以應四時：春脈大、夏脈浮、秋脈細、冬脈沉。今文學派理论来源于儒家今文學派的总结及儒家陰陽五行思想。其內容包括精氣學說、陰陽五行學說、氣血津液、藏象、經絡、體質、病因、發病、病機、治則、養生等。不早於西漢年間，《黄帝内经》问世，奠定了儒家医学理論的基础。時至今日，漢代傳統醫學相關的理論、診斷法、治療方法等，均可在此書中找到根源。中醫具有完整的儒家理論體系其獨特之處在於董仲舒提出的“天人合一”“天人相应”的整體觀及辨證論治。主要特点有五行学说是戰國儒家哲学的重要成就，五行即木、火、土、金、水，但是这并不代表五種物質，而是物質的五种属性。五行于中医则体现了具备这五种属性的人体五大系统的相互关系。木火土金水这五个符号分别代表肝心脾肺肾所统领的五大系统。中医不是研究微观的病毒细菌如何作用于人体的理论而是研究人体整体内在环境与各个系统之间的关系并且通过中药按摩针灸甚至心理作用去调节各个系统之间的平衡以此保持身体健康。《湯液經法》學派基礎理論.學派以之法，定日影之長為陽，日影之短為陰。立春為少陰之陰坤，春分為少陰之陽艮。立夏為太陰之陽坎夏至為太陰之陰巽。立秋為少陽之陽震，秋分為少陽之陰離。立冬為太陽之陰兌，冬至為太陽之陽乾。春候溫夏候熱秋候涼冬候寒。春為少陰溫火、夏為太陰熱金、秋為少陽涼木、冬為太陽寒水。春脈大，夏脈浮，秋脈細，冬脈沉。南方為龍北方為鳳東方為龜西方為麟。春金為脾胃、夏木為肺心、秋水為肝膽、冬火為腎腸。冬至為腎火，色洋紅坎。春金為脾夏木為肺秋水為肝冬火為腎。味辛皆屬木味鹹皆屬火味酸皆屬金味苦皆屬水。肺主氣，腎主血，脾主精，肝主津。肺主喜脾主怒肝主憂腎主恐。在诊断治疗疾病时采取辨证论治的方法即将望闻问切四诊收集到的资料症状和体征通过分析综合辨清疾病的原因性质部位以及邪正之间的关系概括判定为某种性质的“证”以探求疾病的本质从而得出结论并在此基础上确定治疗原则与具体治法。这种方法既不同于简单的局部对症治疗又有别于不分主次不分阶段不分性质一方一药治一病的辨病治疗方法。治疗手段和方法丰富多采既有一般内服药物的内治法又有药物外敷热熨熏洗等外治法以及独特的针灸拔罐推拿按摩气功布气等非药物疗法还有以药膳为代表的日常食品疗法。一般而言，完整的中醫處方，至少包括四項以上：情治、推拿等。故中醫在治療疾病時，是以身心合一的角度全盤考量。近年来还涌现出了一批传统药物注射制剂，被用于肌肉和静脉注射。此外，绝大多数药物均为天然动、植、矿物，非人工合成之化学品，加之多为复方制剂，配方时可采用相应的拮抗措施。相較於傳統中醫現代中醫的革新發明例如小針刀传统药物注射制剂科學中藥等。自周朝起有食醫、疾醫、瘍醫、獸醫之分。隋唐的太醫署分醫學及藥學，醫學設四科，即醫科、針科、按摩科、咒禁科；醫科又分體療、少小、瘡瘍、耳目口齒、角法等五科。宋太醫局的醫學教育初分方脈、針、瘍三科，宋神宗以後分為九科，即大方脈、小方脈、風科、產科、眼科、口齒兼咽喉科、瘡腫兼折傷科、針兼灸科、金鏃兼書禁科。元太醫院分十三科後併為十科：即大方脈雜醫科、小方脈科、風科、產科兼婦人雜病科、眼科、口齒兼咽喉科、正骨兼金鏃科、瘡腫科、針灸科、祝由書禁科。明太醫院分為十三科：即大方脈、小方脈、婦人、傷寒、瘡瘍、口齒、咽喉、接骨、金鏃、眼、針灸、按摩、祝由。清太醫院初分十一科，之後併為九科：大方脈、小方脈、婦人、傷寒、瘡瘍、口齒咽喉、正骨、眼、針灸。道光二年上諭：，敕令太醫院廢止針灸科。同治朝將大方脈、婦人、傷寒併為一科，故只分五科。古代中医学按治疗方式分为内医、外医之分。現代中醫學則可分基礎醫學及臨床醫學兩大部分中醫典籍可分為醫經醫論本草醫方醫案醫話等例如《黄帝内经》《難经》《伤寒论》《金匱要略》《神农本草经》《備急千金要方》《本草纲目》《名醫類案》。中將醫家分為四大流派。發展至今可分為八大流派傷寒學派河間學派易水學派攻邪學派丹溪學派溫補學派溫病學派中西匯通學派。从古至今，知名的和传说中的中医学家有：岐伯、扁鹊、张仲景、华佗、王叔和、陶弘景、孙思邈、宋慈、刘完素、张从正、李杲、朱震亨、張景岳、傅山、葉桂、陈修园、曹颖甫、余无言、唐容川、秦伯未、章次公、赵绍琴、张简斋、施今墨、程门雪、蒲辅周、左季云、郑寿全、談允賢等。中医与近現代醫學的異同.自从近現代醫學隨著傳教士由歐洲传入中国之后两种医学体系的競爭與融合就一直在进行。世界上的醫療體系大致上可分成力量所造成的，如撒但、鬼、神祇等，巫醫、乩童、符咒等即屬於此類。（經驗醫學）：認為疾病的發生是由於自然環境的變化或人的生活方式不正常所造成的，如氣候的變化、飲食習慣、人的情緒變化等。中醫學、寿命吠陀、順勢療法等即屬於此類。經由設立假說實驗設計並利用演繹歸納等方法呈現結果或藉由科學儀器偵測所產生的醫學是近現代醫學的主流例如西醫。其中前面兩者被歸類為傳統醫學或替代醫學而後者則屬於現代醫學的主流。这三种类型的医学对世界的认识有本质的区别，底层观念不同，所以互相之间基本无法交流沟通：“拟人论医学”的世界里人是自卑的一切的真理宇宙的奥妙是掌握在无法揣度的神秘力量手中的人类想获得某种期许只能求告这种无法掌控的神秘力量。“自然论医学”的世界里，人是自负的，认为宇宙运行在简单的原理之中，该原理普世通用，人体的一切奥秘也遵循其中。只要掌握了该原理，世界上的一切问题都可以分析解决，医学也不例外。并且认为原理已经被发现掌握，人们只需要遵循执行，便可以解决任何问题。的世界里，人是不卑不亢的，对客观世界的观察实证是唯一标准。因事物的运行是客观且有规律可循的，人们通过经验、逻辑、实证的方式，可以将生物体的现象进行归因，从而掌握规律，获得处理某些问题的能力。中醫診斷疾病是依望聞問切的結果來辨病及辨症，但也有-{只}-辨病不辨症」。以感冒為例，現代醫學醫師會分辨究竟是病毒性或是細菌性的感染，會鑑別是上呼吸道感染或是合併肺炎；但這些診斷對中醫師而言，卻不是最重要的。以中醫的觀點，需要分辨的是，這是屬於風寒或風熱；若屬風寒則又辨屬於太陽病、陽明病或少陽病；屬風熱則辨別病邪在衛氣營血的哪個階段等。中医主要通过中药针灸等治療方法幫助人體驅除病邪恢復正氣。其思維可簡約為攻補二類依病情不同施行攻或補或攻補兼施。傳統上臨床進行攻補有八個方法即稱為八法。中醫學的價值之一在於方劑，藥方是醫者的經驗結晶。中醫學本身發展的過程即是實驗的醫學，尤其是經過無數的醫家數百年，甚至上千年來的臨床人體實驗反覆使用，證實實際有效而被記載流傳下來的經方、時方等。直接面對疾病，掌握主症，選擇對症的方劑進行加減，不拘泥於理論，以治療疾病，這是中醫精髓辨症論治的本來面目。现代中医也有使用中西医结合的治療方式尤其在中國大陸利用现代醫學检测方法輔助診斷中醫師可兼用中藥與西藥為病患治療。中华文化圈中通常有些病人在患顽固疾病慢性疾病和原因不明疾病等疾病时或者因为现代医学的发展所限或者是患者所能获得的医疗资源所限没有治疗的办法时会求助于中医。但绝大多数人在外科及病情惡化快速的严重病变的情况下求助于現代醫學。一种疾病可否治愈其可能性多大在現代醫學中比在中医中有明确的統計數字可依循。傳統上，中医藉由脈象及病人服藥後症狀的變化等來判斷療效。有些中医認為中醫學很难进行对比试验，但現代研究中醫學的學者，亦建立多種實驗動物模型或進入臨床人體實驗，進行對比試驗，來驗證方劑或中藥的療效。現代醫學的治疗方法和药剂则是要通过科学的对比试验来确认效果。近年在台灣，各大教學醫院或地區醫院均普遍開設中醫部，並承擔中醫藥臨床試驗的任務。例如：2006年9月24日舉辦的，在為期兩年的雙盲實驗中，共收集108位病患，完成整體實驗共有60位，其中包括實驗組40位、對照組20位，並針對臨床症狀、鼻腔阻力、鼻腔截面積、塵螨特異性免疫球蛋白、T淋巴球細胞激素之分泌等各項指標進行統計分析。結果顯示，辛夷散對過敏性鼻炎患者有臨床療效，此療效之機轉包括T細胞的免疫調節及嗜中性白血球活化的影響。這是中醫藥科學與其醫療價值驗證的眾多科研舉證之一。而其它具代表性的中醫科研驗證結果也在中華民國行政院衛生署中醫藥委員會網站有公開而詳實的記錄，提供有興趣者一窺中醫與臨床的成效。中医的典籍大多成书于古代如成书于战国时期的使用文言或古人的口語歌訣記載今人不易了解而增加傳播的難度。古代中國官方亦不斷蒐集修訂各類中醫典籍成為官修醫書並設有考試制度而在民間則多以師帶徒或家傳的方式傳承。近現代則成立中醫藥大學或學院等對中醫學進行的系統整理研究教學而在民間也保留部分師帶徒及家傳方式。中医和现代医学一个非常不同的地方在于中医注重古人的經驗。中医医生推崇中国古代医书相反现代医学的研究者则更着重医学的发展。現代醫學不断推陈出新、开放新药品。中医則一方面对古代秘方，医书進行挖掘、蒐集、考證、從中吸取古人的臨床經驗，並繼續加以檢視及運用，另一方面也不斷以經方或時方為基礎，針對不同的疾病在臨床上進行加減，研製新的方劑，或藉由改變劑型，例如中藥注射製劑，來擴展方劑的治療範圍或加強其療效。现代医学则是根据成文的知识体系进行，如果某种治疗方法或药剂不对或有效，这种知识能很快得以传播。現代藉由網路及傳播媒體的發達，以及中醫藥大學、中醫藥研究所的設立，中醫的各種典籍及資訊亦逐步電子化而得到快速傳播。一般認為有经验的老中医醫術較高明经验对疗效有明显的决定作用。由於中医强调的辨症借用中國哲學中陰陽五行的詞彙來描述使得经验很难以被了解。而在醫經本草醫案醫話等各類中醫典籍中均詳細記載了各種方劑中藥的使用時機炮製法使用禁忌副作用誤用後的症狀及救治方法等例如清陳修園在卷四馬兜鈴的注解中提到。在中國对于中醫學的是否屬於科学的问题始終一直争论不休。学术界的争论可追溯到19世纪末现代医学传到中国之後一些主張医学现代化的人士主张废除中医中醫學連帶受到巨大的挑戰。直到今天中医学是否歸屬於科学及中醫藥是否有效等仍倍受主流科学界的質疑。自歐洲醫學東傳以降，中醫為科學與否，爭議極大。1879年俞樾发表。据 医学捌号楼 称可能是最早的提出废除五行理论的文章。1926年，魯迅曾撰《父親的病》一文，批判了中醫存在的一些問題。1929年国民政府通过了余雲岫提出的。但在全國輿論壓力下國民政府隨後收回成命。2005年，中南大学张功耀教授在。中国官方的说法认为中医学是一门科学。针对中医不科学的说法荊志伟認為。尚有一些人認為，中醫源於古人對人體與自然規律的感性及感官認識，其本質並非狭义的科學，但它有超脫科學的一面。而無法否定中醫療法的療效，若據此斷然否定中醫，我們將失去很多可貴的文化資產。另一些人如方舟子認為中醫宣稱的療效也是值得懷疑的。因為沒有經過現代醫學所認可的大樣本雙盲實驗數據的支持無法排除安慰劑和人體自體免疫的影響。並且他指出一些中醫信奉的典籍有較多的荒謬錯誤以及很多中醫藥方並非來自臨床經驗而是來自取像比類的巫術思維。当前许多科普媒体如果壳网丁香医生等等以及许多科普作者和部分网民也对中医持否定立场。如否定中医的理论意义和疗效或主张废除中医的理论并利用现代科学方法检验与解释中医的某些治疗手法或药物的效果。2019年香港歷史學家陳振銘在由到香港當代新經學指出了陰陽五行的儒家政治哲學來源還原了與陰陽五行理論作為中醫基礎理論的地位。1929年在一場廢除中醫的嘗試因受到抵制而失敗之後，上海中醫藥界人士為了慶祝這一勝利，把每年3月17日定為。這是和中醫學相關的節日。 +海洋学（）是研究海洋的自然现象、性质及其变化规律，以及开发利用海洋的知识体系。它是研究海洋的地理学的分支。它涵盖了广泛的主题，包括生态系统动力学、洋流、波浪和; 板块构造和海底地质; 以及各种化学物质和物理性质在海洋内及其边界的通量。这些不同的主题反映了海洋学家融合多个学科对世界洋的进一步认识和对天文学，生物学，化学，气候学，地理学，地质学，水文科学，气象学和物理学中的过程的理解。研究了地质历史中海洋的历史。人類在史前時代就有了關於海浪和洋流的知識。科學形式海洋研究的雛型可以追溯到古希臘亞里士多德和斯特拉波記錄下了對潮汐的觀測。但早期海洋探索主要目的在於製圖儘管也用了鉛線做深度探測人類對海洋的了解相當長時間都局限在淺層區域。19世紀中葉英國皇家海軍嘗試繪製全世界的海岸線發現大部分海洋似乎都相當深。開啟現代科學海洋學的是1872-76年的挑戰者號遠征。英國政府1871年接受皇家學會的建議，宣布探索世界大洋並進行科學調查。由威維爾·湯姆森和發起，改裝了皇家海軍的挑戰者號並配備獨立的自然史和化學實驗室。在湯姆森的科學監督下，近7萬海里（13萬公里）的航程總共進行了492次深海探通、133條海底挖掘、151次開闊水域拖網和263次連續水溫觀測，並發現約4700種新的海洋生物。挑戰者號遠征是人類史上第一次真正海洋巡航的科學考察，為整個學術和研究學科奠定了基礎。約翰·默里之後在愛丁堡大學繼續研究，這裡在20世紀仍然是海洋研究的中心。 默里是第一個研究海洋峽谷的人，特別是大西洋中洋脊，並繪製了海洋中的沉積物。 他試圖根據鹽度和溫度的觀測繪製出世界洋流，並首先正確地了解珊瑚礁發展的性質。十九世紀末其他西方國家陸續派出科學考察隊。第一艘海洋調查船美國的建於1882年。1893年挪威科學家弗里喬夫南森讓他的調查船前进号凍結在北極的海冰上三年長時間在固定地點獲得海洋學氣象和天文數據。由約翰默里和所領導1910年為期四個月的北大西洋考察團是迄今最雄心勃勃的海洋學和海洋動物學計畫。第一次聲學測量海深在1914年。1925年至1927年間“流星”考察隊使用回聲測深儀收集了70000次海洋深度測量探勘大西洋中洋脊 。50年代瑞士物理學家奧居斯特皮卡爾發明並利用來研究海洋的深度。1953年和發現了沿著大西洋中洋脊延伸的全球洋脊系統 1954年蘇聯的北極研究所發現了北冰洋的海底山脈。 1960年哈里哈蒙德赫斯發展了海底擴張學說。1958年美國核潛艇鸚鵡螺號第一次在北極進行了冰封航程並抵達北極點。1962年聖地牙哥加利福尼亞大學建立了能夠在所有海洋中運作長108公尺的浮式儀器平台。70年代開始大型電腦開始應用於海洋學對海洋條件進行數值計算視其為整體環境變化預測的一部分。同時也廣泛地設置海洋浮標以取得更完整的觀測資料。另外大洋鑽探計劃始於1966年。海底熱泉則在1977年由約翰科里斯和羅伯巴拉德搭乘阿爾文號發現。近年來海洋學的研究特別著重在海洋酸化、海洋熱含量、洋流、聖嬰現象、甲烷水合物蘊藏、碳循環、沿海侵蝕、風化和氣候變化中氣候回饋的交互作用。研究海洋與了解全球氣候變遷、潛在的全球暖化和相關生物圈問題有關。由於蒸發、降水以及熱通量（和太陽日照），大氣和海洋是緊密聯繫的。風壓是驅動洋流的主要動力，海洋是大氣二氧化碳的吸收庫。所有這些因素都與海洋的生物地球化學有關。海洋學研究分為四大部分： +水文学属于地理學，研究的是关于地球表面、土壤中、岩石下和大气中水的各種行為，包含水循環、含量、分布、物理化學特性、對物質影响以及与所有生物之间关系的科学。水分子藉由吸收太陽的輻射能，使其從海水或是陸地蒸發，可因為地面溫度過低而直接在蒸發後不久凝結於地表，甚至凝固稱做霜，大多數情況蒸發的水分子，或稱做水蒸氣，上升至高空，因寒冷而凝結成雲，再以雨水、雪、冰雹等形式降至海洋、陸地，若降落在寒冷高地則可能形成冰川，或在較為平緩的地勢匯集形成湖泊或河流，或是滲入土壤成為地下水，隨後河水、湖水、地下水等液態水分子再流入海洋，這當中可能還伴隨著蒸發。由於這個過程可以不斷的循環發生，因此稱為水循環。在水循環的過程中，還必需顧及生物系統對於水資源的遲延作用，同時地表滯留洼蓄、植物截留與中間流的效應也是水循環的一部份。水平衡是指地表上某一區域，在一定時間之內，水量收入和支出的均衡狀態。全球海陸總降水量又與總蒸發量保持平衡，大約57萬立方公里。儘管整體來說全球保持水平衡，但不同地區，因為氣候的差異，使得水平衡會隨著時間、空間產生變化，一般而言，降水量與蒸發量的差額稱為逕流量，包括地面水體與地下水。逕流量可以反應一地可用水的盈虧，也就是一個地區是否為剩水區或缺水區，更意味著逕流量的差距，在不同地區會影響人們用水的習慣。例如在以色列，該國因地處副熱帶高壓區，因大量蒸發與缺少降水，儘管約旦河流經而該國，逕流量仍為負值，而在農業上發展出對水的高度節約使用技術，稱為。地球上總水量約有13.8億立方公里。其中以海水的儲量最大佔據96.5%而人類生活所仰賴的淡水資源則分布在地下水河川湖泊冰川等分布在陸地上的水體實際上可以讓人類直接利用者為地下淡水淡水湖河水不及世界總水量1%在各大陸上淡水資源分布極為不均世界上水資源最豐富的地區是赤道區尤其是南美洲與非洲具有陸地的赤道區而相對較為乾燥的地區則是副熱帶高壓區以及溫帶大陸內部。水體之中含有化合物可能包括離子化合物或分子化合物等一旦這些化合物包含著對人類動植物或是生態環境帶來危害便稱為水污染。例如在河川上游的水庫集水區域因為人類活動而受到污染時可能會造成優養化的現象則會干擾水資源的提供與分配。而下游則會因為工業廢水都市廢水等使得水資源失去了被觀賞遊玩垂釣生態棲息的功能。當降水量超過地面的滲入量，過剩的雨水會沿著地表的坡度向海拔較低處流動，經年累月會在地表上刻劃出小的紋路或水溝，長期下來會因為持續侵蝕溝道而形成具有固定流道的河流。水體在地表凹陷處長及積聚，終年不乾不涸，且水深在五公尺以上者稱為湖泊。分布於外流河流域的湖泊，由於湖水外流，鹽類不會堆積，因此多為淡水湖；分布遠離海岸的內流河流域之湖泊，鹽類積聚容易，多成為鹹水湖。高山或兩極地區的積雪由本身壓力形成冰塊又因重力作用而沿地表坡度滑動這種移動的大冰塊稱為冰河亦稱冰川。廣義地下水指降水滲入地面後儲存在地面以下的水體包含不飽和帶土壤水和飽和帶地下水後者為狹義地下水。地表上除陸地以外的廣大鹹水域。包括太平洋、大西洋、印度洋、地中海、北冰洋等，約占地表面積71%。 +測繪學研究測定和推算地面幾何位置、地球形状及地球重力場，据此測量地球表面自然物体和人工设施的幾何分布，编制各种比例尺地图的理論和技术的学科。测绘学的研究对象是地球的形态、位置、重力分布等地理空间信息，因而测绘学可认为是地球科学的一个分支学科。近年来，测绘学的研究对象还从地球表面扩大到了地外空间及地球内部构造等领域。测绘学的进步倚赖人类对地球形状认识的深化地图制图技术的提高和测绘仪器的创新及变革。在世界上古史时代，就有利用測繪學治理尼罗河泛滥后農田邊界的說法。公元前7世纪，管仲在其所著《管子》一書中已收集了早期的地圖27幅。公元前5世纪至3世纪，中国已有利用磁石制成最早的指南工具，说明当时已经有简单的测绘活动。测绘学研究的是地球，而人类对地球形状的认识也出于不断的变化中。最初人们认为地球乃“天圆地方”，直到公元前6世纪毕达哥拉斯和公元前4世纪亚里士多德提出了“地圆说”。公元前3世纪，埃拉托斯特尼在亚历山大进行观测日影，推算出了子午圈的长度以及地球的半径，证实了地圆说，而该种方法则是“弧度测量”的初始形式。17世纪末，牛顿和惠更斯从力学原理出发，认为地球是两极稍扁的椭球形，称“地扁说”。18世纪中期法国科学院在南美洲和欧洲进行的弧度测量证实了“地扁说”。19世纪，随着测量得来的数据，拉普拉斯和高斯相继指出，地球并非为完美的椭球。1873年，利斯汀提出了大地水准面的概念，以与包围地球的静止海面重合的一个重力等位面表示地球的形状。1945年，莫洛坚斯基利用地球重力测量数据，才确定了地球的真实形状。测绘学的成果之一是地图，因此测绘学发展的重要标志便是地图制图技术的提高。最早的地图刻画在陶片、铜板上，可靠性不高。公元前3世纪，埃拉托斯特尼首先将经纬线运用于地图上。公元前130年，西漢初期便有了中便阐述了编制地图的方法，并提出了地图投影问题。其后，西晋的裴秀创立了“制图六体”，使地图的可靠性得到了提升。第二次世界大战以后，计算机制图技术迅速发展，并由计算机辅助制图发展为多位一体的地理信息系统。测绘学所依仗的工具是测绘仪器，因此测绘学的发展离不开测绘工具的革新。早期的测绘使用的是简单的绳尺、矩尺等，17世纪望远镜发明，测绘工具开始变革。1617年，威理博·斯涅尔发明了“三角测量法”，开创了角度测量。1730年，西森研制出测角用经纬仪。地理大发现开始后，许多国家研究出了海上测定经纬度的仪器以定位船只。19世纪50年代，洛斯达首创摄影测量法。20世纪以后，随着飞机的发明，出现了航空摄影测绘地图的方法。人造卫星升空后，卫星定位技术合称“3S技术”。 +農業是第一級產業中负责主副食和经济作物供应的产业，在現代有廣狹之分。廣義上的農業是種植業、畜牧業、水产业（漁業和水产养殖）、林業的總稱，而狹義上則是純粹指種植業（而這亦符合中文裡「農」字的意思）。農業的產品一般會是食物、纖維、生物燃料、藥物或是其他利用自然資源而來，可以維持或提昇人類生活的物品。此專頁的內容為廣義上的農業。農業屬初級生產，為人類最大和最重要之經濟活動之一。簡單地說是人類運用其智慧去改變自然環境，利用馴養動植物的生長繁殖來獲得產品，更進一步換取經濟收益的一種系統。農業史可以追溯到數千年前，不同地區的農業的發展隨著氣候、文化及技術有很大的不同。各種農業的出現是人類定居社會興起的關鍵因素，種植或養育馴化後的物種，有助於後來文明的發展。農業開始了人類從部落到國家持續千年的文化傳承，料理發展與發達的年曆系統也是早期農作文明最關鍵的知識，不過所有的農業都需要技術可以擴展及維持可以種植作物或養殖動物的土地，為了爭奪土地的資源而爆發戰爭等，可以說農業也與所有傳統文化息息相關。若是種植植物一般就需要灌溉技術不過也有些植物可以及有機農業著重在生態平衡與就近百里飲食。有關農業的知識稱為農業科學.無論是根據東漢時期的《說文解字》抑或清康熙時期的《康熙字典》的解釋「農」字都是「耕種」的意思。這表示在中國古代就只有種植業才會被稱作「農業」。換言之現代人將畜牧業和漁業都併入「農業」實際上是扩大了中文裡「農」字原來的意思。農業起源於至少一萬年前並且從最早的耕作時代起有很大的發展。一些證據指出一萬一千年前中東的新月沃土是最早出現有計畫的播種和收成原本應在野外採集之植物的地區也有人認為農業的獨立發展發生於中國北方和南方非洲的薩赫勒地區新幾內亞和美洲的一些地區。5000年前中東農耕族群男性來到歐洲與當地狩獵採集族群中的女性通婚後產生現代歐洲人這過程亦將農業傳播至歐洲。中國南北朝時期出版的等現已失傳的漢晉重要農書並探討農業和商業政治間的關係等於一種農業社會的全盤研究。一些農業耕作的技術像是灌溉輪作施肥和灑農藥都在很早就發展了但在最近一個世紀以來有了重大的進展哈柏制氨法讓農作物產量突破以往的限制。上個世紀的農業特色在於提高生產率：利用合成肥料、農藥、選育和機械化，取代了人類的勞動。最近農業和行政議題緊密連結，像是：水汙染、生物燃料、基因改良作物、關稅和農業補貼。近年來，出現了反對機械化農業對外在環境的破壞和支持有機農業和永續農業的聲浪。另外還有一種科技化農業，多層大樓中垂直型態的農田除了可以自由調控生長環境之外，甚至這些溫室用了機器人來生產，產量與品質都是最高的，也幾乎對自然生態無破壞，可以直接建在都市內節省運送的浪費，目前受限於成本，除了日本、中東、北歐、俄羅斯等國家正在試驗中外還未普及，但在2050年以後世界上預計會多出30億人，這種在今日可種植土地幾乎全被開發下就很需要，很有可能成為未來主要的生產方式，包含更久以後前往其他行星居住的人們所利用，例如國際太空站中植物在低重力的生長實驗。農業是人類有目的有計劃地參與通过改造自然環境来进行生產的活動因此它是一類組織系統人類把技術應用到自然環境中獲取經濟效益所以它也是一個人類干擾系統農作物－環境－人三元結構系統。這與自然系統生物－環境二元結構的本質區別而人工控制利用和改造是系統的特徵。其結構包括農業的自然環境是指來自自然界的各圈影響農業生物生命活動的各種自然條件總和。主要分為生物環境與非生物環境兩方面。生物環境投入：包括了農業生物周圍之植被、雜草、病蟲、昆蟲等要素和培植物質，如種子、牲畜等。它們互相制約，互相依存共同組成生態系統中的生產者、捕食者和競爭者等之關係。非生物環境投入：指日照、氣溫、水汽、地形、土壤等條件。它們為農作物生長、發育、繁殖提供了空間、物質和能源，是農業不可少的條件。既不同於它所從屬的全球生態系統中的其他子系統如各種自然生態系統任何以植物爲基礎的自然生態系統雖然都能積蓄太陽能但它們並不需要投入勞動。農業社會經濟系統的運作也不同於它所從屬的國民經濟系統中的其他子系統如工業它是利用生物的生命過程來取得人們所需要的產品。農業系統的產出主要為有經濟價值之作物及牲畜等農產品。根据联合国粮农组织的估算，全世界农业的产出如下表：農業有時會產生環境問題因為農業改變了其自然環境及產生有害的副產品。一些對環境有負面影響例如：中国农业包括种植业（农作物栽培，包括大田作物和园艺作物的生产）、林业（林木的培育和采伐）、牧业（畜禽饲养）、副业（采集野生植物、捕猎野兽以及农民家庭手工业生产）、渔业（水生动植物的采集、捕捞和养殖）。自19世紀末至20世紀，已經有地理學家對農業推行深入研究。例如英國的G. G. Chisholm及德國的H. Engelbrecht。以屈圖士的分類法最完善。邱念在1826年出版的著作中分析了一系列影響農業土地利用的因素。他是首位認真地研究空間經濟學的學者憑著經營農莊的經驗並將其連繫至租值理論上成為後世地理學者研究農業和土地利用的基礎。邱念模式有一些簡化了的假設他的「孤立國」（isolated state）理論源於亞當·斯密的「經濟人」（economic men）概念，即所有農民均欲把農田的利潤極大化。辛克萊發現美國中西部城市的擴張影響周圍農業土地利用的發展他認為范杜能模式在已發展國家中已過時原因是交通運輸改變大量生產及市場擴大及城市擴張。不同的農業用地也會與另一種農業用地競爭最後形成的土地利用形態如下農業政策集中於農業生產的目標及方法。在政策程度的一般目標例如： +统一资源定位符如同在網路上的門牌。它最初是由蒂姆伯纳斯-李发明用来作为万维网的地址现在它已经被万维网联盟编制为因特网标准-{}-RFC 1738。在網際網路的歷史上統一資源定位符的發明是一個非常基礎的步驟。统一资源定位符的语法是一般的可扩展的它使用美国信息交换标准代码的一部分来表示因特网的地址。统一资源定位符的开始一般會标志着一个计算机网络所使用的网络协议。统一资源定位符的标准格式如下：统一资源定位符的完整格式如下：超文本传输协议的统一资源定位符将从因特网获取信息的五个基本元素包括在一个简单的地址中：大多数网页浏览器不要求用户輸入网页中「https//」的部分因为绝大多数网页内容是超文本传输协议文件。同样「443」是-{zh-tw超文字文件傳輸安全協定zh-cn超文本传输安全协议}-文件的常用端口号（而「80」是-{zh-tw超文字文件傳輸協定zh-cn超文本传输协议}-文件的常用端口号）因此一般也不必写明。一般来说用户只要键入统一资源定位符的一部分（如「zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special隨機頁面|-{zh-tw隨機頁面zh-cn随机页面}-」）就可以了。由于超文本传输协议允许服务器将浏览器-{zh-tw:重導向;zh-cn:重定向}-到另一个网页地址，因此许多服务器允许用户省略网页地址中的部分，比如「www」。从技术上来说这样省略后的网页地址实际上是一个不同的网页地址，浏览器本身无法决定这个新地址是否通，服务器必须完成-{zh-tw:重導向;zh-cn:重定向}-的任务。统一资源定位符不但被用作网页地址JDBC 客户端也使用统一资源定位符连接其数据库服务器。作为对比ODBC 的连接字符串作用相同但并不采用 URL 格式而是分号和等号分隔的键值对。以下是一个 Oracle 数据库的统一资源定位符jdbc:datadirect:oracle://myserver:1521;sid=testdb計算（）是一種將「單一或多個的輸入值」轉換為「單一或多個的結果」的一種思考過程。計算的定義有許多種使用方式，有相當精確的定義，例如使用各種算法進行的兩人之間關係的成功機率。將7乘以8（7x8）就是一種簡單的算術。利用布莱克-斯科尔斯模型就是一種複雜的算術。從投票意向計算評估出的選舉結果也包含了某種算術，但是提供的結果是而不是單一的正確答案。計算的英文Calculation，字源來自，意為碎石，用來計算數目用的小石頭，它譯為，之後成為。在英文中，還有另一個字Computation，也被譯為計算。這兩個字在中古時代被分開。 +在计算机科学中，数据结构是计算机中存储、组织数据的方式。数据结构意味着介面或封装：一个数据结构可被视为两个函数之间的介面，或者是由数据类型联合组成的存储内容的访问方法封装。大多数数据结构都由数列、记录、可辨识联合、引用等基本类型构成。举例而言，可為空的引用是引用与可辨识联合的结合体，而最简单的链式结构链表则是由记录与可空引用构成。数据结构可透过程式语言所提供的数据类型、引用及其他操作加以实现。一个设计良好的数据结构，应该在尽可能使用较少的时间与空间资源的前提下，支援各種程式執行。不同种类的数据结构适合不同种类的应用，部分資料結構甚至是為了解決特定問題而設計出來的。例如B树即為加快樹狀結構存取速度而設計的資料結構，常被應用在資料庫和檔案系統上。正確的数据结构選擇可以提高演算法的效率。在電腦程式设计的過程中选择适当的数据结构是一項重要工作。许多大型系统的編寫经验顯示程式設計的困难程度与最终成果的质量与表现取决于是否选择了最適合的数据结构。系統架構的关键因素是数据结构而非算法的見解，导致了多种形式化的设计方法与编程语言的出现。绝大多数的语言都带有某种程度上的模块化思想，透过将数据结构的具体实现封装隐藏于使用者介面之后的方法，来让不同的应用程序能够安全地重用这些数据结构。C++、Java、Python等面向对象的编程语言可使用类 (计算机科学)来達到這個目的。因为数据结构概念的普及现代编程语言及其API中都包含了多种預設的数据结构例如 C++ 标准模板库中的容器Java集合框架以及微软的.NET Framework。中华人民共和国简称中国是一个位於东亚的社会主义国家成立于1949年10月1日首都为北京市。中华人民共和国領土陸地面積估約960萬平方公里是世界上陸地面積第三大的國家分為23個省份5個自治區4個直轄市和2個特別行政區。中华人民共和国地势西高东低而呈現三级阶梯分布大部分地区属于溫帶副熱帶季风气候地理景致與氣候型態丰富多樣有冰川丹霞黃土沙漠喀斯特等多种地貌中华人民共和国北方分布有乾草原和荒漠南方有热带雨林西部至西南部則有天山山脈帕米尔高原青藏高原喀喇崑崙山脈和喜馬拉雅山脈东临太平洋。领海由渤海以及黄海东海南海三大边海组成水域面积约470万平方千米分布有大小岛屿7600个。中华人民共和国疆域東至黑龙江省佳木斯市抚远市的黑瞎子岛中部西至新疆境内的帕米尔高原北至黑龙江省大兴安岭地区的漠河县宣称南至南海曾母暗沙。中华人民共和国是目前世界上人口最多的國家，2019年估计約有14億人，同時也是一个多民族国家，官方承認的民族共有56個，其中汉族佔91.51%总人口。现代标准汉语普通话和规范汉字为国家通用语言和文字，在民族自治地方其他民族可以使用民族語言和文字。自1986年起实行九年義務教育制度，就读公立学校的学生由政府提供其学费。中华人民共和国目前为世界第二大经济体，2019年國內生產總值，增长近30倍，东部地区部分城市人均GDP已超2万美元，为世界上经济最发达的发展中国家。贫困问题随着经济增长已得到改善，832个国家级贫困县在2020年底全部完成脱贫摘帽。然而根據国家统计局数据，目前中华人民共和国约有六亿人口月均收入在1000元人民币左右，区域间发展不均衡以及國民贫富差距较大这两大问题仍亟需解决。科技方面中华人民共和国在-{zh-cn航天 zh-tw航太 zh-hk航天}-航空装备制造业高速鐵路新能源核技术超级计算机量子通讯人工智能5G通訊生物技术等應用科學領域有较强实力但在半導體醫學化學等基礎科學領域和發達國家有一定差距中华人民共和国研發經費則位居世界第二也是世界第二个超万亿美元投入研发的国家。军事方面中华人民共和国的國防預算位列世界第二每年拥有超过1700亿美元的军费投入中华人民共和国武装力量擁有世界第二大规模作战力量的常備部隊并具备三位一體的核打擊能力在亚太地区拥有局部优势的作战能力此外中华人民共和国已经建成一支蓝水海军的作战力量拥有两个航空母舰战斗群与自研先進的驱逐舰及战略核潜艇空军方面中华人民共和国是世界上第二个入役第五代战斗机的国家并在相关航空技术领域有着快速发展。1949年以毛泽东主席为领袖的中国共产党领导中国人民解放军在内战中取得优势实际控制中國大陸同年10月1日宣布建立中华人民共和国以及中央人民政府与遷至台灣地區的中華民國政府形成至今的臺海現狀格局。中华人民共和国成立初期遵循和平共处五项原则的外交政策1971年在聯合國承继了原属于中華民國的中國代表權及其联合国安理会常任理事国席位并陆续加入部分联合国其他专门机构。而后广泛参与例如国际奥委会亚太经合组织二十国集团世界贸易组织等重要國際組織并成为了上海合作组织金砖国家一带一路亚洲基础设施投资银行区域全面经济伙伴关系协定等国际合作组织项目的发起国和创始国。据皮尤研究中心的调查随着中华人民共和国国际影响力的增强中华人民共和国已被许多国家组织视为世界经济的重要支柱與潜在超级大國之一。中華人民共和國國名中代表國體。最初國名曾考慮「中華人民民主共和國」1949年6月15日周恩来为组长的第三小组在起草中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领时考虑到应照顾人民的传统和习惯于是新政治协商会议筹备会会议第一次全体会议上通过的《中华人民民主共和国政府组织大纲草案》里注明了6月30日毛泽东发表的《论人民民主专政》中只用了“人民共和国”。且在7月9日举行的新政治协商会议筹备会第四小组第二次会议上，張奚若等人認為名稱過長而應去除「民主」二字，使用“中华人民共和国”。对于张奚若的观点，周善培和司徒美堂则主张要用“民主”二字。8月17日，新政治协商会议筹备会第三次全体会议修正并通过了组织法的初步草案，其中新国名去掉了二字。8月18日，毛泽东在邀请新疆代表参加政治协商会议时，给阿合买提江·哈斯木的电文里用是“中华人民共和国”。9月2日，新华社发表社论阐述党的性质时指出：“中国共产党是中国工人阶级的政党，是中华人民共和国的领导者。”。于是经过多次讨论和修改，9月17日，新政治协商会议筹备会举行第二次全体会议正式决定国名为“中华人民共和国”。由于会和辛亥革命建立的中华民国混淆包括马叙伦郭沫若沈雁冰在内的代表提出反对意见提议取消6个字持有异议認為應確立新國名。1949年9月27日中國人民政治協商會議第一屆全體會議通過決議國名為並去除加註。该会议还決定中華人民共和國的國都定於北平自即日起改名北平為北京中華人民共和國的紀年採用公元在中華人民共和國的國歌未正式制定前以義勇軍進行曲為代國歌中華人民共和國的國旗為五星紅旗象徵中國革命人民大團結。中華人民共和國有時會稱作，並堅持自己是代表中國的唯一合法政府。1971年10月，聯合國大會在通過《聯合國大會2758號決議》後，中華人民共和國取得中國席次和相關地位，「中國」也逐漸成為國際社會對中華人民共和國的常見稱呼。此外，中華人民共和國又簡稱「中」或「華」，如“中日关系”、“驻华大使”等。由于目前两岸分治的臺海現狀，与台湾地区对应时，以「中國大陸」代指中華人民共和國。中華人民共和國政府也会被台湾地区稱为「大陸當局」、「北京當局」、「北京」或「中共」，但目前台湾官方也有直接使用“中华人民共和国”和“中国”的情况。1919年，中华民国北洋政府在巴黎和会上未能维护国家利益，引发了五四运动。在马克思列宁主义的影響下，部分知识分子于1921年成立了中国共产党，目标是要建立一个无产阶级专政的政权。1923年中共三大决定與中國國民黨建立的政策创立了井冈山革命根据地。1928年4月朱德率领南昌起义余部与湘南起义农民军到达井冈山与毛泽东会师。1930年12月到1931年9月毛泽东朱德领导红一方面军连续取得第一二三次反1936年西安事变迫使蔣中正放棄。1937年7月7日駐北平的日軍以在演習時一名士兵失蹤為借口強闖中華民國國軍駐地搜索而被中華民國士兵拒絕日軍之後向中華民國國軍開炮史稱抗日戰爭爆發這是第二次世界大戰亞洲戰場的開始。1937年9月6日中华苏维埃人民共和国中央政府西北办事处更名。双方最高领导人参加的重慶談判亦未能阻止全国性内战爆发。内战进行至1947年6月中国共产党领导解放軍从戰略防禦轉入戰略進攻。1948年末至1949年初解放军陸續取得三大战役胜利随后在渡江战役中占领了中華民國首都南京市及经济中心上海市。1949年9月21日，由中国共产党发起召开的，有各民主党派、各人民团体、各地区、人民解放军、各少数民族和其他代表参加的中国人民政治协商会议第一次全体会议在北京开幕。会议通过了具有临时宪法作用的。毛澤東亦在此次會議宣布中华人民共和国成立。26日，新疆和平解放。至此，名义上已占领中国北方全部领土。1949年10月1日中國共產黨中央委員會主席毛澤東在北京市宣告中华人民共和国中央人民政府正式成立。13日解放军占领湖南全境此时中國國民黨領導的中華民國政府仅控制西南和华南地区并在数月间被解放军逐步占领。1950年5月中華人民共和國派遣部隊占领海南岛海南特别行政区并入广东省。至此中华民国完整控制的省级行政区仅剩台湾省。6月双方大规模战役结束后国军和政府人员則逐渐撤往臺灣與部分沿海島嶼。中华民国在各地残余部隊在1950年代被全国大剿匪所消灭。1950年中华人民共和国政府發起鎮壓反革命土地改革等大規模政治運動效忠拥护中华民国的个人被新政权清除打击。而透過對約100萬至200萬名土地主批鬥發放原耕地的土地改革中華人民共和國政府得以鞏固並獲得底層民眾的歡迎。同年10月志愿军出兵朝鲜加入朝鲜战争。1951年，中華人民共和國將西藏地區納入統治，大致將蒙古以外的晚清时期国土重新納入控制，并彻底结束了中国大陆自民国初年以来的军阀割据局面，建立统一的全国性政权。中华人民共和国在苏联援助下，藉由1953年的第一個五年計劃，發展出獨立的工業體系，並在此基础上研发两弹一星技术。毛澤東鼓勵民眾生育，這時期人口從原先的5.5億人增長至9億人。1956年，政府推出「百花齊放、百家爭鳴」政策，鼓勵獨立思考言論自由。1957年起大鳴大放運動，鼓勵群眾要對重大問題說出自己的意見。1957年末，中國共產黨開始發動反右運動对知识分子進行整肅和勞動教養。到1956年底，三大改造基本完成後，商品经济在中华人民共和国不复存在，社会主义制度基本建立。1958年，中國共產黨提出社會主義建設總路線、大躍進和人民公社運動，對經濟和社會展開共產主義改革，企圖快速達成共產主義社會。但此舉重現了苏联社會改造的災難，造成1958年至1961年至少上千萬人因飢荒死亡。1962年七千人大会后中國共產黨中央委員會主席毛澤東和中華人民共和國主席劉少奇發生分歧。1966年毛泽东發動文化大革命。期间紅衛兵的破四舊運動及政治批鬥对社會經濟文化民主與法律制度造成了极为惨重的毁灭式破壞文化大革命造成的社會動盪持續至1976年毛澤東逝世並因同年四人幫遭到逮捕才結束。外交方面，與印度、越南爆發邊境衝突，並與多國簽訂界約，放棄了部分領土聲索。由于中蘇交惡，社會主義國家間陷入嚴重分裂，毛泽东提出理论，形成了以第三世界为盟友的国际统一战线策略。1971年10月中華人民共和國取代中华民国获得在聯合國中的中国席位，并成為聯合國安全理事會常任理事國。1972年尼克松访华缓和了中美关系。1979年美国宣布断绝与中華民國的外交关系，转而承认中華人民共和國。1978年文革的平反工作使中共高層出現變化邓小平复出后決定以經濟發展为中心提出改革開放政策批判中共中央委員會主席華國鋒的兩個凡是並進行真理标准大讨论平反冤假错案等事項。之后不久华国锋便辞去其領導职务改由鄧小平陳雲李先念等元老接手掌權。中國共產黨承認“文化大革命”在理论和实践上是完全错误的並逐渐放鬆對社會的控制人民公社等制度遭到撤銷以利農民私人土地租賃。1982年中华人民共和国通過現行的《中華人民共和國憲法》。1983年因应文化大革命后改革开放初期的治安混乱的状况中华人民共和国政府决定施加“非常时期的非常手段”发动严厉的治安运动以维护社会稳定。1984年中华人民共和国通过与英国谈判达成《中英联合声明》。1987年中共中央總書記胡耀邦因八六學潮而下臺改由國務院總理趙紫陽接任1989年4月因应胡耀邦之死北京學生发起游行示威后事态扩大化并波及全国是为八九民运引致中华人民共和国政府派出军队清场以平息动乱此举受到西方国家的譴責經濟制裁及武器禁运趙紫陽也因此下台。之後中共上海市委书记江澤民在1989年先後分別接替趙紫陽和鄧小平擔任中共中央委員會總書記中央軍事委員會主席六四事件中表现強硬的李鵬继续擔任國務院總理。中共中央政治局1992年3月9日至3月10日在北京召開全體會議由中共中央總書記江澤民主持討論中华人民共和国改革和發展強調必須堅定不移貫徹執行。在江澤民及先後两任國務院總理李鵬和朱鎔基领导下，中华人民共和国從計劃經濟轉型為，市場經濟環境日益開放。其间估計有1.5億名農民脫離貧困，国内生产总值平均每年增長11.2%。儘管民眾生活品質有所提高，不過政府仍未放松社会管控。1997年，自南京条约所割让及后续条约租赁的香港回归，香港特别行政区在一国两制下成立。1999年，澳门回归，同时成立澳门特别行政区。2001年，中华人民共和国加入世界貿易組織。但持续的經濟快速-{zh-cn: 增长; zh-tw: 成長}-，也為境內資源和環境帶來嚴重影響，以及大规模的人口遷徙。2002年11月第十六次全國代表大會選出胡錦濤和溫家寶等組成第四代領導集體。同年冬SARS疫情爆发至2003年中期疫情逐渐被消灭。2003年中华人民共和国完成了首次载人航天飞行任务。2005年青藏铁路全线贯通。2008年中华人民共和国举办了第29届奥林匹克运动会中国人民解放軍海军开赴亚丁湾海域执行护航任务。2009年新疆乌鲁木齐发生骚乱造成至少197人死亡1721人受伤。2010年中华人民共和国举办了上海世界博览会和广州亚运会。2010年後中华人民共和国經濟增长因全球經濟大衰退而減緩但國內生產總值仍于2011年超越日本成為全球第二大經濟體。2012年11月在第十八次全國代表大會上習近平接替胡錦濤就任中共中央委員會總書記和中央軍事委員會主席。2013年李克強在第十二屆全國人民代表大會上接替溫家寶擔任國務院總理。在以習近平為總書記的新一屆中央領導集體主導下政府展開包括計劃生育監獄制度在内的大幅度改革以解決結構不穩和-{zh-cn 增长 zh-tw 成長}-放緩的影響。2014年以购买力平价计算中华人民共和国国内生产总值已经超过美国成为世界第一大经济体。2014年召開的亚太经合组织峰會上習近平表示中华人民共和国經濟將進入。在2015年中华人民共和国主導成立亞洲基礎設施投資銀行舉辦中國抗日戰爭70周年紀念大會進行兩岸領導人會面。2016年中华人民共和国首次舉辦二十國集團峰會在东海南海主权争议问题上通过一系列岛礁建设和军事演习逐渐采取了主动作为。2017年130個國家代表團出席了在北京举办的一帶一路峰会。2019年底武汉爆发2019冠狀病毒病疫情中华人民共和国通过封城等措施控制住了境内疫情成为2020年少数经济正增长的国家之一。中華人民共和國位於亞洲東部與太平洋西岸。中华人民共和国領土纯陸地面積世界第二、領土總面積第三。不過依總面積的不同定義，有些數據將中华人民共和国列在俄羅斯、加拿大、美國之後的第四名。中华人民共和国總面積一般認為約有960万平方公里，不同地方也有不同數據資料，包括大英百科全書公司的標記的9,596,961平方公里。中华人民共和国法定疆域北至漠河縣以北的黑龍江河川航道中心線至北點，東至黑龍江和烏蘇里江匯合處的黑瞎子島中部，西至新疆維吾爾自治區烏恰縣以西的帕米爾高原，南至南海諸島最南端的曾母暗沙；東西距離約5,200公里（橫跨5個時區），南北距離約為5,500公里。中华人民共和国海岸線有18,000公里，瀕臨渤海、黃海、東海、南海，其中渤海為中华人民共和国內海，內海和邊海水域面積約470萬平方公里，沿海島嶼有7,600多個，面積500平方公尺以上的海島有5,000多個；島嶼海岸線14,000公里，總面積3.87萬平方公里。中华人民共和国還有渤海海峽、台灣海峽、瓊州海峽三大海峽。中华人民共和国邊界綫共計22,117公里，长度世界第一。從與北韓的邊界河川鴨綠江出海口到與越南的邊界河川北仑河，中华人民共和国與14個國家接壤，和俄羅斯併列是世界上鄰國數量最多的國家。這些鄰國分别有東南亞的越南、寮國和緬甸；南亞的印度、不丹、尼泊爾和巴基斯坦；中亞的阿富汗、塔吉克斯坦、吉爾吉斯和哈薩克；北亞的俄羅斯；以及位於東北亞的蒙古國和北韓，另外中华人民共和国還與南韓、日本、菲律宾、马来西亚、文莱和印尼為海上鄰國。中华人民共和国地勢西高東低，分为三級階梯。第一級階梯是位於中华人民共和国西南部的青藏高原，平均海拔高度4,000米以上，被稱為；第二級階梯以高原和盆地為主。在大興安嶺、太行山、巫山山脉、武陵山脈、雪峰山脈一帶以東至黃海和東海沿岸，是沖積平原为主的第三階梯，人口多聚集在此處。各类地形面積依序為高原。中华人民共和国地貌景觀有冰川、丹霞、黃土、沙漠、喀斯特等。中华人民共和国西北地區有塔克拉瑪干沙漠和戈壁沙漠，南方则以丘陵和矮山為主，西側還有喜馬拉雅山脈在首的山地，後者海拔高度約6,000公尺；中國和尼泊爾的邊境則有海拔高度8,848公尺的珠穆朗瑪峰，爲地球海拔最高的山峰，中华人民共和国最低點則是吐魯番窪地的艾丁湖。幅員遼闊的中华人民共和国氣候多樣但人口聚集地主要是溫帶和副熱帶氣候為主普遍都有不同程度的四季生活型態各地方可分为东部季风区西北干旱半干旱区高山氣候区三个自然区由于中华人民共和国南北跨度较大东部季风区又以秦岭-淮河线为界分为北方地区和南方地区。在东部季风区冬季有寒冷且乾燥的北風自高緯度地區吹襲而夏季有溫暖潮濕的南風從低緯度沿海地區吹襲。中华人民共和国土地資源總量大但山地多而平原少同時耕地與林地比例較小沙漠和荒漠占總面積12%以上。當中耕地集中東部平原和盆地地區林地集中東北和西南部偏遠山區草地分布在內陸高原和山區。草地面積4億公頃是草地面積最大的國家之一當中內蒙古新疆青海和西藏為四大牧區。中华人民共和国水資源總量達25500億立方公尺排行世界首位當中有大量的河流和湖泊重要的河流有黃河長江西江湄公河雅鲁藏布江珠江淮河松花江和黑龍江等。中华人民共和国是超級生物多樣性國家同盟成員，亦是的締約國，在2010年加入生物多樣性行動計畫；是生物多樣性第三豐富的國家，僅次於巴西和哥倫比亞。中华人民共和国位於古北界和東洋界兩個生物地理分布區間，以喜馬拉雅山脈、橫斷山脈北部、秦嶺山脈、伏牛山、淮河與長江間為界，以北地區主要是溫帶和寒溫帶動物群，以南地區則是熱帶性動物。中华人民共和国陸棲脊椎動物約有2,070種，占全世界9.8%。境內至少有551種。當中至少有840種動物因棲息地破壞、生態污染、非法狩獵等人類活動而瀕危，政府列有國家重點保護野生動物名錄予以保护。自1956年自然保護區建立起来，全国共建立自然保护区2729个，总面积147万平方公里，占中华人民共和国陆地面积的14.84%，其中以森林生态系统类型为主。中华人民共和国擁有北半球幾乎所有的植被類型包括熱帶季風雨林亞熱帶常绿阔叶林溫帶落葉闊葉林寒溫帶針葉林和亞高山針葉林等。中华人民共和国北部多寒帶針葉林棲息駝鹿和亞洲黑熊等動物及超過120種鳥類。針葉林下層有竹林山區則有刺柏紅豆杉和杜鵑花。中部和南部則有亞熱帶森林有著多達146000種植物。雲南省和海南島則是熱帶季風雨林有四分之一的動物和植物物種。中华人民共和国森林面積2.08億公頃為世界第五名并在2015年4月位于东北和内蒙古地区的重点国有林区已经停止商业性采伐然而森林覆蓋率僅21.63%（2014）低於全球31%的平均水準。中华人民共和国有超過32000種維管束植物當中種子植物300個科2980個屬和24600個種而被子植物則有2946個屬（占世界的23.6%）。另外包含水杉在內約有62%的古老植物僅存於中华人民共和国。栽培植物有1000多種有用材林木4000多種藥用植物300多種果品植物500多種纖維植物300多種澱粉植物600多種油脂植物80多種蔬菜植物。另外中华人民共和国还有超過10000種真菌其中近6000種属于雙核亞界。数十年來，中华人民共和国遭遇嚴重的環境惡化和污染問題。儘管政府在1970年代種植防風林，並在1979年制定等法規，但地方政府與社區重視經濟發展而忽视環境問題，使得政府未能严格執法。長期的氣候乾旱與錯誤農業政策使得沙漠擴大，環境保護部於2007年時表示中华人民共和国每年有4,000平方公里土地荒漠化，而無法有效使用。每年春季，黃沙沙塵暴会襲擊華北地區，並影響到朝鮮、韩国、日本等東亞国家。今日中华人民共和国沙漠化得到部分遏制，森林覆蓋率亦逐年增長。截至2012年，中华人民共和国還是全球最大的二氧化碳排放國家。2011年中华人民共和国在聯合國氣候變化大會上同意接受2020年後的量化減排協議，承諾將減緩溫室氣體的排放。截止到2016年，中华人民共和国已经成為世界最大的光能生產國，立下了自主發展可再生能源的典範，以及全球潔淨能源的里程碑。中华人民共和国很多城市面臨嚴重的空氣污染並大大影響民眾健康。2013年政府投資2777億美元以有效降低空氣污染並重視北部地區的環境問題。另外中华人民共和国还存在水源枯竭水土流失和水污染等問題大約有2.98億名农村居民仍然無法獲得良好的飲用水。除了喜馬拉雅山脈冰河的加速融化為數億人帶來危機外水汙染問題也讓水資源短缺日益加劇特別是在中华人民共和国東北地區。2011年底中华人民共和国約有40%的河流遭到工業和農業廢棄物汙染。中华人民共和国政府除了在十一五規劃期间大力推動水汙染與空氣汙染等防治外2011年投資人民幣4兆元至水利基礎設施和海水淡化項目並規劃在2020年完成防洪抗旱系統。依照憲法中华人民共和国國體為工人階級領導的以工農聯盟為基礎的人民民主专政的社會主義國家中华人民共和国也是世界上少数几个由共產黨執政且共產主義的國家之一而且中國共產黨在马克思列宁主义基础上提出毛澤東思想鄧小平理論三個代表科學發展觀习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想等理論遵循人民民主專政中國特色社會主義和社會主義市場經濟方針。不過部分學者認為中华人民共和国在該名義下實行威權主義和社團主義。中华人民共和国政體依《中華人民共和國憲法》實行人民代表大會制度全国人民代表大会是国家最高权力机关闭会时由全国人大常委会代行大部分职权實行民主集中制。但政府施政实际上由中國共產黨中央委員會所主导閉會期間則由中央委員會總書記主持的中央政治局及其常務委員會行使職權。在实践中中國共產黨领导各级行政机关立法机关监察机关司法机关檢察機關民主黨派企事業单位與宗教團體等組織。中华人民共和国政黨制度為中國共產黨領導的多黨合作和政治協商制度，除了中國共產黨外還有8個民主黨派，分别是中國國民黨革命委員會、中國民主同盟、中國民主建國會、中國民主促進會、中國農工民主黨、中國致公黨、九三學社、台灣民主自治同盟。民主黨派成員80多萬人，定期參與全國人民代表大會和中國人民政治協商會議。儘管1970年代以来，中华人民共和国減少了許多政治限制，且憲法亦允許公民結社，但政府仍對組建新政黨的行为进行严厉壓制。1987年中共十三大上中国共产党提出从1956年至21世紀中葉的社會主義初級階段要以經濟建設為中心堅持改革開放堅持社會主義道路人民民主專政中國共產黨領導馬克思列寧主義和毛澤東思想等四項基本原則使中华人民共和国成为計畫在2020年全面進入小康社會到2049年時建成社會主義現代化國家。中共十九大最新提出的。全國人民代表大會為国家最高權力機關，設有常務委員會；主要行使立法權，並選出國家元首。除中共中央總書記、國家主席、中央軍委主席外，其他國家領導人的任期在下都有連任限制，包括國務院總理、副總理和全國人大常委會委員長、副委員長等都只能連任一次。中华人民共和国政治結構採分權制依照憲法分別在各省直轄市縣市市轄區鄉民族鄉鎮設立人民代表大會产生本级人民政府监察委员会人民法院人民检察院各級人民代表大會由民主選舉產生並對人民負責與受人民監督。選舉採分階段進行在鄉鎮級區縣級舉辦直接選舉。当选的鄉鎮級區縣級人民代表大會再选出更高級別的人民代表大會並由這些代表選出全國人大代表。不过因为沒有實質的反對黨选举一般不會有激烈的竞争中央政府通过官員任命能有效控制地方政府中國共產黨亦掌握大部分權力而各省級正副領導人具一定自主性。2012年時約有80%至95%的公民對於中央政府的表現感到滿意。中華人民共和國法律體系以馬克思主義法學理論為指導發展出。1950年中央人民政府委員會通過第一部法律《中华人民共和国婚姻法》1954年第一屆全國人民代表大會通過第一部《中華人民共和國憲法》。2011年中华人民共和国政府宣布中國特色社會主義法律體系已形成。中華人民共和國司法體制由公安部檢察院人民法院三大系統組成三者分工並互相配合與制約中國共產黨各級政法委員會則主導協調。重大案件發生後由政法委员会协调公检法办案公安机关抓捕并收集证据检察机关批准逮捕并审查起诉法院负责审理案件2016年中华人民共和国国家监察委员会的成立将分散在其他各部门的关于调查监督公职人员贪污腐败案件的职权重组并优化专门负责调查有关公职人员贪污腐败的案件调查结束后移交检察院审查起诉因而监察委员会在事实上已经接入到国家的司法体制之中。不過全國人民代表大會尚未批准。政府為維護社會穩定亦會審查政治言論和資訊流通特別是網際網路对危及政府统治或严重威胁社会稳定的示威活动则有可能采取武力措施例如1989年的六四事件1999年镇压法輪功等。2005年中华人民共和国在無國界記者的新聞自由指數排行第159名2014年在180個國家中排名第175名2019年排名跌至177名为倒数第四。1970年代末改革開放后中華人民共和國政府開放對經濟和社會的管制並對非政府組織日益寬容。截止2017年全国共有团体35.5万个社会组织数量呈现逐年增加的趋势。雖然能夠進入體制發揮政治影響力的機會極微但是中华人民共和国仍陸續出現像是自由派民國派等不同中共黨外的政治群體中共黨內又開始呈現改革開放的路線之爭為此鄧小平則提出以應對。但政府仍嚴格限制政治自由并嚴格管控社會團體的組建和活動。部分政治界學術界和民間人士曾公開支持民主化等政治體制的改革。中華人民共和國政府过往的改革行動主要由中國共產黨推動也曾多次更換機構結構但这多是部門權力的移轉。由於等政治体制改革未曾真正實行批評者因此認為中華人民共和國政治改革趨勢從1980年代倒退至1950年代。中華人民共和國經常受到外國政府、新聞機構、人權組織的指控，包括多起未經審判的拘禁、、折磨逼供、酷刑、限制基本權利、過度執行死刑等侵犯公民權的案件，刑事訴訟也不會提供有效保障。对于外界指控，中華人民共和國政府主張生存權和發展权是最基本的人權，應考慮國家經濟發展的水平。政府強調已經讓公民生活水平、識字率和平均預期壽命上升，改善工作場所的安全標準、抵禦自然災害及帮助农村贫困人口脱贫等。對於任建宇、胡佳、劉曉波等案件，政府強調會依法處理。2012年底习近平当选中共中央总书记执政后，推動多項重大改革，包括放寬”，中华人民共和國政府则对此否认并表示政府充分保障少数民族权利。[[File:Diplomatic relations of the People's Republic of China.svg|thumb|250px|中華人民共和國和其他國家間外交關係： +中华人民共和国政府将雙邊關係分成不同等級其中建立戰略夥伴關係。中华人民共和国積極參與多邊關係以促進國際和平与經濟發展，是談判。2012年开始，中华人民共和国開始建構具自身特色的大國外交，強調維護「造成多人死伤，对中华人民共和国的治安状况造成了不良影响。除了臺灣、西藏和新疆等问题涉及中华人民共和国核心利益外，中华人民共和国還與多个邻国有。2014年，中共中央總書記習近平表示，中华人民共和国將致力於和其他國家合作，争取以和平方式解決在領土主權和海洋權益等問題。今日中华人民共和国常被視為新興的[[潛在超級大國]]，許多評論家關注其快速-{zh-cn: 增长; zh-tw: 成長}-的經濟動能、日益增長的軍事實力、龐大的人口以及[[中國崛起|不斷增長的國際影響力]]，並認為中华人民共和国將在21世紀成為具重大影響力的世界角色。然而評論者警告[[泡沫經濟]]威脅和人口結構失衡，將延緩甚至阻止中华人民共和国在本世紀的經濟成長；有的則質疑中华人民共和国作為「[[超級大國]]」的定義，認為中华人民共和国獨大的經濟不會讓其發展成為超級大國，並指出中华人民共和国並沒有美國的軍事和文化影響力。中华人民共和国拥有[[洲際彈道飛彈]][[彈道飛彈潛艇|弹道导弹核潜艇]][[战略轰炸机]]组成的[[核三位一體|三位一体]]的核打击能力並擁有五十枚至七十五枚可配備核彈頭的洲際彈道飛彈但和美国俄罗斯相比中华人民共和国[[力量投射]]能力仍显不足。中华人民共和国近期研究開發了大量先進的飛彈技術發展[[中程彈道飛彈|中程]]和[[短程彈道飛彈]][[2007年中國反衛星飛彈試驗|反衛星飛彈]][[巡航飛彈]][[反彈道飛彈]]和[[潜射弹道导弹]]等装備。2000年之后中华人民共和国装备了首艘航空母艦[[遼寧號航空母艦|遼寧舰]]及彈道飛彈核潛艇和組成的[[核动力潛艇|核潜艇]]艦隊。空軍的現代化亦取得顯著進步除購買[[Su-35戰鬥機|苏-35]]等俄罗斯制战斗机外也自行開發生產了[[低可侦测性技术|隐身]][[第五代戰鬥機]][[WU-14高超音速飛行器|高超音速飛行器]][[运-20|重型运输机]][[無人航空載具|无人机]]等現代化軍機。中华人民共和国還以新研製的陸軍武器替換[[蘇聯]]製裝備系統也從C3I增強至C4I強化對於[[網絡中心戰]]的掌控。2017年人民解放军下水了世界上第一艘装备了双波段相位阵列雷达的导弹驱逐舰[[055型导弹驱逐舰|055型]]引起了国际社会的强烈反响该型舰排水量达到12000吨是二战后除航空母舰和两栖攻击舰外亚洲建造的吨位最大的作战舰艇。同年4月26日第一艘国产航母[[山东号航空母舰|山东号]]下水2019年12月17日正式服役。另外随着自2000年后开始建设的[[北斗卫星导航系统]]的逐步完善和发展中华人民共和国在军用卫星导航方面也正在逐步摆脱对于美国[[全球定位系统|GPS]]导航系统的依赖2018年12月27日北斗正式开始提供全球服务。隨著保障」的軍事戰略。 +[[File:The Daya Bay Antineutrino Detector (8056998030).jpg|缩略图|upright=0.8|[[大亞灣核反應爐微中子實驗]]]]1960年代至1970年代，中华人民共和国相繼掌握有許多成果。中华人民共和国自1990年代初壟斷氟硼铍酸钾晶体製造技術，亦是繼美國、。从1969年首颗[[人造衛星]][[東方紅一號]]到[[北斗卫星定位系统]]中华人民共和国卫星技术發展迅速。中华人民共和国還積極推動[[中国载人航天工程|载人-{zh-cn航天 zh-tw航太 zh-hk航天}-]][[中国探月工程|月球探测]][[中国火星探测计划|火星探测]]等[[中華人民共和國航天|-{zh-cn航天 zh-tw航太 zh-hk航天}-計劃]]。2011年中华人民共和国發射實驗模組[[天宮一號]]2016年成功发射了[[天宫二号]]空间实验室并成功与[[神舟十一号]]载人飞船的交会对接实现了建设短期有人照料的空间实验室的目标。2017年发射货运飞船[[天舟一号]]为建设长期有人照料的空间站迈出重要一步中华人民共和国計畫最终在2020年左右組建[[中國太空站|太空站]]。北斗衛星定位系統自2012年起向[[亚太]]大部分地区正式提供服务计划于2018年年底前建成由18颗北斗三号卫星组成的基本系统为号中继通讯卫星成功发射并按照预期抵达地月拉格朗日L2点。2018年12月8日（UTC+8）[[嫦娥四号]]成功发射并于2019年1月3日着陆于[[冯卡门环形山]]在世界上首次实现月球背面软着陆和巡视勘察。2020年11月中华人民共和国成功发射[[嫦娥五号]]于同年12月完成了中华人民共和国首次月面土壤的取样返回这也是至1976年以来人类首次取回月面土壤样本。中华人民共和国于2020年7月23日成功使用[[长征五号运载火箭|国产运载火箭]]自主發射[[天问一号]]火星探测器于2021年2月10日成功实现火星环绕2月24日6时29分成功实施第三次近火制动进入近火点280千米远火点5.9万千米周期2个火星日的火星停泊轨道5月15日在火星乌托邦平原南部预选着陆区成功软着陆。中国成为继美国后世界上第二个完全成功在火星软着陆探测器的国家。2021年4月29日中国成功发射[[天宫空间站]][[天和核心舱|核心舱]]正式开始组建中国自主建设的常驻大型太空站太空站計劃於2022年完成在軌建造具備實驗能力轉入應用與發展階段。。2021年6月17日中国发射[[神舟十二号]]航天员[[聶海勝]][[劉伯明]][[湯洪波]]为驻守中国太空站第一批航天员。2021年9月24日中国科学院天津工业生物技术研究所研究员马延和团队在《科学》杂志上发表论文宣布首次实现二氧化碳人工合成淀粉技术。 +中华人民共和国在1949年的工農業總產值466億元）深化改革開放。1980年中华人民共和国GDP总量仅为3053亿美元经过改革开放40年的高速发展2019年中华人民共和国GDP总量已经超过14万亿美元。2001年中华人民共和国加入转向第三產業。2012年中华人民共和国中產階級達3億人並擁有251名估計未償還債務從2007年的7.4兆美元增長至2014年的28.2兆美元比國內生產毛額多出228%2019年中华人民共和国人均GDP突破10000美元大关开始向高收入国家迈进。2017年全年中華人民共和國各省級行政區及特別行政區人均生產總值分布2017年中國大陸最富有的地區爲长三角珠三角和京津冀等沿海地区。2019年中华人民共和国经济的三产业比重分别为农业7.1%工业39.0%服务业53.9%。中华人民共和国改革开放的主要目的是希望从高度集中的的經濟體。中华人民共和国經濟在2012年首次超过第二产业，占国内生产总值最大比重。2015年時消費佔中华人民共和国經濟成長66.4%，目前中华人民共和国政府正在推动产业升级和转型，往高附加值的产业发展，政府计划到2025年，成为制造业强国。2019年人均GDP为10276美元。中华人民共和国的软件产业屬於第三产业這领域最近十几年发展迅速规模从2000年的593亿人民币增长到2010年的18400亿人民币。[[复合年均增长率]]为36.65%。現時中华人民共和国软件产业面对的挑战是填補自身的核心[[系统软件]]和[[工业软件]]领域的缺陷例如對[[操作系统]][[数据库]][[编程语言]][[计算机輔助設計]]软件[[計算機輔助工程]]软件[[電子設計自動化]]軟件的研发減少依赖外国软件去降低外部壓力造成的生产风险以滿足未来中华人民共和国在复杂工業的自动化控制需求。迄今中华人民共和国1兆元但政府因經濟增幅放緩而考慮擴大財政赤字2015年時達到人民幣1.62兆元。當前中华人民共和国東部地區經濟較西部地區相對發達，政府在市場經濟體制下開放私人財產的所有權，成為。今日中國大陸股票總市值為全球第二名、商品期貨市場成交量居世界首位。中华人民共和国經濟具高度20吉瓦）220千伏以上的電力線路達57.2萬公里發電量與電網規模都為世界第一。近年来，中华人民共和国政府大力投資僅次於美國和法國。礦產91種。附近海域石油約250億噸，天然氣有8.4萬億立方公尺。中华人民共和国長期是世界上最大的[[中國煤炭工業|煤炭生產國]]及消費國，超過70%能源依靠[[煤|煤炭]]供應。中华人民共和国石油產量則位居世界第四，2014年每天產量達4,189,000桶。但因石油生產不能滿足經濟需求，有近半石油要從[[俄羅斯]]、[[中東]]、[[中亞]]和[[非洲]]進口，並在2013年超越[[美國]]成為最大的石油進口國。2015年，[[中國天然氣|中华人民共和国天然氣]]產量1350億立方米，消費量達到1932億立方米。2017年5月18日，中华人民共和国在南海[[神狐暗沙|神狐海域]]首次实现海域[[可燃冰]]试采成功，将来对能源生产和消费革命可能产生深远影响。-{zh-hans:; zh-hant:;}-截至2019年中华人民共和国拥有发展中国家里最完善的交通网络拥有甚至堪比发达国家的基础建设并且依旧有大量的高铁高速公路和机场在建设中。拥有由[[中华人民共和国铁路运输|铁路系统]][[中华人民共和国公路交通|公路系统]][[中国航空运输|航空系统]][[船运]]系统[[管道運輸|管道]]構成的[[中华人民共和国交通|交通运输网]]。截至2018年公路和[[中華人民共和國高速公路|高速公路]]總里程分別為485萬公里及14萬公里高速铁路通车里程3.79万公里全球第一。中华人民共和国擁有世界最長的[[各國公路里程列表|高速公路系統]]並計劃在2030年增加至11.8萬公里。中华人民共和国是世界最大的汽車市場估計汽車銷售量在2020年達到4000萬輛城市地區也盛行-{zh-cn自行车zh-hk單車zh-tw腳踏車}-。2017年中华人民共和国私人汽车擁有量為1億8千5五百多萬部平均每8人有一部汽车。截至2018年底，，為世界上最快的商業軌道。底中华人民共和国共有颁证民用航空运输机场235个定期航班航线里程838万公里。2015年機場以及不利於飛行的高山地形相當多在利用上有嚴重誤點的問題作為對比其他國家的軍事空域大約只有10％為了充分航空公司的競爭力因而逐漸有著開放空域的呼聲。中华人民共和国有2,116座沿海里程達12.63萬公里，水路客運量達2.63億人、旅客周轉量74.34億人公里。截至2020年末中华人民共和国铁路营业里程14.6万公里其中高铁营业里程3.8万公里。铁路复线率为59.5%电化率为72.8%。全国铁路路网密度152.3公里/万平方公里。公路总里程519.81万公里国内河航道通航里程12.77万公里其中三级及以上航道里程1.44万公里。全国港口生产用码头泊位22142个全国港口万吨级及以上泊位2592个其中沿海港口万吨级及以上泊位2138个内河港口万吨级及以上泊位454个。中华人民共和国是[[世界貿易組織]]的成員國，亦是[[金磚國家]]之一。中华人民共和国為貿易總額最大國家，分別[[各國出口額列表|出口額第一大]]與[[各國進口額列表|進口額第二大]]，也是貨物進出口最大的國家。1980年代，超過一半的出口為原料等初級產品，機電產品只占7.7%。2012年國際貿易總額達3.87兆[[美元]]，一般貿易占52%、加工貿易占48%；出口美國最多的商品，依序為手機與廣播設備、電腦、電腦設備、影音設備、玩具等。但中华人民共和国壓低匯率而與其他經濟體間有所摩擦，也被批評製造假冒的。2010年代初，中华人民共和国因國內貸款問題而經濟增長放緩。在全球經濟因[[次貸危機]]陷入困境後，中华人民共和国出口量與國際市場需求亦遭削弱，但中华人民共和国依旧为全球最大出口国，2019年，中华人民共和国对外出口额为2.5万亿美元，进口额为2.08万亿美元，进出口保有大量顺差。。2010年，[[中華人民共和國外匯儲備]]達2.85兆美元，比去年同期增長18.7%，為世界最大的[[外匯儲備]]國家。但2014年6月達最高點後則不斷下滑，2015年降幅超過5,000億美元，在年底下滑至3.33兆美元，[[巴克萊銀行]]更預測2016年降至2.75兆美元。到2020年2月，中华人民共和国的外汇储备为31067.18亿美元。中华人民共和国也是最大的[[外商直接投資]]國家，2012年獲得2,530萬美元投資。2014年，外匯匯款達640億美元，是第二大的匯款接受國。中华人民共和国亦大量投資海外市場，為第二大對外投資國；2014年投資海外達1,231.2億美元，許多中华人民共和国企業也併購外國公司。2009年，中华人民共和国擁有價值1.6兆美元的[[證券]]；同時有超過1.16兆美元的[[美國國庫證券]]，為[[美國國債]]最大的海外持有者。隨著海外需求增加，，於2016年10月1日生效。 +根據2020年的。今日約有10%人口仍處在貧窮線以下城鎮失業率在2007年一度降到4%以下目前城鎮失業率則在4.1%。中华人民共和国新生嬰兒的男性比例偏高，2010年人口普查显示男女比例為118.06比100，比正常的105比100的男女比例高。2010年人口普查中，男性佔總人口的51.27%左右；不過相較於1953年男性佔總人口51.82%左右，今日中华人民共和国性別比例較為平衡許多。据全国老龄委2015年预计，未来20年中华人民共和国将进入老龄化高峰。到2050年左右，中华人民共和国老年人口将达到全国人口的三分之一。人口老龄化将使中华人民共和国劳动力人口逐渐减少。截至2017年底，中华人民共和国60岁以上老年人口约2.41亿，占总人口的17.3%，高于10%的联合国传统老龄社会标准。中华人民共和国整体总量与新增量从2015年开始负增长，而以往人口净流出的省份如湖北、河南、安徽、四川、贵州等人口却在反弹。不变的是，东南沿海的常住人口新增量仍在增加，而东北地区的人口依旧在减少。中华人民共和国近十年來有大規模的是都市化潛力巨大以及推動各省地方性文化的主力其對中华人民共和国城市的未來樣貌有著重要性逐漸被人所重視。中华人民共和国是多民族國家。1955年政府開始宣傳節制生育政策。自1979年後政府正式推行人口政策為社會帶來一定影響。各個省級行政區實行嚴格的可能達1.4左右沒有登記的黑戶非常多因而這些人常沒有基本公民應有的保障問題急需解決以及可能伴隨之而來的家庭衝突成為社會問題。在中华人民共和国人口持續增長而超過13億人及自然資源日益減少的情況下政府起初非常關心人口的增長率並利用政策工具進行控制。然而21世紀以後生育率長期較低不足以撫養老年人為了解決中华人民共和国的取代政策的轉變僅僅用了4年但仍被認為為時已晚隨後數年的統計數據發布顯示中华人民共和国的生育率甚至還能繼續下跌為了實際了解社會原貌媒體對處於生育年齡的人群進行訪查證實由因老人政策專家的世代差距導致對青年生育意願極低存在誤解2019年中华人民共和国人口雖正式突破14億人口失衡的憂慮卻持續加深有鑒於出生率幾乎不可能反彈各界並呼籲對不可避免的重大社會衝擊進行準備。中华人民共和国自1986年以來实行为期9年的[[义务教育]]包含6年[[小学]]和3年[[初级中学]]学生年龄在6岁至15岁之间。2010年約有82.5%的學生會選擇繼續為期3年的[[高級中學]]教育。由政府舉辦的[[普通高等學校招生全國統一考試]]則是進入大多數[[高等教育]]機構的先決條件。2010年27%的高級中學畢業生會繼續接受4年的[[本科教育]]。另外政府還設立中級和高級[[專科學校]]提供學生職業教育內容。2019年中华人民共和国共计有161811所小学51982所初级中学13737所高级中学10299所中等职业学校以及2663所普通高等学校和1418所高职（专科）院校。截至2010年為止15歲以上人口中有94%接受過教育訓練而得以[[識字]]相比之下在1950年只有20%的民眾曾接受過教育。[[经济合作与发展组织]]（OECD）将一个国家的成人教育水平定义为年龄在25岁至64岁之间以两年制学位四年制学位或职业课程形式完成某种高等教育的人的百分比评價各国公民受教育程度整體而言中华人民共和国公民受教育程度低於世界平均。中华人民共和国東北部地区居民受教育程度要高於西南部。2010年約有88.173%民眾在不同地方接受過中學教育後畢業。而自2005年開始中华人民共和国各級政府便籌划经费以減免農村地區孩童的學雜費。2006年政府更承諾9年只有人民幣3204元。中华人民共和国較著名的高等學校有[[北京大學]][[清華大學]][[上海交通大學]][[復旦大學]][[中国科学技术大学]][[南京大學]][[浙江大學]][[西安交通大學]]和[[哈尔滨工业大学]]组成的[[九校联盟]]简称C9及位於[[香港特区]]的[[香港大學]][[香港中文大學]][[香港科技大學]]等。 +中华人民共和国政府視為宗教。從人口結構來看，分佈最廣的宗教是和。根據2007年的調查有18%至19%成年人口自認為佛教徒另有3%至4%為。[[FilePeking Union 3.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[北京协和医学院]]（[[清华大学]]医学部）附属医院]]市場排行世界第二名，但自身藥品開發和經銷則受以及廠商長期科研投入的影響，製藥產業水平還力有未逮。1950年代時中华人民共和国平均壽命和曾是國際年平均數的2.3倍不過2009年至2011年間自殺率下降到每10萬人中有9.8例降幅達到58%而成為自殺率最低的國家之一。根據[[世界衛生組織]]和[[聯合國兒童基金會]]在2015年提出的，中华人民共和国[[卫生设施]]的城乡差距巨大，64%的農村人口仍未擁有。中华人民共和国的[[中國供水和衛生設施|供水和衛生]]基礎設施雖然同樣受快速的城市化影響，但也面臨[[中國水資源|水資源]]來源短缺和污染影響。2010年6月，中华人民共和国境內共有1,519座[[污水處理]]廠，同時每星期增加18座處理廠。儘管民眾健康狀況顯著改善、而先進醫療設施陸續建設，中华人民共和国開始出現一些新興的公眾健康問題，包括嚴重[[中華人民共和國環境污染|空氣污染]]所引起的呼吸系統疾病、數百萬名[[吸煙]]人士、及城市地區青年人口不斷增加的[[肥胖症]]。中华人民共和国发生的重大疫情有：从70年代开始的乙肝大爆发，在短短20年中，中华人民共和国乙肝病毒携带者增长至1.2亿人，成为世界第一乙肝大国；1990年代中期的多位领导因应对疫情不利而遭免职。1980年代末前幾乎所有》等綜藝節目。今日由的抗議事件公眾示威反政府制度不同政見者暴力畫面色情內容對政府批評等政府並強調是為避免出現威脅國家統一主權領土完整和安全的內容。這讓一些外國電影因政府審查而遭取締禁止國外傳播媒體亦受嚴格限制。隨著網際網路在中华人民共和国國內普及，政府也對網際網路的內容進行系統性審查。。中华人民共和国數十年來有顯著經濟增長同时亦有。2015年11月底商品房待售面積達6.96億平方公尺可讓2.2億人居住。中华人民共和国有89%的家庭擁有住房但一線城市房價居高不下其他城市則庫存嚴重。2012年，則批評國際透明組織的評分和排名，認為並不符合實際反腐工作的情況。結束，各種形式的中國傳統藝術、文學、音樂、電影、時尚和建築等都出現大規模的復興運動。[[中國文學]]始于[[先秦文学]]當中[[中國古典典籍|古典典籍]]有著[[中國古典文學典籍列表|多元廣泛]]的[[諸子百家|思想]]包括[[中国古代诗歌|詩歌]][[農曆]][[軍事著作|軍事]][[中國占星術|占星術]]天文學曆法[[中藥]]及[[陰陽]][[氣功]][[八字]][[算命]]等命理學概念並在[[西周]]時期奠定基礎。中华民国时期因[[五四運動]]和[[新文化運動]]的推動普通民眾轉而閱讀[[官話白話文]]。其間中國大陸出現許多傑出的小說家戲劇家詩人雜文家[[胡適]]和[[魯迅]]並成為中國現代文學先驅。中華人民共和國成立后的[[中華人民共和國文學|現代文學]]則是依循[[社會主義]]方向表現社會大眾革命精神與歌颂新生活樣貌。[[文化大革命]]結束後受[[魔幻寫實主義]]影響而出現[[朦朧詩]][[傷痕文學]][[尋根文學]]等新興體裁。受到[[金庸]][[武俠小說]]影響虛構小說在[[漢字文化圈]]廣為流行。2000年[[高行健]]成為首位獲得[[諾貝爾文學獎]]的華語作家2012年[[莫言]]則成為首位[[2012年諾貝爾文學獎|獲得此獎]]的中华人民共和国作家。另外[[劉慈欣]]的科幻作品《[[三體 (小說)|三體]]》則接連獲得[[星雲獎]]提名和[[雨果獎]]最佳小說獎。中华人民共和国[[民族音樂]]包括汉民族音乐和少数民族音乐，也包含传统音乐与新音乐，一般由宫廷音乐、文人音乐、宗教音乐、[[民间音乐]]四部分构成。其中，新音乐是在20世紀至21世紀受西方樂曲影响而出現的新風格音樂。許多[[流行音樂]]結合過去傳統元素，發展出具特色的[[中文流行音樂]]（[[華語流行音樂]]、[[粵語流行音樂]]等）、[[中國搖滾樂]]和華語饒舌等。与日本和韓國相比，中华人民共和国不被視為流行音樂生產和消費的主要市場。中华人民共和国舞蹈表演包括民間舞蹈、傳統舞蹈、歌劇、芭蕾舞劇、等比賽獎項。1896年出現首部中國題材的電影但首部中國製作的電影為1905年《定軍山》由當時[[京劇]]演員演出。在整個20世紀[[中國大陸電影]]因政治局勢的發展而有所波折。1970年代後中华人民共和国電影開始在其他國家放映。直到1997年[[馮小剛]]執導的《[[甲方乙方]]》成為首部獲商業成功的中华人民共和国電影在西方評論界取得廣泛讚譽。中华人民共和国所有放映的電影都須經過國務院批准並要求刪除暴力情色或敏感政治議題等場景也限制外國電影進口數量此舉協助自身電影產業發展。在中华人民共和国10部票房最成功的電影中就有7部為中华人民共和国國內自行製作。隨著中國大陸電影產業不斷發展2010年時規模達到[[人民幣]]164億元同年的《[[人再囧途之泰囧]]》成為首部票房超過10億元的中國大陸電影而2016年的《[[美人魚 (2016年電影)|美人魚]]》票房更超過30億元。2015年中國大陸電影票房達到人民幣440.69億元僅次於美國。2017年中华人民共和国电影《[[战狼2]]》票房56.8亿人民币超过《[[美人魚 (2016年電影)|美人魚]]》成为中国大陆影史以及华语电影影史票房冠军跻身世界影史票房前100排55名是票房前百里唯一一部非英语电影同时以1.59亿的观影人次暂列全球影史单一市场观影人次第一。中華人民共和國成立後，于1950年代确定了要求新的具備藝術性的建筑设计基本方针。中国现代建筑的代表有等结构独特的建筑。中华人民共和国境內主要使用」自2011年開始當法定假日適逢周末時則會在工作日補假。的國家接待入境游客12849.83万人次。2015年中华人民共和国於旅遊業競爭力排名中上升至第17名。同時中华人民共和国自身也有龐大的市場估計在2012年10月便有7.4億名中华人民共和国遊客在國內各處遊玩。2019年全年中国大陆境内旅游收入57251亿元国际旅游收入1313亿美元。截至2019年7月，中华人民共和国共計，每年会推出一个活动主题。1949年中华人民共和国成立後成立了中华全国体育总会发展体育事业1951年[[中央人民政府政务院]]发出了[[s关于改善各级学校学生健康状况的决定|关于改善各级学校学生健康状况的决定]]同年11月中华全国体育总会公布推行第一套適合廣大群眾參與的[[广播体操]]全中国大陸掀起锻炼热潮。1995年，政府頒布，對群眾體育事務的發展有所規劃，今日各地普遍設有商業活動，並計畫在隔年增加至200場。今日中华人民共和国社會歡迎的運動有[[中國武術]][[籃球]][[足球]][[乒乓球]][[羽毛球]][[游泳]][[司諾克|-{zh-hans斯诺克zh-hk士碌架zh-tw司諾克}-]]等當中許多城市年輕民眾喜愛練習足球和籃球。[[中國足球協會超級聯賽]]於1994年成立後發展出亞洲最大的職業足球市場。在中华人民共和国許多年輕球迷關注[[中國男子籃球職業聯賽]]和美國[[NBA]]也有像[[姚明]][[易建聯]]等球員參與這兩項職業籃球聯賽。中华人民共和国也流行[[圍棋]][[象棋]][[麻將]][[西洋棋]]等[[圖版遊戲]]除了舉辦專業比賽外還培養出職業圍棋選手[[柯潔]]西洋棋大師[[侯逸凡]]等人。同時還有許多參與[[自行车运动|-{zh-cn自行车运动 zh-hk踩單車運動 zh-tw腳踏車運動}-]]的民眾。另外許多傳統體育項目也獲得廣泛歡迎包括[[龍舟]]競賽蒙古[[搏克]][[賽馬]]比賽等。1984年[[許海峰]]在[[1984年夏季奧林匹克運動會|夏季奧林匹克運動會]]上贏得首枚金牌。隨著體育競賽水準提升中华人民共和国在[[夏季奧林匹克運動會]]贏得的金牌數量快速增加也因而被譽為「體育大國」。中华人民共和国在2008年於北京舉辦[[2008年夏季奧林匹克運動會|夏季奧林匹克運動會]]中华人民共和国代表團共獲得51枚金牌位居[[2008年夏季奧林匹克運動會獎牌榜|金牌榜]]榜首。中华人民共和国還在[[2012年夏季帕拉林匹克運動會|-{zh-cn2012年夏季残疾人奥林匹克运动会 zh-hk2012年夏季傷殘奧林匹克運動會 zh-tw2012年夏季帕拉林匹克運動會}-]]獲得231面獎牌成為獎牌數量最多的國家。另外自1982年後中华人民共和国在歷次[[亞洲運動會]]上連續贏得最多數量的金牌。2015年7月31日北京获得2022年第24届举办权。 +[[Category:OECD成員經濟體]][[Category:联合国会员国]][[Category:核武國家]][[Category一黨制國家]][[Category1949年中國建立]][[Category:上海合作组织成员国]]中国计算机科学大事年表按照时间顺序罗列了中华人民共和国建国以来，在计算机科学领域发生的重大事件。克利斯登奈加特挪威计算机科学家社会活动家图灵奖和冯诺伊曼奖获得者Simula的创始人面向对象技术的先驱。克利斯登奈加特1926年生于挪威的奥斯陆1956年于奥斯陆大学获得数学硕士学位论文是《蒙特卡罗方法的理论方面》。1948年—1960年间克利斯登奈加特全职工作于挪威防务科学研究中心方面的研究。1957年—1960年间他是挪威防务系统中最早的运筹研究小组的负责人。他是挪威运筹研究学会（Norwegian Operational Research Society）的共同创办者和第一任主席（1959年—1964年）。1960年他受聘于挪威计算中心（Norwegian Computing Center）负责把挪威计算中心建设成为一个研究机构并且于1962年成为研究主管（Director of Research）。克利斯登·奈加特是丹麦奥胡斯大学的教授的领域密切相关。1987年他成为美国帕洛阿托的斯坦福大学的访问教授，施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心的访问学者，以及苹果公司的高级技术小组的顾问与讲师。1990年6月他成为瑞典隆德大学的荣誉教授，并于1991年6月成为丹麦奥尔堡大学的第一个荣誉教授。他是挪威科学院的成员。1990年10月美国的协会—为了社会责任的计算机职业者因他在“对象技术概念上的开创工作”而授予荣誉会员。2001年11月他与奥利-约翰·达尔一起获得了電機電子工程師學會的約翰·馮諾依曼獎，并评价：2002年2月他又一次与奥利-约翰·达尔一起获得了美國計算機協會的图灵奖，并评价：2000年8月他被挪威国王授予圣奥拉夫指挥官勋章（Commander of the Order of Saint Olav）。从1976年起他与Bent Bruun KristensenOle Lehrmann Madsen和Birger Moeller-Pedersen一道从事于通用面向对象编程语言BETA的开发与实现（实现从1986年开始）。现在这个语言已经可以在多种计算机上使用。克利斯登·奈加特在1980年代的头半个时期是斯堪的纳维亚各国间的一个研究项目SYDPOL的筹划指导委员会主席。这个研究项目致力于在系统开发、语言研究和人工智能方面协同研究工作并为工作组提供支持。也在1980年代他作为欧洲科学与技术合作组织指导委员会主席的。因位人工智能和信息技术正成为专业工作的一部分这些研究工作因而是必要的。克利斯登·奈加特在1995年—1999年的研究与分布式系统有关。他是GOODS项目（General Object-Oriented Distributed Systems，通用面向对象分布式系统）的领导者。这个为期三年的项目，由挪威研究理事会（Norwegian Research Council）资助，始于1997年，目标是通过引入新的基本概念来丰富面向对象语言和系统开发方法，这些新的基本概念可以使我们来描述分层和（或）分布的程序、硬件和实现这些程序的人之间的关系。GOODS小组还包括Haakon Bryhni、Dag Sjoberg和Ole Smordal。他也领导挪威计算中心的一个小组，这个小组致力于建立一个GOODS想法的商业化实现——STAGE项目（STAGing Environments）。STAGE小组还包括Dag Belsnes、Jonn Skretting、Kasper Osterbye和Birger Moeller-Pedersen。克利斯登·奈加特生前最后的研究兴趣是。克利斯登奈加特在1984年—1985年间是奥斯陆大学信息科学委员会主席参与设计为所有教员提供研究教育计算和通信设施的学校发展计划。克利斯登奈加特是挪威自然保护协会科学研究委员会的成员并与多个国家的工会组织合作。他多年致力于运作一个实验性的社会机构试图为被社会遗弃的酗酒者创造一种新的人居条件。克利斯登奈加特一直活跃于挪威政坛。在1960年代中后期他是挪威左翼非社会主义政党Venstre的执行委员会成员该党战略委员会主席。1972年挪威公民投票决定是否成为欧洲共同市场组织成员。在此前炽热的政治斗争中他为协调青年组织而工作大多数青年组织反对挪威加入欧洲共同市场组织最后他们获得胜利。1971年—2001年克利斯登奈加特是工党成员并成为该党科学研究政策委员会的成员。克利斯登·奈加特于1988年11月成为挪威信息委员会主席。在1996年—1997年间克利斯登奈加特为致力于成立欧洲反对马斯特里赫特条约运动（TEAM-The European Anti-Maastricht Movement）而担任协调员。欧洲反对马斯特里赫特条约运动是一个反对欧洲经济与货币联盟（Economic Monetary Union）和马斯特里赫特条约的国际组织间的协调网络。欧洲反对马斯特里赫特条约运动成功地于1997年3月3日建立起来。克利斯登·奈加特与约翰娜·奈加特于1951年结婚。约翰娜·奈加特现已退休，曾工作于挪威援助发展中国家机构。多年来她专于招募工作并为工作在东部非洲的专家提供行政支持。他们有三个孩子和七个孙子。我非常清楚的认识到我是一个有争议的人物，参与了一长系列的活动，对我这是改革运动，但对他人却可能是不受欢迎的而且是有害的干预。 +Self语言，是一种基于原型的面向对象的程序设计语言，于1986年由施乐帕洛阿尔托研究中心的David Ungar和Randy Smith给出了最初的设计。Self语言是在Smalltalk的基础上发展而来，沿用了Smalltalk中一切都是对象的风格。在实现Self系统的过程中，设计研究人员发展出了一种动态自适应编译技术。Self同Smalltalk一样既是一个编程语言，也是一个集成开发环境和运行环境。Self语言把概念上的精简作为设计原则。它取消了类的概念只有对象的概念同时把消息作为最基本的操作。把对象的特性理解为获取或更改特性这两种方法从而把特性的概念简化为方法取消了变量和赋值并以通过消息来读槽和写槽的方式代之。在发展Self的过程中Self的设计研究人员也探索了Self的程序设计。他们提出了特质的概念用对象实现了名字的管理用实现了。尽管Self系统一次运行在一个进程中但Self系统实际上可以分成两个部分Self虚拟机和Self世界（Self world）。Self世界是一个Self对象库Self程序就是Self世界里的对象Self虚拟机用来执行这些Self程序。当Self程序从终端文件或者图形用户界面输入到系统中来时Self系统把源程序解析转化为Self对象。Self对象包括数据对象和方法对象方法对象的代码部分是用一种指令非常简单的字节码（bytecode）表示的字节码由虚拟机来解释。动态自适应编译技术的采用提高了Self代码的执行效率。对经常执行的方法，虚拟机将进一步把字节码转化为本机代码。Self虚拟机还提供了一些可供调用的，用来实现算术运算、对象复制、输入输出等。Self也拥有一个图形用户界面Morphic，Self的编程环境也是基于Morphic来实现的。Self在精简语言概念的同时也把大量的工作转交给环境来处理。如可见性，模块与代码的管理都是由环境来处理的，语言中的反射机制也同环境密切相关。传统的基于类的面向对象语言基于了根深蒂固的二元性例如假设类codice_1它的。这个例子展示了这种方式的一个问题：codice_2，恰巧是一个运动车，。只有类codice_9的对象需要提供。但是，这种深入建模在设计期间需要更多的洞察力，洞察那些可能只在引起了问题时才显现出的事情。这个问题是在原型来以不同的方式迸发出对象。早期的面向对象语言如Smalltalk的实验，显示出这种问题反反复复的出现。系统趋向于增长到一定程度后就变得非常僵化，因为在编程者的代码下的深层的基本类，逐渐成为一个简单的。 没有变更起初的类的容易方式，严重的问题就会出现。动态语言如Smalltalk允许通过周知的按照类的方法进行这种变更即通过改变类基于它的对象就可以改变它们的行为。但是进行这种变更必须非常小心因为基于相同类的其他对象可能把它当作“错误行为”“错误”经常是依赖于场景的。这是问题的一种形式。进一步的说在语言如C++中这里的子类可以从超类分别的编译对超类的变更实际上可以破坏预编译的子类方法。这是脆弱基类问题的另一种形式也是的一种形式。在Self和其他基于原型的编程语言中消除了在类和对象之间的这种二元性。不再有基于某种。这种技术被称为是一种非常简化的机制。如果一个现存的对象被证明是个不适当的模型编程者可以简单的建立有正确行为的一个修改的对象并转而使用它。使用现存对象的代码不会改变。下面简要描述Self的语法语义。Self对象是“槽”。槽是通过名字能返回值的访问器方法，和通过在名字后放置一个冒号并接着设置它的值的变异子方法，这个名字-值对中的值是到其他对象的引用。例如，一个叫做codice_13的槽：myPerson name返回在槽codice_13中的值，而：myPerson name'foo'设置“数据槽”codice_13的值这个codice_16槽叫做“赋值槽”。注意在Self中在字段。方法是除了槽之外还包含代码的对象并可以被放置入Self的槽中如同任何其他对象比如数一样。在各种情况下语法都保持相同。Self就像Smalltalk使用“块”用于控制流程和其他职责块是Self的闭包。对象文字用圆括号来界定。在圆括号内对象描述构成自竖杠codice_17界定的一个槽的列表随后是在这个对象被求值时要执行的代码。例如下面的计算平方的方法对象codice_18表示初始化对应于其他语言中读写变量的槽codice_19指示一个只读槽。一个真正的空对象指示为codice_20或简单的codice_21它根本不接收任何消息。块对象的写法类似于其他对象除了用方括号替代了圆括号之外。在表达式于提示符下键入的情况下，带领用户进入Self世界的这个对象叫做“大厅”，设计用于混合入一些其他对象之中。访问槽的语法类似于Smalltalk。有三类消息可以获得：所有消息都返回结果，所以接收者和参数自身可以是其他消息的结果。下列跟随着句号的消息，意味着Self将丢弃返回的值。例如：这是Self版本的hello world程序。codice_25语法指示文字串对象。其他文字对象包括数、块和一般对象。组合可以通过使用圆括号来强制。在缺乏明确组合的情况下一元消息被认为有最高优先级其次是二元消息而关键字消息最低。赋值使用关键字在表达式也有关键字消息的地方将导致一些额外的圆括号为了避免如此Self要求关键字消息的第一部份开始于小写字母而后续部份开始于大写字母。valid: base bottombetween ligature bottom + heightAnd: base top / scale factor.可以被无歧义的分析其含义同于between ((ligature bottom) + height)And: ( / )).在Smalltalk-80中，相同的表达式将写为：valid = self base bottombetween: self ligature bottom + self heightand: self base top / self scale factor.假定codice_26、codice_27、codice_28和codice_29不是codice_30的实例变量，而事实上是方法。考虑一个稍微复杂些的例子labelWidget copy label: 'Hello, World!'.通过codice_31消息制作codice_32对象的一个副本接着向它发送一个消息将codice_33放入叫做codice_34的槽中。现在用它做点事情在这个案例中codice_35首先进行，从codice_36对象所知道的一个窗口列表中返回codice_37。接着前面研究过的代码返回codice_32。最后这个组件被发送到活动窗口的codice_39槽中。在理论上，所有Self对象都是独立实体。Self既没有类也没有元类。对任何特定对象的变更都不影响任何其他对象，但是在某些情况下却需要它们这样。一个对象正常的只可以理解对应于它的局部槽的消息，但拥有一个或更多的指示“父”对象的槽，对象可以将任何自身不理解的消息委托给父对象。任何槽都可以通过增加星号后缀来制作父指针。采用这种方式Self处理在基于类的语言中使用继承来担负的责任。委托还可以用来实现一些特征比如名字空间和词法辖域。例如假定在一个简单的账簿应用中定义了一个对象叫做。这只是一个原型它只在使用方式上特殊因为它恰好是一个全功能的银行帐号。为制作银行帐号对象的复本将建立一个新对象，它起步时完全同于原型。在这种情况下将复制包括方法和任何数据的槽。但更常用的解决方案是首先建立一个简单对象叫做特质对象，它包含通常与一个类有关的项目。在这个例子中将没有存款和取款方法而是将有一个父对象来做这些。采用这种方式可以制作银行帐号对象的很多副本但是我们仍可以通过改变在根对象中的槽来改变全部它们的行为。这与传统的类有任何不同吗？我们考虑如下例子的含义：myObject parent: someOtherObject.这个摘句通过改变与codice_40槽关联的值星号是槽名字的一部份但不是对应消息名字的一部份它在运行时间改变codice_41的。不同于继承或词法辖域委托对象可以在运行时间修改。在Self中的对象可以通过包括新加的槽来修改。这可以通过使用图形编程环境来做，或者使用原语codice_42。原语与正常关键字消息有相同的语法，但他它的名字开始于下划线字符。codice_43原语应当避免使用，因为它是早期实现的遗留物。但是我们仍在这个例子中展示它，因为它能使代码更短。下面是关于重新构建一个叫做“车辆”的简单类的早期例子，用来使得在轿车和卡车之间有可区分的行为。在Self中，可以如下这样完成：_AddSlots (| vehicle <- (|parent* = traits clonable|) |).因为codice_42原语未指定接收者那就是发给。给codice_42的参数是它的槽将被复制来到接收者的对象。在这个实例中它是就只有一个槽的文字对象。这个槽的名字是codice_46而它的值是另一个文字对象。有第二个槽叫做codice_47它可以用来改变第一个槽的值。这里的codice_40没有相应的codice_49。成为codice_46对象初始值的文字对象包括一个单一的槽所以它可以理解与复制关的消息。vehicle _AddSlots: .这里的接收者是前面的对象它现在除了codice_40还将包括codice_13和codice_16槽。_AddSlots (| sportsCar <- vehicle copy |).sportsCar _AddSlots (| driveToWork = |).尽管此前codice_46和codice_55是完全类同的现在后者包括了具有最初时没有的方法的一个新槽。方法只能包括在只读槽中。_AddSlots: (| porsche911 <- sportsCar copy |).porsche911 name'Bobs Porsche'.新的对象codice_56起步时完全类同于codice_55，但是最后的消息改变了它的codice_13槽的值。注意二者仍有着完全相同的槽，尽管其中之一有着不同的值。Self的一个特征是它是基于了早期Smalltalk系统所用的某种虚拟机系统。就是说程序不是像C语言中那样的独立实体而是需要它们的整体内存环境来运行。这要求应用程序被装载入保存内存的大块之中这叫做或。这种方式的缺点是映像有时很大并且笨重但是调试一个映像经常被调试一个传统程序要简单因为运行时状态更容易检查和修改。(在基于源代码和基于映像的开发之间的不同是类似于在面向类的和面向原型的面向对象编程之间的区别。此外环境是为了让在系统之中的对象能快速和可持续的变更而定制的。重新构建一个设计就像从现存的祖先拖动出来方法放入新造的之中一样容易。简单任务像测试方法可以通过制作副本来处理拖动方法进入这个副本接着变更它。不同于传统系统只有变更了的对象有新代码不需要重建任何东西来测试它。如果这个方法有效可以简单的把它拖动回祖先之中。Self的VM实现的性能在某些测试之中大约是优化的C程序速度的一半。这是通过即时编译技术达到的它是在Self研究中首创并改进的能够使高级语言表现得这么好。Self的垃圾收集器使用世代垃圾回收，它按年龄分离对象。通过使用内存管理系统记录页面写，可以维护一个写屏障。这个技术给出了卓越的性能，尽管在运行一些时间之后，出现完全的垃圾收集，要花相当可观的时间。运行系统选择性的扁平化调用结构。这给出适当的自身提速但允许了对不同调用者类型的类型信息和多版本的代码的大量缓存。这去除了对做很多方法查找的需要并允许条件分支语句和硬编码调用被插入这经常能给出类似C语言的性能而又不失去语言层面的通用性但要建立在完全的垃圾收集系统之上。Self语言的最初设计是由David Ungar和Randy Smith于1986年在施乐帕洛阿托研究中心提出的并在1987年的OOPSLA'87的论文SELF The Power of Simplicity上给出了描述。1987年初Craig Chambers Elgin Lee和Martin Rinard在Smalltalk上给出了Self的第一个实验性解释器。1987年夏Self项目在Stanford大学正式开始，1988年夏给出了第一个有效率的实现，并发布了1.0和1.1两个版本。在第一个版本中包括内存管理系统和编译器。1991年初Self项目移至Sun Microsystems Laboratories Inc.，并且在1992年发布了2.0版。在第二个版本中采用了新的编译技术，并引入了多重继承。1993年1月Self 3.0版发布。在这个版本中包括了一个实验性的图形用户界面，简化了上个版本中多重继承的设计，引入了可见性概念，并采用了更新的编译技术。1995年7月Self 4.0版发布。在这个版本中包括了一个全新的图形用户环境Morphic，提供了工具transporter用于保存对象，改进了虚拟机，改善了内存管理，在环境的层次上引入了模块的概念，取消了语言层次上的可见性概念。1995年之后Self的发展基本已经停滞，但在发展Self过程中探索出的一些技术在别的系统中得到了应用。在Self的实现中采用的各种编译优化技术直接导致了Java Hotspot虚拟机的产生；在Smalltalk的一个实现Squeak中采用了Self图形用户界面Morphic的设计方案，放弃了标准Smalltalk中采用的MVC的方案。 +Linux内核等。工作于平板電腦智能手机及智能手表的Android操作系统同样通过Linux内核提供的服务完成自身功能。尽管于桌面电脑的占用率较低基于Linux的操作系统统治了几乎从移动设备到主机的其他全部领域。截至2017年11月世界前500台最强的超级计算机全部使用Linux。Linux内核最早是于1991年由芬兰黑客林納斯托瓦茲为自己的个人电脑开发的他当时在Usenet新闻组codice_1登载帖子这份著名的帖子标志着Linux内核计划的正式开始。如今该计划已经拓展到支持大量的计算机体系架构远超其他操作系统和内核。它迅速吸引了一批开发者和用户利用它作为其他自由软件项目的核心如著名的 GNU 操作系统。而今天Linux 内核已接受了超过1200家公司的近12000名程序员的贡献其中包括一些知名的软硬件发行商。从技术上说，Linux 只是一个符合POSIX 标准的内核。它提供了一套应用程序接口。Linux 内核是在GNU通用公共许可证第2版之下发布的（加上一些非自由固件、blob与各种非自由许可证），是一个开源项目协作的突出例子。它的版本支持根据版本最长可达6年，貢獻者遍佈世界各地，日常开发相关的讨论在上。1991年林納斯托瓦茲一名21岁的就读于芬兰赫尔辛基大学的计算机科学专业学生基于一些简单的想法打算编写一个操作系统内核。他通过英特尔80386汇编语言的任务切换器和一个终端驱动程序开始工作。8月25号他在codice_1新闻组里发了一封帖子之后许多人为这个项目贡献了代码。在早期MINIX社区向 Linux 内核贡献了代码和想法。当时GNU 项目已经创建了许多自由操作系统所需的组件但是它自己的内核 GNU Hurd 尚不完整且无法使用而BSD操作系统还没有摆脱合法的阻碍。因此尽管早期版本的 Linux 功能有限但它迅速获得了开发人员和用户。到1991年9月Linux内核版本 0.01 在芬兰大学和研究网络上发布。它有10239行代码。在1991年10月0.02版本的内核发布了。1991年12月，0.11版本的内核发布。由于它可以由运行相同内核版本的计算机编译，因此该版本是第一个 Linux 内核。当托瓦茲于1992年2月发布0.12版本时，他采用了 GNU 通用公共许可证（GPL），而不是以前的自行起草的许可证，原先的许可证不允许商业再分发。1992年1月19日第一篇文章提交给新的新闻组codice_3出现。1992年3月31日该新闻组更名为 codice_4。X Window 系统随后被移植到Linux上，所以在1992年3月，Linux 0.95 是第一个能够运行X的版本。从0.1x到0.9x的版本号大幅跨越是因为期望没有大的缺失部分的版本1.0的即将出现。然而，这被证明是错误的。从1993年到1994年初，出现了0.99版本的15个开发版本。1994年3月14日Linux内核1.0.0发布共176250行代码。随后的1995年3月有310950行代码的 Linux 内核1.2.0发布。在1996年6月9日发布的 Linux内核2.0版本之后以2.0为大版本的主要更新有如下这些从2004年开始，发布过程发生了变化，新的内核每隔2-3个月定期发布，编号为2.6.0、2.6.1，直到2.6.39。2011年7月21日，Torvalds宣布发布Linux内核3.0：“2.6.<大版本> 的日子过去了”。与Linux 2.6.39相比，大的技术变化同版本跃升没有关系；它标志着内核的20周年纪念。基于时间的发布过程保持不变。2013年6月发布的Linux内核版本3.10包含15803499行代码而2015年6月发布的4.1版本已发展到超过1950万行代码由近14000名程序员贡献。塔能鮑姆-林納斯辯論.Linux不是微内核架构的事实曾经引起了林納斯·托瓦茲与安德鲁·斯图尔特·塔能鲍姆之间一场著名的争论。1992年在Usenet討論群組comp.os.minix開始了一場網路論戰，討論的主題在於作業系統架構的選擇。稍後一些著名的駭客也加入討論，如大衛·米勒、曹子德。這場辯論影響了Linux核心的設計走向。塔能鲍姆認為Linux内核採用的宏内核已經過時了，應該採取比較先進的微內核架構，引起了林納斯的反擊。在2006年5月9日这个主题被重新审视并且在2006年5月12日塔能鲍姆写了一份立场声明。Linux是一个单体内核，支持真正的抢占式多任务处理、内存管理、Internet协议族和线程等功能。设备驱动程序和内核扩展运行于内核空间可以完全访问硬件但也有运行于用户空间的一些例外例如基于FUSE/CUSE的文件系统和部分UIO。多数人与Linux一起使用的图形系统不运行在内核中。与标准单体内核不同Linux的设备驱动程序可以轻易的配置为内核模块并在系统运行期间可直接装载或卸载。也不同于标准单体内核设备驱动程序可以在特定条件下被抢占增加这个特征用于正确处理硬件中断并更好的支持对称多处理。出于自愿选择Linux内核没有二进制内核接口。硬件也被整合入文件层级中。用户应用到设备驱动的接口是在或目录下的入口文件。进程信息也通过目录映射到文件系统。Linux是用C語言中的GCC版。包括Perl、Python和多種腳本語言。有一些驅動可能是用C++、Fortran或其他語言寫的，但是這樣是強烈不建議的。GCC是Linux内核源代码的缺省编译器。在2004年，Intel主张通过修改内核，以便Intel C++編譯器能正确编译内核。在2009年，有通过修改内核2.6.22版而成功编译的报告（並帶來平均8-9%效能增長）。自从2010年已经开始进行使用Clang建造Linux内核的努力Clang是一个可作为替代的C语言编译器截止2014年4月12日官方内核几乎可以完全用Clang编译。致力于这个目标的计划叫做得名于Clang所基于的LLVM编译器下部构造。LLVMLinux不意图复制Linux内核或LLVM因此它是由最终提交给上游计划的补丁构成的一个元计划。使Linux内核可以用Clang编译最大的好处是比GCC有更快的编译速度内核开发者可以得益于由此而来的更快的工作流程。符合标准是Linux内核内部的普遍策略。另一个规则是Linux内核主线不接受只由专有用户空间软件使用的内核模块。内核至用户空间API.源代码可移植性确保符合标准的C程序可以在符合同样标准的任何系统上编译和运行。Linux内核开发、GNU C函数库和相关的实用工具致力于追随POSIX和单一UNIX规范。是内核的系统调用接口。内核至用户空间API.二进制可移植性将保证任何程序在符合标准的给定硬件平台上一旦编译通过，可以在符合同样标准的任何其他硬件平台上以编译后的形式运行。二进制可移植性是在基于Linux内核的操作系统上建造独立软件供应商。在不同子系统间使用了数个内核内部API。其中一些是跨越多个发行版保持稳定的另一些则不然。对于内核内API不作担保。维护者和贡献者可以在任何时候增加或变更它们。内核内API的例子包括针对下列类别设备驱动程序的软件框架/API：Linux内核开发者选择不维护稳定的内核内ABI。Linux内核提供在特定条件下的抢先式调度。直到内核版本2.4，只有用户进程是抢先式的，就是说除了时间片用尽，在用户模式下执行的当前进程，如果有更高态优先级的进程进入codice_5状态，它就会被中断。自从2.6系列Linux内核，增加了中断执行内核代码的任务的能力，但不是对于内核代码的所有段落。Linux内核含有不同的调度器类。内核缺省使用的调度机制叫做完全公平调度器它介入于内核版本2.6.23。这个缺省调度器类在内部也叫做codice_6而内核还含有两个遵循POSIX的实时调度类分别叫做codice_7二者都优先于缺省类。通过使用实时Linux内核补丁codice_9，可以支持对关键段落、中断处理器和“中断禁用”代码序列的完全抢先。 实时Linux内核补丁部分地集成入主线内核已经带给它一些功能。抢先机制改善延迟、增进响应性，并使得Linux更加适合桌面和实时应用。老版本内核有所谓的，用于锁定粒度为整个内核的同步，它最终由Arnd Bergmann在2011年移除了。还有叫做codice_10的调度策略，实现了算法，它增加于2014年3月30日发行的内核版本3.14。尽管林納斯·托瓦茲的初衷不是使Linux成为一个可移植的操作系统，今天的Linux却是全球被最广泛移植的操作系统内核。從行動電話到超級電腦，甚至於有人成功的將Linux内核在索尼出品的遊戲機PS2及PS3和微軟出品的遊戲機Xbox上使用。Linux也是IBM超级计算机Blue Gene的操作系统。直至2011年11月，全球前五百大超級電腦有高達91.4%的比例採用Linux為它們的作業系統。一些为手机开发的操作系统，使用Linux内核的修改后的版本，其中包括谷歌Android、Firefox OS、HP WebOS和诺基亚Maemo。在Linux中内核错误是指操作系统在监测到内核系统内部无法恢复的错误相对于在用户空间代码类似的错误。操作系统试图读写无效或不允许的内存地址是导致内核错误的一个常见原因。内核错误也有可能在遇到硬件错误或操作系统BUG时发生。在许多情况中操作系统可以在内存访问违例发生时继续运行。然而系统处于不稳定状态时操作系统通常会停止工作以避免造成破坏安全和数据损坏的风险并提供错误的诊断信息。在Linux上oops即Linux内核的行为不正确并产生了一份相关的错误日志。许多类型的oops会导致内核错误即令系统立即停止工作但部分oops也允许继续操作作为与稳定性的妥协。这个概念只代表一个简单的错误。当内核检测到问题时它会打印一个oops信息然后杀死全部相关进程。oops信息可以帮助Linux内核工程师调试检测oops出现的条件并修复导致oops的程序错误。计算机安全是一个非常公众化的主题关系到Linux内核因为大量在内核中的错误可能成为潜在的安全漏洞是否允许提升权限漏洞或拒绝服务攻击源漏洞。在过去的几年中许多这样的缺陷被发现并在Linux内核中被修补好。新的安全功能被继续实现以解决在Linux内核中的电脑不安全问题。批評者指責內核開發人員，稱他們掩蓋（至少並未公佈）安全漏洞。2008年，作為回應，Torvalds稱：「個人認為，安全漏洞只是『正常的漏洞』。這些漏洞我並不去掩蓋，不過我不認為應當把它們特殊化，更不認為應該追蹤並公示它們……我不理會整個安全團隊，原因之一就是，我認為這些漏洞不僅美化還鼓勵了錯誤的行為。這令安全人員成了『英雄』，就猶如不修補正常漏洞的人就不值一提似的。而事實上，所有無聊的正常漏洞極為重要，僅僅因為它們實在太多了。我不認為該美化和關心那些嚴重的安全漏洞——它們並不及那些由死鎖造成的隨機嚴重崩潰來得更特殊。」如2012年五月，SYSRET指令被發現在AMD和英特爾處理器間在實現方面有差異，這個差異在Windows、FreeBSD、XenServer和Solaris這些主流作業系統會導致漏洞。2012年六月，Linux核心中該問題已被修復。2021年來自明尼蘇達大學的研究人員曾藉由貢獻修補程式至Linux核心的名義利用修補程式導入臭蟲或漏洞以觀察Linux核心社群的反應再度故技重施時被發現後封鎖了所有來自該大學的貢獻與移除過去該大學曾經貢獻的程式碼。截止2007年，内核开发已经从20位最活跃开发者写80%的代码转变为顶端30人写30%的代码，而顶端开发者花费更多的时间审核变更。 开发者还可以按从属关系来归类；在2007年，顶端类属是“不知名”而顶端公司是Red Hat，它占有12%的贡献，而知名业余爱好者占3.9%。 在2007年中所做内核变更已经由超过1900位开发者提交。一般假定Linux内核开发者社区由5000或6000名成员组成。Linux基金会发表的2016年Linux内核开发报告的更新表明从版本3.18类属。一个想要对 Linux 内核进行修改的开发者一般就从对那个修改的开发和测试开始着手。接下来的过程取决于变化的重要程度及修改该变更的子系统数量是由单个还是多个修补程序组成。如果仅仅是修改了由单个维护人员维护的单个子系统那么这些修改的补丁代码就直接通过Cc中某个邮件列表发送给相关的维护人员。邮件列表的阅读者和子系统的维护人员将检查补丁代码并提供反馈。一旦审查过程完成维护者接受他内核代码树中的补丁。如果这些更改被认为是够重要的错误修复那么包含这些修补程序的拉取请求将在几天内发送给Linus。否则将在下一个合并窗口时向Linus发送拉取请求。合并窗口通常会持续两周并在之前的内核版本发布后立即启动。Linus Torvalds拥有对Linux内核能够接受哪些更改和谁可以成为维护者的最终决定权。内核维护者在他们自愿放弃之前将维持他们的角色。目前，没有任何已知的内核维护者被要求退出。此外，还没有一个内核维护者因与其他维护者的交互风格的因素而受到Linus批评的例子。这为维护者提供了宽松的社区空间。虽然内核开发社区的文化多年来有所改善，但曾有一段时间它的声誉很糟糕。认为自己遭受了不公正对待的开发者可以向Linux基金会的技术专家委员会报告。尽管如此，一些社区成员仍然不认同现在的讨论氛围。同 Linux 发行版的关系.大多数Linux用户运行一个由他们 Linux 发行版提供的内核。一些发行版搭载的是 Linux 的通用内核而言更新的速度更慢一些但是同样会包括所有相关的稳定版本分支的补丁。此外他们同时也会增添一些新特性和对新硬件的支持而这些支持是这些发行商分支基于的稳定分支所不包括的。按照传统商业软件开发的方式重新开发Linux 2.6.0内核的估计代价将是6.12亿美元。截至2011年1月4日，使用当前的代码行（LOC）和大卫·惠勒的计算工资数，这将花费约30亿美元（约22亿欧元），才能够重新开发Linux的内核。Linux內核版本時間線Linux内核的主要贡献者可见于。Linux内核有三个不同的命名方案。早期版本第一个版本的内核是0.01其次是0.020.030.100.110.12（第一GPL版本)0.950.960.970.980.99及1.0。从0.95版有许多的补丁发布於主要版本版本之间。旧计划（1.0和2.6版之间)，版本的格式為A.B.C，其中A,B,C代表：A大幅度转变的内核，这是很少发生变化，只有当发生重大变化的代码和核心发生才会发生，在历史上曾改变两次的内核：1994年的1.0及1996年的2.0； B是指一些重大修改的内核，内核使用了传统的奇数次要版本号码的软件号码系统发布後，人们认识到，更短的发布周期将是有益的。自那时起，版本的格式為A.B.C.D，其中A,B,C,D代表：A和B是无关緊要的，C是内核的版本，D是安全补丁。自3.0（2011年7月）发布后，版本的格式為3.A.B，其中A,B代表：A是内核的版本，B是安全补丁。而4.0（2015年4月）釋出後，則延續3.A.B的命名格式，只是將主版號變更為4。原先托瓦茲将 Linux 置于一个禁止任何商业行为的条例之下，但0.12版本之后改用 GNU 通用公共许可证第二版。 该协议允许任何人对软件进行修改或发行，包括商业行为，只要其遵守该协议，所有基于Linux的软件也必须以该协议的形式发表，并提供源代码。托瓦茲曾经公开声称将Linux置于GNU通用公共许可证之下是他一生中所做的“最好的决定”。Linux 内核明确地仅发表在 GNU 通用公共许可证（GPL）第二版下，而不向被许可方提供选择的选项（这是常见的 GPL 扩展）。关于如何轻松地改变许可证以使用后来的 GPL 版本（包括第3版）以及这种更改是否合乎需要，存在着相当多的争论。 托瓦茲本人在版本2.4.0的发布中明确指出，他自己的代码仅在版本2下发布。然而，GPL的条款规定，如果没有指定版本，那么可以使用任何版本；并且艾伦·考克斯指出，很少有其他 Linux 贡献者指定了特定版本的 GPL。2006年9月，对29位关键内核程序员的调查显示其中的28位更倾向于使用 GPL 第二版草案。 托瓦茲评论说：“我认为一些外界人士...相信我才是那个古怪不合群的人，因为我这么大张旗鼓地不做 GPLv3 的忠实粉丝。”这些高水平的内核开发者就大众媒体对 GPLv3 的反对发表了评论，其中包括林納斯·托瓦茲本人、葛雷格·克羅哈曼和安德鲁·莫顿。他们提到有关DRM/、专利及“附加限制”的条款，并警告GPLv3对“开源宇宙”的巴尔干化。决定不采用 GPLv3 作为 Linux 内核许可证的托瓦茲在几年后重申了他的批评。許可證爭議的一個重點是Linux使用韌體二進位包以支援某些硬體裝置。理察馬修斯托曼認為這些東西讓Linux某部份成為非自由軟體甚至以此散佈Linux更會破壞GPL因為GPL需要完全可獲取的原始碼。林纳斯·托瓦兹及Linux社群中的領導者，支持較寬鬆的許可證，不支持理察·馬修·斯托曼的立場。社群中的Linux-libre提供完整的自由軟體韌體。載入式核心模組許可證.另一個爭論點就是載入式核心模組是否算是智慧財產權下的衍生創作意即LKM是否也受GPL約束？托瓦茲本人相信LKM僅用一部分這樣的句子。另一方面托瓦茲也說過特別像繪圖卡驅動程式就有非常大的爭議也許到最後得由立法機關給個答案。在2003年3月SCO Group對IBM提告聲稱IBM將一些在SCO智慧財產權許可證保護下的Unix原始碼植入Linux中破壞了SCO給予IBM的原始碼使用許可權。另外SCO也發出一大堆存證函給許多公司警告他們在沒有SCO許可權的情況下使用了Linux此舉可能導致侵犯智慧財產權並且以起訴為手段對個別使用者施壓。SCO也同時對Novell戴姆勒克萊斯勒（DaimlerChrysler在2004年7月被部份駁回）以及AutoZone提出告訴且被Red Hat與其他反對SCO論點的公司反告。2007年8月24日聯邦法院審理SCO對Novell案（SCO v. Novell）法院認定Novell才是Unix商標的合法擁有者而不是SCO。2010年3月20日美国联邦第十巡回上诉法院宣判Novell才是UNIX與UnixWare商標的合法擁有者。此項判決宣布後已進入破產保護程序的SCO公司決定停止繼續提出訴訟。 +林纳斯班奈狄克托瓦兹生於芬兰赫尔辛基市擁有美國國籍Linux内核的最早作者隨後發起了這個开源项目擔任Linux內核的首要架構師與專案協調者是当今世界最著名的电脑程序员黑客之一。他还发起了开源项目Git并为主要的开发者。托瓦兹出生于芬兰赫尔辛基市。父亲尼尔斯托瓦兹是一名活跃的电台记者母親安娜托瓦兹是一名詩人和记者。外祖父是芬兰第一批统计学教授。芬兰统计学会设立Leo Trnqvist Award授予在颁奖之前的两年内杰出的统计学硕士学位完成者。林纳斯托瓦兹在11岁时应其外祖父要求用BASIC语言编写一些统计学方面的小程序这是他编程经历之始。托瓦兹家族属于在芬兰占6%的芬兰瑞典族，其父母都畢業於赫爾辛基大學，在學期間是積極的學運份子。他的名字來自於萊納斯·鮑林（Linus Pauling），一位諾貝爾化學獎得主。1988年，他進入赫尔辛基大学計算機科學系。1989年，他進入芬蘭陸軍新地区旅，服11個月的，軍階為少尉，主要服務於計算機部門，任务是弹道计算。服役期间，购买了安德鲁·斯图尔特·塔能鲍姆所著的教科書及minix原始碼，开始研究作業系統。1990年，他退伍後回到大學，開始接觸Unix。1991年8月25日，在網路上發布了Linux內核的原始碼。1994年3月14日发布了1.0版本。1996年自赫爾辛基大學硕士畢業学位论文是。在拜訪全美達公司之後托瓦兹決定接受他們的聘用並移居美國加州。自1997年2月至2003年6月之間托瓦茲都在全美達公司服務參與該公司晶片的code morph技術研發。在1997年至1999年間主要投入86open計劃。1999年，Red Hat及VA Linux這兩間公司，決定將他們公司的股票期权一部份贈與托瓦茲，以感謝他的貢獻。同年，在這兩間公司的股票在市場公開發行之後，托瓦茲的財產估計為2,000萬美元。2003年，為了專心於Linux內核的發展，從全美達公司辭職，受聘于開源碼發展實驗室，擔任Linux内核的主要維護者。2004年6月托瓦茲全家移居奧勒崗州Dunthorpe接近於開源碼發展實驗室的總部所在地Beaverton。2005年，為了管理Linux內核的原始碼，開發了Git。2007年1月22日，自由標準組織與開源碼發展實驗室合併，成立了Linux基金會。Linux基金會提供薪水及各種協助，以支持托瓦茲繼續投入Linux內核的開發工作。托瓦兹与妻子托芙（Tove曾獲得六次芬蘭空手道冠軍頭銜的前女子空手道選手）於1993年結婚育有三名孩子。2010年托瓦茲宣誓成為美國公民。托瓦兹坚持开放源代码信念并对微软等对手的FUD战略大为不满。例如在一封回应微软资深副总裁克瑞格蒙迪批评开放源代码运动破坏了知识产权的电子邮件中托瓦兹写道林纳斯在网上邮件列表中也以火暴的脾气著称。例如，有一次与人争论Git为何不使用C++开发时与对方用）来称呼OpenBSD团队。2012年6月14日托瓦兹在出席芬兰的阿尔托大学所主办的一次活动时称Nvidia是他所接触过的。2012年4月23日，托瓦兹進入網際網路協會的網路名人堂。2012年4月20日，托瓦兹获得当年的千禧技术奖。该奖被普遍形容为相当于在技术领域的诺贝尔奖。在1997年，在芬兰赫尔辛基大学计算机科学系，托瓦兹接受了他的硕士学位。两年后，他在斯德哥尔摩大学接受名誉博士学位，并在2000年在他的母校获得了同样的荣誉。在2005年8月托瓦兹获得里德学院的獎。时代杂志多次确认了托瓦兹的成就在1996年发现的一颗小行星使用他的名字命名。截至2011年3月，托瓦兹已获得全球35项专利。 +理查德马修斯托曼美国程序员自由软件活动家。他发起自由软件运动倡导软件使用者能够对软件自由进行使用学习共享和修改确保了这些软件被称作自由软件。斯托曼发起了GNU项目并成立了自由软件基金会。他开发了GCCGDBGNU Emacs同时编写了GNU通用公共许可协议。为了创建一个完全由自由软件组成的类Unix计算机操作系统斯托曼在1983年9月推出了GNU项目。借此又发起了自由软件运动。他迄今为止一直是GNU项目的组织者作为主要开发者的他开发了一些被广泛使用的GNU软件其中包括GCCGDBGNU Emacs。在1985年10月他创立了自由软件基金会。斯托曼开创了Copyleft的概念，它使用版权法的原则来保护使用、修改和分发自由软件的权利，并且是描述这些术语的自由软件许可证的主要作者。最为人所称道的是GPL。1989年，他和别人一起创立了。自20世纪90年代中期以来，斯托曼花他大部分时间组织参与宣传自由软件，反对软件专利和数字版权管理的以及他认为剥夺用户自由的其他法律和技术系统运动。这包括最终用户许可协议、保密协议、 产品激活、加密狗、软件复制保护、专有格式、二进制软件包。1953年3月斯托曼出生于美国纽约一个犹太人家庭他的母亲爱丽丝利普曼是一名老师父亲丹尼尔斯托曼是一名印刷机商人斯托曼與父母關係並不親密。早年他就对计算机有很深的兴趣在斯托曼作为一个青少年参加一个夏令营时他阅读了一本IBM7090的手册。从1967年到1969年斯塔曼参加了哥伦比亚大学的高中生周六编程课程。同时他也是洛克菲勒大学生物系的志愿者实验室助理。虽然他对数学和物理学感兴趣但洛克菲勒大学的教授认为他有成为生物学家的希望。他第一次实际的使用电脑是高中年代在IBM纽约科学中心。他在1970年的夏天高中毕业后被雇用在Fortran写一个数值分析程序。他在几周后完成了这项任务，然后他用这个夏天剩余的休息时间在APL上写了一个文本编辑器以及IBM System/360上PL/I编程语言的预处理器。哈佛大学和麻省理工学院.作为哈佛大学1970年秋季的一年级学生斯塔曼以Math 55的表现而闻名他很高兴的回忆到「我一生中第一次觉得我在哈佛找到了一个家。」1971年，斯托曼在哈佛大学第一年快结束的时候，他成为了麻省理工学院人工智能实验室的一名程序员，同时也成为黑客社区的常客，并以他的名字缩写RMS而闻名，1974年斯塔曼从哈佛大学毕业并取得了物理学学士学位。1975年斯托曼考虑过留在哈佛大学但是他却转而决定去麻省理工学院去读研究生。他攻读物理学博士学位一年但随后选择了放弃专注于他在麻省理工学院AI实验室的编程。他开始在麻省理工学院担任杰拉德·杰伊·萨斯曼的研究室助理,在1977年与萨斯曼发表了一篇名为的关于 AI 的论文。这篇论文是对约束补偿问题智能回溯的早期研究。截至2009年，斯托曼和萨斯曼介绍的技术仍然是智能回溯中最通用和最强大的解释。有关的技术也在该论文中被提及。作为MIT计算机科学与人工智能实验室的黑客，斯托曼从事软件项目，如文本編輯器，不兼容的分时系统上的Emacs，还有lisp机器的操作系统项目。在这期间，他成为了实验室电脑限制访问技术的热心评论家，当时这个计划是由国防高级研究计划局资助的。当MIT计算机科学与人工智能实验室安装了一套密码控制系统，斯托曼很快就找到了一个解密密码的方式并发送给用户包含其已解码密码的消息，建议他们使用空字符串作为密码（事实上就是没有密码），这样就可以重新启用用户对系统的匿名访问。当时约有20％的用户遵循他的建议，尽管使用密码的行为最终占上风。对此，多年后斯托曼还一直向别人吹嘘着他当年的成功。2019年，斯特曼離開麻省理工學院。1970到1980年代斯托曼察覺到MIT计算机科学与人工智能实验室中的黑客文化开始式微與實驗室有來往的公司為了商業利益開始限制其他人使用源代码或者停止提供原始碼最終斯托曼開始了 GNU 運動用於創建 Unix 的替代品並在1985年成立了自由软件基金会並發表GNU宣言。 Stallman的麻省理工学院的同事布鲁斯特卡勒（Brewster Kahle）所说这种软件法律特征的转变可以被认为是1976年所引发的后果。1991年芬兰大学生林納斯托瓦茲在GNU通用公共許可證下发布了最初是为自己创作的Linux操作系统内核暂时替代了GNU计划的Hurd内核。至此GNU计划基本完成此操作系统被命名为GNU/Linux（这类操作系统常常被称为Linux。斯托曼坚持认为 Linux 应该被稱作 GNU/Linux因為 GNU 計劃更早出現且在 Linux 作業系統的早期GNU 社群的原始碼在其中起了關鍵的作用例如 GCC 編譯器。斯托曼是一名坚定的自由软件运动倡导者与提倡开放源代码开发模型的人不同斯托曼并不是从软件的-{zh-hans质量 zh-hant品質}-的角度而是从道德的角度来看待自由软件。他认为不自由的軟體是非常不道德的事只有尊重用户自由的程序才是符合其道德标准。对此许多人表示异议并也因此有了自由软件与开源软件之分。而事实上1998年“开源”一词最初从自由软件社区中分化出来仅仅是因为在英文中“自由”一词更好。2019年，由於其在MIT計算機科學與人工智慧實驗室的邮件列表中，在对杰弗里·爱泼斯坦案和馬文·閔斯基的关联的表述中的用词隐含对在馬文·閔斯基面前受害少女受迫表现为自愿且未受馬文·閔斯基虐待，這些言論在網路上引起某些人不滿，斯托曼遂宣佈辞去麻省理工CSAIL的职位以及自由软件基金会主席一职。他的主要觀點是，在不同的國家與地區對於未成年的定義有所不同，在這個地區的法律認為17歲成年，另一個地區則是19歲成年，以這種沒有給出任何理由的數字來判斷一個人的行為是否道德是難以理解的。2021年3月底，理查德·斯托曼宣布回歸自由軟件基金會董事會。截至2016年他获得了十五个荣誉博士及教授称号。 +自由軟件基金會是一個致力於推廣自由軟件的美國民間非營利性組織。它於1985年10月由理查德·斯托曼建立。其主要工作是執行GNU計劃，開發更多的自由軟件。從其建立到1990年代中自由軟件基金會的基金主要被用來僱用編程師來發展自由軟件。從1990年代中開始寫自由軟件的公司和個人繁多，因此自由軟件基金會的僱員和志願者主要在自由軟件運動的法律和結構問題上工作。自由软件基金会列出了一個高優先計畫列表FSF認為這些計畫需要自由軟體社群們的注意這些計畫所開發的項目目前並沒有自由軟體可以用來取代非自由軟體。2002年11月25日自由软件基金会向个人提供自由软件基金会附属会员的可能性。到2005年3月它拥有3400多位附属会员。2003年3月5日它向商业企业提供公司保护计划，到2004年4月它拥有45位公司保护。一般在波士顿总部里有10个雇员工作。2001年在德国成立了作为自由软件基金会在欧洲的代表人。2003年在喀拉拉邦成立了。2005年据传有打算成立的计划。而在臺灣與自由軟體基金會無直接關係的中華民國軟體自由協會於2001年成立又該基金會將自由軟體基金會和GNU的繁體中文業務合併在同一個網站兩者共同推廣自由軟體與開放原始碼的普及。2003年7月的新闻事件：孫中山（），名文，後化名中山樵。廣東香山（今中山市）人。中國偉大的革命先行者。孫幼年聽聞太平天國故事產生反清志趣，决定革命。1894年，孫在檀香山成立興中會。1895年，興中會發動乙未廣州起義。1905年，在日本東京組成中國同盟會，孫被推為總理；確定「驅除韃虜，恢復中華，建立民國，平均地權」，並提出三民主義學說。1911年12月29日，被十七省代表在南京推選為中華民國臨時大總統，1912年1月1日在南京宣佈就職，建立中華民國臨時政府。1919年，將中華革命黨改組為中國國民黨。孫用過大量中文、英文、日文化名與筆名，多是為了擺脫通緝或隱蔽身份而取，部分則在於宣揚革命或是表達人生期望。清政府公文中，皆在其名字。。辛亥革命後，孫與黃興合稱為。孫於1925年3月12日病逝於北京中央公園社稷壇公祭時豫軍總司令樊鍾秀特致送巨型素花橫額（闊丈餘高四五尺）當中大書「國父」二字他的唁電輓幛均稱「國父」這是孫在公開場合被尊稱為「國父」之始。1940年4月1日國民政府通令全國尊稱孫為中華民國國父。1941年5月29日，汪精衛的南京國民政府中央政治委員會第49次會議通過由陳公博提出的。中國共產黨和中華人民共和國政府通常正式稱孫為板块。孫祖先系出金陵其遠祖孫固宋代進士。元末大亂玄孫常德乃遷至廣東南雄珠璣巷不久沿著廣東北部珠江流域之北江南下最後定居於廣東省東莞縣之圓頭山鄉是為來粵之一始祖稱一世祖。二世祖貴華移居同縣瀕珠江東岸之長沙鄉。至明代五世祖禮贊已嫌長沙鄉人多耕地不足無法謀生遂橫渡珠江往西岸香山縣之涌口村定居。到十一世祖瑞英涌口村又患人滿乃於清代乾隆時期西移尋原始土地開墾以謀生到當今翠亨村邊緣之逕仔蓢開基。孫高祖父孫殿朝。溯自常德至廣東孫是為第十八代。祖父孫敬賢依寡母為生篤信堪輿醉心術士風水之說常遊山玩水致家道中落。孫敬賢有三個兒子依序是孫達成。孫的二個叔父早年因貧窮必須遠赴他鄉做工謀生而且在孫出生前後因病去世。1866年11月12日，孫在廣東省廣州府香山縣翠亨村誕生；乳名帝象，上村塾讀書時取名文，成親時取字德明。1869年10月9日，祖母黃氏去世。1871年9月3日妹秋綺生。11月12日童年孫與姐姐妙茜上山打柴無論從金檳榔山山頂或犛頭尖山山腰遙望珠江河口都能看到雲集大批走鴉片煙土之外國商船。1872年孫開始參加農業勞動以上山打柴草到塘邊撈做豬飼料稍長下田除草排水和放牛。同年孫入翠亨村私塾接受國學啟蒙教育。1876年，孫入村塾讀書，課餘仍參加農業勞動；常與同學楊帝賀等到鄰村去，觀看三合會練武。孫眉在檀香山做工匯款回家，家境慢慢好轉，孫得以進入村塾讀書；第一位老師是位癮君子，煙癮發作時就曠課；由於老師煙癮頻頻發作，孫也沒法好好讀書。孫喜聽前太平軍老人講戰鬥故事，仰慕太平天國。1877年，孫繼續讀書，懷疑一味背誦之教學方式；曾問老師：讀這些書一點也不懂，有什麼意思？9月22日，孫眉再度赴檀香山，孫擬隨兄赴檀，未果。1878年春，孫繼續讀書，反對纏足、蓄婢和賭博。吳相湘在。孫修讀英語、英國歷史、算術、等科目。1881年孫繼續在意奧蘭尼學校讀書喜閲喬治華盛頓林肯等傳記希望改造中國。1882年7月27日孫畢業於夏威夷伊奥拉尼書院。孫英文文法考第二名獲夏威夷國王卡拉卡瓦在畢業典禮上親頒一本中國書籍作為獎品出色的英文水平為孫之後的革命活動助力甚多。1883年，火奴魯魯華裔知識分子何寬、李昌等組織中西擴論會。1883年1月15日，孫與其他教會學校子弟進入美國公理會創辦之奧阿厚書院就讀，繼續學習，特別是基礎醫學和法律。6月30日，奧阿厚書院學年結束，孫坐船回到孫眉在離島所開之牧場。7月初，入學不超過三個月，由於孫加入基督教意向不減，又經常勸說在夏威夷工作的華僑工人不要膜拜關聖帝君神像，兄長憂其觸犯眾怒，二怕雙親斥責，遂斷絕資助，將17歲的孫送回翠亨村家鄉。孫在1883年夏天從夏威夷回到中國，當他坐遠洋船從火奴魯魯到香港後，孫即上岸轉坐中國內河返回翠亨村。孫坐輪船到香港轉坐淇澳島之帆船回鄉，抗議清朝官吏向該船乘客勒索。7月底，孫回到翠亨村。孫在家自修、參加農務，開始宣傳社會變革，指責清政府腐敗，着手修路、防盜等。秋，孫即與同村青年陸皓東結成好朋友，並經常共同談論時政之腐敗，直到深夜。8月中，孫與同鄉友人陸皓東一起，破壞翠亨村村中的北帝廟神像，不為鄉人所容，經崖口、淇澳逃離家鄉前往香港。陸皓東與孫是同鄉，在上海接受教育。入香港拔萃書室及轉學中央書院.1883年3月31日，美國綱紀慎會喜嘉理牧師在香港登陸。8月18日，喜嘉理牧師收留孫在其香港中環之傳道所寄宿。秋，孫赴香港入讀英國聖公會主辦的拔萃書室，。喜嘉理牧師與孫情誼真摰，欣賞孫對宗教熱忱，孫追隨他四處宣教。1884年4月15日孫轉學香港中央書院。這是一所中學學生多半是各國中產階級子弟課程以英文為主中文為輔。孫用孫帝象姓名註冊學號二七四六。秋受香港工人反法鬥爭鼓舞孫深感中國人民。得知孫皈依基督後孫眉把他召回夏威夷試圖藉由切斷弟弟所有奧援。11月孫奉孫眉急召赴檀香山交還家產芙蘭諦文為孫籌募盤川。孫在茄荷蕾埠商店當店員。孫在中央書院讀書兩年半期間受洗成為基督徒第一次婚姻與孫眉激烈衝突。1885年4月孫自檀香山經日本回中國。5月芙蘭諦文為孫籌足盤纏自檀香山回到香港復課。8月孫赴香港中央書院復學孫憤恨清政府在中法戰爭中失敗更希望變革現實。幾個月後在基督教友人幫助下得以於1886年返回香港由於孫在夏威夷長待幾個月其中學生涯結束孫並未拿到中央書院畢業文憑。1886年7月孫未畢業就離開中央書院。邵元沖說1885年5月26日孫奉父命回鄉與同縣外壆村（今珠海市外沙村）盧慕貞成親。盧慕貞自幼纏足盡心操持家務照顧公婆和兒女。二人婚後生了一子二女即長子孫科長女孫娫與次女孫婉由於孫終日在外奔波所以和元配聚少離多。孫選擇醫學：「以醫亦救人之術也。」1886年9月，孫持喜嘉理博士介紹信，進入由（美國）長老教會海外基督使團嘉約翰（John Kerr）博士主持之廣州博濟醫院附設醫科學校習醫（即南華醫學校，今中山醫科大學前身），開始鼓吹革命。10月，孫認識英國倫敦傳道會宣教師區鳳墀，區鳯墀為其改名逸仙。課餘，孫經常抒發熱愛中國之情懷和革新政治之抱負；並在同學中結交鄭士良等。孫與基督徒同學鄭士良結為知己；鄭士良是上海富商之子，曾就讀於廣州德國教會學校，結交不少廣東會黨人士。1887年10月1日華人西醫書院教務長孟生醫生在香港大會堂宣佈該院成立。10月3日孫在香港華人西醫書院正式上課第一課是康德黎醫生講授之解剖學。學堂隸屬於倫敦傳道會由聞名香港之菁英代表何啟出資籌辦該校教務長是蘇格蘭名醫康德黎。孫之老師維新人士何啟曾留英學習醫學和法律作第一章可以看到孫在大學時代就潛心研究。1887年冬孫父達成公病篤孫回鄉伺奉湯藥孫眉聞訊亦自檀香山歸兄弟芥蒂盡釋。1888年3月24日，孫父達成公在翠亨村病逝，享年76歲，孫眉對孫加倍愛護備至，凡所需學費，均允源源供給。8月，孫在西醫書院第一學年期終考試中，名列全級第三名。1889年夏，孫在第二學年期終考試中，名列全級第一名。1890年孫以洪秀全自況。同年孫上書鄭藻如主張仿效西方社會改革建議禁煙及改良農業和教育等。孫課餘常往來廣州澳門等言論反清。12月30日孫陪康德黎夫婦往廣州痲瘋村研究痲瘋病。1891年3月27日孫與40多名香港道濟會堂年輕教友組織教友少年會。夏孫在第四學年期終考試中名列全級第一名。孫同鄭觀應商討「改革時政」鄭在《盛世危言》中稱道過「吾邑孫翠溪西醫」。孫又結識招商局職員後來「輔仁文社」社長楊衢雲不斷交流愛國圖強見解。孫課餘曾撰文鼓吹政治改革投稿於香港上海報刊。1892年春，孫設計新居，用孫眉滙款在翠亨興建。7月，孫以首屆成績第一名畢業於西醫書院。孫成績優異，獲得開業執照。9月22日，在恩師康德黎醫生帶領下，與同期畢業之江英華同赴廣州。9月23日，英國駐廣州領事引見兩廣總督李瀚章，李命填寫三代履歷，孫拂袖而去。9月24日，在恩師康德黎醫生帶領下，孫與江英華同方香港。秋，孫在澳門鏡湖醫院當醫師。12月18日，與澳門鏡湖醫院簽訂〈揭本生息贈藥單〉，貸款2,000銀元開設中西藥局。由於醫術高明，態度認真，頗受歡迎，。1893年春，遷設藥局於廣州，改名東西藥局，藉醫術掩護革命。孫對貧苦患者施醫贈藥。因受澳門葡籍醫生排擠，轉赴廣州行醫。孫常與陸皓東、鄭士良、陳少白等議籌組革命團體。7月，孫在澳門議事亭前地十六A號開設。7月29日，其澳門中西藥局開業。孫行醫於澳門、廣州。1894年1月，孫藉廣州城外南關之聖教書樓懸壺、西關之冼基設東西藥局。同月，孫在翠亨村寫就〈〉，主張1894年6月1日，前澳門海防同知魏恆致盛宙懷函，说明孙求见。6月中，棄醫，偕陸皓東至天津上書李鴻章。孫拿魏恆之信，啟程前往上海，並與上海電報局領班生陸皓東結伴同行。6月13日，盛宙懷鑒於魏恆情面而接見孫，並致函其堂兄盛宣懷。在得到盛宙懷推薦信後，孫在上海巧遇鄭觀應，結果鄭觀應也為孫謁見李鴻章之事寫推薦信。王韜有一朋友在李鴻章幕下當文案，王韜就寫信介紹孫到天津，孫就到天津去見文案；軍書旁午，文案把孫大文章送到李鴻章，不知是否見過，後來李鴻章說打仗完以後再見，孫知道沒有辦法，回到上海。孫上書李鴻章，主張仿效西方，發展工農業，改革教育和選拔人才。提出革新政治主張，被拒絕。未被李鴻章接見，僅獲取「農學會籌款護照」。旋遊歷北京、武漢，觀察形勢。7月25日，甲午中日戰爭爆發。李鴻章拒絕與孫面談，請願書後來刊載於在1894年9、10月號之上海《萬國公報》。孫和陸皓東離開天津，在香港短暫逗留後，孫於夏末乘船前往夏威夷。10月，孫自上海經日本赴檀香山，在華僑中宣傳革命。1894年11月24日孫在檀香山成立中國有史以來第一個現代革命團體興中會。提出政綱。1895年1月孫與鄧蔭南等同志返回香港籌謀革命與陸皓東鄭士良陳少白等計議擴大興中會。2月21日糾集孫故交與同窗在香港成立興中會總機關並修訂旋又偕同陸皓東鄭士良等到廣州建立興中會分會積極準備武裝起義。在香港中環士丹頓街13號成立興中會以名號是黃詠商所訂黃父名勝任香港議政局議員與大律師何啟有戚誼何介紹黃與孫相識黃由是入會。同日香港興中會與香港輔仁文社合併仍稱興中會會長一職未決。1892年3月13日香港輔仁文社成立舉楊衢雲為會長謝纘泰為秘書孫在領導權之爭上面臨楊衢雲挑戰楊之抱負和自信與孫旗鼓相當。3月孫與楊衢雲等在香港聚議策劃廣州發難事宜。3月1日孫拜會日本駐香港領事中川恆次郎請其援助起義未果。3月16日首次幹部會議決定先攻取廣州並採用陸皓東設計之青天白日旗為起義軍旗。孫從事革命之秋教會懼其波及宣言把孫驅逐出堂。3月18日致光緒皇帝公開信促請憲政改革。8月下旬孫制定武裝起義方案。新組織「會長」人事案延宕直至10月10日是日孫楊和其各人馬對峙劍拔弩張經過妥協「會長」職位給楊衢雲孫則獲得廣州起義現場指揮權。興中會選舉會長（稱總辦時稱「伯理璽天德」音譯自英文「」）楊衢雲志在必得孫退讓楊當選。孫利用官方許可在10月初設立。10月初香港警方獲線報謂有三合會份子招募壯勇赴廣州。朱貴全偕兄朱某及邱四聲言招募壯勇每名月給糧銀10元。朱貴全之兄招得400苦力自己先行他往壯勇由朱貴全帶領。孫於汕頭及西江沿岸募集兩軍同時向廣州進逼。兩軍期於1895年10月某日一由西南一由東北同時向廣州進發。10月25日朱湘假其弟朱淇之名向緝捕委員李家焯自首革命黨人原定當天從香港乘夜輪去廣州因募勇不足未能成行。是为孫在廣州所發動的第一次武裝起义。起義因泄密而流產後，孫經澳門轉香港逃亡日本。11月，孫斷然改裝偕陳少白等赴日本，旋組織興中會分會於橫濱。孫與陳少白、鄭士良同坐。11月中旬，孫在橫濱建立興中會分會。12月中旬，孫斷髮改裝。孫蟄伏日本，徹底改變外型：剪掉辮子、不再薙髮，脫下中式長袍換穿歐式西服。香港是指揮和策劃中心，又是經費籌集與轉匯中心、軍火購製與轉運中心，海內外革命同志聯絡與招募中心，也是每次起義失敗後革命黨人避難場所。孫動員秘密會黨，並重新利用興中會以及香港的革命根據地。孫把陳少白留在東京，派鄭士良返回香港。12月中旬，孫赴檀香山。1896年1月孫眉安排寡母連同孫妻小四人前往他居住之茂宜島就近照料他們生活。孫與母親長子孫科以及一雙女兒重逢。春孫在檀香山《檀香新報》館內設據點以聯絡同志並組織興中會會員軍事操練和募集經費。3月4日香港政府認為孫在港從事反清活動威脅香港安定和秩序於是簽發驅遂令禁止孫氏5年內踏足香港境內。6月至9月孫從檀香山到美國向華僑宣傳革命在舊金山設立興中會分會。香港政府下令驅逐孫楊衢雲陳少白出境5年內禁止在香港居留。9月下旬孫赴英國。倫敦蒙難完成三民主義體系.孫收到昔日恩師康德黎邀請，於1896年9月30日抵達倫敦。清駐英公使龔照瑗即派英籍參贊馬凱尼向英國政府交涉逮捕、引渡，並僱偵探監視。10月1日早，孫就離開旅社，前往波蘭區覃文省街46號，晤見康氏伉儷。10月11日，孫被滿清駐英國公使龚照瑗誘捕。行動計畫是逮捕孫，將他秘密遣送回國，接受法律制裁。孫得機會說服公使館內一名英國僕人柯尔，将自己比作遭土耳其人迫害的亚美尼亚基督徒，称中国皇帝也要杀中国基督徒，孫給柯爾20英鎊現金，並允諾事後再給他1,000英鎊，从而获得其協助，將便條交給康德黎，上頭寫著：1897年1月至7月，孫居倫敦，經常到大英博物館圖書館讀書，認真觀察英國社會政治、經濟狀況。孫研究並考察歐洲政治。孫民生主義觀念由此形成，三民主義思想體系得具雛形。2月，在倫敦一文，揭露清政府的專制主義苛政，主張對中國根本革命改造。創中西學校、化名中山樵.1897年7月1日孫自倫敦經加拿大8月16日抵達日本橫濱旋創中西學校。日本民黨領袖犬養毅遣宮崎寅藏平山周迎接孫。更因犬養毅之介紹廣交日本朝野賢豪。被納入犬養毅羽翼後孫定居東京由宮崎寅藏平山周為伴身分為宮崎和平山中文教師。8月至9月在同宮崎寅藏談話中孫認為。12月命陳少白成立興中會分會於台北。1897年8月16日，孫從英國取道加拿大到達日本橫濱，橫濱華僑溫炳臣有一名15歲女僕淺田春，曾上小學、中學，又上私立英文學校。快要畢業時，父親突然去世，被迫出來做工，成為溫炳臣小女傭。孫到來後，溫炳臣讓她照顧孫中山。日本當局也讓她隨時報告孫之行止，1901年以患病為由，回到靜岡老家。楊衢雲輾轉往來於東南亞南非後於1898年春天前往東京與孫會合。1898年春孫來往於日本東京長崎神戶馬關等地吸收華僑入興中會。夏孫一度移居橫濱在東京會晤菲律賓起義軍代表積極支持菲律賓人民民族解放鬥爭。秋冬與戊戌變法失敗後亡命日本之梁啟超多次商談聯合反清未獲結果。清對孫招納駐日公使李盛鐸許以駐美公使伍廷芳通過孫眉誘導廣東則由劉學詢勸説。冬孫斷然拒絕清政府各種渠道之誘降。1899年春夏，孫在東京、橫濱和長崎等地聯絡和策動，準備再次在廣東、湖南、湖北地區武裝起義。6月至7月，孫在橫濱同章太炎訂交。7月，孫為菲律賓起義軍購運軍械，租用日輪運抵菲律賓。夏秋間，孫再與梁啟超等在橫濱會談聯合反清，仍無結果。10月11日，興中會、洪門、哥老會首領在香港成立興漢會，公推孫為總會長。為「喚起國民及不為康梁所惑」，孫宣傳反清革命主張與留學生和華僑。秋，孫派陳少白赴香港籌創辦《中國日報》，於翌年1月出版；孫又命鄭士良等在香港設立聯絡會黨之機關，與廣東三合會取得密切聯繫。報紙經費由日本人提供，報紙開辦之初，先是得到何啟大力襄助，爾後香港富商之子李紀堂做靠山。11月，合興中會、三合會、哥老會為興漢會。冬，孫繪制《支那現勢地圖》付印，圖中對「已割之岩疆，已分之鐵路」均以「着色表明」，以便「覽者觸目驚心」。據《英國殖民地部檔案》編號129卷339，香港總督梅含理曾於1913年給英國殖民地大臣報告，提及香港立法局議員何啟和韋玉曾協助革命黨人：「無可爭辯的證據顯示，遠在革命爆發之前，這兩位先生都已得到革命黨人的信任。革命黨的會議經常在韋玉先生家裡舉行……在革命前的好幾個月，他聽任自己的住宅被用為密謀反對清廷的會議場所，而且參與了密謀者的機密……在革命前好幾個月內，何啟亦參與革命黨人的機密，實際上充當他們的顧問，指導他們的活動程度，以免違反香港法律條文的規定。」孫一面重啟香港之革命根據地一面聯絡並擴大秘密會黨之人脈。孫將網絡拓展工作部分託付給日籍顧問和同志部分託付給湖南改革派畢永年。陳少白邀請廣東三合會一位大老黃福赴香港他在陳少白接受「白扇」頭銜之儀式中擔任主持。1899年11月李鴻章接任兩廣總督想北京混亂失序之際另起一個獨立政府。1900年1月，孫為菲律賓起義軍購妥第二批軍械。在義和團運動浪潮下，英國竭力保全既得利益，主導活動。孫計畫兩廣獨立，以孫就讀醫學校時老師、香港總督卜力為中心，加上廣東富商劉學詢及兩廣總督李鴻章。6月，孫先後過香港之信。1900年7月，孫偕宮崎寅藏等離開香港赴日本，尋求起義後援；8月下旬，孫從日本秘密赴上海，旋返日本。9月，孫由日本抵達台灣，在台北建立起義指揮中心。孫會見台灣總督兒玉源太郎，謀求武器援助。1901年1月下旬孫在橫濱為清政府刺殺之楊衢雲開追悼會春孫贊助留日廣東籍學生鄭貫一馮自由等組織廣東獨立協會6月秦力山等在東京創辦月刊為中國留學生革命報刊先聲孫捐助出版費1000元。1902年宮崎滔天出版孫自傳1903年中文譯本問世。孫在日本和章太炎談論時又曾涉及革命發難以及成功後建都地點孫以為。1903年春孫化名杜嘉偌在越南暹羅等地活動革命。夏孫與15歲的大月薰訂立婚約並應孫要求轉到公立英和女子學校讀書。7月下旬孫返抵橫濱。7月兩人舉行婚禮1905年8月大月熏懷上孫孩子。8月為訓練遭日本軍事機構排除之中國學生孫在日本青山練兵場附近創辦革命軍事學校。被吸收約15名粵籍學員青山軍事學校運作不超過4個月。入學誓詞為1903年9月孫會見留日學生廖仲愷何香凝和馬君武等暢論革命救國道理和方法並希望他們在留學生中物色志士「結為團體以任國事」孫撰《支那保全分割合論》一文刊於東京出版《江蘇》雜誌批判日本政客稱「保全」清朝政府和「分割」中國領土的謬論強調「支那民族有統一之形無分割之勢」。9月26日為「掃除保皇邪説」和「規復革命組織」離開日本赴檀香山。在希爐宣傳鼓動駁斥保皇派反動謬論重建革命組織命名為「中華革命軍」。為求工作方便孫揚棄先前立場加入三合會。12月孫由希爐返火奴魯魯多次演説抨擊保皇派孫又改組《檀香新報》為革命宣傳陣地親撰《敬告同鄉書》等文揭露保皇派「假革命」「真保皇」。1904年1月11日孫決定在檀香山加入洪門致公堂。孫並接受。3月31日孫帶著地方堂口給三藩市三合會之介紹信啟程前往美國。1904年4月6日，孫從檀香山抵達舊金山，為阻止孫入境，保皇黨已聞訊而促請清朝駐該市總領事轉告美國海關：指控孫所持乃假護照。同日，孫上岸後，被美國官員扣留並審問，他寫下原件现藏于位于加州舊金山的美国国家档案局，目前仅广州孙中山大元帅府纪念馆有复制件，中稱：自己于1870年出生在。在美国政府的帮助下，孫以宣誓方式取得夏威夷出生紙。1904年4月孫被拘留在碼頭木屋等候原船下一次到達舊金山時撥回檀島孫忽睹被禁鄉人中所閱與保皇派論戰。1904年5月至9月，孫為美洲致公堂重訂章程要義，注入民主革命的精神；稍後孫偕洪門首領黃三德赴美國各地，對會眾宣傳革命，實行注冊。6月，孫動身巡迴全美十多個城市。9月底，孫抵達紐約。10月，孫在紐約報刊上發表《中國問題之真解決》，稱清帝國如「一座即將倒塌的房屋」，「全國革命的時機現已成熟」。不過，當時在香港有《中國日報》，在夏威夷有《檀山新報》，在舊金山有《大同日報》，最後在新加坡有《圖南日報》。12月，孫抵布魯塞爾，同中國留比學生就革命方略等問題反覆討論，並建立革團體；孫旋赴倫敦。1905年2月孫抵達巴黎。春孫在倫敦會晤嚴復堅持民主革命的道路反對改革中國應從教育着手。春至夏孫自英國赴德國法國在留學生中宣傳革命並於柏林巴黎組織革命團體孫到布魯塞爾訪問第二國際書記處闡明革命主張對社會主義誠摯同情稱今後將「採用歐洲的生產方式使用機器但要避免其種種弊端」。孫反覆對革命黨人稱：1905年7月，孫自法國抵達日本。7月19日，孫抵日本橫濱，當即由宮崎寅藏和楊度等人介紹認識了黃興，並開始籌劃聯合各革命組織。孫同黃興、宋教仁等會晤，建議聯合起來，共同戰鬥，黃興贊同。1905年7月30日孫邀約各省留學生及華僑70餘人有來自興中會華興會光復會科學補習所在東京召開中國同盟會籌備會議討論建立統一革命組織。孫在日本極端民族主義之黑龍會總部舉行大型會議會中決議奉孫為領導。會議決定組建中國同盟會。1905年8月13日孫出席東京留學生舉行之歡迎大會並作長篇演説號召摒棄保皇派反對革命之説以革命推翻滿清建立民主共和國。孫演說會場是東京富士見樓會場能容納千人。大會由宋教仁主持有逾700名學生雲集在大廳內還有許多學生不得其門而入簇擁在門外聆聽孫首度在東京公開發表演說。屆時爆滿後來者猶絡繹不絕門外擁擠不通警吏令封門諸人在外不得入甚為喧嘩又開門聽其進場。1905年9月，孫委馮自由、李自重赴香港、澳門和廣州聯絡同志，接受會員；10月，孫赴越南籌募經費，在西貢建立中國同盟會分會；12月，孫建立廣東募債總局，向南洋僑商募集革命經費。1906年2月，孫自西貢抵達新加坡，建立同盟會分會。4月，孫出席同盟會在新加坡成立分會。3月至6月，孫先赴歐洲，旋經南洋到日本，再到南洋。孫曾往馬賽、巴黎。7月至9月，孫自吉隆坡抵達芙蓉，與當地華僑座談，揭露清政府假立憲；旋赴檳榔嶼建立中國同盟會分會，後又至新加坡、西貢、日本。秋至冬，孫與黃興、章太炎等制定周年慶祝大會，系統闡述三民主義思想，主張制定憲法；孫分派中國同盟會會員前往江蘇省、安徽省、湖南省、廣東省、江西省等，策應萍瀏醴起義。1907年1月孫在東京會晤宋教仁胡漢民等商討如何對待梁啟超提出之休戰——《民報》與《新民叢報》「不互相攻擊」反「可以許其調和」決心繼續論戰。2月要做為同盟會象徵旗幟設計孫滿意青天白日旗黃興則想要有中國古風象徵平均地權政策之「井」字旗。孫與黃爭執孫稱「僕在南洋托命于是旗者數萬人欲毁之先擯僕可也。」一個月後日本當局受滿清政府施壓決定驅逐孫離境。為表達善意日方除發布驅逐令之外還以外交辭令表達歉意並饋贈孫大筆款項。3月孫從日本抵達越南在河內設置領導廣東廣西雲南地區武裝起義總機關孫又在河內海防南圻建立中國同盟會分會並向旅越華僑募集起義經費。孫謊報金額章太炎與宋教仁譴責認為孫被日本政府收買章撤掉掛在《民報》社的孫照片要求孫辭去中國同盟會總理一職。4月孫派胡漢民赴香港策應潮惠欽廉起義。5月孫派黃興胡毅生分赴郭人漳趙聲部爭取新軍反正。5月下旬至6月上旬潮州黃岡起義和惠州七女湖之役不久失敗。9月1日孫命王和順於欽州王光山起義防城起義爆發因補給困難退入十萬大山失敗。9月至10月孫派中國同盟會會員赴海防西貢新加坡暹羅檳榔嶼吉隆坡等地籌集革命經費。10月孫私自委託宮崎滔天在東京幫他做財務處理洽商購買軍火形式上把同盟會其他領袖排除在軍事機密外。12月2日廣西鎮南關之役孫偕黃興等親赴陣地參戰。1908年3月，孫離開河內，經西貢赴新加坡籌款。3月27日，孫指示黃興在欽州馬篤山再次發難，個多月終因彈盡失敗。4月，孫派人赴仰光建立中國同盟會分會，年底分會遍及緬甸各埠。4月30日雲南河口之役，孫電令黃興督師，堅持20餘天。7月，為池亨吉遭日本發出禁令。10月至11月，孫偕胡漢民等巡視南洋各埠。陶成章在1912年被陳其美命令部下蔣介石暗殺。第十次起義：黃花崗起義.1911年1月孫委黃興籌備廣州起義統籌部下設8課。4月8日溫生才暗殺廣州副都統孚琦。4月27日趙聲黃興等人領導廣州黃花崗起義。由於會黨組織形式落後，特別是成員缺乏革命意識和組織紀律，所以常辛亥革命發生之際孫正在美國進行演說募款之旅美國時間10月9日下榻猶他州小鎮奧格登的Hotel Marion。10月10日下榻丹佛（或譯典華）的布朗皇宮飯店(Brown Palace Hotel)該飯店並存有孫當時的入住記錄。起義後幾週之間，革命席捲華中、華南，各省紛紛宣布脫離中央。自武昌起義後，袁世凱被迫回籍養病，清廷命陸軍大臣蔭昌率軍南下平亂，但其所率之軍多為袁世凱所訓練，不受節制，清廷至此不得已再起用袁為內閣總理大臣，節制諸軍。孫10月20日抵達倫敦，先與康德黎夫婦敍舊。11月11日，孫抵倫敦，就武昌起義成功接受採訪，至11月20日離開。據統計，自1894年到1911年之間發動革命起義事件，計有29次之多。1909年1月，孫在南洋各埠籌款。5月至10月，由於活動困難，孫赴歐洲，到法國、比利時和英國宣傳籌款。5月，孫自新加坡赴馬賽轉巴黎，在巴黎住了一個多月。7月，孫抵布魯塞爾，馬君武前往迎接。8月，孫自布魯塞爾抵達英國倫敦。10月，香港成立同盟會南方支部，孫着手籌劃廣州起義。10月下旬，孫致函同盟會會員王子匡等，解釋陶成章、章太炎之攻擊，指其危及為由，取締孫之美籍身份。1910年1月至2月孫由紐約經芝加哥抵達舊金山建立10多個同盟會分會。3月孫建立11月中下旬孫派趙聲往香港聯絡廣州新軍12月孫再赴歐美籌款。1911年1月至2月孫經歐洲到美洲在紐約舊金山和溫哥華等地籌款。2月孫在加拿大溫哥華設立「洪門籌餉局」為革命籌款。3月中旬孫往美國東部沿途在加拿大籌款。5月3日孫在美國芝加哥召集會議商討起義善後及再圖大舉等問題。6月孫在舊金山聯合美洲同盟會和致公堂。7月孫到美國委陌林埠。武昌起義時孫中山人在美國進行募款活動而不在中國。10月12日孫決定「先從外交方面致力俟此問題解決而後回國」。10月20日孫經聖路易芝加哥抵達紐約擬由黃興統率湖北革命軍由胡漢民朱執信等策劃廣東反正又向美國朝野介紹中國革命宗旨希望得到同情支持。10月下旬孫抵達倫敦經美國人咸馬里介紹與英法德美四國銀行團主任會談商討停止借款清政府及貸款給革命政府不獲結果。11月10日在國外得悉「武昌已經為革命軍佔領」消息後孫抵倫敦開展外交活動。孫在倫敦草擬《告世界書》。11月中旬孫抵達巴黎會見法國總理克里孟梭外交部長畢恭和議員。11月23日孫會晤東方滙理銀行總裁西蒙（Stabislas Simon）。11月下旬孫由法國乘船回中國行前電集會上海討論中央政府組成之各省代表稱「但求早鞏固國基」可推舉黎元洪或袁世凱任總統「此後社會當以工商實業為競點」。1911年袁世凱率領大軍入北京組閣並迫載澧退歸藩邸繼又迫載濤交出禁衛軍清室軍政大權盡握袁手中袁立命馮國璋全力攻漢陽。12月14日，各省諮議局代表雲集南京，共計44人，分別代表17個省分。12月21日，孫過香港，晤胡漢民、廖仲愷，拒絕留在廣東，堅持赴上海、南京，因之流言。1912年1月1日，孫由上海抵達南京，晚上10時，在南京總統府舉行中華民國臨時大總統就職典禮。孫宣誓就任。南京臨時政府定用陽曆，及用五色旗為國旗。1912年1月2日，孫通電各省改用陽曆，並以1月1日為民國建元之始。1月3日，孫公布各部總長、次長名單組閣，各省代表會改組臨時參議院。1月4日，孫電令廣東代理都督陳炯明出兵北伐：「和議無論如何，北伐斷不可廢」。1月7日，孫《告友邦書》，稱民國承認「革命軍興」前清與各國之條約、借貸和權利。孫不願延長內戰，雙方遂派代表在上海議和，孫提出：一、清帝退位；二、袁絕對贊同共和；三、孫自清帝退位後辭職；四、由參議院選舉袁為臨時大總統；五、袁被選後，當宣誓遵守《臨時約法》，袁必「誓守參議院所定之憲法，乃能接受事權」，袁乃嗾使段祺瑞等電清廷實行共和。1月22日，孫電伍廷芳，令將議和辦法轉告袁。孫最終依然選擇妥協。曾訪問過孫之記者提到也非立憲派上書請願造成而是革命民主派反清武裝鬥爭所致。2月12日清廷下詔宣統帝遜位詔書文本由南京方面草擬再傳給袁世凱。2月13日孫向臨時參議院辭任臨時大總統並薦袁代任臨時參議院即按議和條件舉袁為第二任臨時大總統。2月15日孫祭明孝陵時向文武官員講話。1912年孫強調必須在以唐紹儀為國務總理並設國務會議以行使職權但袁不能容唐被迫辭職以陸徵祥代之。3月29日孫出席臨時政府各部總次長衛戌總督各軍師旅司令官舉行餞別宴會。1914年5月臨時約法遭罷廢新法除去所有行政權約束並無限期延長總統任期。孫未能堅持和發展革命綱領反而一度認為民族主義民權主義。1912年8月宋教仁以同盟會為基礎聯合統一共和黨國民共進會及國民公黨改組成國民黨推舉孫任理事長黃興宋教仁等為理事實際黨務由宋教仁主持。孫擔任總理黃興為協理。袁邀請南方領袖到北京與他會晤孫於8月24日抵達首都。孫居留北京月餘與袁談話13次。8月25日國民黨在北京成立大會舉孫為理事長宋教仁代理孫演説。9月3日孫在五族共和合進會與西北協進會講的意義。9月25日孫袁達成共識公布一則聯合聲明提出建立中央集權之政府去軍事化開放外國資本促成政黨和解穩定政局。1912年9月10日袁「特授孫文以籌劃全國鐵路全權將擬築之路先與各國商人商議借款招股事宜」。袁任命孫為鐵路督辦每月可支領經費3萬元。孫由自己出任中國鐵路總公司總理設總部於上海希望透過開放外資盡快完成建設中國鐵路自認為有相當詳細之規劃。同月孫視察北寧津浦北段和膠濟鐵路及陽泉煤鐵礦多次談話修建鐵路。10月孫委托王寵惠與英商簽定廣州至重慶及蘭州的鐵路線袁橫加阻撓不予批准。10月10日孫為英文《大陸報》撰文「實業主義之行於吾國必矣」。10月14日孫宣告中國鐵路總公司已在上海成立孫在中國社會黨本部演説3天評論社會主義學説及派別理解和同情社會主義。12月上旬孫通電呼籲政府和國民反對沙俄強迫外蒙簽訂《俄蒙協約》和《商務專條》。1913年2月11日，孫赴日本考察，藉以籌措外資興建鐵路。2月13日抵達日本後，孫受到熱情接待。2月中旬至3月下旬，孫訪問長崎、門司、下關、神戶、東京等，參觀工廠和學校，闡明中日。2月至6月，袁提供巨額，誘使國民黨員另組政團，有國事維持會、政友會、超然議員社等從國民黨分裂出來。3月4日晚，孫在東京設宴答謝日本各界人士，牧野外相等內閣閣員應邀出席。3月11日，孫與宋嘉樹、戴季陶等參觀大阪社。3月14日，孫與戴季陶、馬君武、宋嘉樹、何天炯等出席神戶國民黨交通部正支部長吳錦堂在寓所所設午餐會。3月20日，宋教仁在上海滬寧車站遇刺，兩天後重傷不治。3月22日，孫在長崎獲悉宋教仁在上海被刺消息。從查獲之宋案兇手與北京來往電文中，有認為主使行刺宋教仁的人是袁，而直接布置暗殺的是國務總理趙秉鈞。也有認為凶手是陳其美，還有認為孫的嫌疑最重，以宋教仁被暗殺和善後大借款為藉口。1913年3月23日，孫參觀長崎三菱造船所後，下午即乘船返國。孫自從3月25日返回上海後，便極力主張公開與北京政府決裂，並以武力對抗袁世凱。3月27日，孫在黃興寓所商討對策時，主張。1914年1月孫派陳其美赴大連聯絡中國東北。孫與盧慕貞分居多年協議離婚。1915年10月25日孫與宋慶齡在日本東京結婚。宋慶齡作為孫戰友助手和學生稱袁在二次革命失敗後，乃組織，向四川、貴州、廣西三路出兵。12月25日，雲南護國軍訴請其他各省響應討袁。1916年3月22日袁被迫取消帝制。袁部屬如段祺瑞馮國璋陳宦湯薌銘陳樹藩等相繼反袁。4月9日孫宋慶齡等在日本友人田中昂寓所舉行小型聲討袁集會。4月27日孫為討袁大計離日返國。5月孫函黃興稱。7月17日孫在上海張園舉行茶話會與各界人士研討袁死後之形勢和建設方針。10月31日黃興逝世。11月24日孫與前來吊唁之友人在上海哈同花園。總統府內務總長孫洪伊為黎元洪信任國務院秘書長徐樹錚則為段祺瑞之門人二人各為其主遇事衝突造成府院之爭。1917年5月11日段派出功臣自命。段違反臨時約法，通過對德宣戰案，舉借日債，企圖擴張勢力；孫以段違背憲法，乃自上海赴廣東，倡導護法，各省亦多響應。1917年7月6日，孫等南下掀起護法運動。同日，孫在取得海軍支持後，由上海乘艦南上，朱執信、廖仲愷、章太炎、何香凝等同行。7月10日，孫抵達汕頭，在歡迎會上稱。孫號召國會議員南下，召開國會非常會議，展開護法運動，誓師北伐。由於南方軍閥本無誠意護法，故不久即醞釀議和。1918年5月，軍政府改組，實權掌握在軍閥手中。軍政府以七總裁取代大元帥，領導南方與西南各省。國會非常會議通過後，孫即向國會辭去大元帥職。6月1日，孫由汕頭經台北前赴日本。1917年5月下旬，孫離開廣州，第一次護法運動告終。孫抵達上海後，與先到之宋慶齡住進華僑捐贈之莫利哀路29號寓所。孫集中精力從著述，力求革命運動的成敗，主要取決於鬥爭雙方的力量對比；次殖民地的大清帝國不利民主革命運動，帝國主義和地方傳統勢力較強，革命民主派及其物質力量較弱。當時中國資產階級「異常軟弱」，缺乏18世紀法國資產階級的力量和性格。孫統一戰線之工具性概念成形，是毛澤東審慎務實主義之前兆；毛澤東曾痛批教條「比大便更不如」，只肯保留馬列主義有用之部分。1919年8月7日，孫致電廣州非常國會，正式辭去政務總裁職。10月10日，孫改組中華革命黨，擴大吸收黨員，成立中國國民黨。所以加上兩字，以與1912年之國民黨區分。總部有總務部、黨務部、財政部，孫以居正、謝持、廖仲愷為主任。1920年6月29日，孫致函日本陸相田中義一，譴責日本侵華政策，指日本政府。1921年1月1日孫在南京臨時政府成立紀念會上稱「廣州此時實有建立正式政府之必要」陳炯明等不贊成但孫之主張得到多數支持。年初舊國會在廣州重開因不足法定人數故稱國會非常會議推舉孫為中華民國政府非常大總統。孫設法號召舊國會225名議員於4月7日在廣州集會推選總統。4月國會通過《中華民國政府組織大綱》。4月29日廣州政府外交部長接受《北華捷報》專訪即明白表示「任何人要和我方達成協議必須同意由他（孫）擔任臨時大總統以待召開國會正常選舉。我們沒有其他條件。」5月5日孫宣佈就職轄區僅有廣東實權在陳之手。民國政府成立。第二次護法運動開始。7月24日孫與宋慶齡在廣州出席「出征軍人慰勞會」。7月孫下令討伐廣西兩個月克南寧桂林龍州。10月廣州非常國會批准孫北伐計劃。10月中旬孫巡廣西3萬人準備北伐組織大本營。1922年2月孫下動員令各軍出師北伐。4月18日孫派廖忡愷晤陳勸其晤商北伐陳拒不前往電辭本兼各職。4月21日孫下令免陳廣東省長內務部長兼粵軍總司令職專任陸軍部長晚陳退惠州。5月直奉戰爭奉系遭直系擊敗。5月6日孫赴韶關督師旋大本營總攻擊令北伐軍三路進江西。6月2日徐世昌在壓力下退讓宣布辭職。在粤國會議員紛紛北上。孫就任非常大總統積極策劃北伐陳志在割據多方阻撓。陳主張聯省自治與直系軍閥勾結。6月1日孫返回廣州。6月16日葉舉炮打孫寓所。陳兵變宋慶齡不願與孫同行認為陳發動六一六事变突然炮擊總統府孫只有警衛部隊500人配輕武器陳部約3萬人備重炮。由於炮火密集士兵衛士多人倒斃經其他人苦勸孫才回到艦艇艙内。英國只肯派一艘炮艇供孫調遣孫因而得以在8月9日離開珠江安抵香港再轉往上海。8月離開廣州往上海。9月至12月孫在上海寓所3次召集在上海各省中國國民黨負責人廖仲愷汪精衛胡漢民張繼楊庶堪討論改組中國國民黨問題。孫和吳佩孚談判盼望能回到北京孫同時與張作霖秘密交涉從張作霖得到若干經費。1920年秋孫常在上海寓所接見共產國際東方部代表维经斯基孙说列宁本来是想要他当共产党的创始人因为陈独秀在民众中没有多大的影响而他在过去和现在都有很大影响。第二次護法運動失敗後因沒有西方及日本金援支持拒絕原因是不看好孫政治資本孫開始考慮與蘇聯支持的中國共產黨合作之可能。1922年8月蘇聯政府秘密通過馬林聯繫孫馬林和李大釗多次會晤孫討論振興中國國民黨。1923年1月17日至1月26日蘇聯政府全權代表越飛到上海與孫會談到月底發表標誌確立孫政策主要內容有孫以為共產組織甚至蘇維埃制度事實均不能引用於中國因中國並無使此項共產制度或蘇維埃制度可以成功之情況也此項見解越飛完全同感且以為中國最要最急之問題乃在民國的統一之成功與完全國家的獨立之獲得。1月26日孫通電各大軍閥重申其自願裁軍之計劃另外再提議委請列強出任第三方代表團代表團負責監督裁軍也負責籌募運作用於國家經濟及政治改造之國際基金。對於中國共產黨黨員，孫願意容納於中國國民黨內，一來是為了爭取蘇聯援助，二來是為集中力量，壯大國民革命聲勢。孫曾对马林说：“像陈独秀那样在他的周报上批评国民党的事再也不许发生。如果他的批評裡有支持一个比国民党更好的第三党的语气，我一定开除他”、“如果我能够自由地把共产党人开除出国民党，我就可以不接受财政援助”。1924年1月20日至1月30日，中國國民黨第一次全國代表大會在廣州召開。孫召開全代會，在1月20日上午之開幕演說上，他強調必須改組黨，目標將黨變成革命、建國工具。甚至孫科因為發表反蘇反共言論，不支持改组，被孫親自從第一屆國民黨中央委員會名單中劃掉名字。大會主席團由胡漢民、汪精衛、李大釗等5人組成，蘇聯顧問鮑羅廷也出席大會；大會確立聯俄、容共扶助農工三大政策，並決議中國共產黨黨員可以個人身份加入中國國民黨，但須服膺三民主義及遵守黨綱黨紀；與會代表百多人，包括20多名中國共產黨黨員。大會後鮑羅廷離開廣州好幾個月。1月27日到4月26日，孫講民族主義六講、民權主義六講；8月3日起講民生主義四講。8月3日，孫在廣州大學演講民生主義時批評馬克思主義，駁斥馬克思主義之剩餘價值說，也摒棄階級鬥爭之重要角色。同年秋，農民協會和地方民團衝突，變成激戰。8月23日，中執會通過決議，承認中國共產黨員在中國國民黨內之特別責任，解除張繼、謝持控訴他們派系活動之罪名。孫認為共產主義與民生主義毫無衝突，民生主義已包括共產主義在內。1925年2月，鮑羅廷決定派廣州政府軍增援農民協會對抗地方民團。1922年底孫策動駐廣西之滇軍桂軍及駐西江之部分粵軍趕走陳炯明奪回廣州。1923年1月16日擁護孫的滇軍楊希閔部桂军劉震寰部和倒戈粤軍合组西路討賊軍擊敗陳部陳退守東江。2月21日孫抵廣州重建大元帥府稱。3月2日孫以大元帥名義特任楊庶堪為大本營秘書長朱培德為大本營參軍長兼大本營護軍司令。當時陳佔據東江一帶及潮州汕頭等地與孫成相持之局。4月20日孫督師北伐討賊與參謀長蔣介石從廣州火車北上。8月14日為紀念廣州蒙難一週年孫與宋慶齡同該艦官兵重登永豐艦。11月19日孫親自指揮各軍抵禦四路反撲之陳部守衛廣州。1924年1月1日孫與宋慶齡在廣州大元帥府舉行慶祝中華民國成立12週年暨授勳典禮。孫在鮑羅廷和黨內領導人陪同下於6月16日主持開學典禮。6月黃埔軍校正式開學第一期有學員600多人孫兼任軍校總理任命蔣為校長廖仲愷為黨代表蘇聯派出多名軍官作顧問並安排中國共產黨黨員入軍校就讀或任教。軍校參照蘇聯紅軍制度實行之方針學生學習軍事及革命理論以提高政治覺悟。1924年8月3日孫在廣州大學演講民生主義時批評馬克思主義駁斥馬克思主義之剩餘價值說也摒棄階級鬥爭之重要角色和鮑羅廷對話後一星期孫再次演講民生主義推翻先前批評再次主張民生主義即是社會主義。1924年9月3日，江浙戰爭爆發。孫試圖重新發動北伐，成為統一戰線之絆腳石、革命動員一致行動之異聲。9月4日，孫召開北伐籌備會議，以胡漢民為代帥兼廣東省長。9月12日，孫移大本營至韶關，親自督師。9月17日，第二次直奉戰爭爆發，孫因與皖系、奉系訂立反直聯盟，所以決定討直。同日，廖仲愷辭去軍需總監、財政部長和財政廳長。中國國民黨內部出現批評、抗議，孫科辭去廣州市長，廖仲愷放棄廣東省省長，蔣介石也拒絕讓黃埔師生參加北伐，只派一連兵到韶關保衛孫。9月20日，韶關舉行北伐誓師典禮，分兩路進軍湖南、江西。同日，政府取消陳廉伯等通緝令。同日，孫手諭蔣成立革命委員會。10月10日，廣州商會會長、商團團長、英資滙豐銀行廣州分行買辦陈廉伯，發動商團事變。10月9日，革命委員會成立。10月11日，孫電飭胡漢民。10月15日，警衛軍擊潰商團。1924年10月下旬直系第三軍軍長馮玉祥率軍自長城前線回師佔領北京軟禁總統曹錕馮部和胡景翼孫岳部組成國民軍。10月23日馮發動北京政變。10月30日孫因而捨棄在韶關建立之總部返回廣州。馮張作霖段祺瑞分別致電孫請他北上共商國是。11月3日孫〈在黃埔軍官學校的告別演說〉批評黃埔軍校學生抗議者缺乏紀律。1925年1月孫堅持速開國民會議以解決國是段卻主張召開善後會議。1925年2月，善後會議在北京召開，國共兩黨均激烈反對，4月善後會議結束，一無所成。在內憂外患中，孫扶病入京，苦無成果，終於病情惡化。宋子文向孫請示，另外留下一份。3月11日，孫在遺囑上簽名。孫呼吸愈來愈困難，精神疲倦，在重複說著：；醫生因病人説話太多，就請孫入睡。3月12日9時30分，孫心臟停止跳動，呼吸停止，在北京逝世。在哲學上提出的保守思想。1917年2月21日，孫寫成之三；書中述及會議細則，。1919年首次發表兩年後由上海民智書局出版英文版和中文版單行本孫在本書中繪制一幅中國近代化的藍圖修築十萬英里鐵路百萬英里公路整治長江黃河珠江等開鑿運河建設三個世界大港四個二等港九個三等港和十五個漁業港開發煤鐵石油建鋼鐵水泥機床造船等工廠及食品紡織建築等企業改良農業營造森林和移民墾邊……孫非常理解經濟社會發展工業化實業化意義重大主張與強調引進近代西方產業。孫兼具革命家與建設者之身份和職能不愧為近代化前驅由於未能真正長期主政全國所以計劃無法實現。論文〈中國法制改革〉〈中國之鐵路計畫與民生主義〉。馮自由記載孫喜歡下象棋但棋藝不精孫認為項羽失敗最簡單原因就是項羽專靠武力劉邦入關之後便約法三章事事總是寬宏大量以得民心為主。1892年7月，孫畢業於香港西醫書院，並且在學成績滿分，第一名畢業，由教務長康德黎博士頒發畢業證書。當時有十三位學生入學，但到畢業時僅有兩位學生成績合格能夠畢業，孫氏及江英華。香港西醫書院在當時尚是草創，仍未能獲得香港當局的承認，無法取得香港的行醫執照。香港西醫書院成立初期，畢業生只能以華人醫生資格在港行醫；並無法例上醫生資格。在當時的遠東地區仍屬比較有開拓性的醫學院，孫畢業時，北洋大臣李鴻章曾有意將其延攬到其欲創辦的北洋西醫書院。1907年孙中山于新加坡马来西亚群岛来回奔忙舍不得坐头等舱觉得二等舱已够了。同志劝他对自己好一点以便为革命养精蓄锐。每每听到善意的建议孙中山就说二等舱有两个好处一是节省费用二是可不必像坐头等舱的绅士们那样吃得华贵穿得笔挺可以较为随便一些。1909-1910年，孙到美国宣传革命并筹集捐款，当时有侨胞在旅馆给他租了一间房，但他不肯去住，而住在侨胞洗衣作坊的一间小屋里。他对侨胞们说：。武昌起义成功后，孙急于归国，所需路费450美金，他却掏不出来，还是司徒美堂等5人拼凑够的。孫出任臨時大總統期間一位老人專程從揚州來到南京想见大總統的風采却在傳達室被阻。孫聞知後请護衛隊長把老人扶進總統府。老人见孙正要行三拜九叩之禮孫急忙將老人扶起告訴他說完話他把名片拿出來。那個士兵方知此人就是孫大總統急得不知所措。孫向他點點頭微笑著進去了。1912年4月1日孙为避免内战促成南北统一辞去中华民国临时大总统让位给袁世凯。4月20日孙乘船赴闽巡察。船至闽江马尾江上大小船只闪动“欢迎孙大总统”“孙大总统万岁”的大小纸旗布幅。孙十分不悦训斥上船迎接的福建都督孙道仁“这太不成话了。就是共和国的总统退位了就是一个平民怎么还要称‘孙大总统’？再说什么‘万岁’那是封建皇帝硬要他手下的官民称颂他的。我们为了反抗这个‘万岁’王朝多少革命同志抛头颅洒热血才取得了消灭清王朝的伟大胜利。如果我接受这个封建王朝的称号我对得起那许许多多的先烈吗？”孙要求立即撤掉纸旗布幅否则决不上岸。孙都督传令撤去“万岁”孙这才欣然上岸。1912年10月8日，袁世凯颁令授予孙中山大勋位，并于11日电告。13日，孙中山复电辞谢，曰：“文十余年来，持平民主义，不欲于社会上独占特别阶级。若滥膺勋位，殊与素心相违，务乞鉴兹微忱，收回成命。”12月，袁世凯命人将大勋位证书送到上海，他再次谢绝。二次革命失敗後，孫與一些革命同志逃亡日本。當時有對前途失信心的人，想拿孫的八字去給命相師算一算，看將來是否有革命成功之日；換句話說，如果孫八字不好，那麼革命便不會成功，他們可能就準備要各奔前程，另謀出路了。但當他們去詢問時，孫罵他們不該這麼迷信，並且說：。1915年10月26日宋慶齡離家私奔在東京由日本律師和田瑞作證同孫結婚。宋慶齡之父宋嘉澍聞之大怒不能諒解宋嘉澍夫婦追到日本據日本人士回憶宋嘉澍在大門口叫喊「我要見搶走我女兒的總理！」孫出來後宋突然往地上一跪磕了幾個頭說「我不懂事的女兒就拜託你了請千萬多關照！」之後轉頭就走。1916年11月，四位加拿大华侨来到上海筹办一个化妆品工厂，顺道造访租住在上海环龙路63号的孙。告辞出门后，他们问卫士马湘：“孙中山先生住的房子太不像样了，是他自己的吗？”马湘相告：“不是他自己的，他哪里有房子？这房子每月要付出租金65元。”这四位华侨说：“哪里有做过惊天动地事业的人连住的房子也没有呢？我们要替他想办法。”于是决定给孙购置一所像样的住宅，买下了莫利爱路29号的一所楼房。孙就是在这所房子里，撰写了等著作。这一所房子也是孙留下来的唯一家产。孙的侍卫李朗如回忆说“人人都知道中山先生俭朴勤学我特别记得这样一件事情1917年中山先生任大元帅的时候虽然每天很忙但是仍然一有空就读书经常独坐在一张木椅上读到深夜。因为那张木椅硬椅背太低坐得很不舒服庶务计划给他定制一张沙发椅。他知道了就立即叫我通知庶务不要买沙发椅。他说‘沙发椅价钱很贵不要买它要就买一张高背椅吧既省钱又轻便舒服。’结果。庶务只好退掉沙发椅给他买回一张藤椅。”孙的卫士马湘在回忆中披露：一次，唐绍仪来访，不觉谈到中午，孙就留唐吃午饭，吩咐人到趣乐居买来一只卤汉肥鸡待客。唐绍仪很快把鸡吃完，还以为尚有其他肴馔，孙对唐绍仪说：“简慢得很，没有什么好的菜款待。”只好把厨房里的咸鱼拿上来，唐一边吃一边说：“我大吃惯了，一只肥烧鹅，我一餐可以食完。因此家里虽只有几个人，每餐菜钱便要10元啊！”1922年陈炯明叛变孙到永丰舰避难。当他离开此舰脱险后留在舰上的有大批书刊另外还有4只箱子后来由电务室的温良等人带上岸被陈炯明叛军发现以为其中必有许多金银财宝定要开箱检查。他们打开箱子一看却深深失望了。箱子里除了孙亲手写的手稿和几件旧衣服几双拖鞋外只有广东毫洋40元。一无所获的叛军们只好把他们放走。当温良谈论此事时孙说出了“革命党不爱钱爱钱不是革命党”的话给卫士留下了很深的印象。1923年，孙在广州就任海陆军大元帅，帅府秘书长谭延闿将其父亲任两广总督时收藏的两方汉白玉古印呈赠孙。古印镌有1923年2月20日香港大學學生會請孫回香港大學做報告在陳友仁陪同下乘汽車抵達母校發表演講。有問到孫於何時及如何而得革命思想及新思想他說1924年初冬，一位乡亲老太远道来探孙中山，提起“明天就是你的生日”。何香凝等人才晓得孙中山的诞辰原来是11月12日。按南方人计“虚岁”的习惯，算是六十岁，是大寿之喜！大家都想为孙中山贺寿，好好庆祝一番。但是，孙中山没有答应，认为为他个人铺张贺寿，是不应该的。结果只是由廖仲恺等几位老友张罗，在他公馆让厨子办了两桌简单的酒菜，算是办寿筵了。1925年孙科陪同父亲入京黎元洪设宴接风。席上黎元洪问孙科“你老太爷在上海的时候每月开支要多少钱？”孙科答“所有开支大概要千元左右吧。”黎元洪大出意料自言自语“孙先生不愧是平民本色。我每月开支竟要五万元。”孙的日本朋友宫崎寅藏在所著的一文中说據李敖引述陳鵬仁譯著一書記載第29任日本首相犬養毅有一次問孫一生最喜歡什麼孫毫不猶疑說。 +操作系统是一组主管并控制计算机操作、运用和运行硬件、软件資源和提供公共服务来组织用户交互的相互关联的系统软件程序，同时也是计算机系统的核心与基石。操作系统需要处理如管理與配置内存、決定系統資源供需的優先次序、控制輸入與輸出裝置、操作网络與管理文件系统等基本事務。操作系统也提供一個讓使用者與系統互動的操作界面。操作系统的型態非常多樣不同機器安裝的操作系统可從簡單到複雜可從行動電話的嵌入式系统到超級電腦的大型作業系統。許多操作系统製造者對它涵盖范畴的定义也不尽一致例如有些操作系统整合了图形用户界面而有些僅使用命令行界面將图形用户界面視為一種非必要的應用程式。操作系统理论在计算机科学中，為歷史悠久的分支；。綜觀電腦之歷史作業系統與電腦硬體的發展息息相關。作業系統之本意原為提供簡單的工作排序能力後為輔助更新更複雜的硬體設施而漸漸演化。從最早的批次模式開始分時機制也隨之出現在多處理器時代來臨時作業系統也隨之添加多處理器協調功能甚至是分散式系統的協調功能。其他方面的演變也類似於此。另一方面在個人電腦上個人電腦之作業系統因襲大型電腦的成長之路在硬體越來越複雜強大時也逐步實踐以往衹有大型電腦才有的功能。總而言之，作業系統的歷史就是一部解決電腦系統需求與問題的歷史。第一部電腦並沒有作業系統。這是由於早期電腦的建立方式與效能不足以執行如此程式。但在1947年發明了電晶體以及莫里斯威尔克斯發明的微程序方法使得電腦不再是機械裝置而是電子產品。系統管理工具以及簡化硬體操作流程的程式很快就出現了且成為作業系統的起源。到了1960年代早期商用電腦製造商製造了批次處理系統此系統可將工作的建置排程以及執行序列化。此時廠商為每一台不同型號的電腦創造不同的作業系統因此為某電腦而寫的程式無法移植到其他電腦上執行即使是同型號的電腦也不行。到了1964年IBM System/360推出了一系列用途與價位都不同的大型電腦而它們都共用代號為OS/360的作業系統（而非每種產品都用量身訂做的作業系統）。讓單一作業系統適用於整個系列的產品是System/360成功的關鍵且實際上IBM目前的大型系統便是此系統的後裔為System/360所寫的應用程式依然可以在現代的IBM機器上執行。OS/360也包含另一個優點：永久貯存裝置—硬盘的面世（IBM稱為DASD）。另一個關鍵是分時概念的建立：將大型電腦珍貴的時間資源適當分配到所有使用者身上。分時也讓使用者有獨佔整部機器的感覺；而Multics的分時系統是此時眾多新作業系統中實踐此觀念最成功的。1963年奇異公司與貝爾實驗室合作以PL/I語言建立的Multics是激發1970年代眾多作業系統建立的靈感來源尤其是由AT&T貝爾實驗室的丹尼斯里奇與肯湯普遜所建立的Unix系統為了實踐平台移植能力此作業系統在1973年由C語言重寫另一個廣為市場採用的小型電腦作業系統是VMS。第一代微型计算机並不像大型電腦或小型電腦，沒有裝設作業系統的需求或能力；它們只需要最基本的作業系統，通常這種作業系統都是從ROM讀取的，此種程式被稱為監視程式（Monitor）。1980年代，家用電腦開始普及。通常此時的電腦擁有8-bit處理器加上64KB記憶體、螢幕、鍵盤以及低音質喇叭。而80年代早期最著名的套裝電腦為使用微處理器6510（6502晶片特別版）的Commodore C64。此電腦沒有作業系統，而是以一8KB唯讀記憶體BIOS初始化彩色螢幕、鍵盤以及軟碟機和印表機。它可用8KB唯讀記憶體BASIC語言來直接操作BIOS，並依此撰寫程式，大部分是遊戲。此BASIC語言的直譯器勉強可算是此電腦的作業系統，當然就沒有核心或軟硬體保護機制了。此電腦上的遊戲大多跳過BIOS層次，直接控制硬體。早期最著名的磁碟啟動型作業系統是CP/M，它支援許多早期的微電腦。最早期的IBM PC其架構類似C64。當然它們也使用了BIOS以初始化與抽象化硬體的操作，甚至也附了一個BASIC直譯器！但是它的BASIC優於其他公司產品的原因在於他有可攜性，並且相容於任何符合IBM PC架構的機器上。這樣的PC可利用Intel-8088處理器。MS-DOS的成功使得微软成為地球上最賺錢的公司之一。而1980年代另一個崛起的作業系統異數是Mac OS，此作業系統緊緊與麦金塔电脑綑綁在一起。此時一位施乐帕羅奧多研究中心的員工Dominik Hagen拜訪了蘋果電腦的史蒂夫·乔布斯，並且向他展示了此時全錄發展的圖形化使用者介面。蘋果電腦驚為天人，並打算向全錄購買此技術，但因帕羅奧多研究中心並非商業單位而是研究單位，因此全錄回絕了這項買賣。在此之後蘋果一致認為個人電腦的未來必定屬於圖形使用者介面，因此也開始發展自己的圖形化作業系統。延續1980年代的競爭，1990年代出現了許多影響未來個人電腦市場深厚的作業系統。由於圖形化使用者介面日趨繁複，作業系統的能力也越來越複雜與巨大，因此強韌且具有彈性的作業系統就成了迫切的需求。此年代是許多套裝類的個人電腦作業系統互相競爭的時代。上一年代於市場崛起的蘋果電腦由於舊系統的設計不良使得其後繼發展不力蘋果電腦決定重新設計作業系統。經過許多失敗的專案後蘋果於1997年釋出新作業系統——Mac OS X的測試版而後推出的正式版取得了巨大的成功。讓原先失意離開蘋果的史蒂夫乔布斯風光再現。除了商業主流的作業系統外從1980年代起在开放源代码的世界中BSD系統也發展了非常久的一段時間但在1990年代由於與AT&T的法律爭端使得遠在芬蘭赫爾辛基大學的另一股開源作業系統——Linux興起。Linux核心是一個標準POSIX核心其血緣可算是Unix家族的一支。Linux與BSD家族都搭配GNU計畫所發展的應用程式但是由於使用的许可证以及歷史因素的作弄下Linux取得了相當可觀的開源作業系統市佔率而BSD則小得多。相較於MS-DOS的架構Linux除了擁有傲人的可移植性所有的特殊指令衹能在核心模式執行此措施讓核心可以完美管理系統內部與外部裝置並且拒絕無權限的行程提出的請求。因此理論上任何應用程式執行時的錯誤都不可能讓系統-{zh-hant當機zh-hans崩潰}-。另一方面微軟對於更強力的作業系統呼聲的回應便是Windows NT於1993年的面世。1983年開始微軟就想要為MS-DOS建構一個圖形化的作業系統應用程式稱為Windows專案中抽身並且在1993年7月27日推出Windows 3.1一個以OS/2為基礎的圖形化作業系統。並在1995年8月15日推出Windows 95。這時的Windows系統依然是建立在MS-DOS的基礎上不过微软在这同时也在开发不依赖于DOS的NT系列Windows系统并在后来完全放弃了DOS而转向NT作为Windows的基础。底下的表格為Windows NT系統的架構在硬體階層之上有一個由微核心直接接觸的硬體抽象層而不同的驅動程式以模組的形式掛載在核心上執行。因此微核心可以使用諸如輸入輸出檔案系統網路資訊安全機制與虛擬記憶體等功能。而系統服務層提供所有統一規格的函式呼叫庫可以統一所有子系統的實作方法。例如儘管POSIX與OS/2對於同一件服務的名稱與呼叫方法差異甚大它們一樣可以無礙地實作於系統服務層上。在系統服務層之上的子系統全都是使用者模式因此可以避免使用者程式執行非法行動。子系統架構第一個實作的子系統群當然是以前的微軟系統。DOS子系統將每個DOS程式當成一行程執行，並以個別獨立的MS-DOS虛擬機器承載其運行環境。另外一個是Windows 3.1模擬系統，實際上是在Win32子系統下執行Win16程式。因此達到了安全掌控為MS-DOS與早期Windows系統所撰寫之舊版程式的能力。然而此架構只在Intel 80386處理器及後繼機型上實作。且某些會直接讀取硬體的程式，例如大部分的Win16遊戲，就無法套用這套系統，因此很多早期遊戲便無法在Windows NT上執行。Windows NT有3.1、3.5、3.51與4.0版。Windows 2000是Windows NT的改進系列也都是立基於Windows NT的架構上。而本年代漸漸增長並越趨複雜的嵌入式設備市場也促使嵌入式作業系統的成長。現代作業系統通常都有一個使用的繪圖裝置的图形用户界面。選擇要安裝的作業系統通常與其硬體架構有很大關係-{只}-有Linux與BSD幾乎可在所有硬體架構上執行而Windows NT僅移植到了DEC Alpha與MIPS Magnum。在1990年代早期個人電腦的選擇就已被侷限在Windows家族類Unix家族以及Linux上而以Linux及Mac OS X為最主要的另類選擇直至今日。大型機與嵌入式系統使用很多樣化的作業系統。大型主機近期有許多開始支援Java及Linux以便共享其他平台的資源。嵌入式系統近期百家爭鳴，從給Sensor Networks用的Berkeley Tiny OS到可以操作Microsoft Office的Windows CE都有。個人電腦市場目前分為兩大陣營此兩種架構分別有支持的作業系統最早的操作系统是针对20世纪60年代的大型主结构开发的，由于对这些系统在软件方面做了巨大投资，因此原来的计算机厂商继续开发与原来操作系统相兼容的硬件与操作系统。这些早期的操作系统是现代操作系统的先驱。现在仍被支持的大型主机操作系统包括：现代的大型主机一般也可运行Linux或Unix变种。嵌入式系統使用非常廣泛的系統（如VxWorkseCosSymbian OS及Palm OS）以及某些功能縮減版本的Linux或者其他作業系統。某些情況下OS指稱的是一個內建了固定應用軟體的巨大泛用程式。在許多最簡單的嵌入式系統中所謂的OS就是指其上唯一的應用程式。所謂的類Unix家族指的是一族種類繁多的OS，此族包含了System V、BSD與Linux。由於Unix是The Open Group的註冊商標，特指遵守此公司定義的行為的作業系統。而類Unix通常指的是比原先的Unix包含更多特徵的OS。類Unix系統可在非常多的處理器架構下執行在伺服器系統上有很高的使用率例如大專院校或工程應用的工作站。1991年，芬兰学生林纳斯·托瓦兹根据类Unix系统Minix编写并发布了Linux操作系统内核，其后在理查德·斯托曼的建议下以GNU通用公共许可证发布，成为自由軟體Unix變種. Linux近來越來越受歡迎，它們也在個人桌面電腦市場上大有斬獲，例如Ubuntu系統。某些Unix變種例如惠普的HP-UX以及IBM的AIX僅設計用於自家的硬體產品上而SUN的Solaris可安裝於自家的硬體或x86電腦上。蘋果電腦的Mac OS X是一個從NeXTSTEPMach以及FreeBSD共同衍生出來的微核心BSD系統此OS取代了蘋果電腦早期非Unix家族的Mac OS。經歷數年的披荊斬棘自由開源的Linux系統逐漸蠶食以往專利軟體的專業領域例如以往電腦動畫運算巨擘──硅谷图形公司的IRIX系統已被Linux家族及貝爾實驗室研發小組設計的九號計畫與Inferno系統取代皆用於分散運算式環境。它們並不像其他Unix系統而是選擇內建图形用户界面。九號計畫原先並不普及因為它剛推出時並非自由軟體。後來改在自由及開源軟體許可證Lucent Public License釋出後便開始擁有廣大的使用者及社群。Inferno已被售予Vita Nuova並以GPL/MIT許可證釋出。當前，計算機按照計算能力排名世界500強中472台使用Linux，6台使用Windows，其餘為各類BSD等Unix。Microsoft Windows系列作業系統是在微軟給IBM機器設計的MS-DOS的基礎上設計的圖形作業系統。現在的Windows系統如Windows 2000Windows XP皆是建立于現代的Windows NT核心。NT核心是由OS/2和OpenVMS等系統上借用來的。Windows可以在32位元和64位元的Intel和AMD的處理器上運行但是早期的版本也可以在DEC AlphaMIPS與PowerPC架構上運行。雖然由於人們對於開放原始碼作業系統興趣的提升，Windows的市場佔有率有所下降，但是到2004年為止，Windows作業系統在世界範圍內佔據了桌面作業系統90%的市場。Windows系統也被用在低階和中階伺服器上，並且支援網頁服務的資料庫服務等一些功能。最近微軟花費了很大研究與開發的經費用於使Windows擁有能運行企業的大型程式的能力。Windows XP在2001年10月25日發佈2004年8月24日發佈服務包2。Windows XP的下一代為Windows Vista於2007年1月30日發售。Windows Vista增加了許多功能尤其是系統的安全性和網路管理功能並且其擁有介面華麗的Aero Glass。但是整體而言其在全球市場上的口碑卻並不是很好。其後繼者Windows 7則是於2009年10月22日發售Windows 7改善了Windows Vista為人詬病的效能問題相較於Windows Vista在同樣的硬體環境下Windows 7的表現較Windows Vista為好。Windows 8 於2012年10月26日發售與Windows Phone 8共用核心取消了開始按鈕並使用了全新動態磚介面並可使用Microsoft Store購買安裝App但由於整體介面相較於前幾版是很大的更改以及為觸控設計的介面讓不少鍵盤滑鼠使用者比較不習慣。微軟於隔年2013年10月18日發布了Windows 8.1並加回了開始按鈕。而最新的Windows 10則是於2015年7月29日發售。而以微軟目前的規劃將 Windows 10 定義為一項服務而不再是軟體故之後消費級桌面系統不會有新的名稱而是延續Windows 10而每次大更新後就更改版本號目前最新為20H2。macOS前称是一套运行于苹果Macintosh系列电脑上的操作系统。Mac OS是首个在商用领域成功的图形用户界面系统。Macintosh开发成员包括比尔阿特金森。从OS X 10.8开始在名字中去掉Mac仅保留OSX和版本号。2016年6月13日在WWDC2016上苹果公司将OS X更名为macOS现行的最新的系统版本是macOS Big Sur。2020年9月14日，蘋果公司發布最新的系統版本 macOS Big Sur。Google Chrome OS是一项Google的轻型电脑操作系统计划，其基于Google的浏览器Google Chrome的Linux内核。大型主機以及嵌入式作業系統均與Unix或Windows家族關係不大除了AndroidWindows CEWindows NT及Windows XP Embedded是Windows的血親產品以及數種*BSD和嵌入式Linux套件為例外。少數較舊的OS今日依然在一些需要穩定性的市場中活躍，例如IBM的OS/2、BeOS以及XTS-400。在達康時代狂潮過後如AmigaOS與RISC OS等少數人使用的OS依然持續建立以滿足狂熱的愛好者社群與特殊專業使用者。优秀的操作系统必定要具备能让各种能力级别的用户满足各种需求的工具包可视化的高效简便程序环境，以程序来创建程序，就如立法的法律指导规范新的法案的创建。这其实是操作系统所隐含的一部分，决定了可以有多强的扩充能力。比如，某个操作系统有对应的开发者工具包集成环境程序并且是个可视化的，还能让能力不太高的人一看能懂的，用于修改某个声音合成器包含频谱显示，可要是操作系统本身不支持也没有提供可用的工具程序，就会变得很繁琐，很可能为了达到这个目标，开发者就要预备好各种相关的工具程序，甚至自己来编写一系列相关的工具程序创建专门的工具包，最后还要检查代码。若是有人想通过音乐来生成五线谱，要对类似标记语言的五线谱规则对应一下，对各种音色，音准采集并总结出一整套规律，通过声音识别可以识别出乐器的类别等，进而标出乐符完成从声音到乐谱的转换并生成。可是对人声却又更为复杂也不必要如此。若是需要用声音的波形图重现声音，没有相关的工具集是相当难实现，另外只有使用同一套声音的波形绘制规则的所生成的波形图用来再现的声音才是原来的声音。在作为商品出售的操作系统软件的历史中常常因为其中包含的浏览器，媒体播放器在美国遭到反垄断起诉，差点使得功能上残缺不全。少数操作系统软件能够提供较为全面的App和实用工具程序。操作系统软件的编译也需要对应的编译环境。在同一台计算机上运行不同的操作系统软件就能够以不同的方式来使用计算机资源。比如在Mac上运行OS X和Windows以两种不同的技术OpenCLCore ImageDirectX来使用图形卡实现类似的作用。通过图像识别和声音识别来进行信息搜索。能够满足不同需求所要求的精确程度对时间的精细划分，以及尺度细分可以互联，同步，协调原本必須由多个人协同合作才能完成的随时需要调整并相互同步的操控作业，这就必须有即时消息传送显示，可视化的用于协调同步计划任务的配置脚本，以及执行这样计划任务的完整组件。研究與建立未來的作業系統依舊進行著。作業系統朝提供更省電網路化易用華麗的使用者介面的方向來改進。類UNIX OS通過和桌面環境開發者協作正努力讓自己改進使用環境。eyeOS是一套基於PHP實現的半開源模擬雲端運算操作系统，但其實質只是在網路瀏覽器中提供一種類似無界限的類獨立操作系统，其並非於任何類似虛擬化中實現的真正電腦操作系统，能提供諸如Word、PPT、Excel的在線處理功能…GNU Hurd是一個以完全相容Unix並加強許多功能为目标的微核心架構。微軟Singularity是一個奠基於.Net並以建立較佳記憶體保護機制為目標的研究計畫。操作系统位于底层硬件与用户之间是两者沟通的桥梁。用户可以通过操作系统的用户界面输入命令。操作系统则对命令进行解释驱动硬件设备实现用户要求。以现代标准而言一个标准PC的操作系统应该提供以下的功能不管是常駐程式或者應用程式，他們都以行程為標準執行單位。當年運用馮·諾伊曼結構建造電腦時，每個中央處理器最多只能同時執行一個行程。早期的操作系统功能同时执行多个进程。进程管理指的是操作系统调整多个行程的功能。由於大部分的電腦只包含一顆中央處理器在單核心為每個行程改變所佔的分時比例。特權越高的行程執行優先順序越高單位時間內佔的比例也越高。互動式操作系统也提供某種程度的回饋機制讓直接與使用者互動的行程擁有較高的特權值。除了行程管理之外操作系统尚有擔負起行程間通訊偵測及處理等較為艱深的問題。在行程之下尚有執行緒的問題但是大部分的操作系统並不會處理執行緒所遭遇的問題通常操作系统僅止於提供一組API讓使用者自行操作或透過虛擬機器的管理機制控制執行緒之間的互動。根據帕金森定律：「你给程序再多内存，程序也会想尽办法耗光」，因此程式設計師通常希望系統給他無限量且無限快的記憶體。大部分的現代電腦記憶體架構都是階層式的，最快且數量最少的暫存器為首，然後是快取、記憶體以及最慢的磁碟儲存裝置。而操作系统的記憶體管理提供尋找可用的記憶空間、配置與釋放記憶空間以及交換記憶體和低速儲存裝置的內含物……等功能。此類又被稱做虛擬記憶體管理的功能大幅增加每個行程可獲得的記憶空間（通常是4GB，即使實際上RAM的數量遠少於這數目）。然而這也帶來了微幅降低執行效率的缺點，嚴重時甚至也會導致行程崩潰。記憶體管理的另一個重點活動就是藉由CPU的幫助來管理虛擬位置。如果同時有許多行程儲存於記憶裝置上，作業系統必須防止它們互相干擾對方的記憶體內容。CPU事先存了幾個表以比對虛擬位置與實際記憶體位置，這種方法稱為分頁配置。藉由對每個行程產生分開獨立的位置空間操作系统也可以輕易地一次釋放某行程所佔據的所有記憶體。如果這個行程不釋放記憶體操作系统可以結束行程並將記憶體自動釋放。所謂的檔案系統通常指稱管理磁碟資料的系統可將資料以目錄或檔案的型式儲存。每個檔案系統都有自己的特殊格式與功能例如日誌管理或不需磁碟重整。操作系统擁有許多種內建檔案系統。例如Linux擁有非常廣泛的內建檔案系統，如ext2、ext3、ext4、ReiserFS、Reiser4、GFS、GFS2、OCFS、OCFS2、NILFS與Google檔案系統。Linux也支援非原生檔案系統，例如XFS、JFS、FAT家族與NTFS。另一方面，Windows能支援的檔案系統衹有FAT12、FAT16、FAT32、EXFAT與NTFS。NTFS系統是Windows上最可靠與最有效率的檔案系統。其他的FAT家族都比NTFS老舊，且對於檔案長度與分割磁碟能力都有很大限制，因此造成很多問題。而UNIX的檔案系統多半是UFS，而UNIX中的一個分支Solaris最近則開始支援一種新式的ZFS。大部份上述的檔案系統都有兩種建置方法。系統可以以日誌式或非日誌式建置。日誌式檔案系統可以以較安全的手法執行系統恢复。如果一個沒有日誌式建置的檔案系統遇上突然的系統崩潰，導致資料建立在一半時停頓，則此系統需要特殊的檔案系統檢查工具才能復原；日誌式則可自動恢复。微软的NTFS與Linux的ext3、ext4、reiserFS與JFS都是日誌式檔案系統。每個檔案系統都實作相似的目錄／子目錄架構，但在相似之下也有許多不同點。微軟使用建立目錄架構，且檔案名稱大小寫有差異。許多現代的操作系统都具備操作主流網路通訊協定TCP/IP的能力。也就是說這樣的作業系統可以進入網路世界並且與其他系統分享諸如檔案印表機與掃描器等資源。許多操作系统也支援多個過去網路啟蒙時代的各路網路通訊協定，例如IBM建立的系統網路架構、DEC在它所生產的系統所設定的架構與微軟為Windows製作的特殊通訊協定。還有許多為了特殊功能而研發的通訊協定，例如可以在網路上提供檔案存取功能的NFS系統。現今大量用於影音串流及遊戲訊息傳送的UDP協定等。大多數操作系统都含有某種程度的資訊安全機制。資訊安全機制主要基於兩大理念除了允許／拒絕形式的安全機制，一個高安全等級的系統也會提供記錄選項，允許記錄各種請求對資源存取的行為。肇因於軍方與商業組織將敏感資料記錄在電腦上，安全機制在操作系统歷史上是一個被長久關注與討論的問題。美國國防部，此手冊確立了評鑑安全機制成效的基本原則。這對操作系统作者來說非常重要，因為TCSEC是用於評鑑、分類與選拔出用於處理、儲存與獲取敏感或機密資料的電腦系統的標準程序。內部資訊安全可視為防止正在執行的程式任意存取系統資源的手段。大多操作系统讓普通程式可直接操作電腦的CPU，所以產生了一些問題，例如怎樣把可如操作系统一樣處理事務、執行同樣特殊指令的程式強迫停止，畢竟在此情境下，操作系统也只是另一個平起平坐的程式。為通用操作系统所生產的CPU通常於硬體層級上實踐了一定程度的特殊指令保護概念。通常特權層級較低的程式想要執行某些特殊指令時會被阻斷，例如直接存取像是硬碟之類的外部裝置。因此，程式必須得經由詢問操作系统，讓操作系统執行特殊指令來存取磁碟。因此操作系统就有機會檢查此程式的識別身份，並依此接受或拒絕它的請求。在不支援特殊指令架構的硬體上，另一個也是唯一的保護方法，則是操作系统並不直接利用CPU執行使用者的程式，而是藉由模擬一個CPU或提供一P-code机系統（偽代碼執行機），像是Java一樣讓程式在虛擬機器上執行。內部安全機制在多使用者電腦上特別重要它允許每個系統使用者擁有自己個人的檔案與目錄且其他使用者不能任意存取或刪除。因為任何程式都可能繞過操作系统的監控更有可能繞過側錄程式的監控擁有強制力的內部安全機制在側錄啟動時也非常重要。通常一個作業系統會為其他網路上的電腦或使用者提供。外部資訊安全的最前線，是諸如防火墙等的硬體裝置。在操作系统內部也常設置許多種類的軟體防火牆。軟體防火牆可設定接受或拒絕在操作系统上執行的服務與外界的連線。因此任何人都可以安裝並執行某些不安全的網路服務，例如Telnet或FTP，並且設定除了某些自用通道之外阻擋其他所有連線，以達成防堵不良連線的機制。-{A|zh-hans用户 zh-hant使用者}-界面.今日大部分的操作系统都包含图形用户界面。許多操作系统允許使用者安裝或創造任何他們喜歡的图形用户界面。大部分的Unix與Unix衍生系統通常會安裝X Window系統配合GNOME或KDE桌面環境。而某些操作系统就沒有這麼彈性的圖形化使用者介面例如Windows。這類的操作系统只能透過外加的程式來改變其圖形化使用者介面甚至根本只能改變諸如選單風格或顏色配置等部分。圖形化使用者介面與時並進例如Windows在每次新版本上市時就會將其圖形化使用者介面改頭換面而Mac OS的GUI也在Mac OS X上市時出現重大轉變。所謂的驅動程式時所需的中斷處理常式。設計驅動程式的主要目的在於操作抽象化，任何硬體模組，即使是同一類的裝置，在硬體設計面上也有巨大差異。廠商推出的較新模組通常更可靠更有效率，控制方法也會有所不同。電腦與其操作系统每每不能預期那些現有與新裝置的變異之處，因此無法知道其操作方法。為解決此問題操作系统通常會主動制訂每種裝置該有的操作方式，而驅動程式功能則是將那些操作系统制訂的行為描述，轉譯為可讓裝置瞭解的自訂操作手法。理論上適合的驅動程式一旦安裝，相對應的新裝置就可以無誤地執行。此新驅動程式可以讓此裝置完美地切合在操作系统中，讓使用者察覺不到這是操作系统原本沒有的功能。操作系统理论研究者有时把操作系统分成四大部分：当然本节所提出的四部结构观也绝非放之四海皆准。例如在早期的微软视窗操作系统中各部分耦合程度很深难以区分彼此。而在使用外核结构的操作系统中则根本没有驱动程序的概念。因而本节的讨论只适用于一般情况具体特例需具体分析。操作系统中四大部分的不同布局，也就形成了几种整体结构的分野。常见的结构包括：简单结构、层结构、微内核结构、垂直结构、和虚拟机结构。操作系统的分类没有一个单一的标准可以根据工作方式分为批处理操作系统分时操作系统实时操作系统网络操作系统和分布式操作系统等根据架构可以分为单内核操作系统等根据运行的环境可以分为桌面操作系统嵌入式操作系统等根据指令的长度分为8bit 16bit 32bit 64bit的操作系统。内核是操作系统最核心最基础的构件，其结构往往对操作系统的外部特性以及应用领域有着一定程度的影响。尽管随着理论和实践的不断演进，操作系统高层特性与内核结构之间的耦合有日趋缩小之势，但习惯上，内核结构仍然是操作系统分类之常用标准。内核的结构可以分为单内核、微内核、超微内核、以及外核等。单内核结构是操作系统中各核心部件杂然混居的形态该结构产生于1960年代历史最长是操作系统内核与外围分离时的最初形态。微内核结构是1980年代产生出来的较新的内核结构，强调结构性部件与功能性部件的分离。20世纪末，基于微内核结构，理论界中又发展出了超微内核与外内核等多种结构。尽管自1980年代起，大部分理论研究都集中在以微内核为首的“新兴”结构之上，然而，在应用领域之中，以单内核结构为基础的操作系统却一直占据着主导地位。在众多常用操作系统之中，除了QNX和基于Mach的UNIX等个别系统外，几乎全部采用单内核结构，例如大部分的Unix、Linux，以及Windows。微内核和超微内核结构主要用于研究性操作系统，还有一些嵌入式系统使用外核。基于单内核的操作系统通常有着较长的历史渊源。例如，绝大部分UNIX的家族史都可上溯至1960年代。该类操作系统多数有着相对古老的设计和实现（例如某些UNIX中存在着大量1970年代、1980年代的代码）。另外，往往在性能方面略优于同一应用领域中采用其他内核结构的操作系统（但通常认为此种性能优势不能完全归功于单内核结构）。通用操作系统是面向一般没有特定应用需求的操作系统。由于没有特定的应用需求通用操作系统为了适应更广泛的应用需要支持更多的硬件与软件需要针对所有的用户体验对系统进行更新。通用操作系统是一个工程量繁重的操作系统。-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-与非-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-.「-{zh-hans:实时操作系统;zh-hant:即時作業系统;}-」（Real Time OS）泛指所有据有一定实时资源调度以及通讯能力的操作系统。而所谓“-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-”，不同语境中往往有着非常不同的意义。某些时候仅仅用作“高性能”的同义词。但在操作系统理论中“-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-性”所指的通常是特定操作所消耗的时间（以及空间）的上限是可预知的。比如，如果说某个操作系统提供实时内存分配操作，那也就是说一个内存分配操作所用时间（及空间）无论如何也不会超出操作系统所承诺的上限。-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-性在某些领域非常重要，比如在工业控制、医疗器材、影音频合成、以及军事领域，-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-性都是无可或缺的特性。常用-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-操作系统有QNXVxWorksRTLinux等等而Linux多数UNIX以及多数Windows家族成员等都属于非实时操作系统。操作系统整体的-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-性通常依仗内核的-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-能力但有时也可在非-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-内核上建立-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-操作系统很多在Windows上建立的-{zh-hans实时zh-hant即時}-操作系统就属于此类。在POSIX标准中专有一系用于规范-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-操作系统的API，其中包括POSIX.4、POSIX.4a、POSIX.4b（合称POSIX.4）以及POSIX.13等等。符合POSIX.4的操作系统通常被认可为-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-操作系统（但-{zh-hans:实时;zh-hant:即時;}-操作系统并不需要符合POSIX.4标准）。8位、16位、32位、64位、128位.所謂8位16位32位64位128位等術語有時指匯流排寬度有時指指令寬度而在作業系統理論中主要是指記憶體定址的寬度。如果記憶體的定址寬度是16位那麼每一個記憶體地址可以用16個二進位位來表示也就是說可以在64KB的範圍內定址。同樣道理32位的寬度對應4GB的定址範圍64位的寬度對應16 Exabyte的定址範圍。記憶體定址範圍並非僅僅是對作業系統而言的其他類型的軟件的設計有時也會被定址範圍而影響。但是在作業系統的設計與實現中定址範圍卻有着更為重要的意義。在早期的16位作業系統中，由於64KB的定址範圍太小，大都都採用的問題，同時，應用程序所能夠使用的地址空間也往往有比較小的上限。在32位作業系統中，4GB的定址範圍對於一般應用程序來說是綽綽有餘的，因而，通常使用一維的線性地址空間，而不使用「段」。 +此列表列出了早期至今的所有操作系统名称。Linux是一種自由和開放源碼的類UNIX作業系統。该操作系统的内核由林纳斯·托瓦兹在1991年10月5日首次发布，在加上使用者空間的應用程式之後，成為Linux作業系統。Linux也是自由软件和开放源代码软件发展中最著名的例子。只要遵循GNU 通用公共许可证，任何个人和机构都可以自由地使用Linux的所有底层源代码，也可以自由地修改和再发布。大多數Linux系統還包括像提供GUI的X Window之類的程序。除了一部分專家之外，大多數人都是直接使用Linux 發行版，而不是自己選擇每一樣組件或自行設置。Linux嚴格來說是單指作業系統的内核，因作業系統中包含了許多用戶圖形介面和其他实用工具。如今Linux常用来指基于Linux的完整操作系统，內核則改以Linux内核稱之。由于这些支持用户空间的系统工具和库主要由理查德·斯托曼于1983年发起的GNU计划提供，自由软件基金会提议将其组合系统命名为GNU/Linux，但Linux不屬於GNU計劃，這個名稱並沒有得到社群的一致認同。Linux最初是作为支持英特尔x86架构的个人电脑的一个自由操作系统。目前Linux已经被移植到更多的计算机硬件平台远远超出其他任何操作系统。Linux可以运行在服务器和其他大型平台之上如大型计算机和超级计算机。世界上500个最快的超级计算机已100％运行Linux发行版或变种。Linux也广泛应用在嵌入式系统上如手机和电子游戏机等。在移动设备上广泛使用的Android操作系统就是建立在Linux内核之上。通常情况下，Linux被打包成供个人计算机和服务器使用的Linux发行版，一些流行的主流Linux发布版，包括Debian（及其衍生版本Ubuntu、Linux Mint）、Fedora（及其相关版本Red Hat Enterprise Linux、CentOS）和openSUSE等。Linux发行版包含Linux内核和支撑内核的实用程序和库，通常还带有大量可以满足各类需求的应用程序。个人计算机使用的Linux发行版通常包含X Window和一个相应的桌面环境，如GNOME或KDE。桌面Linux操作系统常用的应用程序，包括Firefox网页浏览器、LibreOffice办公软件、GIMP图像处理工具等。由于Linux是自由软件，任何人都可以创建一个符合自己需求的Linux发行版。UNIX操作系统重新编写。高级语言编写的操作系统具有更佳的兼容性，能更容易地移植到不同的计算机平台。1983年，理查德·馬修·斯托曼創立GNU計劃。這個計劃有一個目標，是為了發展一個完全自由的類Unix作業系統。自1984年發起這個計劃以來，在1985年，理查德·馬修·斯托曼發起自由軟體基金會並且在1989年撰寫GPL。1990年代早期，GNU開始大量地產生或收集各種系統所必備的元件，像是——函式庫、編譯器、偵錯工具、文字編輯器，以及一個Unix的使用者介面仍然不完整和陷于停顿，GNU計劃中是在Mach微内核的架構之上開發系統核心，也就是所謂的GNU Hurd，但是這個基於Mach的設計異常複雜，發展進度則相對緩慢。林納斯·托瓦茲曾說過如果GNU核心在1991年時可以用，他不會自己去寫一個。386BSD涉及的法律問題直到1992年還沒有解決，NetBSD和FreeBSD是386BSD的後裔，早于Linux。林纳斯·托瓦兹曾说，当时如果有可用的386BSD，他就可能不會編寫Linux。MINIX是一個轻量小型并采用微内核(Micro-Kernel)架构的類Unix作業系統，是安德鲁·斯圖爾特·塔能鲍姆為在電腦科學用作教學而設計的。1991年，林納斯·托瓦茲在赫爾辛基大學上學时，對作業系統很好奇。他對MINIX只允許在教育上使用很不滿（在当时MINIX不允許被用作任何商業使用），於是他便開始寫他自己的作業系統，這就是後來的Linux核心。林納斯·托瓦茲開始在MINIX上開發Linux內核，為MINIX寫的軟體也可以在Linux內核上使用。后来使用GNU軟體代替MINIX的軟體，因為使用從GNU系統來的原始碼可以自由使用，這對Linux的发展有益。使用GNU GPL協議的原始碼可以被其他項目所使用，只要這些項目使用同樣的協議發布。為了讓Linux可以在商業上使用，林納斯·托瓦茲決定更改他原來的協議，以GNU GPL協議來代替。之后许多開發者致力融合GNU元素到Linux中，做出一個有完整功能的、自由的作業系統。Linux的第一個版本在1991年9月被大學FTP server管理員-{Ari Lemmke}-發佈在網際網路上最初Torvalds稱這個核心的名稱為"Freax"意思是自由發佈同時這位芬蘭赫爾辛基的大學生在comp.os.minix上發佈一則訊息Hello everybody out there using minix-I'm doing a (free) operation system (just a hobbywon't be big and professional like gnu) for 386 AT clones.Linux的標誌和吉祥物是一隻名字叫做Tux的企鵝，標誌的由來有一說是因為Linus在澳洲時曾被一隻動物園裡的企鵝咬了一口，便選擇企鵝作為Linux的標誌，但更容易被接受的說法是：企鵝代表南極，而南極又是全世界所共有的一塊陸地。這也就代表Linux是所有人的Linux。1994年3月Linux1.0版正式發佈Marc Ewing成立Red Hat軟件公司成為最著名的Linux經銷商之一。早期Linux的開機管理程式。今天由Linus Torvalds带领下众多开发人员共同参与开发和维护Linux内核。理查德斯托曼领导的自由软件基金会继续提供大量支持Linux内核的GNU组件。一些个人和企业开发的第三方的非GNU组件也提供对Linux内核的支持这些第三方组件包括大量的作品有内核模块和用户应用程序和库等内容。Linux社区或企业都推出一些重要的Linux发行版包括Linux内核GNU组件非GNU组件以及其他形式的软件包管理系统软件。基于Linux的系统是一个模块化的类Unix操作系统。Linux操作系统的大部分设计思想来源于20世纪70年代到80年代的Unix操作系统所建立的基本设计思想。Linux系统使用宏内核由Linux内核负责处理进程控制网络以及外围设备和文件系统的访问。在系统运行的时候设备驱动程序要么与内核直接整合要么以加载模块形式添加。Linux具有设备独立性，它内核具有高度适应能力，从而给系统提供了更高级的功能。GNU用户界面组件是大多数Linux操作系统的重要组成部分，提供常用的C函数库，Shell，还有许多常见的Unix实用工具，可以完成许多基本的操作系统任务。大多数Linux系统使用的图形用户界面建立在X窗口系统之上，由X窗口系统通过软件工具及架构协议来建立操作系统所用的图形用户界面。已安装Linux操作系统包含的一些组件Linux發行版指的就是通常所說的，它一般是由一些組織、团体、公司或者個人制作并發行的。Linux内核主要作為Linux發行版的一部分而使用。通常來講，一個Linux發行版包括Linux核心，以及將整個軟體安裝到電腦上的一套安裝工具，还有各種GNU軟體，和其他的一些自由軟體，在一些Linux發行版中可能会包含一些專有軟體。發行版為許多不同的目的而製作，包括對不同電腦硬體結構的支援，对普通用户或开发者使用方式的调整，针对實時應用或嵌入式系統的开发等等。目前，超過三百個發行版被積極的開發，最普遍被使用的發行版有大約十多個。較為知名的有Debian、Ubuntu、Fedora、CentOS、Arch Linux和openSUSE等。一個典型的發行版包括：Linux核心，GNU函式庫和各种系统工具，命令行Shell，圖形界面底层的X Window系統和上层的桌面環境等。桌面环境有如KDE或GNOME等，並包含數千種從辦公套件，編譯器，文字編輯器，小遊戲，兒童教育軟體，到科學工具的應用軟體。很多發行版含有LiveCD的方式就是不需要安裝放入系统光碟或其它介质進行启动就能够在不改变现有系统的情况下使用。比較著名的有MX LinuxPCLinuxOS等。LiveCD的相關技術進步至此很多的發行版本身的安裝光碟也有LiveCD的功能。今天各種場合都有使用各種Linux套件從嵌入式設備到超級電腦並且在伺服器領域確定了地位通常伺服器使用LAMP組合。基於其低廉成本與高度可設定性Linux常常被應用於嵌入式系統例如機上盒行動電話及行動裝置等。在行動電話上基於Linux的Android已經成為IOS的主要競爭者而在行動裝置上則成為Windows CE與Palm OS之外另一個選擇。目前流行的TiVo數位攝影機使用了經過客製化後的Linux。此外有不少硬體式的網路防火牆及路由器例如部份LinkSys的產品其內部都是使用Linux來驅動並採用了作業系統提供的防火牆及路由功能。大多數廣泛使用的自由軟體都有Windows平台版本和相應的Linux版本，例如LibreOffice、Mozilla Firefox、Apache OpenOffice、Pidgin、VLC、GIMP；部分流行的专有软件也有相應的Linux版本，如Adobe Flash Player、Adobe Reader、Google Earth、Nero Burning ROM、Opera、Maple、MATLAB、Skype、Maya、SPSS、Google Chrome。目前仍有較多能在Windows或Mac OS上執行的應用軟體沒有Linux的版本，不過在Linux平台上通常可以找到類似功能的應用軟件。Linux使用的增多也使得Windows開源軟體向Linux移植，比如Filezilla。Linux下也有相當多不能在Windows平台下執行的軟體，主要是依靠X Window系統和其他Windows無法利用的資源，或者是因為穩定性等其他方面的考慮並不準備支援Windows。另外，相當多的Windows應用程式可以通過Wine和一些基於Wine的項目如CrossOver正常運行和工作。如Microsoft Office、Adobe Photoshop、暴雪娛樂的遊戲、Picasa其中對於Photoshop的Crossover相容性工作有Disney、DreamWorks、Pixar投資支援，等。Google大力參與Wine項目改進，Picasa的GNU/Linux版本也是經Wine測試的Windows平台編譯版本。Linux發行版同樣在上网本市場很受歡迎像ASUS Eee PC和Acer Aspire One銷售時安裝有訂製的Linux發行版。服务器、主机和超级计算机.Linux发行版一直被用来作为服务器的操作系统，并且已经在该领域中占据重要地位。根据2006年9月的报告显示，十个最大型的网络托管公司有八个公司在其Web服务器运行Linux发行版。Linux发行版是构成LAMP的重要部分，LAMP是一个常见的网站托管平台，在开发者中已经得到普及。Linux发行版也经常使用作为超级计算机的操作系统，2010年11月公布的超级计算机前500强，有459个，已於2011年交付勞倫斯利福摩爾國家實驗室，並於2012年6月开始运作，也是选择Linux作为操作系统。在智能手机平板电脑等移动设备方面Linux也得到重要发展基于Linux内核的Android操作系统已经超越Apple的iOS操作系统成为当今全球最流行的智能手机操作系统。在2010年第三季度销售全球的全部智能手机中使用Android的占据25.5%。从2007年起，手机和掌上电脑上运行基于Linux的操作系统变得更加普遍，例如：诺基亚 N810、OpenMoko的Neo1973、摩托罗拉的ROKR E8。Palm（后来被HP公司收购）推出了一个新的基于Linux的webOS操作系统，并使用在新生产的Palm Pre智能手机上。MeeGo是诺基亚和英特尔于2010年2月联合推出的基于Linux的操作系统诺基亚也推出了使用MeeGo操作系统的N9手机。2011年9月28日继诺基亚宣布放弃开发MeeGo之后英特尔也正式宣布将MeeGo与LiMo合并成为新的系统Tizen。Jolla Mobile公司成立并推出了由MeeGo发展而来的Sailfish操作系统。2012年Mozilla推出基於Linux核心的Firefox OS操作系统。Linux的低成本、强大的定制功能以及良好的移植性能，使得Linux在嵌入式系统方面也得到广泛应用。流行的TiVo数字视频录像机还采用了定制的Linux，思科在网络防火墙和路由器也使用了定制的Linux。Korg OASYS、Korg的KRONOS、雅马哈的YAMAHA MOTIF XS/Motif XF音乐工作站、雅马哈的S90XS/S70XS、雅马哈MOX6/MOX8次合成器、雅马哈MOTIF-RACK XS音源模块，以及Roland RD-700GX数码钢琴均运行Linux。Linux也用于舞台灯光控制系统，如WholeHogIII控制台。傳統的Linux使用者一般都是專業人士。他們願意安裝並設置自己的作業系統往往比其他作業系統的用戶花更多的時間在安裝並設置自己的作業系統。這些用戶有時被稱作。使用Linux主要的成本為移植培訓和學習的費用早期由於會使用Linux的人較少並且在軟體設計時並未考慮非專業者的使用導致這方面費用極高。但這方面的費用已經隨著Linux的日益普及和Linux上的軟體越來越多越來越方便而降低但專業仍是使用Linux的主要成本。Linux在歐洲、美國和日本的流行程度較高，歐美地區還發行Linux平台的遊戲和其他家用軟體。Linux開源社群方面也是以歐洲、美國、日本等已開發國家的人士居多。在家庭與企業中使用Linux套件的情況越來越多。整個亞洲，比较缺乏對Linux的支援，硬體和應用程式皆只考量微軟作業系統設計的需求。例如：Internet Explorer及ActiveX需求、Microsoft Office相容性、網絡遊戲以及一般用戶都傾向於使用Windows。轉換作業系統的開銷在於，自由開源意識形態與商業用途的衝突、缺乏強而有力的推廣廠商、缺乏對特殊的硬件和應用程序的支援、電腦技術人員不願再花費時間重覆學習、對已有平台的依賴，是制約Linux被採納的主要因素。然而隨著Linux慢慢開始流行有些原始設備製造商開始在其銷售的電腦上預裝上LinuxLinux的用戶中也有了普通電腦用戶Linux系統也開始慢慢出現在個人電腦作業系統市場。儘管目前大部分的筆記型電腦搭載Windows系統目前仍有一些筆電預設搭載Linux系統如Musicha 音創筆電預設搭載Ubuntu Mate。近年來Linux下常见的部份软件也开始不斷向Windows移植。有如KDE SCCinepaint正在進行向Windows的移植。很多開源軟體的定量研究聚焦在市場佔有率和可靠性包括數不清的Linux分析報告。Linux份額成長迅速。IDC的2008年第二季度報告指出Linux在所有伺服器市場的市佔率已經達到29%比該研究機構在2007年的調查大幅增加了12個百分點。這個估計數字基於Linux伺服器的銷售額。所以Linux的市佔率是不可小覷的。Netcraft報告在2010年二月每10台可靠的伺服器中Linux發行版占6台FreeBSD占2台Windows占1台。而DebianCentOS兩個至關重要的發行版並不銷售。Linux在政府中也很受歡迎巴西聯邦政府因支持Linux而世界聞名。有新聞報導俄羅斯軍隊自己製造的Linux發行版做為G.H.ost項目已經取得成果。印度的喀拉拉邦計劃在向全聯邦的高中推廣使用Linux。中華人民共和國為取得技術獨立在龍芯過程中排他性地使用Linux。在西班牙的一些地區開發了自己的Linux發行版並且在政府與教育領域廣泛使用如埃斯特雷马杜拉地區的gnuLinEx和安達盧西亞地區的Guadalinex。葡萄牙同樣使用自己的Linux發行版Caixa Mgica用於Magalhes筆記型電腦和e-escola政府軟體。法國和德國同樣開始逐步採用Linux。每個孩子一台筆記型電腦這一項目正在催生新的更為龐大的Linux用戶群計劃將包括發展中國家的幾億學童他們的家庭和社區。在2007年已經有六個國家訂購了至少每個國家一百萬台以上免費發放給學生。GoogleRed Hat和eBay是該項目的主要支持者。"Linux"的註冊商標是Linus Torvalds所有的。這是由於在1996年，一個名字叫做William R. Della Croce的律師開始向各個Linux發佈商發信，聲明他擁有"Linux"商標的所有權，並且要求各個發佈商支付版稅，這些發行商集體進行上訴，要求將該註冊商標重新分配給Linus Torvalds。Linus Torvalds一再聲明Linux是自由且免費的，他本人可以賣掉，但Linux絕不能賣。“GNU/Linux”此名稱是GNU计划的支持者与开发者，特别是其创立者理查德·斯托曼對於Linux作業系統的主張。由于此类操作系统使用了众多GNU程序，包含Bash、函式庫、編譯器等等作為Linux核心上的系統套件，理查德·斯托曼认为应该将该操作系统称为較為恰当，但現今多數人仍稱其為Linux。就1997年之前的Linux來看，一間CD-ROM的供應商所提供的資料顯示在他们的“Linux 发行版”中，GNU 软件所占最大的比重，大约占全部源代码的28%，且还包括一些关键的部件，如果没有这些部件，系统就无法工作，而Linux 本身占大约3%。Linux社群中的一些成員如埃里克雷蒙林纳斯托瓦兹等人偏好Linux的名稱认为Linux朗朗上口短而好记拒绝使用一词指的只是系统的内核其他程序都只能算是应用软件因而该操作系统应叫Linux但Linux系统套件是在Linux內核的基础上加入各种GNU软件套件集合而成的。在這兩個主要名稱之外，也有其他名稱的提議。1992年，Yggdrasil Linux主張命名為Linux/GNU/X，因為除了GNU計劃軟體之外，很多Linux還採用了X视窗系统。 +GNU计划，又譯為革奴计划，是一個自由軟體集體協作计划，1983年9月27日由理查德·斯托曼在麻省理工學院公开发起。它的目標是创建一套完全自由的操作系统，稱為GNU。理查德·斯托曼最早在net.unix-wizards新闻组上公布该消息，并附带一份等解释为何发起该计划的文章，其中一个理由就是要。GNU是“GNU is Not Unix”的递归缩写。為避免与单词gnu（非洲牛羚，发音与「new」相同）混淆，斯托曼宣布GNU发音应为「Guh-NOO」（），与「canoe」发音相似。其中，Emacs就是由这个计划孵化而出。UNIX是一种广泛使用的商业操作系统的名称。由于GNU将要实现UNIX系统的接口标准因此GNU计划可以分别开发不同的操作系统。GNU计划采用了部分当时已经可自由使用的软件例如TeX排版系统和X Window视窗系统等。不过GNU计划也开发了大批其他的自由软件这些软件也被移植到其他操作系统平台上例如Microsoft WindowsBSD家族Solaris及Mac OS。为保证GNU软件可以自由地“使用复制修改和发布”所有GNU软件都包含一份在禁止其他人添加任何限制的情况下授权所有权利给任何人的协议条款GNU通用公共许可证。这个就是被称为“公共版權”的概念。GNU也针对不同场合提供GNU宽通用公共许可证与GNU自由文档许可证这两种协议条款。1985年理查德斯托曼创立了自由软件基金会来为GNU计划提供技术法律以及财政支持。尽管GNU计划大部分时候是由个人自愿无偿贡献但FSF有时还是会聘请程序员帮助编写。当GNU计划开始逐渐获得成功时一些商业公司开始介入开发和技术-{zh-hans支持 zh-hant支援}-。当中最著名的就是之后被Red Hat兼并的Cygnus Solutions。到了1990年GNU计划已经开发出的软件包括了一个功能强大的文字编辑器EmacsC语言编译器GCC以及大部分UNIX系统的程序库和工具。唯一依然没有完成的重要组件就是操作系统的内核。1991年，林納斯·托瓦茲编写出了与UNIX兼容的Linux操作系统内核並在GPL下发布。Linux之后在网上广泛流传。1992年，Linux与其他GNU软件结合，完全自由的操作系统正式诞生。许多程序员参与了Linux的开发与修改，也經常將Linux當成開發GNU計劃軟體的平台。该操作系统往往被称为“GNU/Linux”或简称Linux。但Linux本身不屬於GNU計劃的一部份，GNU计划自己的内核Hurd依然在开发中，目前已经发布Beta版本。许多UNIX系统上也安装了GNU软件因为GNU软件的质量比之前UNIX的软件还要好。GNU工具还被广泛地移植到Windows和Mac OS上。GNU工程十几年以来已经成为一个对软件开发主要的影响力量，创造了无数的重要的工具，例如：强健的编译器，有力的文本编辑器，甚至一个全功能的操作系统。这个工程是从1984年麻省理工学院的程序员理查德·斯托曼的想法得来的，他想要建立一个自由的、和UNIX类似的操作环境。从那时开始，许多程序员聚集起来开始开发一个自由的、高质量、易理解的软件。以下是GNU计划的正式发言人： +自由軟件運動是一個推廣用戶有使用、複製、研究、修改和分發軟件等權利的社會運動。接近和相關的運動包括開放源碼運動及自由軟件的開放源碼運動。這運動跟1970年代的黑客文化有淵源，而理查德·斯托曼是該運動的主要發起人以及精神領袖。自由軟件運動人士認為自由軟件的精神應當貫徹到所有軟件：他們認為禁止計算機用戶行使這種自由是不道德的行為。理察·馬修·斯托曼認為販賣不附帶源代碼的二進制軟件是不道德的，因為這樣阻止了軟件用戶學習以及幫助其他人的權利。然而目前還沒有如何實現自由軟件運動最終目標的共識。有些人認為應當使用法律手段強制軟件供應商提供源代碼；有些則認為應當通過抵制專有軟件來達到目的。還有一些人則認為時間將證明，自由軟件最終在質量上要比專有軟件略勝一籌，並會在自由市場上取得勝利。部分自由軟件運動人士也認為其他受專利權保護的產品也應當自由化。還有一些人士則認為有部分資源不應當被自由更改，例如GNU通用公共協議證書，小說等。這個運動的理念在於電腦的使用不應該阻礙人際合作。更直接地說這個運動代表著拒絕專有軟體並推廣自由軟體。它的終極目標在於解放網路世界中的每個人——即每個電腦使用者。理查斯托曼表明這個行動旨在提升而非妨礙科技進步因為自由軟體運動的成員相信所有軟體使用者有享有自由軟體定義中列舉的自由。許多成員認為禁止他人享有這些自由是不道德的，也相信在創造一個使用者可以互相幫助並擁有自己對於電腦控制權的社會，這些自由是必須的。然而，有一些自有軟體使用者和程式設計師不相信具有財產權的軟體是不道德的，援引在一些商業模型中的例子，專用軟體與技術上的功能與便帶來效益的增加，以作為他們的論點。雖然社會變遷是一個科技變遷下非刻意造成的副產物，新科技的倡議者經常宣傳這些新技術就社會正面影響一個工具。聖荷西州立大學的教授Joel West解釋了許多自由原始碼運動的理念。如果假設科技不僅對社會變遷造成影響，並從科技進步主導社會變遷的角度來看待，禁止特定人員使用這些科技是道德的嗎？因此—縱使不能造成立刻的改變—自由軟體運動還是希望喚醒人們這個運動所能造成的影響，因為能造成對現實社會的影響。舉例來說：與沒有電腦時相比，電腦給了我們更多自由，但這些科技媒介究竟是帶來自由、或僅賦予少數人特權？這樣的道德爭論如何取的一個折衷的辦法對自由軟體運動是個難題。自由軟體基金會堅信所有的軟體需要說明文件特別是周到的工程師應做到能更新說明書以反映他們對軟體的調整但他們認為對修改其他著作的自由本身是相對次要的。在自由軟體運動中基金會特別強調提供此類文件的目標。自由軟體運動的成員也倡議具實際用途的軟體應該自由的。自由軟件運動的核心工作專注於軟件開發。自由軟件運動也反對專有軟件，拒絕安裝不給予自由權利的軟件。根據斯托爾曼敘述，“在軟件領域比專有程序未經授權的拷貝更糟糕的唯一一件事，就是私有軟件的授權副本。因為這樣做同樣傷害其整個用戶群體。此外，通常開發商，這個邪惡的犯罪人，就可從中獲利。自由軟件運動的一些支持者們會通过公眾演講，或者主持軟件相關會議，以提高公民对于软件自由的认识。這被視為相當重要，因為接受自由软件的人們，往往不知道它是自由软件。进而继续使用专有软件或者专有的插件。瑪格麗特S埃利奧特一個在在加州大學歐文分校的軟件研究者。不僅列出了可能來自自由軟件運動的許多好處她還聲稱它本質上是要給予每個人平等的機會利用互聯網。假設計算機是全球訪問由於世界變得更加立足於技術及其發展建立一個選擇性的互聯網只允許部分人在訪問這根據是荒謬的。根據許多推動有關自由軟件運動的學者的認識如果人們想要生存在通信和全球援助更加共存的世界那麼全球自由軟件更加應該爭取一個位置。這個由GNU同夥引發的想法是促進一個理解當地和全球社區的利益所謂的一種嘗試。大量的抵制軟件專利和著作權法擴張的遊說工作已經完成。其他遊說則直接專注於政府機構和政府資助的項目中所使用的自由軟件。委內瑞拉政府在2006年1月實施了保证軟件自由的法律。法令第3,390條，授權所有政府機構可以將完成超過兩年的軟件，編列為自由軟件。國會議員和雅克羅吉克阿克曼在引進祕魯法案1609“公共管理自由軟件”的過程中出力極大。而這一事件立刻引起微軟公司祕魯分部的注意而其總經理隨後寫了一封信給埃德加戴維斯維拉紐瓦博士。維拉紐瓦博士的反應受到了全世界的關注此後對於自由軟件的論證更是被視為經典。在美國也已經有了在州政府於州級對促進通過立法的努力。。 一種成立於2004年，發起於2006年的Web服務。用於監視在自由軟件社區的軟件開發活動，對項目和編程語言的發展和普及提供詳細的軟體度量和定量分析。。監視很多FOSS軟件倉庫和分析各種FOSS軟件許可證的普及。 +-{T|zh-hans材料科学 zh-hant材料科學 zh-sg物质科学}-材料科學，涉及物質的性質及其在各個科學和工程學領域的整合應用，是一個研究材料的製備或加工工藝、材料的微觀結構與材料宏觀性能三者之間的相互關係的跨領域學科。涉及的理論包括固體物理學、材料化學、應用物理和應用化學，以及化學工程、機械工程、電機工程、電子工程、土木工程和建築工程。與機械結合則衍生出機械材料，與電子結合則衍生出電子材料，與土木建築結合則衍生出結構材料，與生物學結合則衍生出生物材料等等。隨著近年來媒體將注意力大量集中在奈米科學上，材料科學在科學與工程學領域越來越廣為人知。它也是鑑識科學和破壞分析中的一個重要組成部分，以後者為例，它是分析各種飛航意外的關鍵。今日許多科技上的問題受限於材料能夠容許的極限，也因此，在此領域的突破在未來科技具有指標性的影響。材料科學有著廣泛的應用前景。在各時代上材料的選擇往往決定了該時代的發展像是石器時代青銅器時代鐵器時代和工業革命就是明顯的例子。材料科學是最古老的應用科學及工程學之一起初被引導來自陶瓷的加工和冶金學的延伸。現代材料科學演進來自於冶金學。在十九世紀晚期一位美國科學家約西亞吉布斯發現材料在不同相態之間的熱力學性質使得在理解材料性質上有重大性的突破。材料科學與其他領域的合作發展革命性科技像是塑膠半導體和。在1960年代前許多材料科學系都被稱為礦冶系。1960後當時美國高等研究計劃署現為國防高等研究計劃署為了材料科學的基礎研究以及訓練的國家計劃在1960年代創立一系列大學實驗室建立了材料科學。此領域包含陶瓷聚合物半導體磁性材料奈米材料。诺贝爾奖，是根据瑞典化学家阿尔弗雷德·诺贝尔遗嘱於1901年開始每年頒發的5個奖项，包括：物理、化学、生理学或医学、文学、和平。1968年，瑞典中央银行設立了瑞典银行纪念诺贝尔经济科学奖，通称“诺贝尔经济学奖”。诺贝尔奖普遍被认为是所颁奖领域内最有声望的奖项。阿佛烈·諾貝爾是一位瑞典化學家，同時也是發明家。19世紀末期，歐洲大陸每天有三宗爆炸案，但諾貝爾持續改進炸藥使得炸彈更有破壞力，吸引軍火商的青睞，他的改良矽藻土炸藥取得了众多的科研成果，也成功設立許多工廠生產，大量的軍火被運送到戰場上，靠軍工製造累積了巨大財富。诺贝尔終生未婚亦無子嗣。在其逝世前亲兄弟也早一步去世。由於諾貝爾終生主張和平主義也因此他對於自己改良的炸藥作為破壞及戰爭的用途始終感到痛心。在即将辞世之际诺贝尔立下了遗嘱“请将我的财产变做基金每年用这个基金的利息作为奖金奖励那些在前一年为人类做出卓越贡献的人。”根据他的这个遗嘱从1901年开始具有国际性的诺贝尔奖创立了分別獎勵5個領域物理學化学生理学或医学文学和平。1969年瑞典出資增設瑞典銀行經濟學獎通稱但實際上不是諾貝爾遺囑中捐助的獎項。诺贝尔基金会明文规定，不论是公共场合还是私人场合，提名过程和人选都要严格保密50年，包括提名者人选和被提名者人选。很多人在各种场合声称自己曾因某成果而获得诺贝尔奖的提名但未获奖，应属谣言。截至2016年共有911個人或者組織獲得了579個諾貝爾獎與瑞典銀行經濟學獎。截至2012年得主平均年齡59歲。多次獲獎者共4人多次獲獎的組織共2名合計共6位多次獲獎的組織與學者。性別比例部分，自1901年至2020年，諾貝爾所有獎項累計獲獎女性僅58人，在不含機構的所有934名得獎者當中只占6.2%；女性得獎者比例呈現穩定上升，由2000至2009年的9.2%增至2010至2019年的11.1%。根據官方數據，2015年獲和平獎的突尼西亞全國對話四方集團被計算為組織。表列僅取至小數點後2位並採無條件捨去法紀錄之。世界各国诺贝尔奖人数.根據獲獎時國籍與出生地，截至2016年10月14日，各國各獎項得主人數的世界前5強：世界各大学诺贝尔奖人数.下表展示1901年至2020年世界各高校诺贝尔奖人数分布（只展示前30名）。自1901年起至2020年诺贝尔奖（包括诺贝尔经济学奖）共颁给过930名个人和25个机构。諾貝爾獎原則上僅能授予在世者，但有三次例外。一為1931年諾貝爾文學獎得主埃里克·阿克塞尔·卡尔费尔特，二為1961年諾貝爾和平獎得主達格·哈馬舍爾德，三為2011年諾貝爾生理學或醫學獎得主拉爾夫·斯坦曼。人们对诺贝尔奖的争议点，除了在各獎得主必须是三人以下的限制外，還有不颁给已过世的人，另外还有诺贝尔奖不设立重要的数学奖。1919年的诺贝尔物理学奖得主约翰尼斯·斯塔克曾为自身利益为希特勒效劳，诺贝尔基金会无权使获奖者改变自己的看法。诺贝尔奖的规矩得主必须是三人以下也产生过争议该奖项只是表彰在科学领域中有重大突破的个人和小团队的。不过也有例外的是诺贝尔奖中的和平奖分别在1917年1944年1963年颁发给了红十字国际委员会组织2012年颁发给了歐洲聯盟组织。2013年则颁发给了禁止化学武器组织2015年又頒發給突尼西亞全國對話四方集團。诺贝尔奖在对于物理学奖及化学奖的颁发在学术界有时也会引起争议，其中最为著名的例子是爱因斯坦没有因相对论获得诺贝尔物理学奖而在12年后才因光电效应获奖。关于诺贝尔基金会不设立数学奖，其中有一个流传较广的民間傳說是诺贝尔的妻子与一位名叫雷富勒的数学家有外遇，所以诺贝尔本人遺囑中不设置诺贝尔数学奖。不过这个说法显然不实，因为诺贝尔根本没有结婚，較可能的因素為當時代，數學僅為尚未形成一有改變人類生活可能的顯學。隨著数学及計算機领域的發展，數學界的阿贝尔奖及计算机界的图灵奖被称为該領域的。诺贝尔奖也被一些女權團體批評，因為相較於男性，女性在諾貝爾得獎的人數明顯偏低，讓一些婦女和女權團體批評诺贝尔奖有性別歧視之嫌。至2014年為止目前女性在諾贝尔獲得最多獎項的一年為2009年。在得獎人選方面在眾多的爭議獎項中歷年來文學獎與和平獎所招致的爭議最多。1989年開始湯森路透美國總部每年發佈以預測未來的諾貝爾獎得主。 +植物学是一门研究植物形态解剖生长发育生理生态系统进化分类以及与人类的关系的综合性科学是生物学的分支学科。人类对植物的认识最早可以追溯到旧石器时代，人类在寻找食物的过程中采集了植物的种子、莖、根和果实。植物学的创始人是泰奧弗拉斯托斯，在他的著作中将植物进行了分类。1世纪希腊医生迪奥科里斯的著作的编写。17世纪末英国生物学家约翰·雷确立了现代植物分类的基本原理。17世纪，出现了各式各样的显微镜，开创了植物解剖学的研究，随后植物生理学和植物胚胎学也得到进一步的发展，到19世纪中期植物学各分支学科已基本形成。中国近代植物植物分类学的奠基人是胡先骕编写了中国第一部中文发现了中国的水杉并将其命名。植物学的历史包括几个早期文明的著作与植物分类。例如古代印度的宗教著作，古代琐罗亚斯德教的著作，及古代中国的著作。秦汉时期的，是一本共5卷的药草百科全书，对其后的1500多年有广泛的影响。中世纪的伊斯兰世界的著作包括的。13世纪早期，和也有植物学的著作德国医生莱昂哈特福克斯是三位德国植物学之父之一其余两位是奥托布伦费尔斯和。在1546年所写的是药典中的经典著作。康拉德·格斯纳和也写了药用植物的著作。乌利塞·阿尔德罗万迪被认为是，他的研究内容包括植物。1665年，罗伯特·胡克從樹皮切了一片軟木薄片，並放到自己發明的顯微鏡觀察到了细胞。1690年约翰·雷首次给物种下定义，依据花和营养器官的性状进行分类，并用一个分类系统处理了18000种植物。1735年，卡尔·林奈出版了中对7300种植物正式使用了双名法进行命名。随着植物解剖学和植物形态学及生命周期的知识的发展，人们意识到植物间的亲缘不止是林奈所描述的那样。所提出的分类系统调整得到广泛的接受。进化论中的自然选择概念的提出，使人们开始了植物的进化关系和系统发育分类的研究。馬蒂亞斯雅各布施萊登1838年发表了书中指出细胞是植物的结构单位这本书对植物学有很大的影响。 卡尔路德维希韦尔登诺分析了种子散布与分布植物种群地质历史的影响之间的联系并开创了植物地理学. 1831年罗伯特布朗发现了细胞核.近30多年来分子生物学和近代技术科学以及数学物理学化学的新概念和新技术被引入到植物学领域植物学科在微观和宏观的研究上均取得了突出成就无论在研究的深度和广度上都达到了一个新的水平。当今相当多的新知识都是从研究模式植物而来的如拟南芥。这种十字花科的杂草物种是最早的基因组测序植物之一。水稻基因组相对较小同时國際水稻基因定序工程也把它定为重要的谷物/草/单子叶植物模型。另一个草物种二穗短柄草也是一个有助理解遗传学细胞学和分子生物学的实验模型。对其他重要的商业主粮如小麦, 玉米, 大麦, 黑麦，御谷和大豆都有基因组测序。其中部分植物对基因组测序是一个挑战，因为他们的染色体中有两个以上的单倍体。另外，一种绿色水藻作为模式生物，给细胞生物学提供了重要的知识。从分子生物学, 遗传学和生物化学级别到細胞器, 细胞, 组织, 器官，个体，植物种群，植物群落等方面都是对植物的研究范畴。在这些研究分支上的植物学家可能会涉及分类学，解剖学和形态学，以及生理学等方面。以前所有生命都被分成动物或植物而植物学就是专门研究那些动物以外的生物。现在植物的定义是通过光合作用从太阳光中获得能量的生物，或者是无叶绿素的寄生植物.而以前植物学则包括细菌，真菌，地衣，非绿藻类水藻和病毒。不过植物学家仍很关注这些物种，而真菌和原生生物也包含在植物学课程内。对植物的研究是很重要的因为植物是生物的基本组成部分他们生产人类和其他生物赖以生存的氧气和食物。此外植物能防止土壤侵蚀而且对水文循环有极大影响。 古植物学是研究古植物化石记录的分支学科。普遍认为在地球的早期历史中，光合作用植物产生的氧气改变了古代地球的全球大气环境.植物解剖學是研究植物細胞和組織的結構而植物的形態是其外部形式的研究。 +生命是一种特征，物质存在的一种活跃形式。目前对于生命的定义在学术界还无共识，较流行的定义是一类维持体内平衡、具有生命周期和稳定的物质和能量代谢现象、能对刺激做反应、能进行自我复制或和繁殖、进化的半开放物质系统。由细胞组成，能够成长、适应环境。其他定义有时包括非细胞生命形式，如病毒和类病毒。生命是生物学的基本概念而生物学是研究生命的科学。生命具有或者它们从来没有这样的功能则会被归类为无生命。生命包含所有生命个体一定会经历出生成长衰老和死亡。生命种群则在一代代个体的更替中经过自然选择发生进化以适应环境。生物學則是以研究生命為中心的科學。生命的最小單位是生物生物是由一個或多個細胞組成能够新陳代謝維持恆定性可以成長回应刺激可以繁殖甚至演化以適應外界環境繼續繁殖并產生後代。生命以各种形式存在如植物动物真菌原生生物古菌和细菌。在地球的生物圈內可以找到許多不同的生物在這些生物中都有共同的特徵都是由以和水為基礎的細胞構成有其組織以及可以遺傳的基因資訊。生命起源是生命从非生物物质（如简单的有机化合物）中产生的自然过程。普遍的科学假设是，从非生物到生物的转变不是一个单一的事件，而是一个逐渐增加复杂性的过程。地球上的生命最早出现在42.8亿年前，在44.1亿年前海洋形成后不久，在45.4亿年前地球形成后不久。 當時是始太古代，冥古宙熔化的地殼已經固化。已知最早的生命形式是细菌的微化石。研究人员普遍认为，目前地球上的生命来自于RNA世界 尽管基于RNA的生命可能不是第一种存在的生命。地球上最早的生物證據是在西格陵蘭發現的37億年前變質岩中的石墨，及西澳洲34.8億年前砂岩中的远古生物化石。不過很多研究推測地球在更早之前就已有生命。根據其中一種研究，可能在42.5億年前就已有生命，另一個研究則認為是44億年前。目前仍不確定地球上產生生命的機制，不過已有許多的生命起源假說。生命形成後，變成許多不同的形式，生物學家則將其分類成許多分類單元的體系。生命可以在許多不同的條件下生存。另外新陈代谢和自我复制的能力有时被视为判断生命的根本条件称之为生命现象。病毒在有寄主可寄生的時候會表現出生命現象但在沒有寄主可寄生的時候不會表現生命現象所以病毒是介於生命與非生命之間的一種奇妙的有机物。生命沒有公認定義，不同的科學家曾提出過各種定義。科學家經常認為只有生物體會展現以下全部現象：大部分科學家稱這樣的現象為生命的表現方式。通常必須具備全部七個特徵才能被视作生命。但是，這個定義也有局限性。例如：有些生物体不能繁殖，因為它們是正常物种中自然形成的。这些生物体仍是生命。有些人說生命的特性是可遺傳的；因此，这些不能繁殖的有機體也还是有生命的，它们仍可以通过親屬選擇等機理来产生新个体。有些人认为病毒和朊毒體（能够进行自我复制的蛋白质）是可以自行複製的毒素而不是生命体因為它們不能在没有其他细胞的情况下表现出生命现象。但是立克次體和衣原體等有类似細菌的细胞结构的生物也不能獨立執行很多重要的生物過程它们也要进入真核生物宿主細胞的細胞質內進行生長和自我複製。另外幾乎所有的生命都倚賴其他物種提供食物并且归根结底需要地球上某些细胞的特殊化學作用来提供能量源如光合作用和海底热泉细菌的硫化作用。具系統性的生命定義是，生物是自我組織並自我製造的。這些物質不與耗散結構混淆。這個定義變種包括了斯图亚特考夫曼（Stuart Kauffman）定義生命為能夠複製自己或他人的一種自主主体（autonomous agent）或一種多主体系统（multi-agent system）並最少完成一次熱力學循環。儘管不能準確地找到確實時間但有證據表現地球上的生命已存在了大約37億年。雖然沒有標準表示生命起源的模型，但現時最為公認的科學模型建立於一個或更多包括下面的發現之上，可以粗略地列出有以下假設：很多不同的假說认为早期地球上的簡單有機分子能够轉变為原始細胞并进行新陳代謝。很多模型可分為兩類但最近流行的混合模型並不属于任何一類。現時所推測的生命歷史还有很多疑点生命的起源對科學家而言仍是一個很大的謎團。在宇宙中地球是人類已知的唯一存有生命的星球。德雷克公式可以估算其他地方出現生命的機率但科學家不同意很多公式中變量的值。取決於不同的值方程式可以暗示生命的形成是頻繁或稀少的。德雷克計算我們在任何時間可能接觸的外星生命只有1個。有關地球生命的起源，胚種論也被称为外源性起源认为生命來自宇宙，通過隕石、彗星或宇宙塵等天體到達地球。但是這些理論對解釋生命的起源沒有幫助。即生命體之死亡階段或狀態。以人類為例一般以呼吸及心臟跳動停止和腦部完全停止活動（非暫時性的停止）為判定死亡的標準。生命体的死亡可以是因为细胞分裂的次数达到极限而衰亡也可以是被毒素自然灾害或其他生物杀死。任何一个个体的死亡并不会威胁物种的存在，反而是维持物种延续的重要环节。如果年老的个体永远不死，新的个体会失去生存空间和生存必需的资源。但个体大量死亡至难以维持繁殖时，物种就可能灭绝。已经死亡的细胞不能重建生命活动。已经死亡的生物个体不能复活。这是生命的基本特征之一。 +是一種可通过浏览器访问并由用户协同编辑其内容的网站。沃德·坎宁安於1995年开发了最初的wiki。他将wiki定义为“一种允许一群用户用简单的描述来创建和连接一组网页的社会计算系统”。有些人認爲wiki系統屬於一種人類知識的網路系統讓人們可以在web的基礎上對wiki文本進行瀏覽創建和更改而且這種創建更改及發佈的成本遠比HTML文本小。與此同時wiki系統還支持那些面向社群的協作式寫作爲協作式寫作提供必要的幫助。最後wiki的寫作者自然構成一個社群wiki系統爲這個社群提供簡單的交流工具。與其它超文本系統相比wiki有使用簡便且開放的特點有助於在一個社群內共享某個領域的知識。（IPA<WICK-ee>或<WEE-kee>）取自夏威夷的Wiki Wiki公車源自夏威夷語「wiki」本是「快速」之意。wiki的中文翻譯有維客圍紀快紀共筆和維基等等其中「維基」一詞是中文維基百科人特別爲維基百科而創屬於维基媒体的专用术语。隨著「維基」一詞能見度增加常被泛用爲wiki的主要音譯名。wiki軟體由软件设计模式社群開發用來書寫與討論模式語言。沃德坎宁安於1995年3月25日成立第一個wiki網站WikiWikiWeb用來補充他自己經營的软件设计模式網站。他發明wiki這個名字以及相關概念並且實作第一個wiki引擎。坎宁安說自己是根據檀香山的Wiki Wiki公車取名的。坎宁安說wiki的構想來自他自己在1980年代晚期利用蘋果電腦HyperCard程式作出的一個小功能。HyperCard類似名片整理程式可用來紀錄人物與相關事物。HyperCard管理許多稱為的資料每張卡片上都可劃分欄位加上圖片有樣式的文字或按鈕等等而且這些內容都可在查閱卡片的同時修改編輯。HyperCard類似於後來的網頁但是缺乏一些重要特徵。坎宁安認為原來的HyperCard程式十分有用，但創造卡片與卡片之間的連結卻很困難。於是他不用HyperCard程式原本的創造連結功能，而改用的方式自己增添了一個新的連結功能。使用者只要將連結輸入卡片上的一個特殊欄位，而這個欄位每一行都有一個按鈕。按下按鈕時如果卡片已經存在，按鈕就會帶使用者去那張卡片，否則就發出嗶聲，而繼續壓著按鈕不放，程式就會為使用者產生一張卡片。坎宁安向他的朋友展示了這個程式和他自己寫的人事卡片往往會有人指出卡片之中的內容不太對他們就可當場利用HyperCard初始的功能修正內容並利用坎宁安加入的新功能補充連結。坎宁安後來在別處又寫了這樣的功能而且這次他還增加了多使用者寫作功能。新功能之一是程式會在每一次任何一張卡片被更改時自動在卡片而且還會注意到空白的說明欄位會讓他想要描述一下更改的摘要。奥德·坎宁安和波·路夫在一书中描述wiki概念的幾個本质特征：wiki中用户使用很多方式来编辑。通常需要-{zh-hans通过 zh-hant透過}-文本标记语言。wiki在一些需要内容管理系统的企业中得到了广泛应用、JotSpot和是創wiki企业应用的先河。wiki可以在高校教育環境中發揮積極的作用，但是直到2006年，wiki应用于教育的案例在全球都比較少。wiki除了被用來建立網站外，也被用作編寫網誌。wiki在中小学教育方面，可以作为学生协助学习的平台。wiki软件是运行wiki的群件之统称允许使用常见的Web浏览器建立和修改网页被作为应用程式伺服器在多个网页服务器上運作。在大多数页面的文本通常有大量的超文本链接到其他网页。大多数wiki有一个反向的功能它显示所有链接到一个给定页面的页面。wiki的基本設計理念是，與其避免人們犯錯，倒不如讓人們更方便地修正錯誤。因此，wiki固然相當開放，但它有一個有助檢驗最近新增頁面正確性的功能。幾乎每一個wiki網站都有的最突出的功能，就是頁面——一個列出最近修訂的特殊頁面，或是一個在特定時間範圍內所做修改的列表。一些wiki可以對此清單作出過濾，篩去小修改或利用自動腳本所做之修改。大部分wiki網站的頁面編修紀錄頁都擁有以下功能：可查看過去的修訂版本，亦可在任何兩個修訂版本之間進行差異對比。編輯者可以利用修訂歷史瀏覽並且恢復此條目的前一版本；顯示差異功能則能讓編輯者更容易決定是否有必要做此更改。一個普通的wiki使用者可以在頁面瀏覽差異、查閱歷史、甚至恢復到先前的版本。這個過程基本上是很流暢的，具體細節則要看用的是哪款wiki軟體。為了避免人們做出差劣的編輯，有些wiki引擎可以對內容編輯權限進行各種程度的限制，以確保一篇或一組條目的品質。當有人修改某個條目時，願意維護該頁面的使用者會收到通知，讓他/她得以馬上對新編輯進行審查。有些wiki會提供則是讓普通用戶無法看見尚未通過評審的修訂。wiki提供至少一个标题搜索有时是一个全文搜索。搜索的可扩展性取决于wiki引擎是否使用一个数据库。一些wiki使用文本文件。MediaWiki的第一个版本采用文本文件但它在21世纪初被李丹尼尔克罗克改写成一个数据库应用程序。另外有时可以对wiki使用Google等外部搜索引擎的限定网域搜索功能以获得更精确或更全面的结果。为了保证内容的质量大部分wiki系统或其所建立的社区都有一系列错综复杂的策略和指导方针用以对用户的使用行为进行有一系列的规则控制。比如总结成以下五个方面维基百科是一部自由的百科全书维基百科代表的是一个中立的观点维基百科自由编辑内容维基百科的编辑者应该以一种尊重和文明的方式互相交流维基百科没有一成不变的规章但不可以自由修改规则。有许多的wiki社区是私密的尤其是企业的wiki。企业的wiki有可能只允许内部员工修改。 +电脑程序设计是给出解决特定问题程序的过程軟體開發過程中的重要步驟。程序设计往往以某种程序设计语言为工具给出这种语言下的程序。程序设计过程一般包括分析设计编碼测试除错等不同阶段。在计算机技术发展的早期軟體開發主要就是程序设计。但随着技术的发展软件系统越来越复杂逐渐分化出许多专用的软件系统如操作系统数据库系统应用服务器而且这些专用的软件系统愈来愈成为普遍的系統環境的一部分。这种情况下軟體開發的内容越来越丰富不再只是纯粹的程序设计还包括数据库设计用户界面设计通信协议设计和复杂的系统配置过程。空間方面，在早期，由于机器资源比较昂贵，如何縮小儲存空間往往是设计关心的首要重點；而随着硬件技术的飞速发展，電腦上資料儲存媒體的價格降低，空間不再是考慮的第一要點，一些較耗時的運算也漸漸發展出以空間換取時間的模式。時間方面，在早期，如何加強程式效率、縮短程式執行時間是程式設計師的共同目標；而在硬體效能進步、效率差距縮小，软件规模與複雜度卻日益增加的現在，程序的结构、可维护性、重複使用性、彈性等因素更顯得重要。在多人合作的程式設計專案裡，程式設計師們會加上各種註解以協助其他參與者理解程式碼，，但卻因能達到較好的溝通並提高程式碼的可維護性，而成為目前的主流。然而，隨著智慧型手機等攜帶裝置的興起，執行時間的縮短與儲存空間的有效運用再次成為焦點，形成與主機伺服器類型應用程式不同的重點考慮方向。计算机程序或解释型语言。为了一个程序运行计算机加载程序代码可能还要加载数据从而初始化成一个开始状态然后调用某种启动机制。在最低层上这些是由一个載入器开始的。在大多数计算机中，操作系统例如Windows等，加载并且执行很多程序。在这种情况下，一个计算机程序是指一个单独的可执行的映射，而不是当前在这个计算机上运行的全部程序。在一台基于最常见的冯诺依曼体系结构的计算机上程序从某种外部设备通常是硬盘被加载到计算机之內。 如果计算机选择冯诺依曼体系结构那么程序就被加载入-{zh-hans内存 zh-hant記憶體}-。 指令序列顺序执行直到一条跳转或转移指令被执行或者一个中断出现。所有这些指令都会改变指令寄存器的内容。基于这种体系的计算机如果没有程序的支持将无法工作。一个计算机程序是一系列指令的集合。程序裡的指令都是基于机器语言；程序通常首先用一种计算机程序设计语言编写，然后用編譯器或者直譯器翻译成机器语言。 有时，也可以用-{zh-hans:汇编语言; zh-hant:組合語言;}-编程，-{zh-hans:汇编; zh-hant:組合;}-语言实质就是表示机器语言的一组记号－在这种情况下，用于翻译的程序叫做-{zh-hans:汇编程序; zh-hant:組譯程式;}-。数据可以被定义为被程序处理的信息。当我们考虑到整个计算机系统时，有时程序和数据的区别就不是那么明显了。中央处理器有时有一组微指令控制硬件，数据可以是一个有待执行的程序，程序可以编写成去编写其它的程序；所有这些例子都使程序和数据的比较成为一种视角的选择。有人甚至断言程序和数据没有区别。编写一个程序去生成另外一个程序的过程被称之为元编程。它可以被应用于让程序根据给定数据生成代码。单单一个程序可能不足以表示给定数据的所有方面。让一个程序去分析这个数据并生成新的程序去处理数据所有的方面可能会容易一些。Lisp就是一例支持这种编程模式的程序语言。在神经网络裡储存的权重是一种数据。正是这些权重数据跟网路的拓扑结构一起定义了网络的行为。人们通常很难界定这些数据到底表示什么或者它们是否可以由程序来代替。这个例子以及跟人工智能相关的其它一些问题进一步考验程序和数据的区别。算法指解决某个问题的严格方法，通常还需辅以某种程度上的运行性能分析。算法可以是纯理论的，也可以由一个计算机程序实现。理论算法通常根据复杂性分为不同类别；实现的算法通常经过剖析编写程序是以下步骤的一个往复过程：编写新的源代码，测试、分析和提高新编写的代码以找出语法和语义错误。从事这种工作的人叫做程序员。由于计算机的飞速发展，编程的要求和种类也日趋多样，由此产生了不同种类的程序设计员，每一种都有更细致的分工和任务。软件工程师和系统分析员就是两个例子。现在，编程的长时间过程被称之为或者软件工程。后者也由于这一学科的日益成熟而逐渐流行。因此，如今程序设计员可以指某一领域的编程专家，也可以泛指裡编写一个复杂软件系统里某一块的一般程序员。一组为某一软件公司工作的程序员有时会被指定一个程序组长或者项目经理，用以监督项目进度和完成日期。大型软件通常经历由系统设计师掌握的一个长时间的设计阶段，然后才交付给开发人员。牛仔式的编程是不为人所齿的。两种当今常见的程序开发方式之一是项目组开发方式。使用这种方式项目组里每一个成员都能对项目的进行发表意见，而由其中的某一个人协调不同意见。这样的项目组通常有15个左右的成员，这样做是为了便于管理。第二种开发方式是结对开发。 +中國歷史如果從中國的文字史首次成体系的甲骨文出现的商朝中期；從新石器時代的磁山文化算起約有1万年；從舊石器時代的北京猿人和藍田猿人時期算起約有68–100多萬年的历史。中国的傳說有伏羲做八卦黃帝時代倉頡造文字而近代考古出土則發現3300年前（前1300年）的甲骨文4500年前的陶文約5000年前至8000年前具有文字性質的龜骨契刻符號。從政治和社會形態區分中國歷史，據考古資料顯示，約在距今六千年前的裴李崗文化晚期或者仰韶文化早期時代，中原地區從母系氏族社會漸漸過渡到父系氏族社會。同時，原始社會平等被打破。而據有文字記載的歷史，夏朝已經開始君王世襲，周朝建立完備的禮制，至東周逐漸解構，秦朝統一各國政治和許多民間分歧的文字和丈量制度，並建立中央集權的專制君權統治。自漢朝起則以文官主治國家直至清朝。清末以降，從西方世界東傳的科學主義、民主主義、資本主義、共產主義、社會主義等之各種新思潮始規模性流傳。20世紀初，人民興起革命終推翻數千年來的中国帝制及封建社會等傳統，並於1912年初建立首次共和制——「中華民國」。1949年10月1日，中国共产党在大陸建立，而原中國國民黨執政的中華民國政府因國共內戰戰敗而遷移至臺澎金馬地區，年以來維持兩岸分治及戰後和平格局至今。從經濟形態觀察中國古代人口主要由自由人構成私有制商業活動發達。周朝時商業主要由封建領主階層控制的官商貿易和庶人的自由貿易構成。秦漢以後實行中央集權人口由士農工商等構成其中以從事農業的自由民為主體是一個君權官僚制下的以土地爲主要生產資本的較為自由的商業經濟社會一些重要的行業譬如油鹽米等由官僚和商人垄断。除了農業手工業以及商業貿易也有很大的發展。早在漢朝絲綢之路的開通促進東亞與中亞至歐洲的陸上交通時國際貿易早已起步隋唐時大運河的開通促進南北貿易唐朝的盛世及外交的開放交通的建設更使各國文化物資得以交流唐朝時出現類似匯兌証券的飛錢宋代時出現紙幣元代時更因為全面開通商旅的關卡使得與中亞的商業交流十分繁榮明清时實行海禁清末則受到西方國家的影響海上絲路的國際貿易發展迅速。20世紀初中華民國實行「民有民治民享」實施自由經濟社會而中华人民共和国成立初期起先為公有制的計劃經濟社會1978年起治國方向調整為改革開放逐步朝向私有制資本制下的市場經濟社會之轉型該形態被稱為在宏觀調控下的中国特色社會主義市場經濟同時工業化及都市化發展迅速數億人口在短短20多年內從農民轉為城市工商業就業。21世紀初中国經濟成為世界第二大經濟體。附隨於事者應知此事所發生之地域附隨於人者應知其人之家世與種姓。故學歷史又必兼通地理與民族在中國歷史上民族關係較為單純而地域範圍則甚廣大因此治中國史地理知識尤更需要。循此以往乃有政治制度社會背景經濟活動學術派別思想流變宗教信仰藝術創造諸端此皆與歷史有關並於歷史中亦佔重要地位然性質較專門內容較複雜。迄今為止發現的最早的高等靈長類中華曙猿在4500萬年前生活在中國江南一帶。考古証據顯示224萬年至225萬年前中國就有直立人居住目前考古發現的較早的原始人類蹤跡有巫山人元謀人藍田人南京直立人北京直立人等。中國史前時代的各種文化是經過以下幾個階段以直立猿人為主的舊石器時代早中期（距今約50至40多萬年前）接著進入舊石器時代中晚期以山頂洞人為代表距今約在20至10餘萬年前。新石器時代早期的代表性文化是裴李崗文化這一時期屬於母系氏族社會社會尚無明顯分層。緊接著是以仰韶文化為代表的新石器時代中期這一時期社會性質從母系氏族社會過渡到父系氏族社會社會貧富分化逐漸加深同時生產力水平有顯著提高。而以龍山文化為代表的新石器時代晚期被发现在長江黃河流域有數個城址群如中原城址群江漢城址群海岱城址群等。這或許表明在龍山時代社會的組織形態發生較大的轉變。根據現在的考古學研究，中國的新石器時代呈現多元並立的情形：約7,000年到5,000年前在河南省、河北省南部、甘肅省南部和山西省南部出現的仰韶文化便具備使用紅陶、彩陶以及食用粟米和畜養家畜的特質。而大約在同一時間，尚有在浙江省東邊出現的河姆渡文化、浙江省北邊出現的良渚文化、山東省的大汶口文化。中華文明真正具有确切纪年的信史年代始於公元前841年的西周共和元年此前的歷史年代只有各王的世系記錄因此中華文明的最早起源至今仍沒有定案。虽然传统文献中关于夏朝的记载较多但由于都成书较晚迄今为止没有发现公认的夏朝及其之前的歷史確實存在的证据因此近现代历史学界一直有人质疑夏朝存在的真实性。在河南省西部山西省南部发现的二里头遗址具备了属于夏文化的年代和地理位置的基本条件但由于一直未能出土类似殷墟甲骨卜辞的同时期的文字记载夏朝的存在性始终无法被证实。许多中外历史学家认为河南省偃师市二里头遗址的全期或第一二期有可能是夏朝都城的遗迹不過目前仍在尋找確鑿的依據来釐清。中国神话有盤古開天地、女媧造人的說法。传说中的三皇五帝，是夏朝以前數千年傑出首領的代表，具體而言有不同的說法。三皇一般指軒轅黃帝、伏羲、神農以及女媧、祝融中的三人，五帝一般指少昊、顓頊、帝嚳、堯、舜。據現今整理出來的傳說，黃帝原系炎帝部落的一個分支的領袖，強大之後在阪泉之戰中擊敗炎帝，成為新部落聯盟首領，之後又與東南方的蚩尤部落發生衝突，在涿鹿之戰中徹底擊敗對手，樹立自己的霸主地位。传说中指南车就是由黄帝所发明﹕“大驾指南车，起黄帝与蚩尤战于涿鹿之野。蚩尤作大雾，兵士皆迷，于是作指南车，以示四方，遂擒蚩尤，而即帝位。”，此后中国历代都记载磁石的应用。後來黃帝的孫子顓頊和玄孫帝嚳繼續擔任部落聯盟的首領。帝嚳的兒子堯繼位，他是一名賢君，創立禪讓制，傳位給舜。在舜時期，洪水氾濫，鯀採用堵塞的方法，結果洪水更厲害了，鯀被處決，他的兒子禹採用疏導的方法，成功治理洪水，因此被推舉為首領。禹的兒子啟破壞禪讓制方式禹生前本想把權位傳給益禹死后益没有得到权位反而在民众的拥护下启得到了权位。之后益率领着东夷联盟讨伐启。经过几年的斗争后启确立了他在部族联盟中的首领地位。启都郊外的有扈氏仗义起兵率领部族联盟向启都讨伐与启军大战于甘。启死后，其子太康继承后位。太康不理政事，在位期间，夏部族权威削弱，东夷族太昊与少昊部落趁机西进。东夷族有位善射的首领羿。羿率军从东夷属地鉏迁至夏后氏的属地穷石，与当地的夏人通婚，形成了有穷氏。羿在夏民的拥护下夺得了夏政。随之太康投奔斟鄩的斟鄩氏。羿夺得权位后并没有称王，而是把太康之弟中康立為王。但事实上国事全由羿来治理。此举引起不少部落的不满。其中主持天象活动的和氏与羲氏公开反对。羿说他们废时乱日，派胤率兵讨伐羲和二氏，战前作誓师辞《》，在战中取胜。中康死后其子相继位。随后投奔与夏同姓的斟鄩斟灌二氏。从此羿独承王位。羿好射猎不善治理。他废弃武罗伯困龙圉等忠臣重用被伯明氏驱逐的不孝子弟寒浞。寒浞年少时因造谣惑众被伯明氏君主所逐后被有穷氏首领羿收养成为有穷氏的一员得到重用。寒浞势力日益强大后来趁羿在外射猎的机会将羿及其家人杀掉霸其权夺其妻生下豷浇二子。寒浞把戈封给了他的儿子豷把过封给了他的另一个儿子浇。浇受父命率兵先后灭掉亲夏的斟灌氏与斟鄩氏杀了在斟鄩躲避的相。相的妻子缗当时已怀下相的儿子她从墙洞逃走至其母亲有仍氏家里避难不久生下少康。少康长大后为有仍氏牧正。浇闻讯后派人追杀有仍氏少康无奈投奔有虞氏之滨。杼在位期间是夏朝最昌盛的时期。夏人对杼格外尊重为杼举行过“报祭”。杼之子槐在位时，东夷与夏人开始和平共处。其中畎夷、于夷、方夷、黄夷、白夷、赤夷、玄夷、风夷、阳夷，居于淮河、泗水流域的九个部落通常向夏后纳贡祝贺。槐逝后，其子芒继位。芒逝后，其子泄继位。其子不降继位。他曾多次率兵征讨西方的九苑。不降年迈时，内禅于其弟扃。扃逝，其子廑继位。廑继位后不久便病死，其堂兄不降之子孔甲继位。他改变夏礼中祭祀祖宗的传统，开始祭祀天帝。不少方国部落开始对夏室不满，但夏朝与东夷的关系仍然友好。夏后氏自孔甲开始日趋衰落。孔甲逝其子皋继位。皋逝其子发继位。这段期间方国部落与夏室的关系恶化氏族内部的纠纷也激烈化。发逝后其子履癸桀继位。桀在位期间夏室与方国部落的关系已经破裂。桀只顾享乐不顾民间疾苦。大约在前17世纪末前16世纪初商部族首领汤利用夏民恨桀的心理联盟方国部落讨伐桀。灭了亲夏部族韦顾昆吾后与桀开战。汤的势力大桀抵挡不过且战且逃最终战败于有娀氏旧址。桀逃至鸣条汤追之展开了大战。桀再次被击败被汤放逐于历山夏室于約前17世纪末前16世纪初灭亡。中亞起源説與出埃及説一樣支持中國文明與古埃及文明是來自同一源頭但不認為中國文明是古埃及文明的一個分支而是推斷中國文明和古埃及文明同樣是來自一個更遠古的中亞文明該文明在公元前1600年左右才進入中國中國史家對夏朝的描述實則是對這個更遠古的中亞文明的歷史記錄。這個假説同時指出古北歐文明同樣是起源於中亞與中國文明同源。1921年，瑞典考古学家安特生发现了仰韶文化遗址，并在当地发掘出许多彩陶。在比较了当地彩陶和中亚阿什哈巴德附近发现的安诺文化彩陶、乌克兰的特里波列文化彩陶，以及甘肃一带发现的彩陶之后，安特生在一文中提出，从中亚开始，彩陶的成品年代逐渐接近当代，说明中国陶器的制作技术是从中亚传入的，因此中国文化亦有可能是从中亚传入的。但是在1931年，中国学者梁思永发现了河南安陽的后岗三叠层，证明了仰韶文化、龙山文化和商朝文化一脉相承，未受外界根本性的影响，安特生也承认了这一点。1945年，夏鼐通过在甘肃一带的考古发现，指出安特生对于当地齐家文化的分期有误，齐家文化实际上并不早于仰韶文化，因此安特生的假说失去了实证支持。此后安特生本人也不再坚持這個假説。清朝末年法国学者提出中國文明出自古巴比伦他在1894年发表论文。拉克伯里在文中通过比较古代中国文明和古巴比伦文明的近百种相似之处提出假说称黄帝是约前2282年左右率领部众迁至中国的一位巴克族不能因此推断中国文化是外来的。五四运动之后拉克伯里的假说逐渐失去支持被学界否定。在商代中國開始首次出現青铜文明。大約在公元前1600年商汤灭夏取代了夏朝。根据文献记载汤有三子太丁外丙仲壬。太丁是汤的嫡长子被立为太子但太丁未即位便先汤而死。汤二十九年汤王过世。其后长子太丁早逝次子外丙三子仲壬先后即位但总共在位时间仅短短六年。伊尹辅佐太甲摄政太甲即位之初创造了商朝的第一次中兴。此后小甲太戊雍己三子相继为王在王位继承制度上出现了兄终弟及的乱象。小甲是太庚之子，旁系先王。小甲时期，商王朝第一次衰落。小甲在位十七年崩。根据传世文献记载，雍己继位为王。雍己之后，太戊有中丁、外壬、河亶甲三子相继为王。中丁夺位遭到了王朝内部其他统治势力的反对。元年，诸侯侵犯京畿，中丁被迫放弃经营了一百多年的都城亳，东迁于嚣，由此保住了王位。东土边境的蓝夷部落趁机作乱，中丁伐之。中丁在位九年或十一年崩，其弟外壬继位，都于嚣。其王位是平稳传承还是争夺而来的，由于记载的缺乏，无法明了，但外壬即位元年，邳人、侁人叛乱，这可能说明其王位是争夺而来的。外壬在位五年或十年崩，其弟河亶甲夺位称王，迁都于相。夺权徒都导致商王朝政权内部分裂，国力剧减，诸侯侵犯，商王朝第三次衰落。河亶甲连年用兵讨伐叛离诸侯。征蓝夷，又征班方，侁人联盟班方，河亶甲联合彭伯、韦伯克邳、降班方，侁人臣服。河亶甲为旁系先王，在位九年崩。中丁之子，祖乙即位。即位之初迁都于邢，其王位可能是争夺而来的。祖乙作为太戊的嫡长孙，可能得到了王朝内部旧贵族势力的支持，立旧臣巫咸之子巫贤为相，管理政事。如此政权逐渐稳定，修筑新都。命高圉为邠侯，巩固对西土边疆的统治。商王朝二次复兴。祖乙受殷人的尊崇程度与汤不相上下。祖乙在位十九年崩，庙号“中宗”。祖乙之子祖辛即位，政权平稳过渡。祖辛在位十四年或十六年崩，其弟沃甲继位。沃甲在卜辞中作“羌甲”，因为其子南庚继位为王，所以初属直系先王，但因南庚未有子成王，所以在后期的黄祖卜辞中以旁系先王祭祀。沃甲在位五年崩，其侄祖丁继位。祖丁是祖辛之子，有阳甲、盘庚、小辛、小乙四子先后成王。四子同父异母，使得祖丁的四位配偶全部纳入周祭祀谱，在先王行列中独占鳌头。在位九年而陟，堂弟南庚继位。南庚是沃甲之子，即位三年后迁都于奄，因奄地偏南，所以此王得名“南庚”。南庚在位仅六年，祖丁之子阳甲即位。自此“祖辛—祖丁—阳甲”一系代替“沃甲—南庚”一系为直系，南庚在位时间较短，可能是逊位于阳甲，或是阳甲夺位。王位传承的纷争，削弱了政治统治的势力，国力锐减，边境诸侯内侵。带来了商王朝的第四次大衰落。阳甲三年，西征丹山戎，得丹山。阳甲在位四年崩，其弟盘庚即位。太庚三子小甲、太戊、雍己相继为王，破坏了嫡长子传承制度，此后弟子相互代立，争夺王位，屡迁都邑，使得国力衰亡，诸侯莫朝，边境遭侵。是为商代中期的“比九世乱”。盘庚在卜辞中作“般庚”。商代前期多次迁都在商汤时曾建都于郑亳。人们不愿为荒淫无度的纣王卖命纷纷倒戈牧野之战后纣王自焚商朝从此灭亡。周王朝建立。周朝是中國歷史上繼商朝之後的王朝，也是最後一個完全施行封建制度的世襲王朝，可分為西周（約前1100年－前771年）與東周（前770年－前256年）兩個時期。西周從周武王滅殷商建國並定都镐京（宗周）起，至周幽王亡國止，是中華文明的全盛時期之一。該時期的物質文明及精神文明皆深刻地影響着後世。東周都城為洛邑（今河南洛陽），其時代又可分為春秋時期（前770年－前476年）與戰國時期（前476年－前221年）。前256年秦昭襄王廢黜周赧王，東周亡，周朝覆灭。約公元前1046年武王灭商之后实施封建制度大封王族及功臣如封太公望于齐召公奭于燕等另封子受辛之子武庚于朝歌。前1037年雒邑修筑完成。周成王殁子钊即位是为周康王周康王殁。四十六年之间天下安宁刑错四十余年不用史称。成為以後歷代就中國治世的典範。周康王死后，子瑕继位，是为周昭王。周昭王十六年，昭王亲征荆楚，直至江汉地区。南征共3年，周昭王还师渡汉水时溺死，全军覆没。其子满继位，是为周穆王，继位时年已五十。穆王好大喜功，仍想向四方发展。又好游行，以致朝政松弛。东方徐国率九夷侵周。穆王南征，联楚平乱，得胜。经过昭穆时代之后，周朝開始实力大减。这一时期，西北戎狄渐兴。周懿王时，戎狄交侵，暴虐中国。周人深为所苦。周厉王时期连年战乱百姓苦不堪言。同时厉王以荣夷公为卿士垄断社会财富及资源。为压制国人不满周厉王命卫巫监视有谤王者即杀。结果人人自危终于酿成国人暴动。前841年厉王出奔到彘。前771年西周覆亡國祚約二百五十一年。周幽王被杀后申曾等诸侯见目的达到而此时郑卫晋等诸侯率领的勤王之师也已经赶到于是申侯与缯侯与外面的郑卫晋等诸侯里应外合大败犬戎犬戎退走。申缯卫晋郑等诸侯立周幽王太子宜臼为王是为周平王。与此同时虢公翰等王朝大臣立姬余臣为王史称的局面。周平王元年。东周开始。由于后世的史家往往又把東周这段时期划分为春秋和战国两个时期，所以又称这段时期为春秋战国时期。由于周王室放弃了关中地区实力大不如前不仅无力控制诸侯还要仰仗诸侯们的供给早期主要是郑卫国和晋国到了战国时期则是魏国和韩国。周室的地位一落千丈仅留有“天下共主”的虚名。春秋时期周王室还有一点号召力到了战国时期连一点号召力都没有了。周室东迁关中故地被犬戎等部落所占据。当周幽王危难之时秦襄公从秦起兵勤王奋勇作战杀退了犬戎但是没能救出周幽王。但是秦襄公的英勇和忠诚得到了周平王的肯定于是作为对秦人勤王之功的褒奖周平王把岐周故地封给了秦襄公把秦由周王室的附庸升格为诸侯秦正式成为诸侯国。经过秦襄公秦文公父子两代人的征战基本上收复了岐周之地。东周开始后郑国的郑武公郑庄公父子把持了王朝的大政。他们利用出任王朝卿士的有利条件常常借王命大肆扩张使郑国成为春秋初年一个强国号称小霸。由于郑庄公公朝中的势力太大而且常常忙于他在郑国的私事很少入朝听政即使入朝也仅是装装样子或者干自己的私活。这样引起了周平王的不满。于是周平王逐渐起用虢公以分化郑庄公的权力这引起郑庄公的强烈不满。而周平王在很多事情又必须依赖郑庄公因此不得不向郑庄公解释于是发生了周郑交质的事件。对这一事件进行了强烈的批评文中引用“信不由中质无益也。”说明交质的“无信”本质并且认为周王室与诸侯互换人质是自己降格说明交质的“无礼”本质。故认为此事件是“礼崩乐坏”的缩影。前720年周平王殁周朝廷准备委任虢公执政取代郑庄公。郑国在这年先后收割了温地的麦和成周的禾周郑关系进一步恶化。到了前717年郑庄公入朝周桓王因为郑国擅自领军取用王畿的麦不以礼接待郑庄公。郑庄公不满周王的做法两年后但同年又与齐国一同入朝。前706年周桓王收回郑庄公在周朝的权力郑庄公不朝见周桓王于是周桓王组织联军攻打郑国但被郑国击败。是为𦈡葛之战。此后郑庄公与周王室不再有大规模的接触。前770年，由於遭到北方遊牧部落犬戎的侵襲，周平王東遷黄河中游的雒邑（今河南洛陽），东周開始。此後，周王朝的影響力逐漸減弱，取而代之的是大大小小一百多個小國（諸侯國和附屬國），史稱春秋时期。春秋時期的大國共有十幾個，其中包括晉、秦、鄭、齊及楚等。這一時期社會動盪，戰爭不斷，先後有五個國家稱霸，即齊、宋、晉、楚、秦（又有一說是齊、晉、楚、吳、越），合稱春秋五霸。第一個稱霸的國君齐桓公任用管仲在國內施行改革使當時階級矛盾十分激烈的齊國安定下來並逐漸強盛許多诸侯都朝拜齊國。齊國率九個盟國之師攻伐威脅周朝的楚國楚成王被迫將和。齊桓公死後他的五個兒子爭做國君齊失其霸業。宋襄公曾經試圖稱霸後為楚軍所敗。晉國公子重耳在一場內亂後登上君位，是為晋文公。晉文公實行改革，使晉國的勢力發展到中原，與南方大國楚國產生摩擦。後楚國出兵圍攻宋國首都帝丘，晋文公聯合秦、齊、宋三國之師大破楚軍於城濮，成為中原霸主。與晉國為盟的秦國國君秦穆公在晉文公死後起了稱霸的野心，與晉文公之子晉襄公屢次發生戰爭，最後以晉國的勝利告終，於是往西發展，把西邊的一些戎國滅掉，使秦穆公成為西戎的霸主。楚成王的孫子楚庄王即位後，再次與晉國爭霸，楚國圍攻宋、鄭，晉國幾次派兵來救，都大敗而歸。許多中原國家背晉向楚。楚庄王成為中原的霸主。莊王死後，楚經靈王、平王兩代漸弱。東南方的吳國闔閭趁勢興兵伐楚，並大敗楚軍，攻佔楚國國都壽春，後平王之子昭王聯盟秦國攻吳，吳兵退出楚境。定都會稽的越國趁吳軍遠征時攻擊吳國，大敗吳軍，吳王闔閭被射死，後闔閭之子夫差又報仇攻越，大獲全勝，俘虜越王勾踐。吳國又出兵齊國，與魯國聯合將齊國打敗，又攻晉國，但在黃池被晉軍打敗，越王勾踐趁這時襲擊吳國，九年後兼併吳國，夫差自殺而死。隨後北上，與齊、晉等諸侯會盟。勾踐死後，越國衰弱，戰國時為楚威王所滅。春秋時期確定二十八宿；後期則產生古四分曆。春秋时期的人能製造精良的戰車與騎兵装备，此時中國的冶金也十分發達，能製造精良的鐵器，在农业上出現各種灌溉機械，大大提高生產效率，從而為以後人口大大膨脹奠定基礎。歷史上出現春秋，國語，戰國策等史事記敘。春秋戰國時期學術思想比較自由，史稱百家爭鳴。出現多位對之後中國有深遠影響的思想家等。春秋时期在文化上出現了中國最早的詩歌總集诗经等等。前546年左右，黃河流域的爭霸基本結束，晉、楚兩國平分霸權。前403年，晉國被三個門閥巨卿瓜分，成為韓、趙、魏三個諸侯國，史稱。再加上姜姓的齐国被田氏取代，人稱田齊。韓、趙、魏、齊、秦、楚及燕，並稱战国七雄，戰國時期正式開始。大部分马克思主义史學家將戰國開始劃為封建社會，然而大部分西方及臺灣學者卻又將之劃為封建社會的崩潰，這是定義不同所致。戰國初年各國開始變法運動其中以李悝變法的魏國在魏文侯時首先興起北伐韓趙中山東伐齊宋南伐楚西伐秦成為強國。齊國在齊威王時興起兩次攻伐魏國獲勝並長期任為霸主。南邊的楚國經吴起變法後強盛滅掉陳蔡越擴展疆土。趙國經過赵武灵王胡服騎射後訓練成一部強大的軍隊與秦齊楚爭先。韓國國君韓昭侯任用法家大師申不害變法逐漸興起。前356年，秦國的秦孝公採用法家的商鞅變法開始後，秦國國力大大增強，使其他六國恐懼，名士苏秦游遍六國，說服六國國君聯合合縱抗秦，秦國卻用张仪為相，又使六國屈從于秦，破壞合縱。宋、魯等小國到戰國後期為齊楚所滅。合縱破壞後，齊國作為山東六國中最強盛的國家，開始沾沾自喜，其差點滅掉燕國，自稱東帝，攻滅宋國的行為使諸侯驚恐，在燕國大將樂毅的統領下，燕、韓、趙、魏、秦五國大軍重創齊國，攻陷齊都城臨淄，後齊國在大將田單使用火牛陣趕走燕國後成功復國，自此東方雄主齊國衰落，秦國基本上對山東六國形成壓倒性優勢。秦昭襄王时期秦國開始发动對六國的大规模戰役採用范睢的远交近攻策略任命大將白起发动戰役通過伊闕之戰郢都之戰華陽之戰長平之戰四大戰役橫掃山東六國奠定了秦國統一天下的基礎秦國最終在秦始皇的统治下於前221年憑藉王翦父子消滅六國完成統一中國歷史進入新的時代。科技史上出現墨子建築史上有鲁班首次發明瓦當奠定中國建築技術的基礎。文化上有第一個以個人名字出現在中國文學史上的詩人屈原，他著有等文學作品。秦朝源自周朝诸侯国秦国。前770年，秦襄公在东周周平王东迁时有功，受封于关中平原，建立秦国。秦国于战国时期逐渐转强，到秦王政陆续攻灭六国（前230年至前221年）而一统天下，建立秦朝，结束战国时期，中国从此进入统一时代。秦王政建立秦朝后自称“始皇帝”三合一的君主专制另有发扬阴阳家的五德始终说以神化皇帝。宗教以传统崇拜祖先天帝山川神等众神以及巫术占卜与占星等而神仙方术之术受秦始皇所迷信。为了箝制人民思想避免叛乱与报复欺骗秦始皇的方士们先后发生焚书坑儒事件这是先秦文化与诸子百家思想的一大浩劫。秦始皇死后，宦官赵高与李斯密不发丧，密谋夺权。赵高为胡亥的师傅，与秦始皇长子扶苏和蒙恬之弟蒙毅不合，而李斯也对蒙氏兄弟不满。他们拥立胡亥为太子，假造诏令以赐死在九原督军的扶苏，史称沙丘之变。他们等到东巡大军返抵咸阳才发丧，胡亥也继位为帝，即秦二世。秦二世受赵高摆布，他赐死蒙氏兄弟，并杀害兄弟姐妹数十人。蒙恬的九原军也由王离接管。秦二世纵情于声色犬马，圈养无数狗马禽兽；征招罪犯与百姓，续建阿房宫与秦始皇陵。秦朝政治趋向混乱，赵高把持朝廷，蒙蔽皇帝，控制群臣言论，指鹿为马。前208年，李斯被赵高陷害，于咸阳腰斩，夷三族。另外役民过甚，当时力役三十倍于古以及田赋二十倍于古。旧六国百姓不愿受严刻的秦法箝制与无数的劳役折磨，于同年爆发秦末农民战争。前207年刘邦与张良会合于洛阳以东，然后夺南阳、定武关，入关中。此时赵高担任丞相，因畏惧刘邦，命阎乐杀秦二世，改立子婴为秦王。同时，刘邦军于蓝田击溃秦军，驻军霸上。秦王子婴杀掉赵高后于轵道向刘邦投降，秦朝亡。刘邦入主关中后，废除严苛的秦法，与百姓约法三章，受秦人拥戴。前206到前202年刘邦与项羽之间爆发了争夺天下的战争，史称“楚汉之争”，最后刘邦取胜。汉朝是中國第一個在文治武功與國際聲望達到極為輝煌的時代，也是中國歷史分野上被視為上古時期轉折到中古時期的第一個朝代，具有承先啟後的重要關鍵地位及代表性。由於中間歷經王莽篡漢的短暫中斷過程，所以又分為西汉（又稱前漢）及东汉（又稱後漢）。前202年汉高祖刘邦正式称帝立国号“汉”西汉建国。汉高祖刘邦登基后采用叔孙通的建议恢复礼法设三公和九卿任用萧何为丞相采取与民休息清静无为的黄老治术鼓励生产轻徭薄赋。称帝之后异姓诸侯王势大因此汉初几年对异姓王一一分别翦除改封刘氏宗亲为王。后刘邦与功臣斬白马立盟誓“非刘氏而王者天下共击之”史称“白马之誓”。汉初政府官员基本上由大大小的功臣充任从而形成汉初“布衣卿相”的政治格局。此时由于秦末以来动乱多年国力虚弱导致汉高祖刘邦在收复秦末被匈奴占据的河套地区时遭匈奴冒顿单于围困于白登即白登之围从此以后汉朝采用和亲政策。刘邦与刘盈去世后吕后称制大封诸吕并欲王诸吕。而以陈平周勃为首之功臣派亦做好准备并与刘氏皇族联合。吕后一死功臣派与皇族立即先发制人发动政变一举诛平吕氏外戚废掉少帝刘弘迎立汉高祖刘邦的第四子代王刘恒为帝是为汉文帝。汉文帝和儿子汉景帝在位期间，继续采取黄老无为的手段，奉行“無為而治”的方针，实行轻徭薄赋、力行节俭的与民休息政策，恩威并施，以弥补秦末民变和楚汉战争的多年动乱带来的巨大破坏，使人民负担大大得到减轻。汉文帝在位时，存在诸侯王国势力过大及匈奴入侵中国等问题。汉文帝对待这些问题采取的是异常谨慎而且又有效的手法。文帝二年分别两次“除田租税之半”，即是租率最终减为三十税一。文帝十三年，还全免田租。同时，对周边敌对国家也不轻易出兵，维持和平，以免耗损国力。这就是轻徭薄赋的政策。文帝生活也十分节俭，宫室内车骑衣服没有增添，衣不曳地，帷帐不施文绣，更下诏禁止郡国贡献奇珍异物。因此，国家的开支有所节制，贵族官僚不敢奢侈无度，从而减轻了人民的负担。这就是休养生息的政策。景帝即位不久就采纳晁错的建议削夺诸藩王的封地引发各封国的担忧而在汉景帝三年正月保持和平的同时也在积蓄国力透过马复令等措施来积极备战此一时期史称是中国成为大一统帝国时代以来第一次被传统历史学家赞誉的时期。景帝驾崩后，其子刘彻即位，史称汉武帝。武帝在位期间，采取一系列改革措施，锐意进取，使得西汉的政治、经济及军事整合起来。在政治上，武帝加强皇权，于公元前140年建立年号“建元”，该年就称之为“建元元年”，始开中国以皇帝年号纪年的滥觞，采纳主父偃的建议，施行推恩令，削弱诸侯藩王的势力，从此，诸侯藩王的势力不再能够对中央朝廷构成威胁；后又以诸侯献上的黄金成色不纯为由，取消百余位列侯的爵位，即史书上所称的“酎金失侯”。经此二次事件后，中央集权得到大大的加强。文化上，废除之前以“黄老学说、无为而治”的治国思想；并采纳董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，使儒家思想从此逐步成为中国历经二千年的“主流思想”。对外关系上，积极对付西汉的最大外患匈奴。在此期间，先后出现卫青、霍去病等杰出名将，经过武帝、昭帝、宣帝三朝数十年用兵后，终于打败匈奴单于，使其“漠南无王庭”；又吞灭南越国，征讨朝鲜，使汉朝成为当时的东亚霸主。外交上，两次派张骞出使西域，开辟丝绸之路，并先后以两位公主刘细君、刘解忧和亲西域大国乌孙，而达到离间西域和匈奴关系，进而联络西域的目的。汉武帝晚年笃信巫术，听信江充谗言，导致发生著名的“巫蛊之祸”，戾太子刘据被迫杀江充而谋反，结果兵败而死，皇后卫子夫因此自杀。事后武帝也极为后悔，修建望思台以悼念太子。西汉经过多年对外战争，文景之治的积蓄耗费殆尽，经济遭受巨大冲击，国力也出现衰退的局面。为此，在巫蛊之祸后，汉武帝利用远征军失利的时机发表著名的“轮台之诏”，不再奉行穷兵黩武的政策。为提振经济，武帝将铸币、盐铁收归中央管理，加强农业生产，实行和籴法，开凿白渠，并创立均输、平准政策，统购统销，干预物价，加强国家在经济中扮演的角色，此一系列政策使汉朝得以避免步入衰败。汉武帝去世后钩弋夫人之子年仅八岁的刘弗陵即位是为汉昭帝。汉昭帝登基之初由上官桀金日磾和霍光三人共同辅政。但是在元凤元年（前80年）爆发元凤政变上官桀被杀霍光从此大权独揽。霍光延续武帝在位晚年的政策对内休养生息放宽盐铁专卖制度提高儒生地位。昭帝死后武帝孙昌邑王刘贺即位。他行为放纵密谋排除霍光但反被霍光所废。之后霍光又迎立刘病已即位是为汉宣帝。本始元年（前73年）霍光还政于宣帝。地节二年（前68年）霍光去世。此后宣帝将霍氏集团一网打尽。但是宣帝继续奉行霍光的治国路线大力整顿吏治劝民农桑抑制兼并降低国家在经济中的角色。这段时期汉朝不仅内政清明而且对于匈奴继续保持强势在汉宣帝神爵二年（前60年）设立西域都护以加强对西域三十六国所处地区的联络与控制。经过昭宣二帝的休养生息国家经济得以从武帝中期以来面临衰退的困境下的明显恢复史称。汉宣帝死后汉元帝刘奭即位西汉开始走向衰落。元帝“柔仁好儒”对于社会秩序采取放纵态度经常下令大赦免导致盗贼遍地土地兼并日益严重也致使皇权旁落外戚与宦官势力兴起。他死后汉成帝刘骜即位成帝好女色先后宠爱许皇后班婕妤和赵氏姐妹（赵飞燕赵合德）赵氏姐妹不能生育因而嫉恨其他可以生育的妃嫔与他们的子女成帝与其他妃嫔的子女均为赵飞燕姐妹残害杀死史称“燕啄皇孙”。由于“酒色侵骨”成帝最后竟死在“温柔乡”之中。由于成帝不理朝政为外戚王氏集团的兴起提供条件皇太后王政君的家族权力急遽膨胀。成帝死后由定陶王之子哀帝刘欣即位哀帝有“断袖之癖”终日与他宠信的董贤厮混相好外戚王氏的权力一度受压抑。此时国家已是一片末世之象民间“再受命”说法四起。元寿二年（前1年）八月哀帝去世。太皇太后王政君派王莽接替董贤成为大司马并迎接中山王刘衎即位是为汉平帝改元元始。但是刘衎已沦为王莽的傀儡。五年后王莽毒死仅14岁的平帝并迎立太子刘婴即位号“孺子”自己担任“假皇帝”9年1月王莽逼迫孺子婴退位篡漢自立新朝西汉结束。王莽奪權后，宣佈一系列的改革，改國號為新。然而這些改革卻往往不切實際。23年，新朝被劉玄為首的叛軍推翻，劉玄成為更始帝，然而他的無能腐敗，加上叛軍中的綠林軍和赤眉軍混亂，使漢朝宗室劉秀得以乘虛而入。25年劉秀復辟漢朝，定都雒邑，史稱东汉，而他後被稱為汉光武帝。新莽天凤五年之南即皇帝位是为光武帝灭刘盆子仍沿用汉的国号以这一年为建武元年定都雒阳史称东汉。即位后于37年终于消灭赤眉隗嚣公孙述等割据势力统一全国。汉光武帝废除王莽时的弊政，建武二年的权力，加强中央集权；同时清查土地、新定税制、振兴农业，使人民生活逐步稳定下来；另外提倡儒术，建立太学，设置五经博士，与尊儒并行的便是表彰气节，因此士大夫争相以名节为目标，为淳美的政教，奠下基础；对匈奴等外部势力实行防御的策略，纵容姑息放弃西域，对外戚严加限制，史称光武中兴。但由于分封土地，也造成土地兼并情况日益严重，地方豪强势力兴起，为东汉的最终灭亡埋下隐患。汉明帝和汉章帝在位期间，东汉进入全盛时期，史称。期间，窦固以班超出使西域，班超在西域长驻三十多年，不仅善于使用武力威慑各国，更善于运用外交手段去联络距离较远的国家。但匈奴人亦同样在开展类似的行动，推翻各国亲汉的政权，再与新政权结盟。双方不断地反复攻防，一直到20年后，班超之子班勇才完全掌控西域。章和二年窦宪派兵再次出击，出塞五千里进攻金微山，大破北匈奴单于主力，斩名王以下五千余人，俘虏北单于皇太后，北单于仓皇逃窜不知所终，从此扫除数百年来匈奴对汉朝北方边境的威胁，汉朝国势也再一次到达汉武帝时期的鼎盛；佛教也在此时传入中国。但是在章帝后期，外戚窦氏日益跋扈，揭开东汉后期外戚与宦官两股势力争斗的序曲，東漢盛世僅維持六十餘年。88年年仅三十一岁的汉章帝突然驾崩时仅十岁的太子刘肇即位是为汉和帝他即位伊始实际上朝政都由窦皇后操纵国家政治日益腐败。窦氏的跋扈引发和帝的不满不久年仅14岁的和帝就抓捕外戚窦宪外戚势力开始衰弱和帝信用宦官从此东汉的政治沦为外戚和宦官两股势力的争斗。不过和帝仍然在政事上非常勤奋不失为英明之主。元兴元年冬十二月年仅廿七岁的和帝病逝。出生仅百日的少子刘隆即位是为殇帝。殇帝仅在位8个月就驾崩了。接替即位的是清河王刘庆之子安帝刘祜。他即位早期由太后邓绥临朝理政。邓太后勤俭节约任用贤良同时对自己家族的势力有所限制却也对宦官势力纵容。建光元年正月初六刘炳驾崩年仅三岁。正月廿五日梁冀拥立刘缵即位是为质帝。质帝非常聪颖称梁冀为结果不久质帝就被毒害弒杀。本初元年闰六月初七日，大将军梁冀拥立汉章帝之孙刘志即位，是为汉桓帝。桓帝年少，因此继续由梁太后临朝执政。桓帝即位之初，梁冀势力几无边界，他残害忠良，中饱私囊，无恶不作。桓帝对他暗中也颇为不满，延熹二年八月初十，桓帝派兵士包围梁宅，梁冀与妻子双双自杀，梁氏外戚势力土崩瓦解。宦官成为新的权力中心。单超、徐璜、具瑗、左悺、唐衡五人被封为县侯；单超食邑两万户，后又封为车骑将军，其他四人各一万户，世称五侯。五侯贪婪放纵，终致在延熹九年制造第二次党锢之祸。而灵帝本人骄奢淫逸，为填补财政公开卖官，朝政腐败。数十年的政争以及天灾动摇了汉朝的民生终于在184年爆发由太平道教主张角引发的黄巾之乱黄巾军以架空汉室权力消灭各路割据势力并在官渡之战中消灭了最强大的敌人袁绍军队的主力基本统一了中国北方。汉献帝建安十三年，罢三公官，复置丞相，曹操任丞相，独揽大权。曹操挥军南征，却在赤壁之战中被孙权、刘备联军击败，曹操退回北方。不久刘备以荆州为根本，进占益州，曹刘孙三分天下之势开始形成。而在这段期间，汉献帝只是一个傀儡皇帝，朝廷大权掌握在曹操手中。曹操先是晋位为魏公，不久又晋位魏王，違返漢高祖所訂的白馬之盟。刘备亦晋位汉中王，东汉至此已名存实亡。建安25年春正月庚子，魏武帝曹操去世，其世子曹丕继任汉丞相，袭封魏王。同年十一月，曹丕篡汉，迫汉献帝“禅让”帝位，东汉结束，四百多年的汉朝国祚也正式告终，三国时代正式开始。而魏文帝曹丕篡汉建立魏后，漢昭烈帝刘备随即在蜀地宣布继承汉朝法统，建立了沿用汉国号的政权，史称蜀汉。江东孙权虽向魏称臣，内政外交皆自主，几年后吳大帝孙权亦称帝，国号吴。220年曹操病逝其子曹丕篡位迫汉献帝禅让后自立為帝史称曹魏但只是曇花一現。曹魏朝廷在高平陵事件後完全被司马氏一手掌控。263年司马昭为建立军功准备篡位发动魏灭蜀之战蜀汉亡。265年司马昭病死其子司马炎废魏元帝自立国号晋史称西晋曹魏亡。西晋于280年发动晋灭吴之战灭亡孙吴统一中国。至此三国时期结束进入晋朝。司马氏在三国时期为曹魏世族，高平陵事变后司馬懿父子掌握魏国政权。265年，司马炎逼迫魏元帝曹奂禅位，国号晋，即晋武帝。280年，西晋灭孙吴而统一天下，但是和平稳定的局面只维持了短短的十几年。晋惠帝继位后朝廷渐乱，领有军权的诸王纷纷争权，史称八王之乱。晋朝元气大伤后，内迁的诸民族乘机举兵，造成五胡乱华的局面，大量百姓与世族开始南渡。316年，西晋灭亡，北方从此进入五胡十六国时期。317年晋朝宗室司马睿于建康称帝东晋建立据有中国南方的领土。中原的世族及平民陆续南迁形成中国北方侨民和南方土著聚居的局面。东晋初期王导等人采取镇之以静策略稳定局势。皇权衰落朝廷大权主要由世族掌握由于军权外重内轻朝廷控制力弱不少方镇心怀野心先后发生了王敦之乱苏峻之乱及桓温专政。虽然部分士族当权者有恢复之心前后发动几次北伐但是朝廷担心野心家借此扩张势力大多消极支持。383年前秦出动举国之师意图灭亡东晋。面对亡国之祸东晋君臣一心凭借淝水之战奠定胜局。谢玄等将领乘胜追击成功的收复大批失土致使前秦崩解引发了北方军事和政治格局的变化。然而东晋后期又发生朋党相争及桓玄作乱。平民负担沉重又发生孙恩卢循之乱。谯纵亦据蜀地自立。最后刘裕崛起平定诸乱凭借军事力量夺得帝位进入了南北朝时期。经济方面东晋庄园经济占据的比例比西晋更大。由于农业技术提升等因素在侨姓世族与吴姓世族的衣冠南渡密集开发下江南获得全面发展而繁荣兴盛中国的经济中心也逐渐南移后来才有大运河的出现。此外手工业和商业方面也有长足进步。晋朝虽为汉末以来中国文化衰落的时期但在哲学文学艺术史学科技等等方面也有新的发展。汉代以前政治主权完全在华夏族而其他族则作为被统治者而同化汉代以后政治主权不全在华夏族而他族或以征服华夏族者而同化边疆民族带来的草原游牧文化也融于中原文化。当时天下大乱东晋士族文人多不以道义为重使儒学衰落。一些旷达的士人目击衰乱不甘于隐避就开始做出放逸的事情来比如清谈甚至逐渐成为一种社会风气。与此同时玄学开始广泛传播。玄学与印度东传之佛教交汇使中国文化的儒释道逐渐合为一体。46年之后东汉朝廷常以招引或强制的方式将边疆的北方各族内迁以便监控各族或是增加兵源和劳动力。到了西晋时中国北部东部和西部尤其是并州和关中一带大量胡族与汉族杂住。这些胡族逐渐成为汉人管辖下的编户由于他们需要纳税且时时受汉官欺压或受汉人歧视因此心生不满时有举兵之事。八王之乱的爆发使晋廷失去在地方的影响力胡族陆续叛变。304年李特子李雄继立后击败罗尚并称成都王又于306年称帝国号。范围大致上涵盖华北蜀地辽东最远可达漠北江淮及西域。在入主中原众多民族在这个范围内相继建立许多国家传统史家认为这些外族以匈奴羯鲜卑羌及氐为主统称五胡将此时期称为五胡乱华。西晋灭亡后，华北地区战火纷飞，掠夺与屠杀不断。在该时期包括西南的成汉，先后建立16个国家，史称十六国。北方经济受到严重摧毁，影响了中国的社会、经济、民族、文化、政治、军事等发展走向。311年永嘉之乱给人民巨大痛苦，让人们大多逃难到凉州、辽东以及江南地区，使这些地区的经济文化渐渐繁荣，经济中心开始南移。在诸国混战期间，前秦皇帝苻坚一度统一华北，但在南征东晋时，于淝水之战惨败。其后各族于关东及空虚的关中叛变，加上东晋北伐，前秦全面崩溃，北方再度混乱。北魏立国后，经过拓跋圭、拓跋嗣及拓跋焘的经营，最后于439年统一华北，进入南北朝时期。由420年刘裕篡东晋建立劉宋开始至589年隋灭南陈为止上承东晋五胡十六国下接隋朝。因为南北两势长时间对立所以称南北朝。南朝包含北魏东魏西魏北齐和北周等五朝。南朝皇族主要是寒门或庶族因为军权逐渐由寒门或庶族掌握所以能够篡夺皇位。初期经济逐渐恢复军力强盛。由于战略错误与北朝军力强盛使得疆界逐次南移。皇帝与宗室为了皇位时常血腥斗争。南梁受到梁武帝改善使国力再度强盛。晚年国家糜烂侯景之乱使南朝实力大减并四分五裂独霸政局的侨姓世族完全崩溃。虽由南陈的陈文帝统一南朝但国力已衰只能依长江抵御北朝。北朝承继五胡十六国为胡汉融合的新兴朝代。北魏皇室为鲜卑族漢族门阀受五胡文化影響鮮卑皇室也受到漢文化的薰陶彼此通婚。北魏被北方的柔然牵制直到较友好的突厥并吞柔然后才全力对付南朝。后期在六镇之亂之后造成实力大衰。北魏分裂為高歡控制的东魏及宇文泰控制的西魏后不久分别被高氏北齐及宇文氏北周取代。北齐主要由六镇集团组成初期军力强盛。北周鲜卑军比北齐少政治地位不如南朝陈。最后借由宇文泰开创的关陇集团吞并政治日趋腐败的北齐。北周武帝去世后汉人杨坚掌握朝廷通过授禅北周静帝建立隋朝经营八年之后发兵灭南陈统一中国。相对于北朝战争不断各阶级对立的局势经济持续成长的南朝比较稳定出现元嘉之治与永明之治等治世。中原人口自黄巾之乱和永嘉之乱就持续南移带来劳动力与生产技术。江南的繁荣使得中国的经济南移在隋炀帝时建立隋唐大运河。文化方面乱世为思想自由提供沃土肥壤提出务实求治和无君论等观点。对文学艺术科技等开创出独到见解与理论。玄学佛教与道教都很兴盛。其中佛教带动石窟的发展敦煌莫高窟麦积山石窟云冈石窟与龙门石窟名扬后世。对外交流也很兴旺东到日本和朝鲜半岛西到西域中亚西亚南到东南亚与印度。南北朝初期仍是世族政治，社会阶层分为世族、齐民编户、依附人及奴隶。世族拥有大量不需付税的依附人从事生产与作战，影响朝廷的税收。虽然南朝皇帝仍然需要主流世族的拥护，不过也扶持寒门以平衡政治势力，并且在南梁时萌芽出科举制度。南朝世族因为长期安逸而逐渐衰退，在侯景之乱后彻底崩溃。北朝胡族缺乏政治的经验，所以重用汉人世族，引起双方的文化采借，久之形成文化混合，以北魏孝文帝的汉化运动最盛。混合的过程产生激烈的思想冲突、政治斗争或种族冲突，例如六镇之乱、北齐的排汉运动。而北周建立关中本位政策，融合鲜卑及汉文化以消除胡汉隔阂。隋朝统一天下后，开创出具开放性和包容性的隋唐帝国。581年，楊堅取代北周建立隋朝，定都長安時的水平，據統計，可供五六十年之用。隋文帝年号为开皇，这一时期史稱。隋朝在610年完工的大运河系統，鞏固中央對東南地區的統治，加強南北經濟、文化的聯繫，為經濟、政治上的大一統王朝盛世。然而文帝晚年剛愎自用，加重刑罰，为隋朝的覆灭奠定基础。隋文帝死後，其子隋煬帝一方面为修京杭大运河而调动了大量的劳动力，一方面又好大喜功、穷奢极欲、連年征戰，使农民不堪重负纷纷起义，導致隋朝迅速滅亡。隋朝國祚只有三十八年，是繼秦朝後的另一强大而短暂的大一統王朝。隋朝在大业年间使得各地民变不止。李渊见天下大乱617年在太原起兵。不久占领隋都大兴城。李渊拥立杨侑为帝于同年五月迫使隋恭帝禅位建国唐朝即唐高祖。都城大兴改名为长安。李渊建立唐朝后先后平定瓦冈军李密西北金城的薛举薛仁杲武威的李轨河东的刘武周宋金刚洛阳王世充与河北夏帝窦建德。623年辅公祏率杜伏威余部在丹阳反唐隔年被唐军俘杀江南平定。624年消灭高开道辅公祏后唐朝基本统一中原。628年柴绍率军消灭依附突厥的梁师都唐朝统一战争最终结束。626年李世民发动玄武门之变。李渊禅让帝位，成为太上皇。李世民继位，即唐太宗。唐太宗励精图治、纳谏如流，逐渐恢复唐朝的国力。在内政方面，唐太宗推行均田制与租庸调制，提升农业发展。在职官制度上，改良隋朝的制度，形成三省六部和科举选士制，限制皇权发展与贵族世袭等恶习。对外方面，唐太宗采取积极防御、以战止战的策略，以及用羁縻与武力的方式安抚四方。627年东突厥的藩属薛延陀、回纥、拔也古、同罗诸部因为不认同颉利可汗的政令与改革国俗，纷纷脱离，改立薛延陀部为可汗，突利可汗也归降唐朝。628年朔方人梁洛仁杀盘据夏州的梁师都，归降唐朝。629年李靖率骑兵奇袭攻灭东突厥，隔年北方各族入贡长安，诸民族尊称唐太宗为天可汗。635年派李靖攻占吐谷浑，637年派苏定方西征攻下西突厥，641年派文成公主与吐蕃赞普松赞干布通婚。这些都稳定唐朝与四方各国的关系。贞观时期国家安定，经济得到恢复和发展，史称“贞观之治”。对外于659年消灭西突厥，疆域西扩至咸海与阿姆河一带，设立安西都护府于碎叶城（今吉尔吉斯托克马克市）。并且于葱岭以西设置十六个都督府，让吐火罗叶护、诃达罗支国王等等中亚君主兼任都督。在东方，与新罗联合灭掉东北强国高句丽和百济，并白江口之战击败日本援军。唐朝在朝鲜半岛建立安东都护府，也间接促使新罗统一朝鲜半岛，朝鮮成為之後一千三百年中國最重要的藩屬國。660年起高宗因健康原因许多政事都逐渐交给武则天处理武则天成为最高统治者之一与高宗并称。高宗去世后太子李显即位是为唐中宗。武则天不久将中宗废为庐陵王改立四子李旦为帝是为唐睿宗。武则天于690年废睿宗即皇帝位改国号为周即武周定都洛阳改立李旦为皇嗣。武则天成为中国历史上唯一的女皇帝。在武则天掌权与称帝的期间国家较贞观时期有更大的发展。武则天晚年705年退位史称神龙革命。712年李隆基即位即唐玄宗。唐玄宗时期可分为开元与天宝两个部分其中前三十年开元时期的政治比较清明。唐玄宗提出以武韦为戒以贞观为榜样作为执政的指导思想。他先后任用姚崇宋璟卢怀慎张九龄与韩休等贤臣并且广纳谏言。例如采纳张九龄的建议将京官中有能之士外调为都督刺史以训练行政能力又将有为的都督刺史升为京官。增进中央与地方的沟通了解和信任。裁减武周中宗时期的员外官等冗官精简机构以便节省开支与提升行政能力。严格执行法律抑制权贵就算是皇亲国戚犯罪也绳之以法。对于稳定社会秩序产生良好的影响。加强执行均田制打击土豪。发展农业生产兴修水利扩大耕地面积大大提升农业生产力。对外方面改善与吐蕃东突厥契丹与奚的关系推行和亲政策。听从姚崇与宋璟的建议充实边防军务并且避免与外族发生战争。唐玄宗的这些措施使唐朝在开元年间进入全盛时期人口大量增长物产丰富史称开元之治。唐玄宗于742年改元天宝。唐玄宗晚年志得意满放纵享乐把政事交給李林甫杨国忠處理并宠幸杨贵妃。755年11月安禄山以讨伐杨国忠为由发动叛乱史称安史之乱。唐玄宗紧急南逃蜀地成都途中发生马嵬驿之变杨国忠与杨贵妃在愤怒士兵的要求下被杀。太子李亨前往灵武募兵。安禄山占据长安后建僭燕。七月李亨抵达灵武后在宦官李辅国拥立下称帝即唐肃宗奉唐玄宗为太上皇。762年太上皇唐玄宗与唐肃宗相继去世太子李豫（原名李俶）继位即唐代宗。唐代宗派其子李适统领诸将仆固怀恩为副率唐军与回纥军攻克洛阳。史朝义北走范阳仆固怀恩率军追击河北叛将李怀仙也投降唐军并一同追击。隔年正月史朝义在石头（今河北唐山东北）自缢八年的战乱才告平定。安史之乱成为唐朝历史上的转折点。藩镇割据外族入侵宦官专权与牛李党争等蜂拥而至成为唐朝的内忧外患。779年唐代宗就在这些乱事中去世长子李适继位即唐德宗。唐德宗在初期颇能励精图治坚决削灭藩镇藩镇对其较为敬畏。他起用杨炎推行两税法以刘晏改革漕运修改盐法行常平法以改善财政。但是他为人刚愎忌刻没有任人之明。唐德宗晚年任用奸臣裴延龄并且亲昵宦官贪吏国政日衰。805年唐德宗去世太子李诵继位即唐顺宗。唐代宗遗留下来的问题越来越严重唐顺宗与唐宪宗都企图解决其中唐宪宗较为成功实现了元和中兴。唐朝中央的政治大权大多由皇帝与宰相掌控但在天宝之后转变成皇帝与内廷宦官的联合外廷宰相变成政治上的二流角色。在唐宪宗到唐宣宗期间发生较长的党争即称牛李党争。846年唐武宗去世宦官们发生权力斗争其叔李忱在宦官马元贽的扶持之下即位即唐宣宗。由于李党失势李德裕被贬黜到崖州至此长达40年的牛李党争结束。唐宣宗雖是由宦官擁立的君主但即位以后励精图治加强皇权抑制宦官权力是时唐朝又出现短暂的复兴景象史称大中之治。然而唐宣宗为人多疑苛察使得上下莫不粉饰太平他崇奉道教一直希望能够通过服用丹药来长生不老。859年唐宣宗因服用丹药过度而去世。唐宣宗晚年国内已有乱象他死后不久就爆发寇乱。唐宣宗去世后，相继为帝的唐懿宗与唐僖宗是著名的无道昏君，使唐朝的国势一直走下坡。政治败坏、社会贫富差距过大，不少叛乱相继发生，唐朝经济命脉的江南地区也被破坏殆尽，彻底动摇了这个政权，也产生李国昌、朱全忠等新藩镇。904年朱全忠杀崔胤，逼迫唐昭宗迁都洛阳，长安城被毁。同年8月朱全忠弑帝，另立昭宗子李柷为帝，即唐哀帝。隔年，朱全忠大肆贬逐朝官，并全部杀死于白马驿，投尸于黄河，史称白马之祸。朱全忠本想等统一后再夺取帝位，但因征淮南失利，所以早于907年逼迫唐哀帝禅让，建国后梁，唐朝亡，國祚二百九十年。唐朝灭亡后，五代十国时期开始。907年軍閥朱溫篡唐建立後梁定都汴京朱溫子朱友貞自殺後梁滅亡李存勖定都洛陽定國號唐史稱後唐。936年，軍閥石敬瑭與後唐皇帝鬧翻，聯合契丹人攻打洛陽，後唐滅亡，石敬塘建後晉，石敬塘為了獲契丹的支持，把燕雲十六州割讓給契丹，使之後中原的邊防受到嚴重威脅。石敬塘死後，契丹隨即入侵中原，俘虜後晉出帝北去，大將劉知遠乘機率軍入汴京，建立後漢。950年，郭威發動兵變，奪得帝位，建立後周。960年，後周世宗死後，趙匡胤發動兵變，奪得帝位，建立宋朝，五代結束。979年，宋太宗消滅北漢，統一中原，至此五代十國時期結束。宋朝是繼唐朝後又一個長達三百年的皇朝分為北宋和南宋。960年後周大將趙匡胤發動兵變建立北宋是為宋太祖定都汴京又稱東京。北宋時期中國出現印刷術。當時中國經濟發達，中國海上貿易十分興盛，福建泉州市一帶成為繁華的港口，財政收入超過一億兩白銀，首都開封和杭州人口達到100萬和120萬人口，各國商人雲集，文化也極盛，出現程頤、朱熹等理學家，提倡三從四德。與唐詩並駕齊驅的宋詞，有蘇軾、歐陽修、黃庭堅、李綱、辛棄疾、陳與義、陸游、文天祥等詞文優秀的詞人，出現中國歷史上最著名的女詞人李清照，社會文化發達，出現白蛇傳、梁祝等浪漫愛情傳說。宋神宗時，因著王安石變法，發生分別以王安石、司馬光為首的新舊党爭，增加社會的不安，新舊黨爭長達三十多年，影響深遠，也使改革失敗。燕雲十六州在北方契丹族建立的遼朝手中，河西走廊被党項族建立的西夏趁中原內亂占據。北宋雖然曾多次出兵討伐遼和西夏，但均以失敗告終，其後不得不向日益坐大的遼和西夏交納歲幣，以維持和平。1115年的松花江流域女真族建立的金國勢力逐漸強大，1125年，金國滅遼國。之後金國開始進攻積弱的北宋，1127年（靖康元年）金國攻破北宋首都汴京（今河南開封），俘虜三千多名皇族，其中包括當時的皇帝宋欽宗和太上皇宋徽宗，因為欽宗其時的年號為靖康，史稱靖康之變，北宋至此滅亡。1127年，宋欽宗之弟趙構於南京應天府（今河南商丘市）即皇帝位，是為宋高宗，定都臨安（今浙江省杭州市），史稱南宋。南宋曾多次派兵和金交戰，試圖北伐，宋金1142年達成紹興和議，導致宋金南北分治的局面。此後宋金亦有和戰，但是宋軍無法收復北宋故土，金軍亦未能跨越長江和淮河，宋金雙方都未有突破，在秦嶺淮河線對峙。1234年，蒙古與南宋聯合滅金。隨即蒙古與南宋對抗，經歷大規模血腥戰爭（如襄樊之戰、釣魚城之戰）。1271年忽必烈建立元朝，定都大都（今北京）。1276年，蒙古攻破臨安，佔領南宋大部分領土。1279年，元軍與南宋崖山海戰，8歲的小皇帝趙昺被陸秀夫背著跳海殉國。崖山海戰以元朝的勝利告終，偏安江南一百五十年的南宋隨之滅亡。遼由契丹族建立。契丹與秦漢時的東胡魏晉南北朝的烏桓鮮卑有著淵源關係遊牧於遼河流域。安史之亂後唐朝統治衰微突厥也被回鶻取代契丹趁機發展9世紀後期日益強大。契丹軍事首領耶律阿保機於公元907年推翻了聯盟首領遙輦氏任契丹部落聯盟首領。916年耶律阿保機建立契丹國稱帝建元即遼太祖都臨潢府（今內蒙巴林左旗）成為中原最大威脅。公元944年南下中原946年陷開封滅後晉947年改國號大遼。1005年辽朝与北宋签订澶渊之盟从此宋辽的和平局面长达一百多年。遼末政治腐敗，完顏阿骨打建金抗遼。遼天祚帝率兵親征，在護步答岡析津府相繼陷落。公元1125年金太宗俘虜遼天祚帝，遼亡。立國凡二百一十年。餘部在耶律大石率領下，經漠北可敦城西征中亞，建立西遼，最終亡於大蒙古國。党項融合了鮮卑與羌兩個民族原先居住在今青海省東南部黃河河曲一帶隋唐五代十國時期向外擴展遷移其中遷到夏州之子李元昊繼位後不斷開拓疆土於1038年稱帝國號夏史稱西夏都中興府統一河西地區先后在战争中迫使宋辽两国与其议和此后西夏采取依辽和宋的政策换取了几十年的和平。夏崇宗时期金國兴起并一举灭掉辽國北宋西夏向金國称臣趁机大幅扩张领土夺取宋辽故土进入盛世时期。西夏末皇室內部一再出現爭奪皇位的事件在蒙古帝國的威脅下搖搖欲墜。公元1226年成吉思汗率大軍圍困中興府達半年西夏末代統治者帝晛於公元1227年6月向蒙古投降西夏亡。立國一百九十年。女真即隋唐時的黑水靺鞨。五代時臣服於契丹。其中一部--完顏部，於11世紀初定居在黑龍江的支流阿什河流域，勢力日漸強大，逐渐吞併了女真各部。完顏部首領烏古乃死後，各部落分崩離析，爭鬥不斷，完顏部聯盟長完顏盈歌、國相完顏撒改、盈歌之侄阿骨打重新統一，奠定此後金國基礎。完颜阿骨打繼任聯盟長後，獲悉遼國內部虛弱的消息，於1114年起兵反遼，先後攻下寧江州、出河店、賓州、咸州等地。遼天慶五年，金軍雖有等新式武器，但當時政治腐敗，將領毫無鬥志，於野狐嶺戰役、澮河堡戰役、縉山戰役中大敗，主力被全殲，被迫求和。公元1214年，金宣宗為避敵鋒芒，由中都遷都南京正月，蔡州城破，金亡。立國一百二十年。1206年成吉思汗统一漠北诸部于斡难河（今鄂嫩河）建立大蒙古国。当时蒙古的宗主国为金朝由于金朝与其盟国西夏走向衰落蒙古先后攻打西夏与金朝并于1227年8月攻灭西夏1234年3月攻灭金朝完全领有华北。在西方蒙古先后发动三次西征使蒙古帝国称霸欧亚大陆。1259年元宪宗蒙哥于征伐宋战争去世后1260年5月5日忽必烈在部分宗王和蒙汉大臣的拥立下于开平自立为蒙古皇帝年号中统。忽必烈登基后不久阿里不哥在蒙古帝国首都哈拉和林召开忽里勒台大会被阿速台等宗王和大臣选立蒙古大汗并获得钦察察合台与窝阔台汗国的支持。忽必烈汗为了成为中国皇帝而推行汉法，主要内容有改元建号，1267年忽必烈汗迁都燕京（今北京市），并命刘秉忠兴建大都城。1272年改为大都（突厥语称汗八里，帝都之意），将上都作为陪都。1271年12月18日，忽必烈汗公布《建国号诏》，取《易经》中之意，将国号由大蒙古国改为大元，建国元朝，忽必烈即元世祖；1260年设立中书省，1263年设立枢密院，1268年设立御史台等等国家机构；设置大司农并且提倡农业；尊孔崇儒并大力发展儒学等推行汉法的政策。然而为了保留原蒙古制度，最后形成蒙汉两元政治。元世祖虽然于争夺汗位战争获得蒙古大汗的汗位，并且最后成为皇帝，但由于汗位取得不合法与崇尚汉法，使得蒙古宗室不承认忽必烈的汗位，四大汗国有三国不奉忽必烈的命令，蒙古帝国完全解体。最后窝阔台系的海都出兵争夺汗位，造成漠北地区动荡不安，史称海都之乱。1279年3月，张弘范在崖山海战攻灭南宋，陆秀夫挟持8岁的小皇帝宋幼主赵昺投海而死，南宋亡。元朝统一中国，结束自燕雲十六州割讓以来三百多年的分裂局面。元朝周边一些国家或地区（包括高丽、安南、占城、缅甸）臣服，加入元朝的朝贡关系。1294年元世祖驾崩，元成宗继位。元成宗主要恪守元世祖时期的成宪，任用其侄海山（答剌麻八剌之子）镇守和林以平定西北海都之乱，并且下令停止征讨日本与安南。在内政方面专力整顿国内政治，减免江南部分赋税。然而，由于元成宗过度赏赐，入不敷出，使国库资财匮乏。1307年正月，元成宗驾崩，海山之弟爱育黎拔力八达与右丞相哈剌哈孙发动大都政变。元武宗因爱育黎拔力八达有功，册封他为皇太弟（即未来的元仁宗），相傳武宗系与仁宗系交替称帝，即武仁之约。元武宗时期，加封孔子为，并给予孔子的家族与弟子一些称号。为了解决元成宗时期的财政危机，元武宗设置常平仓以平抑物价，下令印制至大银钞，然而反而使银钞严重贬值。此外他将中书省宣敕与用人权划归给尚书省。1311年元武宗逝，由皇太弟爱育黎拔力八达继位，是为元仁宗，这次是元朝首次和平继承帝位。元仁宗力图改变元武宗时造成的财政枯竭政制混乱的局面他推行“以儒治国”政策并且减裁冗员加强中央集权以整顿朝政。其子元英宗继续实行元仁宗的以儒治国加强中央集权和官僚体制的政策并于1323年下令编成并颁布元朝正式法典。1323年英宗在上都以南的南坡被刺杀史称南坡之变。镇守和林的也孙铁木儿率兵南下杀掉行刺元英宗的叛臣并称帝即泰定帝。泰定帝于1328年七月崩于上都七岁的阿速吉八为帝是为天顺帝。而镇守大都的燕帖木儿与伯颜拥立周王和世琜于漠北怀王图帖睦尔于江陵同年图帖睦尔先至大都继位是为元文宗。燕帖木儿率军攻入上都天顺帝不知所终。隔年和世琜于漠北和林称帝即元明宗。元文宗放弃帝位派燕帖木儿迎元明宗继位并且被立为皇太子。然而燕帖木儿毒死元明宗复位元文宗改元天历史称天历之变。1333年元文宗去世后，仅七岁的明宗次子懿璘质班为帝，是为元宁宗。但元宁宗仅在位不到两个月即去世，不久后燕帖木儿也去世。元明宗的长子妥欢贴睦尔被文宗皇后卜答失里从静江召回并立为帝，是为元惠宗。元朝长期处于继承权问题、贪污、权臣擅政的恶习，使得政治总是无法上轨。这种不稳定的朝廷如果又遇到天灾人祸的干扰，往往导致国家的覆没。元朝后期，特别是1340年代中后期至1350年代期间，干旱、瘟疫与水灾时常发生，黄河地区水患尤其严重。1351年红巾军的起事，揭开元朝灭亡的序幕。元廷派兵镇压各地红巾军丞相脱脱亲自率军南下攻陷徐州芝麻李军一度压制民变军。然而脱脱在1354年南攻高邮张士诚军之际被元廷大臣弹劾而功亏一篑。徐寿辉部最后分裂成两湖的陈友谅与四川的明玉珍。两淮郭子兴的部下朱元璋于1356年以南京为根据地开始扩充地盘1363年与据有两湖的陈友谅作战最后于鄱阳湖之战获得胜利1365年占领两湖后于同年冬东进攻打据有江苏沿海的张士诚1367年平定张士诚后继续南下压制浙江的方国珍至此江南无一人反抗朱元璋。另外福建于1357年至1366年间发生色目军乱史称亦思巴奚兵乱。与此同时元朝在察罕帖木儿和李思齐等率领元军反击北方红巾军1363年北方红巾军最后在安丰之役中败给降元后的张士诚刘福通战死韩林儿南下投奔朱元璋随后被杀。朱元璋统一江南后于1367年下令北伐他派徐达常遇春率明军分别攻打山东与河南并且封锁潼关以防止关中元军进援中原。明军于1368年八月攻陷元大都元惠宗北逃史书称此为元朝结束之年。然而元廷仍在上都往后史书称之为北元。而明廷认为元惠宗顺天明命谥号为元顺帝。元朝末期，官员贪污，朝政腐败。为消除赤字，元廷加重赋税，大量滥印新钞“至正宝钞”，随之产生的通货膨胀加上荒灾、黄河泛滥等天灾使得民不聊生。1351年元顺帝派贾鲁治理黄河，征调各地百姓二十万人。同年五月，白莲教韩山童与刘福通煽动饱受天灾与督工苛待的百姓叛元起事，建立红巾军，据有河南与安徽等地。红巾军与各地义军陆续起事，势力扩张到华中、华南地区。隔年，红巾军的郭子兴聚众起义，攻占濠州，灭张士诚，同年又消灭割据浙江沿海的方国珍。1368年正月，朱元璋于南京称帝，即明太祖，年号洪武，明朝建立。同年攻占元大都，元朝势力撤出中原，在全国的统治结束。之后1371年消灭位四川明玉珍势力，1381年消灭据守云南的元朝梁王。最后，于1388年深入漠北进攻北元。明太祖洪武帝即位后一方面减轻农民负担，恢复社会的经济生产，改革元朝留下的糟糕吏治，惩治贪污的官吏，社会经济得到恢复和发展，史称洪武之治。明太祖通过屠殺功臣、特务监视等一系列方式加强皇权，并且分封诸子为王，以加强边防，藩屏皇室。诸王之中，以北方诸王势力较强，又以燕王朱棣的势力最大。1398年洪武帝驾崩，由于太子朱标早死，由皇太孙朱允炆即位，年号建文，即建文帝。为巩固皇权，与亲信大臣齐泰、黄子澄等密谋削藩。结果燕王朱棣在姚广孝的建议下以“清君侧，靖内难”為藉口起兵反叛，最后迂回南下，占领京师，是为靖难之变。朱棣即位，即明成祖，年号永乐。建文帝在宫城大火中下落不明。继洪武之治，明成祖、明仁宗与明宣宗相继兴起永乐盛世与仁宣之治，这是明朝的兴盛时期之一。永樂帝出击安南，将安南纳入明朝版图，设立交趾承宣布政使司。明成祖之后又亲自五入漠北攻打北元分裂后的鞑靼与瓦剌。明成祖为安抚东北女真各部，在归附的海西女真（位于松花江上游）与建州女真（位于松花江、牡丹江之间）设置卫所，并派宦官亦失哈安抚位于黑龙江下游的野人女真。1407年亦失哈在黑龙江下游东岸奴儿干地方（元朝征东元帅府旧地）设置奴儿干都司。自1405年开始派宦官郑和下西洋，向各国交往、宣示威德以及建立朝贡体制，郑和下西洋前后七次，船队足迹遍布东南亚、南亚、阿拉伯半島和東非地区。其规模空前，扩大明朝对南洋、西洋各国的影响力。文治方面，明成祖修大型类书《永乐大典》。1405年明成祖将北平改名北京，1421年迁都。因为永乐年间天下大治，并且大力开拓海外交流，所以有学者将这段时期称为永乐盛世。但是明成祖同样对异议者大肆杀戮，诸如黄子澄、齐泰等明惠宗旧臣等都被杀。明成祖驾崩后，其长子明仁宗，年号洪熙。洪熙帝即位時47歲，年龄已经偏高，即位仅一年就驾崩。其统治偏向保守固本，任用。同时，宣德帝打破洪武帝留下的宦官不得干政的规矩，一些太监如王振等人开始干政，为明中葉的太监专权埋下隐患。1435年明宣宗去世，九岁的朱祁镇继位，即明英宗，年号正统。1440年後蒙古西部的瓦剌逐渐强大经常在明朝边境一带生事。1449年明英宗朱祁鎮於北伐瓦剌時在土木堡戰敗被俘雖然瓦剌軍在北京保衛戰時被打敗但明朝從此不再像永樂洪熙宣德般的繁盛開始衰落疆域不再擴張並加強邊防及修築明長城。明英宗被俘，皇位空缺，瓦剌利用手上的肉票皇帝，不斷向明朝勒索金銀。權臣于謙立英宗之弟明景帝即位，抗擊瓦剌。瓦剌見手上的英宗已經成為無價值的太上皇，於是答應英宗返國的要求。英宗回到北京後，被親弟景帝嚴密監視，但數年軟禁中的他在1457年發動奪門之變復辟，改元天順，他成為明朝唯一一個使用兩個年號的皇帝。英宗之後的成化帝早年勤政，後期寵信萬貴妃與宦官汪直，罷黜汪直後，國勢尚可。成化帝死後，其子弘治帝勤於政事，開創弘治中興，死後由正德帝繼位，正德帝沉湎於聲色犬馬，不理國政，造成叛變頻繁。正德帝無子，死後由宗室嘉靖帝繼承，嘉靖帝早年勤政，晚期迷信方士道教，政治日益貪污腐敗。在正德與嘉靖兩帝之間，先後宦官劉瑾，內閣首輔楊廷和、夏言、嚴嵩、徐階之間，內閣與宦官的政治鬥爭，明朝逐漸中衰，社會矛盾萌發。1556年陕西省华县发生约8级的大地震，是中国历史上人口稠密地区影响广泛和损失惨重的著名历史地震之一，这次地震导致大范围的山体倒塌，河流改道，人员死伤极为惨重。同时也导致明朝国库连续两年亏空，地震引发的自然灾害和瘟疫导致明朝政府税收减少，对明朝的国力和财政状况亦造成不同程度的影响。隆慶帝和萬曆帝初期，在內閣首輔高拱和張居正及宦官馮保的輔政之下曾一度中興，國勢鼎盛，此時銀錢透過國際貿易流入中國，明朝經濟達到全盛。萬曆年間，日本太閤豐臣秀吉發動朝鮮之役，使明朝投入大量的兵力與軍費去清剿日軍，國力因而消耗甚烈，但使朝鮮重新處於明朝的控制。其後而明神宗因為怠政而不上朝理政，政治日益腐化。明光宗由明神宗手上接過天子的寶座，卻在一個月間突然駕崩，由其子天啟帝繼承皇位。天啟帝熹宗喜歡木匠工作，任用宦官魏忠賢來分擔朝廷的業務，魏忠賢與其手下的閹党把持朝政，造成東林黨爭，政治更加腐敗，國勢更衰。1626年，北京西南隅的工部王恭廠火藥庫發生 王恭厰大爆炸，造成2萬多人死傷。同年熹宗在西苑遊玩時不慎落水，一年後死去。熹宗之弟明思宗即位後，消滅閹党，力圖振作，但由於明朝末年行政混亂加上明清小冰期、鼠疫等严重的自然灾害，明末民變終於爆發。1644年，起義首領李自成攻克北京，明思宗自縊身亡，歷二百七十七年的明朝滅亡。明朝晚期居住在東北地區的女真人在努爾哈赤與皇太極父子帶領下開始興盛起來與明朝抗衡。明督師孫承宗袁崇煥修築關寧錦防線抵禦女真人取得寧遠之戰寧錦之戰的勝利並擊退圍攻北京的女真兵馬。1630年大淩河之戰後明朝遼東勢力衰落關寧錦防線開始瓦解女真人曾五次突破長城攻打北京。1633年山西爆发并传至北京城造成大量人员死亡加速明朝灭亡。女真人終於在1644年李自成攻克北京後不久驅逐李自成進入北京建立清朝。南方大臣先後擁護福王朱由崧為帝史稱南明最終因實力不足及政治內鬥為清軍所滅。明朝舊臣鄭成功從褔建沿岸廈門和金門攻取臺灣並驅逐那裡的荷蘭殖民者。鄭成功死後他的孫子鄭克塽投降清軍大清王朝將台灣併入中國版圖。明朝时，黄河决溢143次，如1410年黃河氾濫事件。崇祯元年至十四年里，有11年黄河发生决口，史不绝书。明朝万历初年，董山的后代觉昌安与其子塔克世偕同明朝辽东总兵李成梁，以建州右卫王杲叛乱为由攻灭王杲与其子阿台，然而觉昌安父子也在混战中死亡。1586年明廷袭封塔克世之子努尔哈赤为指挥使作为补偿。努尔哈赤以祖、父遗留的十三副遗甲崛起，统一建州女真后陆续并吞女真各部，并与漠南蒙古友好。1616年努尔哈赤在今中国东北地区建国称汗，建立后金，定都赫图阿拉。建州女真国力日盛，1616年努尔哈赤在建立八旗制度后于赫图阿拉称汗立国。两年后他以为由起兵反明。努尔哈赤在1619年的萨尔浒之战中，击败杨镐指挥的明军、朝鲜与叶赫联军；接连占领沈阳、辽阳、抚顺等辽东城市，随后战事集中于辽西地区。努尔哈赤最后于1626年的宁远战役中被袁崇焕的红衣大炮击败，不久逝世。第八子皇太极历经权力斗争后继位。皇太极即位之后，针对努尔哈赤时期的社会矛盾进行了一系列改革，史称。还继续完善和扩大蒙古八旗、汉军八旗，设立理藩院管辖蒙古等地事务。将都城沈阳易名盛京，更改女真族名为满族，1636年在盛京称帝，改年号为崇德，国号为大清。随后成功降伏西边蒙古察哈尔部，漠南蒙古归附清朝。另外，皇太极亲征朝鲜并使朝鲜成为大清的藩属。接着，皇太极经察哈尔绕道入侵明朝首都北京。1643年皇太极病死，在其長子豪格，及其弟多爾袞的一場政治鬥爭後，由第九子福临继位，是为顺治帝。1644年，吴三桂引清兵入关，清朝将首都迁到北京，清朝入主中原。从入关到其后的数十年时间内，在明清戰爭陆续消灭了农民军、南明和明郑等势力。后来清廷实行奖励垦荒、减免捐税的政策。并且正式开科取士，追尊崇祯帝与明朝忠臣。1661年顺治帝逝世其子8岁的康熙帝即位1669年始親政。三藩之乱于1681年清军攻入云南后结束同年郑经之子郑克塽透過東寧之變继位明郑因内乱不断导致不少将领降清。清朝派明郑降将施琅率领水师攻打台湾。施琅占领澎湖逼近东宁郑克塽率领大臣降清至此明郑亡。清朝平定三藩后进入康雍乾时期这段时期是清朝发展的高峰时期称为康雍乾盛世。康熙帝为政宽仁留心民间疾苦在他亲政不久后便宣布停止圈地放宽垦荒地的免税年限。他还着手整顿吏治恢复京察大计等考核制度。受康熙帝的政策以及外来农作物的引进等影响清朝人口大大提升。他先后任用靳辅和于成龙治理黄河与大运河。康熙中期以后因战乱而遭到严重破坏的手工业逐步得到恢复和发展。为安定社会秩序他颁行十六条圣谕要地方人士循循告诫乡民。他又派心腹包衣如曹寅李煦等人打探地方物价人民收入与官绅不轨之事并以密褶奏报。此即密折制度的萌芽到雍正时期趋于完善。康熙帝重视对汉族士大夫的优遇他多次举办博学鸿儒科创建南书房并且向来华传教士学习西方科学与文化。1690年至1697年间乌兰布通之战与三征噶尔丹使噶尔丹战死，创立多伦会盟以保护喀尔喀蒙古。青藏地区的和硕特汗国协助黄教的达赖五世，击败红教统一全藏，之后分裂成青海与西藏和硕特。达赖六世时，藏区政事交由第巴桑结嘉错管理，他联合准噶尔对抗西藏和硕特的拉藏汗，拉藏汗先下手杀桑结嘉错并废除达赖六世。1717年噶尔丹的侄子策妄阿拉布坦入侵西藏，攻杀拉藏汗，并且占领拉萨。清军多次被准军击败，最后于1720年由胤禵率军驱除成功，协助达赖七世入藏，以拉藏汗旧臣管理藏区。1722年康熙帝传位于胤禛即雍正帝。雍正帝在位十三年针对康熙时期的弊端采取补救措施以延续康雍乾盛世。他设置军机处加强皇权废杀与他对立的王公并削弱亲王势力。雍正帝注重皇子教育采取秘密立儲制度以防止康熙晚年诸皇子争位的局面再度发生。将丁银并入地赋减轻无地贫民的负担。为解决地方贪腐问题使火耗归公耗羡费用改由中央政府计算设置养廉银以提高地方官员的薪水。雍正初年青海亲王罗卜藏丹津意图复兴和硕特汗国而乱隔年年羹尧与岳钟琪等人平定。听从鄂尔泰建议推行改土归流以地方官管理少数民族。将喀尔喀蒙古正式并入清朝并且为巩固蒙古于1727年与沙俄签订《恰克图条约》确立中俄中段疆界。1732年噶尔丹策零东征喀尔喀蒙古兵至杭爱山被喀尔喀亲王策棱击败。1734年清准和谈以阿尔泰山为界西北大致和平。1735年雍正帝于工作时去世其子弘历继位即乾隆帝。乾隆帝在位时期是清朝的全盛时期。期间人口不断增加使乾隆末年突破三亿大关约占当时世界人口的三分之一。江南与广东等地的丝织业与棉织业都很发达景德镇的瓷器都达到历史高峰。与此同时银号亦开始在山西出现。乾隆帝鸿讲学术此时期有许多书籍出版1773年更下令编纂成为全世界最庞大的类书这些都成为盛世的文化标志。对外方面乾隆十七年亦为藩属国加强驻藏大臣的权力。西南乾隆初年派张广泗平定贵州苗民之乱随后清军前往平定大小金川之役。期间缅甸贡榜王朝与中国爆发清缅战争。1769年乾隆帝派傅恒阿桂入缅未果双方最后停战。1784年暹罗却克里王朝派使朝贡1788年缅甸为应付暹罗威胁也派使朝贡。1789年安南发生西山朝统一后黎朝郑主与广南国。清军击败西山朝护送黎帝黎愍帝复位途中遭西山军的伏击而败史称清越战争。西山朝阮惠遣使向清廷谢罪清廷封为安南王。乾隆期间清朝疆域达1300万余平方公里，东方的朝鲜与琉球国也早就成为藩属国之一。只有江戶幕府统治的日本处于锁国时期，与清朝来往甚少。乾隆帝以十全武功自誉，他平定准噶尔与回疆大小和卓之乱，把新疆納入中國版圖，四川、贵州等地继续改土归流，然而其余战事皆小题大作使国库严重损耗，让清朝国力衰退。乾隆时期的户部存银最高达8,000万两，常年保持在6,000-7,000万两左右，足以应付政府的各项日常开支、重大工程、战争，而虽然清朝的赋税较为轻，且于康乾时期多次对外用兵、大兴各项工程，但每年国家财政都会有余，国库储备逐年上升。当时人口暴增与乡村土地兼并严重，使得许多农民失去土地；加上贪官和珅等官员腐败，于乾隆晚期到嘉庆时期陆续爆发民变。白莲教于1770年代举兵，后来又于1796年爆发川楚教乱，八年后被清军镇压，领袖王三槐被处死。台湾天地会领袖林爽文于1787年发动林爽文事件，历时一年多。在乾隆年间，平定大小金川之乱、消灭准噶尔汗国等各威胁，将新疆正式重新纳入中国版图，并且颁布被视为西藏属于中国领土的最有力的证据二十九条，加强中央政府对西藏的管治，影響现代中国的版图。1796年乾隆皇帝禅位于嘉庆皇帝。乾隆帝虽为太上皇但依然至1799年去世掌權64年。嘉慶四年一月三日去世終年八十九歲。嘉庆帝方得以亲政。然而嘉庆帝未能解决弊端在乾隆帝驾崩後清朝继续走向衰退。到了19世紀初，清朝已經走向衰落，在嘉慶年間先後爆發川楚教乱，與此同時海上強國英國、荷蘭與葡萄牙等紛紛開始強制與中國貿易。1787年，英國商人開始向華輸入鴉片，導致中國的國際貿易由巨额順差變為巨額逆差。清廷於1815年頒佈搜查洋船鴉片章程，然而英商無視禁令依然走私大量鴉片，道光皇帝于1838年派林則徐赴廣州禁煙。1839年6月，將237萬多斤鴉片在虎門銷毀，史稱虎門銷煙。英國政府因此於1840年6月發動鴉片戰爭。1842年，英軍進入長江，切斷江南對北京的物資供應，於是清廷求和，簽署，除在東南沿海開放上海等5個通商口岸之外，還割讓香港島，中國的主權受到破壞。一般中國大陸史學界認為這是中國近代史的開始。與此同時中國國內反抗清朝的鬥爭再度興起。1851年，受到基督教影響的秀才洪秀全建立拜上帝會，發動金田起義並創建太平天國。太平天国使中国历史上规模最大的一次农民起义。太平天國曾經一度佔領南方部分省份，並定都南京，建立政教合一的中央政權。到了1864年7月，曾国藩弟曾国荃率湘军攻陷天京，对无辜百姓展开屠杀与抢掠，太平天国才正式结束。南京城被烧毁，百姓死伤无数，南京人痛恨湘军，称曾国藩和曾国荃为曾剃头、曾屠户近來中華人民共和國政府面對中華民國主權相關議題態度轉趨強硬稱臺灣是中華人民共和國領土的一部分作為其一個中國的定義並以“和平統一”為主軸“一國兩制”作為處理臺海兩岸議題的框架意欲將臺灣地區歸中華人民共和國統治中華民國政府方面中國國民黨及其他泛藍陣營堅持一個中國及九二共識民主進步黨以及臺灣團結聯盟強調臺灣本土意識否定有九二共識的存在。 +亳州市是中华人民共和国安徽省下辖的地级市。位于安徽省西北部，毗邻河南省商丘市、周口市，处黄淮平原腹地，是国家历史文化名城。2019年，国务院正式将亳州市纳入长三角一体化区域。亳州盛产药材、白酒、烟草以及小麦等粮食作物，属温带季风气候，是中国大陆最大的中草药集散地，古井贡酒的产地，素有更是享誉全国。亳州古称亳、谯、谯郡，是中华民族较早的发祥地之一。据有文字记载，亳州已有3700年的历史。夏时亳州属豫州，曾是帝喾的国邑。周初是神农氏后裔的封地，置焦国。春秋时期，焦属陈国。陈于此建焦城，后楚灭陈，筑谯城，改南兖州为亳州，治所不变，亳州之名始于此。隋大业三年，谯郡更名为亳州，下辖谯、临涣、酂、城父、鹿邑、蒙城、永城、真源8县。宋时亳州属淮南路，金时属南京路，下辖6县5镇。元时亳州属归德府，又升县为州。清初亳州属安徽布政使司直辖，曾升为亳州直隶州。1864年清廷镇压捻军后，析亳州、宿州、蒙城、阜阳、各一部设涡阳县。1913年，中華民國時期全国废州，故改亳州为亳县，由省直辖。1964年中国国务院决定从阜阳涡阳蒙城凤台各划出一部成立利辛县。1986年撤销亳县建制设立县级亳州市。1998年收归省直辖。2000年设立地级亳州市下辖涡阳蒙城利辛三县和谯城区。亳州市全境呈东南西北向斜长形长约150公里宽约90公里。辖境与黄河决口扇形地相连属平原地带地势平坦仅东部有龙山石弓山齐山狼山双锁山等10余处石灰岩残丘分布整个亳州地势西北高而东南低以1/9000地面自然坡降向东南微倾。西北部谯城区詹楼地势最高海拔42.5米东南以利辛县展沟南部最低海拔22米相对落差20.5米。由于受河流蜿蜒切割变迁和黄河历次南泛的影响形成平原中岗坡碟形洼地相间分布具有的地貌特征。城中有涡河流经，是淮河支流。亳州处于秦岭－淮河天然气候分界线上位于亚热带季风气候与温带季风气候的过渡地带。季风影响显著四季分明雨量适中光照充足。1月平均气温0.6℃极端最低气温-20.6℃。年均温14.7℃。年均降水量约790毫米。亳州市现辖1个市辖区、3个县。根据2010年第六次全国人口普查全市常住人口为4850657人同第五次全国人口普查相比十年共减少228251人下降4.49%年平均下降0.44%。其中男性人口为2459168人占50.70%女性人口为2391489人占49.30%。总人口性别比为102.83。0－14岁人口为1134505人占23.39%15－64岁人口为3254761人占67.10%65岁及以上人口为461391人占9.51%。亳白芍中国地理标志产品。中藥材是亳州的特色產業亳州也是中華人民共和國中藥材的主要产地。每年9月的国际中医药博览会均在亳州举办。 +计算机网络（）通常也简称網路是指容許节点分享資源的數碼電信網絡。在電腦網絡電腦設備會透過節點之間的連接（数据链路）互相交換數據。傳輸媒介可分為有線及无线兩類——有線的可用到双绞线光纖電纜等媒介無線則可用到Wi-FiNFC。用於建立路由及终止數據傳輸的電腦網絡設備即為網絡節點。節點包括像个人电脑电话服务器般的主机及其他網絡硬件。它們一般以網路位址作識別碼。當一個設備能夠與另一設備交換資訊時便可視它們倆已连接成网络不論它們是否直連。專用通信協定在大多數分層中位於其他更通用的通信協定之上。要維持網絡的可靠性便需要有一定的網絡管理技能。電腦網絡為海量应用程序及服務背後的基礎。比如存取互聯網数字视频數位音訊共享列印機收發電子郵件及即時通訊訊息。電腦網絡可依照传输介质传输协议 網絡大小拓撲流量控制機制建立目的等因素區分。世界上最大的電腦網絡為互聯網。電腦網絡發展的里程碑包括電腦網絡有著不同的應用，包括分享應用程式、瀏覽新聞、收發電子郵件、傳遞即時訊息、撥接網絡電話、影音分享。用戶可透過網絡共用週邊裝置，例如共用網絡印表機。用戶亦可透過網絡分享檔案給同一網絡上的其他電腦。攻擊者可利用網絡散播電腦病毒或蠕蟲至網絡上的其他節點或實行阻斷服務攻擊佔據網絡的頻寬。由於網路的最大傳輸單位會因技術而異故在過程中IP封包可能需要切割成較小的封包然後在目的地重組。此一方式的傳輸效率高但也容易發生壅塞。IP封包分為兩部分：表頭及承載資料。表頭包含了目的及來源位址、上層協定、存活時間等資訊。网络拓扑是网络的幾何形狀分類。除了影響网络的容錯度、管理方式、資訊如何流通外，它還會影響網絡的可靠性和架設成本，比如匯流排拓撲較容易發生單點失敗。一般而言線路愈多愈可靠，但相對地佈線成本亦會提升。覆盖网络是指建立在其他網絡之上的網絡。覆盖网络内的節點會透過虛擬或邏輯鏈路連接。每個鏈路對應於基礎網絡中一條或多條的路徑。覆蓋網絡的拓撲一般會跟基礎網絡的不同。比如很多對等網路皆屬覆盖网络。對等網路內的節點運行在互聯網之上，並組織成一個虛擬鏈接系統。早期互聯網本身就是覆盖网络的一個例子。它建立在之上。傳輸媒介是指傳送資料時所用到的媒體介質，其包括電纜、光纖、電磁波。它們屬OSI模型的第一層。以太网是局域网的主流傳輸媒介技術。以太网的標準行業規格為IEEE 802.3。以太网可以銅線或光纖電纜傳輸數據。无线局域网則一般會以無線電作傳輸媒介不過也有以紅外線作傳輸媒介的。電力線網絡以既有電力線來傳輸數據。计算机网络會用到的有線技術如下利用無線電等電子通信手段也可連接至網絡。除了物理傳輸介質之外要建立一個網絡還需要一些相關設備比如网卡中继器集線器橋接器網路交換器路由器调制解调器防火墙。网卡是電腦硬件的一種，它使得電腦能夠存取傳輸媒介上的資料。網卡可能會有連接適當線材的接口，擁有接收無線訊號的接收器。兩者皆會配合適合的電路板。网卡會依據網絡地址來決定是否對流量回應。在以太网中，裝置所安裝的每一片网卡都擁有一個獨一無二的MAC地址。為了避免网卡之間的地址有所衝突，电气电子工程师学会及廠商會共同確保网卡的地址為獨一無二的。一個以太网MAC地址的長度有6Bytes。前3Bytes為廠商向學會登記而得來。後3Bytes則為廠商自行賦予。中继器是用於增強訊號的網絡設備。這一設備可使因距離問題而出現衰減的訊號再生，令其能傳送得更遠。對於大多雙紐線而言，若總長度超過100米，便需要安放一台中继器。光纖則要有幾公里的總長度才需安放一台。擁有多個端口的中继器即為集線器。在OSI模型中集線器為第一層設備。「5-4-3」規則是指在10Mbps以太網中網絡不能有超過5個區段的總長度最多使用4個集線器最多以3個區段連接電腦。由於交換器的功能相對較佳，價格亦相近，故上述兩者皆已被交換器所取代。橋接器連接兩個獨立的网段及過濾之間的流量，它在OSI模型的數據鏈路層中運作。它可分割網絡的碰撞域，但同時仍會進行群播。 分割網絡的碰撞域能增加網絡的效率。交換器是一種依據MAC地址，來在端口之間轉發和過濾数据链路层的帧的設備。交換器僅將幀轉發到通訊所涉及的物理端口，與只進行群播的集線器不同。可視它為擁有多個端口的橋接器。它透過進入物理端口的幀來學習來源的MAC地址。若交換器不能從MAC表中找到與幀對應的MAC地址，它就會把幀群播。路由器是一款設備，兼具了中繼器、橋接器、集線器的功能。其依照封包內的訊息及路由表中的資訊來選擇封包傳遞的路徑。它必須擁有IP地址才可正常運作。调制解调器把節點的訊號轉換成其他非專用線路能夠傳送的訊號。當中載波混入數碼訊號調變成為模擬信號以便其他非專用線路攜載。早期的電話線撥接網絡需搭配调制解调器使用。防火牆是一種控制網絡安全和訪問規則的網絡系統。它按特定規則來充許或阻止資料通過。计算机网络除了可以按照右方的覆盖范围分类之外计算机网络应用可按照不同节点之间的功能关系分为：存在多种不同的网络协议传输媒介由此也构成多种不同的计算机网络 +本表是以現代標準漢語拼音或注音首字母排列的所有语言的列表收录了目前世界现存语言超過6900种语言。上海市，简称沪，别称申，是中華人民共和國直轄市，中國的经济、金融、贸易、航运中心，全球城市，，世界著名的港口城市，是中国人口最多的城市。上海位於中国东部海岸线的正中间，长江三角洲最东部，东临东海，南濒杭州湾，西接江苏、浙江两省，北端的崇明岛处于长江入海口中，与周围的江苏、浙江、安徽三省多个城市共同构成世界级长江三角洲城市群，是其重要的组成部分。最晚在新石器時代，上海地區已經有先民聚居。春秋時代，上海属吳國，戰國時代則属楚國。晋代，上海的人口聚集起來，初步发展为區域性渔港、盐产地和商贸集镇。唐代到元代，上海所属地区归华亭县、松江府管辖。1292年上海縣始建縣。明清两朝棉纺织业发达。1843年，《南京条约》签订，正式开埠，上海作为指定通商五口之一，设立租界，亦开启上海取得舉足輕重地位的历程。当时的上海是苏松太道的驻地，從小聚落成為港口之後，得益独特的政治环境，凭借通商口岸，上海经济得到空前迅速的发展，吸引江蘇、浙江、廣東、安徽、山東等周边省份及外国移民，成为中国乃至远东地区最大的都会至今。吸收江南地区附近传统的吴越文化与各地移民带入的多样文化，融合開埠後的西方近现代文化，逐渐形成上海本地特有的海派文化。中華民國大陸時期，上海是亚洲最大的城市之一，中国最重要的工商业中心。中華人民共和國政府成立后，中央政府实行计划经济，主要发展内陆的重工业等。上海曾大量支援中国大陆其他地区的发展。1990年，浦东开发开放，上海经济成长速度加快；2005年设立国家综合配套改革试验区，2013年批准成立上海自贸区，令上海经济进一步发展，成为中国大陆的经济、金融、贸易中心城市，在世界金融、商贸及交通领域亦取得重要地位，入选GaWC的国际大都市名册，2020年全球排名第5名。上海港是世界规模最大的集装箱港口，上海证券交易所作为中国大陆三所证券交易所之一，市值排名世界第四位。上海是中国近现代经济发展的典范，拥有不少著名地标景观，包括豫园、城隍庙、南京路、外滩、陆家嘴摩天大楼天际线等。上海也是中国重要的旅游城镇之一，被评为最高级“三星级旅游推荐”。上海之名最早见于《宋会要辑稿》所记载的海务征收机关之后熙宁年间成书的《水利书》记载了上海浦。宋代吴淞江下游有一条名为上海浦的支流。“浦”一词原指河川汇合之所或入海处但在吴地常指河川的小支流。“上”一词在江左地区的河流名称中又常指靠近源头一面。宋朝经济发达催生了酒业的发展政府在上海浦附近设置酒务以征酒税称为上海务上海一名由此传播。上海地名的来源有多种说法。一说上海因黄浦江而得名。一说因，则因相传上海西部地区曾为楚国公子春申君的封地而得名。約7000年前，上海西部已形成陆地，东部地区则为近2000年陆续形成。上海境内最早的人类文明遗迹可追溯至6000年前的新石器时代，有马家浜、-{崧}-泽、良渚、马桥文化的遗迹。公元4至5世纪时的晋朝，松江和滨海一带即有渔民聚集，逐渐发展为一个渔港和商贸集镇。唐天宝十载，此为松江建城之始。宋時商販雲集，今上海境内已有上海市8月19日，元政府析华亭县东北，黄浦江两岸的长人、高昌、北亭、新江、海隅五乡二十六保，设立上海县，隶属松江府，标志着上海有独立行政建制之始。至明嘉靖三十二年，筑起上海城墙。至明代时，上海县归属南直隶松江府，当时松江府据称“松江税赋甲天下”，已较为繁荣。清袭明制，上海县先归属江南省松江府，江南分省后归属江苏省。1843年，根据上一年清英两国签订的，由此开始租界的历史。此后，法国与美国相继在上海设立租界。其后，租界逐渐形成不受清朝朝廷管辖，拥有独立司法、行政权力的地区。租界之后历经数次扩张，到1900年，公共租界达33,503亩，法租界面积则为2,135亩，范围基本为今上海的核心区域的大部分地区。凭借这独特的政治制度和地理位置，上海开埠后逐渐发展为远东最繁荣的经济和商贸中心，被誉为“十里洋场”和“冒险家的乐园”。由于租界的存在使得当时上海繁华地区未遭受太平天国运动与义和团运动的影响，享有实际独立的地位和充分的国际联系，穩定的政商環境为上海之后的持续繁荣创造了条件。1911年11月3日，上海光复。自1912年中华民国成立后，由于保守势力与革命党互相争夺中央及地方权力，全国局势较为混乱，上海华界也时常处于无序状态。与此同时，租界保持了相对的稳定与和平，在经济、人口等方面进一步加快了发展，由1914年开始至1936年成为上海租界高度繁荣的一个阶段。1927年以前租界以外的闸北和南市属江苏省上海县管辖。由于租界的政治特殊性20世纪初的一些影响中国的重大政治事件亦在上海发生。1919年因巴黎和会上海工人学生及各界人士举行全市总罢工罢课罢市该年6月5日起五四运动的中心从北京移向上海。1921年7月中國共產黨第一次全國代表大會在上海的召開标志着中国共产党的诞生上海也成为中共中央的所在地直至1933年。1925年5月30日上海学生与市民抗议日资棉紗厂厂主枪杀罢工工人公共租界巡捕向抗议人群开枪造成五卅慘案引发了全国性的反英运动。1927年4月12日四一二事件爆发中国国民党内部进行清党第一次国共合作濒临结束。1927年7月7日，国民政府在租界以外地区设上海特别市，同时将原属江苏省的上海县、宝山县17市乡并入，總面積494平方公里，上海正式脱离江苏管辖，直属行政院。因为紧邻首都南京，加之为对外贸易中心，故而大批金融机构将总部设立于上海，其全国经济与金融中心地位更加巩固。上海无论租界还是华界在此后黄金十年内均得到飞速发展，被誉为远东金融中心。1930年7月，改称上海市。1930年代，上海是远东最大的都会以及商业和金融中心。在1936年上海成为全世界第七大城市，被誉为。1932年1月28日日军在上海发动战争轰炸闸北市区破坏中国建设。1933年10月10日时任上海市长的吴铁城在上海市政府建筑落成之时发表演说足以表露在战火劫余中国人自创天地之决心。1937年8月13日淞沪会战爆发全面抗战开始中日于上海激战三个月上海沦陷。战后原先繁华的闸北南市市面受到严重破坏华界基本沦为贫民区这对上海今后几十年城市格局产生重大影响。上海公共租界的原為日本界區的虹口地區即公共租界的北半部沦为日军防区而上海法租界和苏州河以南的由英國美國和意大利王國主導和防守的上海公共租界因为是外國控制的情况日本不能強佔因為只會和英美意發生戰爭则产生了长达四年多畸形繁荣的孤岛时期。至1941年太平洋战争爆发后日本正式對英國和美國開戰日军亦在12月8日早晨占领租界日本的盟友意大利的界區得以倖存至1943年自1943年起所有的租界不复存在。1945年抗战胜利上海由国民政府接管。1946年，第二次国共内战爆发，上海经济陷入崩溃，物价飞涨。1948年政府颁行试图扭转局面，但以失败告终。1949年5月上海战役后，解放军在5月27日控制上海全境，成立中国人民解放军上海市军事管制委员会和上海市人民政府。此间，许多与民国政府及海外机构有关的人员、财产和机构随同中华民国政府撤离上海。1949年，中华人民共和国设江苏省上海为中央直辖市，总面积618.02平方公里。其中市区面积86.66平方公里，郊区面积531.36平方公里。1954年，全市面积为630.11平方公里。1958年，江苏省上海、嘉定、宝山、松江、金山、川沙、南汇、奉贤、青浦、崇明共10个县划归上海市，使上海市的面积增大到5862.88平方公里。1984年，上海市测绘处和上海市土壤普查办公室对全市的土地面积重新进行测量，至1986年底，全市土地面积为6340.50平方公里，其中市区为375.44平方公里，郊县为5965.06平方公里；全市水面面积为121.85平方公里。从1987年1月起全市正式使用以上的数据。上海战役结束后的一段时间内由于上海东南侧的部分海岛（主要為舟山群島）仍为中华民国国军控制因而上海时常会遭到国军空军的攻击以1950年2月6日的“二六大轰炸”情况最为严重造成千余人伤亡并使上海电力生产系统一度瘫痪。朝鲜战争爆发后中华人民共和国遭西方国家经济封锁包括苏联在内的社会主义阵营国家往来上海的货轮还多次被中华民国海军拦截扣押上海在国际上的经济地位日益下降。另一方面中华人民共和国成立后中央政府将主要精力放在发展内陆与中西部地区在此期间上海为其他地区的发展输送了大量资金技术和人才相对而言上海本地发展则相对停滞上海的经济地位和影响力被香港远远甩在身后。但是上海仍长期作为中国最大的工业基地至改革开放前工业总产值一直占全国三成左右。在文化大革命时期上海政治活动相当活跃成为四人帮重要的活动基地在四人帮被捕后其支持者曾试图发动武装政变。1978年中国大陆實行改革开放1980年7月改革开放後上海第一家中外合资企业中国迅达电梯有限公司上海电梯厂成立。不過在1980年代深圳等南方新兴经济特区经济发展迅速上海作为中国大陆经济中心的地位一度受到挑战。在1989年的六四天安门事件中上海市领导一方面向抗议学生喊话以化解民怨另一方面以行政手段将支持学生运动的《世界经济导报》等报纸杂志停刊。由于在上海并未发展成大规模事件市领导的表现受到中央的肯定之后江泽民当选中国共产党中央委员会总书记吴邦国曾庆红黄菊等陆续成为中共中央政治局常委进入中国政治的权力中心形成了在中国政坛具有广泛影响力的上海帮。自1990年中国高层启动浦东开发开放政策后上海经济获得快速发展再度巩固了其作为中国经济金融及贸易中心的地位。现上海市政府致力于将上海建设成國際金融中心与国际航运中心其规划已于2009年3月获国务院批准。但2006～2008年时任中共中央政治局委员上海市委书记陈良宇被指控涉嫌上海社保基金案并遭开除党籍公职并判处有期徒刑18年是为21世纪初上海政坛的大变故。2010年5月1日至10月31日，中國2010年上海世界博覽會召开。该世博会主题为。2010年11月15日静安区胶州路728号一幢28层的公寓大楼发生一起重大火灾共造成58人死亡71人受伤。事发后市民自发举行哀悼。2013年8月国务院正式批准设立中国自由贸易试验区。该试验区成立时以上海外高桥保税区为核心辅之以机场保税区和洋山港临港新城成为中国经济新的试验田实行政府职能转变金融制度贸易服务外商投资和税收政策等多项改革措施并将大力推动上海市转口离岸业务的发展。该项目立项的过程中曾遭遇阻力但得到中共中央总书记习近平及国务院总理李克强的支持该项目最终成功启动。2013年9月29日上海自由贸易区正式挂牌成立。2014年12月31日外灘陳毅廣場之台階處因大規模人流對沖發生重大踩踏事故共造成36人死亡49人受傷。2016年6月，筹备数年的上海迪士尼度假区在上海浦东正式开园迎宾，中共中央总书记兼中国国家主席习近平和美国总统奥巴马在开幕仪式上分别致贺词和贺信，中共中央政治局委员兼中共上海市委书记韩正以及华特迪士尼公司董事长兼首席执行官罗伯特·艾格主持剪彩活动。上海迪士尼度假区也成为了中国内地第一座，亚洲第三座，世界第六座迪士尼度假区。2018年11月5日至10日第一届中国国际进口博览会在国家会展中心自由贸易试验区临港新片区挂牌成立目标为建设更具国际市场影响力和竞争力的特殊经济功能区并参照经济特区管理实施一系列开放和人才引进政策优惠措施。上海市中心位于北纬30°23′－31°27′东经120°52′－121°45′处长江三角洲冲积平原前缘东濒东海北界长江南临杭州湾西与江苏省和浙江省接壤是中国海岸线的中心位置。截至2013年末全市面积6340.5平方公里南北最长处约120公里东西最宽处约100公里。其中市区面积为2648.6平方公里。上海市全境为冲积平原仅西南部有部分火山岩丘。海拔平均高度在4米左右地势平坦略呈东高西低山脉少而低小。东部沿海由长江不断携带入海的泥沙沉积而成崇明岛浦东等地的面积依旧在增长中西部有佘山天马山等但高度都在100米以下。上海市最高点是位于杭州湾内的大金山岛海拔103.4米。上海地处江南水乡，并位于长江入海口，亦不处于主要地震带上，因此如地震、洪水以及地质类灾害鲜有发生，但因临海且海拔低，易受海啸威胁。上海市境内河道纵横，曾经为鱼米之乡，大陆东侧的海岛上拥有大片湿地和滩涂，是候鸟重要的栖息地和上海重要的生态屏障。由于地处东南沿海，位于西太平洋台风行经路线上，每年夏天和初秋时节常会有来自太平洋上的热带气旋过境或影响，造成大风、高潮及暴雨。随着经济发展及外来人口大量涌入上海也正面临种种环境污染问题。所辖区域合并，成为新的静安区。2016年7月22日，上海最后一个县崇明撤县建区，至此上海已不再有的行政区划。市中心区的行政区划则几经改变，形成现在7个区的格局。此外上海市在[[江苏]][[盐城市]][[大丰区]][[安徽]][[宣城市]]和[[黄山市]]等境内拥有若干[[飞地]]及不拥有当地土地所有权的“准飞地”。当地居民拥有上海户籍及相关待遇福利。[[FileRussian Consulate General in Shanghai.jpg|缩略图|位于[[苏州河]]畔的[[俄罗斯驻上海总领事馆]]]]由于消失。1949年后很长一段时间，上海对外交流几乎呈现中断状态。自1990年代以后，上海开始逐步承办众多重要国际会议和大型赛事，逐渐加强了与世界的交流。另外作为曾经租界的存在很多国家在沪开设领事机构大多为。上海与国外城市缔结友好关系的历史始于1970年代。至2017年底与上海建立友好关系的地区已有85个。1949年。2021年11月18日上海市对口支援新疆工作前方指挥部的支持和指导下的新组建的喀什人民广播电台開播。上海是中国大陆的经济中心。从為代表的上海制造几乎涵盖了所有的轻工业产品。在1980年代上海在中国的经济地位迅速下降经济发展缓慢。1990年4月[[中共中央]]和[[中华人民共和国国务院]]作出开发开放[[浦东]]的决定。浦东的经济得以在20年间剧增60余倍上海经济也在之后连续十余年保持10%以上年增长再度巩固了作为中国经济金融及贸易中心的地位现浦东新区占上海市的经济比重近30%。2013年7月[[上海自由贸易区]]获得国家立项上海拥有了中国大陆首个自由贸易区经济发展将再次获得良好机遇。至21世紀10年代末上海上繳的財政收入占中央比重將近10%此六大支柱产业约占生产总值的一半。人均生产总值达到达到$135305元人民币按國際匯率可兑换成大约$20447美元。2018年上海居民全年人均可支配收入为64183元人民币。 +1949年以前，上海是中国的商业金融中心。当时上海汇集着号称“四行两局一库”的爆发前，上海的各类私有银行、钱庄与信托已经达到了105家，在华外资银行共32家。与外滩平行的江西路，则因坐落大批金融机构，如金城、盐业、浙江兴业等银行，所收存款额占全国存款总额的三分之一以上，而被誉为“东方华尔街”。上海金融市场曾非常发达、金融工具品类繁多。除了证券市场以外，还拥有、日之上”。1949年以后，一些上海的取代。1987年4月1日[[交通银行]]在上海重新恢复对外营业。1990年11月26日[[上海证券交易所]]再度成立上海金融市场开始恢复。2002年[[中國銀聯]]在上海創立。2005年8月[[中国人民银行|中国人民银行上海总部]]在沪揭牌。2016年[[新开发银行]]全面投入使用。目前总行设在上海的国有银行有[[交通银行]][[上海浦东发展银行]][[上海银行]]和[[上海农村商业银行]]等。由于便捷的地理位置和传统的经济底蕴，上海也是一些国有企业和跨国公司的注册地或大中华区总部所在地，形成辐射长三角乃至全国和全地区的总部效应。目前全球总部设在上海或注册地为上海的知名企业有：等17家外资金融公司中国总部设在上海。。轻工业是上海发展最早也是最为成熟的工业部门。丝绸与纺织行业是自等等经典产品因品质过硬价格公道长期作为中国大陆市场的畅销品牌受到大量消费者的肯定。目前上海在自行车制造食品生产日化用品中仍旧保持较大规模。上海，自洋务运动伊始，便成为中国最重要的工业基地，而汇集了大量的高端制造业。目前在交通工业方面[[上海大众]][[上海通用汽车|上海通用]]成为中小型乘用车生产的重要基地申沃客车则是重要的大型车生产基地而[[阿尔斯通|上海阿尔斯通交通设备有限公司]]则承担了轨道交通方面的生产。而在航空工业领域上海是中国航空工业的研发基地是大型国产客机的生产商[[中国商用飞机有限责任公司]]的总部基地。此外[[江南造船|江南造船厂]]和[[沪东中华造船|沪东中华造船厂]]领衔的造船工业也是上海的一大支柱产业年造船能力超过千万吨。而在冶金和石油化工方面[[宝钢|上海宝钢]]和[[上海石化]]也居于国内行业的领先地位宝钢集团更是在全球钢铁企业中位列第三。上海是中国近现代以来的商业中心。上海自建城以来，由于处于富庶的江南平原地区，加之自身传统自然经济手工业的发达。因而早在宋明时期，便已经是有名的商埠。元朝政府在上海设年间，每年销往英国的上海棉布就多达80万匹。上海开埠后，海外商品源源不断的由上海进入在此时已经初具规模。一战爆发后，民族商业也得到飞速发展，一些日后知名的环球百货公司在此时入驻南京路和上海其他地区。，上海商业呈现出了畸形的繁荣。1956年以后由于和百货商店开始逐步消失或转变功能。到1990年代，上海拥有三条主要商业街区和几大商业中心，分别为等。后经过20年的再度高速发展，至2010年末，上海的商业中心已经扩展到十个，分别为：南京东路商业中心、南京西路商业中心、淮海中路商业中心、四川北路商业中心、徐家汇商业中心、张杨路商业中心、豫园商城商业中心、五角场商业中心、新客站不夜城商业中心、中山公园商业中心。商业中心也从市区的市中心位置逐步扩展至市区的次中心区域，辐射范围不断扩大。根据上海市政府2010年出台的商业报告显示，中山公园与五角场是在原八商业中心的基础上新增的两个商业中心。 +[[File:Baimaoling Farm (Prison).jpg|thumb|[[上海市白茅岭监狱|白茅岭农场]]是[[宝山区 (上海市)|宝山区]]位于[[安徽省]][[郎溪县]]的[[飞地]]，为上海市提供[[农作物|农产品]]]]上海由于属于渔业蔬菜的产量都相对较高。早在上海开埠后随着城市化进程农用耕地和产鱼河流减少和被湮埋依靠传统耕种手法的农业一度受到很大影响。自1990年代起上海农业开始向高科技和机械化发展。上海的传统农业主要是精耕细作，以渔业、盐业和种植业为主。早在的改革，松江棉布闻名国内，产量极高，被誉为。1988年在时任市长的”由此上海的农业现代化开始高速发展。1990年代初现代化农业就取得了明显的效果。目前上海的农业基本实现现代化。依靠高科技标准化机械化生产兴建水利农业园区和农业保险补贴等六个方面构成现代化农业网络。到2012年上海市实现农业总产值320.76亿元。其中种植业171.2亿元8.87亿元牧业72.63亿元渔业57.81亿元农林牧渔服务业10.25亿元。上海域外市属农场实现农业总产值16.08亿元。全年全市粮食播种面积187.61千公顷粮食产量122.39万吨水产品产量27.21万吨。全年水稻良种覆盖率达99.8%。至2012年底上海市有543家企业3300个产品获得农产品质量认证。其中绿色食品生产企业116家绿色食品170个无公害农产品生产企业420家无公害农产品3106个上海累计建成标准化畜禽养殖场270家标准化水产养殖场293家累计建成设施粮田面积86.5千公顷蔬菜标准园60家。至年末全市有农业产业化龙头企业388家农民专业合作社3177家。根據2018年的統計，上海市內共有2423.78万名常住人口，其中分別有976.21万名常住外來人口以及1447.57万名常住户籍人口，是中華人民共和國非戶籍常住人口最多的城市。目前，上海市常住人口中约有7万余人。除常住人口以外，持居住证的外来人口为103万人。另外有16万外国人常年居住于上海。在人口结构方面，上海正面临严重的问题。现今戶籍設在上海的人口其平均期望寿命為83.63岁，其中男性和女性分別為81.25岁與女性86.08岁，而65岁及以上人口則有232.98万人，占总人口的10.1%。至2019年百歲老人數量為2657人。预计到了2030年時60岁以上的老年人口将超过500万人。上海市的生育率处于极低水平。根据人口普查和抽查，2000年以来，上海市[[总和生育率]]处于0.67和0.74之间，仅为世代更替水平的三分之一。上海自开埠以后各地人口迅速涌入其中[[江苏]][[山东]][[浙江]][[广东]][[安徽]]是上海居民的主要来源地并与上海本地居民融合构成今日上海市民主体的[[上海人]]。1843年前上海主要以本地居民为主。随着开埠后贸易的迅速增长以及相对稳定的政治环境原先在等众多中国近代史上的政商文艺名人。1949年以后，随着支援内地、等地。另外在1949年以前有数量众多的英法等国公民居住于上海。难民。1990年代以后随着商务活动的增加上海再度聚集了诸多外籍人士。尽管上海全市户籍人口自然增长率自1993年后一直为负增长但上海每年以引进人才的方式给予2万余人户籍户籍人口依旧保持了连年增加。上海曾长期对户籍进行严格控制但近年来已有所放宽。另外随着流动人口的剧烈增加上海市也正面临种种人口问题首先上海市的土地水源环境交通等资源承受沉重压力且大部分犯罪为流动人员所为对上海的治安造成了影响。数据显示截止2012年上海中心城区人口密度是的4.8倍而以2012年为基点上海人口或许在3年内超过城市承载量。、洋房、弄堂等一样，成为了上海风情的代表性符号。如今上海话的使用范围面临多方面的压缩。伴随外地人的大量湧入，本地户籍人口比例逐渐减小，加之政府有意在公共場所限制上海話的使用，使得普通话越来越成为公共场合语言。由于國家禁止校園內講上海話，也禁止上海話電視台，上海少年一代对于[[上海话]]的掌握能力开始下降，社会上也出现了一些保护上海话的行动。到目前上海话仍然在日常占有主要地位。上海话的使用和发展一直是上海社会讨论的话题。上海郊区也通行其他隶属于[[苏沪嘉小片]]的吴语方言，主要包括[[嘉定话]]（使用于嘉定和宝山）、[[松江话]]（含金山话，使用于松江、青浦、金山、奉贤）、崇明话（或称[[沙地话]]，使用于崇明，与海门启东方言为一片）、[[浦东话]]（又称上海本地话，通行于浦东、川沙、南汇一带）、上海市郊话（和浦东话非常类似，曾通行于江湾、龙华、五角场等近郊，但如今基本已被上海市区话取代）。由于上海市区话的影响力，郊县方言在年轻一代口音也在逐步向上海市区方言靠拢。当今的上海与等现在仅存遗址。上海地区的佛教和道教均可追溯至等10个少数民族。，且大多位于市中心，因而也被游客视为热门的旅游景点。上海的公交车最早出现于1908年，到2011年，全上海公交线路1100多条，公交车近17000辆，其中包括行駛在市區13條線路上的358輛無軌電車。公交网络已经覆盖每一个行政村，日客运量为770万人次。 +轨道交通是又一重要的市内交通交通工具，在客流量上和公交车平分秋色。包括17条运营总里程741.5公里，居世界首位，亦是世界上最繁忙的城市地铁系统之一。地铁线路将中心城区密集覆盖，并连接了大多数区县，工作日日均客流超900万。上海出租汽车始于1908年，1930年代曾经达到一个高峰，自1980年代以来，出租汽车业重新活跃，目前全市共有运营汽车达5万辆，出租车-{A|zh-hans:扬招点; zh-hant:招呼站}-也陆续设立。此外轮渡也曾为重要的交通方式，用以连接黄浦江两岸，以及服务于崇明岛和上海市区之间，但随着跨黄浦江和长江的陆续建成，轮渡对于客运的重要性已大不如前，取而代之的是黄浦江上行驶的众多观光游船。于1999年起出现的的部分城市通用。2017年12月1日，上海获”称号，成为首批获该称号的两座城市之一，对中国各个城市起到标杆和引领示范作用。上海市区内由的方式来缓解路面交通的阻塞。由于河流纵贯上海建有诸多只能依靠船舶往来浦江两岸的历史。上海市区通过十余条省级高速公路连接市郊或邻近城市，此外还有多条和对外相连。上海是中国的三大航空枢纽之一，拥有使用。2016年12月12日，中国城市机场首次旅客突破1亿人次。纵观全球，上海之前，有英国伦敦、美国纽约、亚特兰大和日本东京，上海由此成为全球第5个进入亿级人次航空的城市。兩大機場的貨運吞吐量，也可望連續9年位居全球第3名。1921年虹桥机场在上海西郊兴建并于1929年开始系统运营之后进行过多次扩建现已成为的一部分。浦东国际机场于1999年投入使用迅速成为中国最繁忙的机场之一航线覆盖世界73个国家和地区以及62个国内城市并有两岸直航。此外[[中国东方航空]][[上海航空]][[春秋航空]][[吉祥航空]][[中国货运航空]]上海国际货运航空[[金鹏航空 (中国)|扬子江快运航空]][[長城航空|长城航空]]等8家航空公司也以上海为基地。上海拥有[[特等站 (中国)|特等站]]和[[一等站 (中国)|一等站]]各二个，以[[上海站]]、[[上海西站]]、[[上海南站]]、[[上海虹桥站]]最为重要。上海最早的铁路是1876年建成的[[吴淞铁路]]，同时也是中国最早运营的铁路。至1909年[[沪宁铁路]]、[[沪杭铁路]]均已通车，形成了现有进出上海的铁路干线。上海现有）线路已相继通车。上海港自开埠后迅速成为中国的最大港口，为来往船舶提供加油。该港的口岸、港政、航政归上海市，但所在的嵊泗县行政上属浙江省。到2008年，上海港拥有各类码头1200余个，万吨级以上生产性泊位137个，码头线总长115公里，年吞吐量58170万吨，最大靠泊能力15万吨级。至2010年，上海港已成为世界最大的集装箱港。除货运外，上海港每月定期发出客运航班2258次，每年有国际邮轮58班次。 +1949年5月，全市公立学校和中沪上一些学校部分或全部前往内陆，外地一些高校的师资则部分迁来上海。目前上海拥有10所[[211工程]]重点高校其中[[复旦大学]][[上海交通大学]][[同济大学]][[华东师范大学]]为[[985工程]]院校。2012年10月中国第一所中美合作的国际化大学[[上海纽约大学]]在[[浦东]][[陆家嘴金融贸易区|陆家嘴]]成立。2013年9月上海市与[[中国科学院]]共同建立了小规模国际化的研究型大学[[上海科技大学]]。基础教育方面上海適齡幼兒小学初中学生的净入学率接近100%高中阶段教育入学率为98%普通高等学校在校人数超过百万毛录取率约为70%在2009年与2012年[[国际学生能力评估计划]]中上海学生的数学科学阅读能力在参与测试的国家和地区中全部名列第一。全市现有100多所科研机构，10万科研人员，及100多所专业技术培训机构。在上海产生了等著名科学家。知名的公立科研和设计机构有：在开埠后上海由中可见到相应以1500比例制作的内环线100余平方公里范围内城市规划模型。1949年以后的几十年中，市政建停留在新建工人住房、置换电水管网等阶段。自1990年代起，上海开始大规模市政建设，广泛推行平改坡工程和屋顶水箱改造工程。对违法建筑和环境脏乱路段也年年进行整治。以举办2010年景观留存至今。上海开埠以前园林绿化全部都为私家园林最为著名的有等个别公园外已经取消公园门票。自2000年以后为了净化城市空气美化环境上海开始在城市中心和郊区兴建一批开放绿地。到2008年上海全市绿地总面积34256公顷公共绿地14777公顷城市绿化覆盖率为38%。全市林地总面积到近10万公顷森林覆盖率11.6%。为解决自1990年代开始大规模市政建设对资金的大量需求上海市政府部分官员主导了对上海的投融资体制的大幅改革先利用政府手中的土地资源引入的扶持力度等措施进一步扩大融资范围和能力以满足市政建设的需要。上海开埠后西医随同传教士和医生一同进入。1844年出现现代医院。1904年上海万国红十字会成立为的前身。现在上海的公共医疗体系以为主辅之以社区医疗机构。同时在各郊区县开始建设三级甲等医院的分院并进行村卫生室的标准化建设。截止2012年上海市共有医疗卫生机构3465所专业卫生技术人员14.61万人。1988年春季上海市爆发了流感疫情上海卫生部门反应迅速及时扑杀相关市场内的禽鸟以切断传染源。由于上海市多管齐下的得利防控措施目前已经基本消除疫情。截至2013年，上海户籍人口的人均期望寿命已超过82岁，位列水平。从1990年代以来，上海开始建立并逐步完善了现代化都市型的社会保障体系。目前，上海个人和单位是2190元，列全国首位；城镇居民和农民最低生活保障金为每月790元。城镇医疗保险的最高支付封顶线为39万元，超过部分则可报销80%。[[FileOriental Library.jpg|缩略图|[[一二八事变]]前[[商务印书馆]]的东方图书馆]]1843年，上海英商[[墨海书馆]]引进[[中国]]第一台印刷机，成为中国最早的现代化出版社。1897年，[[商务印书馆]]在上海成立。1912年，[[中华书局股份有限公司|中华书局]]在沪开业，并迅速发展崛起。上海此后逐渐成为了中国出版业的中心。到1910年代底，上海各类出版销售机构增加到120余家，占全国出版机构的80%。到1936年，[[商务印书馆]]、中华书局和世界书局的出版已占全中国出版图书的71%。1949年起，政府开始对出版进行整顿，形成以为核心的图书出版发行。进入1959年以后，包括商务印书馆、中华书局在内的大型印刷出版机构被迁移至北京，上海出版行业逐渐衰落，到1969年全年上海出版仅为16种。进入2000年上海各出版社开始被整合成为》。 +上海现代化报业自开埠以后便开始发展，之前主要有一些邸钞、等。1949年》两种。1979年起上海大批报纸开始复刊。目前上海主要的两大报业集团解放日报和文汇新民两大报业集团合并为上海报业集团。的发行量为最大。1923年1月23日在上海开播的[[大陆报-中国无线电公司广播电台]]是中国首家公共广播电台。1920年代以后随着相关无线广播的法规制定私营电台与国有电台迅速发展。到1945年拥有营业许可的国营电台和民营电台达108家广播节目除新闻时讯外也经常播出苏州[[评弹]]和[[滑稽戏]]等[[曲艺]]节目。1949年5月27日上海人民广播电台成立同时各类私营电台被陆续整合至1953年仅剩上海人民广播电台一家。1992年初上海东方广播电台成立成为同上海人民广播电台有竞争关系的第二家省级广播电台。1990年起[[上海人民广播电台]]播出以[[上海市公安局刑侦总队]]为原型的大型系列[[广播剧]]《[[刑警803 (广播剧)|刑警803]]》为中国播出数量最多时间跨度最长的广播剧。2001年，广播电视机构改革，上海人民广播电台、上海东方广播电台、上海电视台、上海东方电视台、上海有线电视台全部并入），几乎控制了上海市全部的广播电视节目播出。各电视台也进行明确分工，原本竞争的格局不复存在。上中国代表团的三分之一为上海运动员。1949年以后在有较高群众基础的等领域培养了。1990年代起各类健身器材开始在社区内出现并逐步将学校场地对公众开放到2008年全市开放各类学校体育场地已有1100多处。在1903年中国最早的相对专业的足球队在上海出现。目前上海在的一支强队曾经在2003-2012年实现九连冠并且总共取得了多达12次联赛总冠军。在民国时期上海举办过1915年1921年1927年的在上海举行。国际性赛事方面，上海举办过1993年第一届，簡稱旗忠網球中心，位於上海閔行區馬橋鎮旗忠村，其場館設施先進，座位超過15000個，號稱世界三大網球場館之一。該項賽事於2009年升級為ATP世界巡迴賽的九大大師杯1000公開賽之一，成為在亞洲唯一的，等級最高的網球盛典。上海的文化被称为“的繁荣，越来越多的人开始以卖画为生，海上画派之名渐广为人知。1860年代，法国人在上海创立中国第一间博物馆以展出长江流域的动植物标本，现在全市已有博物馆百余座。位于等专业博物馆，正逐步向公众免费开放。上海古代图书收藏以私人藏书为主开埠后出现近代图书馆其中以1847年兴建的拥有各类图书报刊资料5200万册以及15万余张旧唱片和影音资料并和世界各地150多家公共图书馆建立图书交换业务。上海菜当地人称为则是本帮小吃的知名代表。此外由于上海开埠后大批移民涌入上海可以见到来自全国各地的[[中国菜系|各菜系]]餐馆。其中[[粤菜]]以[[上海杏花楼酒家|杏花楼]]和[[新雅粤菜馆]]最为著名而苏菜则以德兴馆为其代表宁波风格料理则可以在宁波汤团店品尝到。而西方饮食文化随同上海开埠进入这座城市，1853年开业的老德记西餐馆为沪上首家西餐厅。最初西餐一般以应对外国顾客为主，1910年德大西餐馆开业，成为面向各界民众的西餐馆。[[十月革命]]后，由于大批[[蘇維埃俄國|苏俄]]侨民涌入，俄式西餐一度成为大众西餐的典范，其中[[罗宋汤]]颇受平民喜爱。目前，上海经营各国菜肴的餐馆为数众多，风格来自世界各地。而西方糕点随同西餐传入后由于其价格较之正式西餐相对低廉，受到普通民众的喜爱。上海民众日常饮食的主食以[[米饭]]为主偶尔以[[馄饨]][[面条]]等作为调节。传统家庭早饭以隔夜的剩余米饭加水制成[[泡饭]]并辅以[[酱菜]][[咸蛋]]和[[腐乳]]等。如在小摊提供的早餐则以[[豆浆]][[油条]][[面饼|大饼]][[粢饭]]最为常见因而被沪上民众称为。》等以上海为背景的著名作品。1980年代以后海派文学出现了等等知名作家。[[FileShanghai Tianzifang 上海田子坊 - panoramio.jpg|缩略图|位于[[黄浦区]]的[[田子坊]]是汇集上海民间创意手工和时尚元素的新兴旅游观光胜地]][[明朝|明代]]以[[董其昌]]为首的[[松江画派]]逐渐兴起，并在[[清代]]主导了江南地区的画风，出现了如顾昉之类的大家。清末时传统书画上形成以》等著名作品。目前上海的美术展馆以成为中外美术交流的重要场所。在十九世纪后期，文艺演出成为民众主要的休闲娱乐形式。20世纪初在上海、江苏、浙江一带逐渐出现了后逐渐成为重要的演出场地。而随着[[苏州]]的四大昆班、[[徽班]]的皮黄、[[京剧]]艺术等陆续进入上海。评弹也籍着语言与地理位置的优势，从[[苏州]]扩展到上海，并随着商业电台的普及，评弹艺术迅速发展，到1930年代，当时每天的评弹节目多达103档。1920年代以后，上海并逐渐形成了以[[周信芳]]、[[盖叫天]]为首的海派京剧风格，并吸引了[[梅兰芳]]等京剧大家常住上海。同一时期，[[浙江]][[嵊县]]（今浙江[[嵊州]]）小歌班也在上海舞台上开始发扬[[越剧]]这一新剧种。而上海本地的传统唱腔在融合了现代戏剧形式后，形成了上海特有的[[沪剧]]。至2012年上海主要的传统剧团有等地区性曲艺形式通过今年来的发展和传承逐渐得到重视并于2008年入选国家第二批非物质文化遗产名录。 +19世纪末后青年学生和知识分子多用话剧来表达观点。进入1920年代以后开始出现了等歌舞剧。1927年成立的[[上海音乐学院|国立音乐院]]和1950年代陆续成立的上海人民艺术剧院、上海歌剧院和[[上海戏剧学院]]，现为上海现代戏剧的演出机构和专业培训机构。话剧以上海话剧艺术中心为主体，而音乐剧和歌剧的演出则主要借助于国际演出团队。[[上海音乐厅]]和[[上海大剧院]]也分别进行了改造和兴建，之后上演了[[百老汇]]的经典音乐剧《[[悲惨世界]]》、《[[猫 (音乐剧)|猫]]》，以及[[普契尼]]的经典歌剧《[[波西米亚人 (歌剧)|波西米亚人]]》、《[[图兰朵]]》等。如今的上海已成为众多话剧舞台剧的背景城市。例如中文话剧大师等在内的上海各大表演中心上演其中亦有不少精彩的精品走出国门在各国巡回演出获得好评无数。[[FileConcert hall shanghai.jpg|右|缩略图|[[上海音乐厅]]]]上海的早期音乐以传统的创作于上海。1949年以后，上海的[[流行音乐]]以及电影[[原声音乐]]为[[红色歌曲]]所取代，少有新作品诞生，这一现象一直持续到国际音乐节。随着音乐教育的恢复，上海逐渐出现了[[孔祥东]]、[[黄英 (歌唱家)|黄英]]、[[廖昌永]]等著名艺术家。为普及高雅音乐，[[上海人民广播电台]]创立[[星期广播音乐会]]，并持续至今。[[帕尔曼]]、[[小泽征尔]]、[[马友友]]、[[柏林爱乐乐团]]、[[纽约爱乐乐团]]等也曾在[[上海音乐厅]]、[[上海大剧院]]和[[东方艺术中心]]进行交流演出。自2012年4月起，上海首届[[户外交响音乐会]]——辰山草地广播音乐会落户[[佘山]]附近的[[上海辰山植物园]]绿色剧场，至今每年春夏之际举办一届。辰山草地广播音乐会推崇的理念，邀请世界知名乐团参演，品质不俗。流行音乐方面上海本地的相关制作和乐团在1970年代以后开始逐渐复苏。1993年为鼓励上海和中国的流行音乐的发展上海东方广播电台设立专业的流行乐榜单即[[东方风云榜]]。而本土的流行乐也培养[[毛阿敏]][[胡彦斌]]等明星。一些国际流行乐坛的著名歌手和乐队如[[惠特尼休斯敦]][[席琳狄翁]][[瑪麗亞凱莉]][[聯合公園|林肯公園]][[比吉斯]][[海莉薇思特拉]][[滨崎步]][[滚石乐队]][[東方神起]][[碧昂斯]][[泰勒斯威夫特]][[約翰傳奇]]等都在上海举办过演唱会。1895年8月上海出现了名为西洋影戏的电影。1909年亚细亚影戏公司成立为中国最早的电影公司。在1921年至1931年间上海各类电影公司摄制的故事片有650余部。随着电影业的迅速发展》等经典作品。随着全球化的发展和海内外的电影产业进一步崛起越来越多的中外电影包括《[[变形金刚2]]》《[[太平轮]]》《[[碟中谍3]]》《[[小时代 (电影)|小时代]]》《[[谍海风云]]》《[[神奇四侠2]]》《[[如果爱]]》《[[面纱 (电影)|面纱]]》《[[七月与安生 (电影)|七月与安生]]》《[[黃金時代 (2014年電影)|黄金时代]]》《[[十月围城 (电影)|十月围城]]》和《[[007大破天幕杀机]]》等等作品纷纷前往上海取景拍摄。》则直指文革上山下乡运动的余留问题，真实地记录了90年代初期上海的城市和社会面貌，同时还有沪语版本，因而在成片十余年后重播仍然受到广泛关注。上海每年定期举办文化活动。[[上海电视节]]创办于1986年，是中国最早的国际电视节，创办于1993年的[[上海国际电影节]]在海内外也较为知名。[[上海旅游节]]创办于1990年，为每年9月至10月的文化节日，主要进行国际旅游推广活动。上海国际艺术节期间会举行多场画展、音乐会、艺术展，并聘请各国艺术家登台献艺。每年8月中旬会在[[上海展览中心]]举行[[上海书展]]，而[[上海国际音乐烟花节]]通常在[[世纪公园 (上海)|世纪公园]]举行。此外，自2001年起，上海时装周于每年的10月份在上海市區舉辦。上海的古代建筑，目前基本遗留的以明代建筑为主，而且大部分为民居和私家园林。除等。上海开埠以后随着租界建立和欧美文化大举进入一些西式别墅和洋房开始兴建上海也开始出现各种不同风格的建筑因而被誉为“万国建筑博览会”其中尤以外滩地区的金融建筑最为著名诸如中式的住宅直至1980年代一直是上海最常见的住宅样式。进入1990年代后上海开始广泛进行城市建筑和基础设施改造新建了大量商务办公楼大型商场高层住宅等现代风格建筑。至2008年楼层超过30层的高楼已有2000多栋其中尤以而浦东[[陆家嘴金融贸易区|陆家嘴]]地区为代表[[东方明珠电视塔]][[金茂大厦]][[上海环球金融中心]]等已成为上海地标2014年底完工632米高[[上海中心大厦]]是上海已建成最高的建筑。上海在租界时期遗留了众多富有特色的欧式建筑而1990年代起又出现了诸多现代化建筑同时周边郊区分布着几处具有江南风格的[[江南水乡古镇|水乡古镇]]均成为了旅游景观。上海于1986年被国务院定为[[国家历史文化名城]]。丰富的旅游资源吸引了各国游客到2012年接待入境的国际旅游者达到800万人次。上海的[[东方明珠广播电视塔]][[上海野生动物园]][[上海科技馆]]3处属中国最高的[[5A景区|5A级旅游景点]]另有20处[[中国国家4A级旅游景区|4A级景区]][[佘山]][[东平国家森林公园|东平]][[上海共青国家森林公园|共青]][[上海海湾国家森林公园|海湾]]等4处[[国家森林公园]]以及[[沙逊大厦]][[外白渡桥]]等617处[[上海市优秀历史建筑]]。上海近年来已成为驰名中外的国际等地区等地段也有着五光十色、十分绚丽的夜景建设。上海每年举办的文化推广活动也推动了上海旅游业的发展包括[[上海國際電影節]]国际音乐节等。每年9月的[[上海旅游节]]则是展示上海和吸引游客的一个重要舞台和途径。[[网球]][[上海大師賽|上海大师赛]]和[[一级方程式赛车]][[中国大奖赛|中国站]]也成为一些游客到上海旅游的目的。2010年5月至10月间[[上海世界博览会]]的参观人数是达到了7300余万人次。 +[[Category東海沿海城市|S]][[Category国家中心城市]][[Category:国家经济中心城市|沪]][[Category:10世紀建立的聚居地]]歷史學家也稱歷史家史學家史家指以撰写历史著作为职业或对历史学的创立发展与应用付出努力的知识分子。历史学家包括历史记录的编撰者和史料的研究者。人們研究歷史必須倚靠前人所留下的記錄。歷史學家會研究過去所發生的事件和這些事件記錄的真確性並將他們的研究記錄下來。歷史學家的研究對象可以是某人的經歷某城市某地或某國家的發展。根據他們不同的研究對象歷史可有不同的分類例如個人歷史是有關某人過去發生的事做研究。地方歷史是有關某城市或某地曾發生事件的研究。世界歷史，是有關世界各地過去事件的研究。在古代中国，历史学的传统主要是以历史编撰的形式创立和发展的，在西漢历史编撰者司马迁之后，唐代的刘知幾开创了另外一种门类的工作，即对历史编撰这项工作本身的研究（史学）。在宋代，开始了以往的历史记录为材料的针对“历史”的研究活动。在清代，也有史學家劉鶚研究商代甲骨文。而在古希臘/羅馬，歷史學家向來被視為文學家的一種，撰寫歷史的首務是將人物或事件寫的生動，甚至某些是被認為理所當然的。歷史分析的過程比較複雜牽涉到研究調查和分析不能同時接受的構想事實和傳說去設一致的講法去解釋“怎麼樣發生”和“為什麼發生”。現代的歷史分析常利用很多其他社會科學包括經濟學社會學政治學心理學人類學哲學和語言學。開放源代码是一种在电脑程序的出品前和开发中提供其内部代码的做法。开放源代码在互聯網上獲得廣泛使用，參加者需要大量更新電腦原始碼。開放原始碼使得生產模組、通訊管道、互動社群獲得改善。隨後，一個新著作權、軟體授權條款、域名和消費者提供建立的，一個新詞開源軟體誕生。開源模型概念包括同時間不同時程和方法來生產，相對而言，更加集中式的軟体設計模型，例如典型的商業軟体公司。一個開源軟体開發的主要原則和慣例是易貨貿易和合作的同儕生產，經由免費公開的最終產品、原始資訊、藍圖和-{文件}-。這逐漸應用在其它領域，例如生物技術。開放原始碼的概念和免費分享技術資訊，在電腦誕生前存在很長的一段時間。例如食譜共享從人類文化一開始就有。開放原始碼能夠用在商業技術上的電腦和軟体。在汽車發展的初期二行程引擎的專利被資產家所垄断。藉由掌握這項專利能夠壟斷市場或是對於競爭者提出侵權訴訟。然而汽車製造商亨利福特在1911年挑戰這項專利其結果使得這項專利變成幾乎一文不值並形成新的關聯催生出。1998年，提姆·奥莱理召開了一次開放原始碼會議，包括BSD陣營與Linux社群的中堅份子都參與其中。因為自由軟體基金會提出的自由软件可能與免費軟體造成混淆，在會議中，決議以提出的Open Source作為共通名稱。開源可樂是一種開放可樂配方，任何人都能夠輕易地獲取它的配方并对其做出修改。開源可樂發行運動的最初目的是推廣自由和開源軟體。 +计算数学是数学的一个分支研究的内容包括设计和分析算法以及数学建模等目的是为了在实际工程中利用快速稳定的算法得到精确值的近似值。在计算机科学高度发展的今天其基础计算理论的发展使计算数学进入现代化阶段。高德納，出生於美国密尔沃基，著名计算机科学家，斯坦福大学计算机系榮譽退休教授。高德纳教授為现代计算机科学的先驅人物，創造了演算法分析的領域，在數個理論計算機科學的分支做出基石一般的貢獻。在计算机科学及数学领域发表了多部具广泛影响的论文和著作。1974年圖靈獎得主。高德纳所写的是計算機科學界最受高度敬重的參考書籍之一。他也是排版軟件和字型設計系統Metafont的发明人。此外，他还曾提出文学编程的概念，並創造了WEB與CWEB軟體，作為文學編程開發工具。高德納的英文名直译为唐纳德爾文克努斯這個中文名字是1977年他訪-{}-問中國之前所取的命名者是儲楓（姚期智的夫人計算機科學家2004年至2011年在香港城市大學電腦科學系擔任系主任。高德納出生於於美國威斯康辛州密西根湖邊的密爾瓦基。密爾瓦基是一個山靈水秀人才輩出的地方諾貝爾獎得主司馬賀也是在這裡出生的。他父親 Ervin Henry Knuth是德裔美國人母親是 Louise Marie Bohning。父親有研究生學歷是一個多才多藝的人星期天在教堂演奏風琴在自家地下室經營一個小印刷廠並在高德納就讀的 Milwaukee Lutheran High School中學教簿記。高德納在中學時期就已經展現出學術天分初中二年級當地的Ziegler糖果公司為了促銷其稱為Giant Bar的一種棒棒糖在學校中辦了一個比賽看誰能用Ziegler's Giant Bar中的字母排列組合出最多的單詞。高德納假裝胃疼在家裡待了兩個星期利用一部大字典得出了4500個單詞而裁判只掌握了約2500多個單詞他的班級贏得冠軍獲得一台電視機和每人一塊Giant Bar而他本人則贏得一副雪撬。1956年高德納以各科平均97.5分的創記錄的高分從中學畢業。由於高德納對物理和音樂都很有興趣他曾猶豫大學要唸物理還是音樂後來他決定念物理進入俄亥俄州克利夫蘭的凱斯理工學院攻讀物理。在此時期他接觸到當時最先進的大型電腦 IBM 650他讀過了電腦的手冊後認為自己可以幫IBM 650寫出更好的編譯程式便動手開始做。1959年，高德納成了第一屆Engineering and Science Review 期刊的編輯，該期刊是當時最好的工程科學期刊，獲得了國家獎。高德納從主修物理改成主修數學。1960年, 高德納從凯斯理工學院畢業時，由於他的傑出表現，同時獲得學士與碩士學位。1960年，高德纳進入加州理工學院研究所，研究所二年級時，為私人公司寫編譯器，賺得5,000元美金。1962年1月Addison-Wesley公司的顧問理查·瓦嘎請他出版一本有关编译器的书籍。1963年，高德纳获得加州理工學院数学博士学位，指導教授是數學家。高德纳畢業之後留在加州理工學院任教，并在数学与计算机程序设计领域取得多项成就。1966年当高德纳的著作已经长达3000多页时他与出版商商定编纂一部系统地介绍计算机程序设计的巨著等书并列为20世纪最重要的12本物理科學類專論书之一。1968年，高德纳拒绝了美国国家安全局的工作邀请，受聘成为斯坦福大学计算机系教授，直到退休，其間1972—1973年曾經在奧斯陸大學當客座教授。和他的一個學生開發了克努斯-莫里斯-普拉特算法，該法則使計算機在文章中搜索一串字符的過程更加連貫。他在担任该职务期间开发了排版软件，成为今天大多数科技书籍使用的排版程序。除此之外高德纳还在计算机领域作出了多项贡献，例如LR解析理论（LR parsing theory）、克努斯-莫里斯-普拉特模式（Knuth-Moris-Pratt pattern）等。1979年卡特總統頒與國家科學獎。1996年11月榮獲京都獎。很多人都认为高德纳非常有趣。他会奖励每一个找出他的著作中任何错误的人他们每指出的一个错误就能得到2.56美元因为“256美分刚好是十六进制的一美元”（）另外对于每个“有价值的建议”他设立了0.32美元的奖金。高德纳可以算是一名标准的黑客他最喜欢的软件是Emacs并曾向其作者理查史托曼提交-{zh-hans修补补丁 zh-hant修改提案}-。与大多数传统黑客一样，高德纳酷爱音乐。高中的時候，Knuth興趣所在並非數學，而是音乐，尤其是聽音樂和作曲。他一度还曾考虑报考音乐专业。他在他的书房中放了一个特别定制的84管的管风琴。除此之外他也会吹萨克斯风和大号。高德納的作品曾兩度刊印在计算机协会期刊上。高德纳的計劃出版7卷，该书自第3卷于二十世纪七十年代初版以来，一直沒有下一卷的進展。因此他自1990年起就停止使用电子邮件以专心撰写余下的4卷。在计算机科學以外，高德纳亦著有論述基督教信仰的書籍，如《3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated》（1991年，ISBN 0-89579-252-4），以及《Things A Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About》（2001年，ISBN 1-57586-326-X），這些被視為计算机科學家少有的作品。 +古代华夏族發源黃河流域的中原地区，以為居天下之中，故稱其地為中國。後各朝疆土漸廣，凡所轄境皆稱為中國，亦稱中華。 現今國際上廣泛承認代表的政權是中华人民共和国中国位于北半球亞歐大陆东部太平洋西岸。在喜马拉雅构造期印度板块与亞歐板块撞击青藏高原隆起形成了中国的地貌。中国疆域隨著歷史演變而有所增減。約360萬平方公里的古代汉地九州是中国政治经济核心地带。歷代王朝政權透過與周邊各民族政權的交流與征戰疆域扩至西域塞北黑龍江流域及南海諸島等地。中國文明是世界上最早的文明之一。 新石器时期，中原地区开始出现聚落组织；公元前27世纪左右出现方国，以共主為首的制度；前20世纪开始，古代中国进入世袭的封建阶段；公元前2世紀，秦滅六國，完成中國第一次大一統。此後幾千年來，中國的政治制度以半傳統的夏代為基礎的世襲君主制以朝代更換政權運作。此後经多次擴大，破裂，重組，朝代更迭，經過數次统一与分裂交替进行。直到1911年辛亥革命後，中國废除君主制，实行共和制，清朝被1912年成立的中华民国取代。1945年第二次國共內戰爆發後，中國共產黨逐漸控制中國的大部分領土，最終於1949年10月1日建立中华人民共和国，以中國國民黨為首的中華民國政府同時撤退至台灣，形成了中华民国與中华人民共和国双方相隔台灣海峽分治的局面；惟做為國際關係核心場域的聯合國系統內，中華民國政府仍持擁有代表權，直到1971年聯合國大會2758號決議通過後，才被中華人民共和國政府完全取代。中國經濟曾经在相当长的历史时期中在世界上占有重要的地位，其周期通常与王朝的兴衰与更替相對應。中國經濟史可分为几个階段：第一階段為遠古至西晉末年，其中以三國孫吳時轉變較大；第二階段為東晉至北宋末年，其中以唐安史之亂劃分為前後；第三階段為南宋建立至鴉片戰爭。自明清以来，中国由于保守的對外政策，實行海禁，以及受重农抑商思想和对于工业的轻视，导致工业化程度发展较慢。而西方國家在19世纪工业革命後的工業成品，無論在數量和質量上，相較於當時中国純手工業經濟出産的商品，佔有壓倒性的優勢，而同时期的西方由于工业革命的影响，工业化水平大幅提高，以工业为基础的经济也快速发展，致使中国經濟遂落後於西方。1978年改革開放施行後，中国经济發展迅速，對世界經濟的影響也日漸顯著。中国文化歷經上千年的歷史演變是各區域各民族古代文化長期相互交流借鉴融合的結果。作为其主体的汉文化对日本朝鮮和东南亚有深远影响形成漢字文化圈。中国的传统艺术形式有国乐相声戏曲书法国画文學陶瓷藝術雕刻等传统娱乐活动有象棋围棋麻将中国武术等。茶酒菜和筷子等为中国的特色饮食文化春节元宵清明端午七夕中秋重阳冬至等为传统节日。中国传统上是一个儒学国家以夏历为历法以五伦为道德准则。春秋时期孔子开始办私塾培养人才汉朝时采用察举推选政府官员隋朝起实行科举在平民中选拔人才。此外中国歷朝歷代都设有史官因此保存有十分详尽的历史资料如等。古代中國在科學領域上有豐厚的成就。「中國」最早見於公元前11世纪商周之際，此前何時出現則不得而知。《尚书·梓材》：的邦國（「國」作「國家」解）；商、周的華夏人認為，在天子居住的都城以外，依次有侯、甸、采、衛等衛戍；再之外則為蛮、夷、戎、狄，“居天地之偏”，称为四夷。最早的實物資料是何尊上的铭文（公元前1038年，周成王語何），原文為「隹珷王既克大邑商，𠟭廷告于天，曰：余𠀠宅𢆶中或，自之辥民」，釋讀為“唯武王既克大邑商，則廷告於天，曰：余其宅兹中國，自兹乂民。”這個「中或（中國）」指的是以洛陽盆地為中心的中原地區（此處「國」作「地域」解）。春秋戰國時期，中國主要指諸夏列邦之全體漢代延續了先秦時期的天下觀念，並且出現了中外之分、敵我區隔這樣與現代相似的用法。魏、晉、宋、齊、梁、陳皆稱呼自己為中國，而以吳、蜀、北朝為賊、虜、偽等，北朝亦自稱中國。隋、唐自稱一詞行文或發言自稱。對外官方交往中，已知最早使用。“中国”的同義詞有“華”、“夏”、“中華”、“神州”、“中土”、“唐山”等。梵文對中國的稱呼為Cina，希伯來文為Sininm，粟特文為Cynstn，拉丁文為Thin，希臘文為Sinae、Tzinitza，阿拉伯文為Cyn、Sin、Thin，漢譯真丹、震旦、脂那等。南宋以後，意大利語為Kathay、法語為Cathay，即漢語契丹，明以後為Cina、Chine，惟俄語仍稱契丹。英文對中國的稱呼為China，若直譯，則為Middle或Central Kingdom。古日語有Morokoshi、Kara、西土、吳國等。中國歷史如果從文字出现的商朝算起約有三千五百年算起約有八十萬年的歷史。中华文明起源于黄河文明和长江文明。中国旧石器时代早期文化有蓝田人文化元谋人文化巫山人以及郧县人文化等中期则以北方的北京人和南方的长阳人观音洞文化为代表晚期有山顶洞人柳江人资阳人等。中石器时代有下川文化等。新石器时代有裴李崗文化磁山文化仰韶文化龙山文化等。中国传说时代是指在文字记载出现之前，依靠世代口耳相传所描述的远古历史时代，是中國地區古代傳說和神話的一部份。中国神话中盘古开天地，女娲补天造人，描述了世界与人类起源。中国传说时代，伏羲教民渔、猎、畜牧，创造八卦文字，神农开创农业及医药，燧人发明钻燧取火，此即三皇。三皇之后的首领，黄帝、颛顼、帝喾、尧、舜为五帝。传说黃帝原系炎帝部落的一個分支的領袖強大之後在阪泉之戰中擊敗炎帝成為新部落聯盟首領之後又與東南方的蚩尤部落發生衝突在涿鹿之戰中徹底擊敗對手樹立自己的霸主地位。後來黃帝的孫子顓頊和玄孫帝嚳繼續擔任部落聯盟的首領。帝嚳的兒子堯繼位創立禪讓制傳位給舜。在舜時期黄河洪水氾濫鯀採用堵塞的方法結果洪水更厲害了鯀被處決他的兒子禹採用疏導的方法治水成功因此受舜禅让继帝位。古代中国经历朝代更迭不下數次，统一与分裂交替發生，其中统一的时期有秦汉、西晋、隋唐、北宋、元代、明代、清代等，分裂时期有春秋战国、三国、五胡十六国时期、南北朝、五代十国、宋辽金元等。公元前二十一世纪禹的儿子启建立了中国第一个世袭朝代夏朝。四百余年后汤推翻夏创建商朝是目前通过考古确认的第一个中原王朝。约前1046年周武王灭商建立周朝。周经周武王周成王和周康王三代的治理建立完备的礼治社会成王康王在位期間後被稱為成康之治。前841年的国人暴动成为中国历史有确切纪年的开始此後周朝開始衰退。前771年西周滅亡东周建立中原進入诸侯争霸春秋戰國時代。公元前221年秦始皇消灭六国建立秦朝统一中国。从此中国结束分封体系开始中央集权的君主统治时代。前二零七年秦朝灭亡在随后的楚汉战争中刘邦打败项羽于前202年建立汉朝西汉經歷文景之治漢武盛世昭宣之治中國的國勢來到第一個輝煌的高峰与西方的罗马帝国同时成為舉足輕重的大帝國。经历王莽短暂的新朝后刘秀于公元25年建立东汉。东汉末年中国又进入分裂战乱的三国时期。280年司马炎重新统一建立晋朝。此后不久胡人入侵在北方先後建立十六国的割據政权与南方的东晋并存。420年东晋灭亡后由刘裕建立南朝宋北方则由北魏于439年统一中国进入长达170余年的南北朝对立局面。581年，隋文帝杨坚建立隋朝，589年灭陈后，重新统一中国，结束逾270年的分裂局面。618年隋末农民战争中唐高祖李渊建立唐朝，其子唐太宗李世民勵精圖治将唐朝带入全盛时期，史称時代，奠定今中国版图。1368年，朱元璋领导农民起义攻克元大都建立明朝。明朝在永乐帝时进入永乐盛世，期间郑和下西洋使明朝国力达至鼎盛，1449年发生土木之变，明朝转趋守势，改以修筑明长城以对抗蒙古诸部的威胁，北虏南倭的问题长期不能解决，与此同时西班牙帝国、葡萄牙帝国等欧洲国家逐渐崛起，并开始向外扩张，外国势力开始进入中国，并爆發戰爭與衝突，葡萄牙在澳门建立根据地，而荷兰则占领台湾，最终明朝于1644年被李自成所灭。同年清兵入关，建立清朝。明朝遗臣在南方建立南明，但很快被清朝所灭。郑成功在台湾击败荷兰殖民者，建立明郑。1683年清朝灭明郑，把台湾纳入中国版图，统一全国。1689年在黑龙江与沙俄交战，其後簽訂尼布楚條約，首度确立现代边界。之后康熙帝、雍正帝和乾隆帝三朝皇帝开创康雍乾盛世。1840年鸦片战争打开了中国的大门标志着中国近代史的开端。此后清政府被迫同列強签订一系列不平等条约赔偿巨额白银并让香港归英国承认澳门归葡萄牙割让台澎给日本割让东北西北大片领土给沙俄。而中国内部也发生农民起义其中太平军在1851至1872年间攻克过城市六百余座。清政府曾开展了洋务运动戊戌变法清末新政等运动试图自救但随着辛亥革命的爆发清政府最终还是瓦解了。1911年10月10日辛亥革命首义于武汉武昌爆发腐朽的清朝政府开始受到剧烈冲击其政权面临将被推翻的风险。1912年1月1日中華民國南京临时政府宣告成立。1912年2月13日中华民国北京临时政府全面取代此前的南京临时政府并于1913年10月10日正式设立中华民国北洋政府中华民国正式取代清朝并代表全中国。至此中国長達2132年的封建君主專制正式结束。。建国初期中華民國政府由袁世凱為首的北洋軍閥掌权史稱北洋政府。1919年北洋政府在一戰後的巴黎和會上未能捍卫国家利益引发五四运动。1919年10月10日 由中華革命黨改組而來的中國國民黨成立。随后中国共产党于1921年7月31日正式宣告成立并定自次年起每年的七月一日为中国共产党成立纪念日。一九二四年中國國民黨與中國共產黨开始合作并于1926年發動北伐。1927年國民黨清黨中共開始建立。1928年国民政府形式上完成了中国統一但随后又陷入與中共軍閥和日本帝國的衝突之中。1937年7月7日盧溝橋事變發生中日战争全面爆發南京淪陷後國民政府被迫西遷重慶。1945年日本投降國民政府接管臺灣與澎湖並成為聯合國安理會常任理事國。抗战胜利后国共两党在政治民主化軍隊國家化问题上分歧严重导致了第二次國共內戰。1947年國民政府通過並改組為開始行憲蔣中正於翌年正式就任中華民國總統。1949年底中華民國政府遷至臺北市形成两岸分治的局面。1949年10月1日，中华人民共和国成立，实行社会主义制度。建国初期进行了镇压反革命、抗美援朝和土地改革等三大运动和大跃进、文化大革命等連串激烈的政治运动，對中国大陆的经济文化造成了嚴重傷害。不过，三十年间，中国大陸在蘇聯的大力幫助下初步建立了现代工业、农业、国防和科学技术体系，实现了两弹一星等科技成果。1971年10月25日，联合国决议的经济制度。1989年，六四事件使中国大陸受到西方国家全面的经济封锁和武器禁運，陈云等保守派趁机反扑。但1992年，九二南巡后中国重新开始经济改革。中国大陆实行社會主義市場經濟体制。1997年，香港回歸。1999年12月20日，澳門回歸。2008年，中国成功举办了第二十九届奥林匹克运动会。2009年，中国超过德国成为全球最大出口国，2010年，国民生产总值超过日本升至世界第二。当前，中華人民共和國是联合国安理会五大聯合國常任理事國之一，军事力量和科技水平已逐渐处于世界领先地位。中国疆域自远古以来不断演进变化，经过了数千年的发展历程。大約在距今七千年到一萬年以前，华夏部族活動于黄河中下游的廣義中原地域，而周边则分布着东夷、百越、楚、西戎等先秦部族。夏、商、周以后王朝的疆域逐渐扩大至长江流域。秦朝把疆域扩张到珠江流域，统一漢地九州，奠定了中国核心地带的基础。两汉和西晋时期，中国王朝扩张至西域。唐朝由于文明昌盛、多国自降或来贡，使得版图向西和向北扩展，最远到达中亚、外兴安岭地带。经历五代十国的战乱，北宋的疆域已经大大缩小，失去燕云十六州及河西走廊。元朝時，中國第一次完全被外族統治，蒙古帝國統治疆域包括蒙古、西藏，以及新疆和西伯利亚部分地区，其疆土為中國歷史上最大的时期，而后明朝中叶时的疆界又被蒙古壓至明长城一帶。清朝初期，中国疆域再次扩张，并控制了今蒙古国、新疆和西藏等地，但后来在清末政府积弱不振且屡受外国侵略的影响之下，失去了大片领土。中华民国大陆时期疆域數度變更，後期由于外蒙古独立，中国版图北面凹陷，變成现在的形狀。中华人民共和国政府从2014年，开始在南海大规模填海造岛，拓展海洋疆域。中国区划可以追溯到夏朝。记载大禹的时候天下分为九州分别为冀州兖州青州徐州扬州荆州梁州雍州豫州。到了商周时期实行分封制各地由诸侯国统治。自秦朝至清朝中国的地方行政区划制度大致可分为三个阶段秦汉魏晋南北朝时期的州郡时代隋唐五代宋辽金时期道路时代元明清时期行省时代。在中国历史上很多城市都曾經成为過中国的首都。公众认知度最高的。喜马拉雅构造期印度板块与欧亚板块撞击青藏高原隆起形成了中国的地貌。中国地势西高东低成阶梯状分布西南部是“世界屋脊”全球平均海拔最高的高原青藏高原地势最高平均海拔4000米以上为第一阶梯以昆仑山脉祁连山脉横断山脉为界向东向北下降为一系列高原和盆地平均海拔1000～2000米为第二阶梯在大兴安岭太行山巫山武陵山雪峰山一线以东多为平原和丘陵为第三阶梯。再向东为中国大陆架浅海区也就是第四级阶梯水深大都不足200米。中国山区广阔，山地、高原和丘陵约占全国土地总面积的三分之二；中国地理有四大高原，四大盆地和三大平原之说，依次为青藏高原、云贵高原、内蒙古高原和黄土高原；塔里木盆地、准噶尔盆地、柴达木盆地和四川盆地；东北平原、华北平原和长江中下游平原。另有大地形区东南丘陵。长江和黄河是中国最长的两条河流，其他主要河流有黑龙江、珠江、淮河等。塔里木河是中国最长的内流河。中國地大物博擁有豐富的天然資源。中国水能资源居世界第一位海洋资源开发潜力巨大矿产资源数量丰富品种齐全其中在中國東北和山西有大量煤而江西省的鎢藏量是世界第一此外鐵銅和稀土等礦產也很多除此之外中國也有石油和天然氣等資源。中国是世界上拥有野生动物种类最多的国家之一几乎拥有北半球所有植被的类型。中国气候在历史上分为。在仰韶文化至河南安阳殷墟时代的二千年间年平均温度比现在高2℃左右。此后年平均温度有2～3℃的摆动。其中寒冷时期出现在公元前1000年公元400年公元1200年和公元1700年左右而汉唐两代则是比较温暖的时代。氣候的變異会导致乾旱澇害及蝗禍等自然災害。災害如果是嚴重並對國民生計帶來持續影響更有機會引發大規模農民起義最终導致政權崩溃外族亦會乘機入侵。由于中国南北方向跨纬度较大达四十九度冬季南北气温差别很大最冷月均温攝氏零度等温线大致沿秦岭—淮河一线分布漠河镇与海口市的一月平均气温相差接近攝氏五十度。夏季除青藏高原等地区外各地七月平均气温大多在攝氏二十度以上。中国冬季气温最低的地方在黑龙江的漠河镇一月平均气温为攝氏負三十點六度极端最低气温攝氏負五十二點三度气温最高的地方在西沙群岛附近一月平均气温为攝氏二十二點九度。中国夏季温度最高的地方是新疆维吾尔族自治区的吐鲁番七月平均气温为攝氏三十三度极端最高气温攝氏四十九點六度。原始社会以氏族部落构成，后来逐渐出现社稷政权。堯、舜、禹时代采用禅让制继承统治权。禹的儿子啟建立的夏朝，是中国第一个世袭王朝。后被商推翻，商又被周推翻。夏商周都采用分封制，诸侯贵族的权力很大。周王朝丧失统治权以后，中国进入了诸侯混战的春秋战国时期。春秋战国时代，是中国历史上的大变革时期，各诸侯国为了图存自强，先后进行了政治和经济的改革，中国史书称之为，而商鞅变法是各国变法中最彻底的，为秦国统一中国奠定了基础。前221年，嬴政統一中國建立秦朝，开创和奠定了“君主专制加中央集权”的政体，影响了中国整整二千多年。自秦以后，中国主要采用宗法制、郡县制和中央集权制。通常的情况是一个王朝在建立的初期可以励精图治，国家处于上升阶段。之后开始守成，社会矛盾逐渐积累。在王朝的末期，国家政治腐败，社会矛盾激化，最终通过大规模的战争结束旧王朝，建立异姓的新王朝。或者是大规模的外族入侵，导致旧王朝的覆灭。古代中国的政治是人治与维护君主权力的所谓“法治”并行。宗法制和政府中央集权强化统一的国家观念。“合久必分，分久必合”描述国家在统一和分裂的状态间不断循环的历史。1840年鸦片战争后中国沦为列強的半殖民地有识之士渴望改革中国千来以来的陈旧制度。1911年辛亥革命推翻了满清帝制建立了共和制的中华民国。1945年第二次世界大战后共产主义和资本主义的严重对立导致第二次国共内战中国共产党最终取得大陆地区的控制权建立中华人民共和国实行社会主义制度而中华民国政府撤退至台湾实行资本主义制度。1978年后中华人民共和国实行经济改革转向社会主义市场经济并成功的实现了经济快速发展。中国军事历史悠久，历史上不断有民变和起义，中原民族和周边的少数民族也有不断的冲突。中国历次王朝的更替大都是以大规模战争導致的，如商汤伐桀的鸣条之战、周武王伐商纣王的牧野之战、项羽伐秦的巨鹿之战、刘秀打敗新莽建东汉的昆阳之战等。商王朝在灭亡时尚拥有30万正规军和数以十万计的奴隶作战部队。战国时，中国陆军人数更是高达三百至四百万人，占当时总人口的十分之一。中国历史上的数次统一也是通过战争实现的，如秦灭六国之战、唐朝统一战争、北宋统一战争等。中国的军事思想在先秦时期次数频繁、规模巨大的战争实践中逐渐形成。在先秦约三百年的时间里，记载有八百与此大大小小的战争及武力冲突。春秋时期的是世界上最早的兵書之一，，与，近代有毛泽东军事思想。此外，弩为中国重大军事发明，前三四二年，孙膑在马陵道战役大败魏军，为人类史上第一次大规模运用弩的战役。除了一些正常的軍事途径外，中国古代亦有發生組織刺客暗殺敵人的事情，如戰國時代的荆轲刺秦王。明朝曾组建了一支强大的海军舰队。清政府和俄罗斯帝國之間因边境冲突曾爆發雅克萨之战康熙帝派遣彭春率领清军三千人围攻雅克萨最終以俄军戰敗告终並签定了中俄《尼布楚条约》俄军撤出雅克萨毁掉雅克萨城划定中俄边界整个外满洲归中国所有。以後中国的军事力量日漸衰弱直至一八四零年前後已无力抵抗入侵勢力這段時期中国和列强的战争几乎都以戰败告终直到一九四五年抗日战争的成功中国才取得了一场完整意义上的胜利。在国共内战後，中国共产党取得中国大陆的统治权，中国国民党退守台湾，目前台湾海峡依然存在较高的战争风险。中华人民共和国參與的战争有：朝鲜战争、中印战争、越南战争及中越战争等等。現時中华人民共和国是一个已开发出核武器、化学武器、等离子体武器、高能量激光武器、次声波武器以及远程弹道导弹等高端武器技术的国家。一九六四年十月十六日十五时整，中国第一颗原子弹在新疆罗布泊爆炸成功。一九六七年六月十七日，中国的第一颗氢弹在罗布泊沙漠上空成功引爆，其爆炸威力相当于广岛原爆的三百八十五倍，当量为五百万吨黄色炸药。其後中国再引爆过当量为一千万吨黄色炸药的氢弹。此後中国為實現冷戰時的相互保证毁灭军事战略思想，大量生产核武器，達致與假想敵的恐怖平衡。中國對外宣称是五大有核国家中，拥有核武器数量最少的。一九九六年中国签订了。中国古代以中原為文明世界的中心视周边地区为“化外之地”称之为东夷南蛮西戎和北狄。但戰國思想家惠施则認为空间无边无际所以说到处都可以成为中心。在中国周围存在着一个周边国家历代向中国朝贡直到清朝。历史上尼泊尔朝鲜琉球安南是中国皇帝册封的八个属国及朝贡国。其中朝鲜安南琉球国最为典型。为了抵御北方的游牧民族中国在战国时期就开始修筑长城。汉初采用和亲政策汉武帝时转为战略进攻一度将匈奴赶到漠北。但连年征战造成国库空虚汉朝又改为和亲政策其间最著名的就是昭君出塞（前33年）。自西汉的张骞出使西域中国和中亚的交流就非常频繁中亚的汗血马深受汉朝皇帝青睐同时中亚的一些作物如苜蓿等也被引进到中土。兩千多年前的中国就以丝绸之路和中亚欧洲相互交流商品出口丝绸和茶叶等商品。从汉朝开始朝鲜半岛和日本就和中国有贸易往来和交流。自东汉起印度的佛教文化开始传播到中国并最终在中国扎根还经由中国传到朝鲜半岛和日本。唐朝的繁荣时期长安成为当时世界的最重要城市之一宽容地接受世界各地而来的文化。新罗在唐王朝支持下统一朝鲜半岛和中土的往来非常密切。日本曾多次派遣遣唐使到唐朝全盘学习和接受大唐的政治经济社会文化诸方面还仿制汉字以为日本文字其都城也仿造长安的样子打造遣唐使中最著名的就是晁衡和吉备真备等人其中晁衡和王维李白等人是好友王维为其回国饯行的时候还亲手写了一篇为后世所称道。宋朝时期，虽然中国版图内国家林立，战乱频仍，陆路交通不便，但是造船业和海上贸易发达，且罗盘针已经应用于航海，使得对外贸易超过历史水平。元代的疆域广阔，国力强盛，中国和欧洲国家以及伊儿汗国、钦察汗国等多个国家有广泛的交流。马可波罗是其中最著名的代表人物，他得到元世祖忽必烈的接见，在元朝都城大都做过官，见识过“会燃烧的黑色石头”，回国途中还做过元朝赴伊儿汗国的赐婚使。明朝的郑和下西洋是航海史上的壮举，三宝太监郑和的宝船比哥伦布的远洋船结实、庞大得多，当时中国的国策是宣扬国威，而不是掠夺式的殖民，所以近有东南亚，远有东非索马里和阿拉伯半岛，众皆欢喜以待。自明朝开始，有许多天主教的传教士来到中国传教，其中就有利玛窦、汤若望、南怀仁等一大批传教士。1842年清朝在第一次鸦片战争中战败，清朝的外交发生根本性的改变。，主权丧失最严重的条约。直至民國時期，中國作為一戰戰勝國，沙皇俄國決定將「庚子赔款」緩付五年。及至1924年5月底，蘇聯政府聲明，庚子賠款是帝國主義列強強加給中國人民的不義賠款，蘇聯政府決定放棄沙俄剩餘全部庚子賠款，提倡將放棄的賠款作為中國教育款項。而戰敗的德國和奧匈帝國亦終止了其賠款条约。对日抗战后期，中华民国国民政府才有能力废除自鸦片战争后所签订的大部分不平等條約。中华民国大陆时期内战不断，经常出现几个政府代表中国，没有一个统一的政府来积极发展外交关系。北洋政府时期各个派系的军阀都依仗不同的国家来对自己的地区加以控制，直到1928年东北易帜。1917年，中国参加第一次世界大战并取得胜利。但在巴黎和会上，中国却不能获得公平的待遇，导致了五四运动。第二次世界大战爆发后，中国的国际地位开始显著提高，战后成为联合国的创始国和五个常任理事国之一。1971年退出联合国后，中华民国的国际空间受到限制，截至2019年10月仅剩15个邦交国。中华人民共和国在成立初期，实行“一边倒”策略，加入苏联为首的社会主义阵营，在冷战中对抗以美国为首的资本主义阵营。1953年提出和平共处五项基本原则，1954年参加解决关于印度支那问题的日内瓦会议，派出周恩来领导的代表团。1955年，中国国务院总理周恩来参加在印度尼西亚万隆举行的第一次亚非会议，即万隆会议，席间提出“求同存异”的方针。20世纪70年代，中华人民共和国与美国、日本等非東方集團国家的关系逐渐恢复正常，并取代中華民國政府獲得联合国的中國代表权，成为联合国常任理事国之一。七十年代末期，国务院副总理邓小平代表中华人民共和国首次访美。20世纪80年代，中华人民共和国通过与英国和葡萄牙的谈判，用一国两制的方式，于1997年7月1日和1999年12月20日分别收回对香港和澳门的领土主权，并分别建立香港特别行政区和澳门特别行政区。八十年代改革开放以后，中华人民共和国与西方关系一直较为融洽，但由于1989年的六四天安门等事件，西方对华进行经济和贸易制裁，其中军备禁运至今未能解除。中國古代的經濟重心轉移的趨勢是由北至南並大體上可分三個階段第一階段為遠古至西晉末年其中以三國孫吳時轉變較大第二階段為東晉至北宋末年其中以唐安史之亂劃分為前後第三階段為南宋建立至鴉片戰爭此時長江以南經濟已完全超越黄河中下游。明清时期，中国社会仍是小农经济。明代中后期，传统手工业中，出现资本主义萌芽，但由于战乱并未能发展起来。清朝的本地生產總值曾在世界總額中佔到將近三分之一。政府经济奉行重农抑商政策的同时，而西方世界则实现了工业革命，中国经济遂逐渐落后于西方。。自一八四零年鸦片战争至一九七八年改革开放前，中国效仿西方发展工业的过程进行的并不顺畅，其间受到内外因素的多重干扰。中日甲午战争证明了清朝洋务运动的彻底失败；而中华民国经济利用国民政府北伐胜利后至抗日战争爆发前的短暂和平时期，得到了快速发展，被称为南京十年，但经济成果随着日本侵华而化作泡沫，并陷入长期恶性通货膨胀之中。中华人民共和国在建国初期仿效苏联模式实行的社会主义经济制度建立起中国的计划经济体系初步完成国家工业化。计划经济体系在经历初期高速发展后其弊端日趋严重。1978年开始改革开放。自此中华人民共和国经济开始了三十几年高速发展。至2010年代中国已经成为美国之后的世界第二经济大国而且明显有赶超美国之势。2013年中共中央總書記習近平提出的一带一路的經濟合作概念获得全球六十多个国家和国际组织的响应这些国家的总人口约四十四亿经济总量约二十一万亿美元分别占全世界的六十三和二十九個百份比。中国大陸经济目前形成了环渤海经济圈长三角经济圈珠三角经济圈西三角经济圈海峡西岸经济区香港经济区澳门经济区等区域经济的格局。2015年，大陸地區的人均国内生产总值，澳門爲69,309美元。大陸地區的第三產業在2012年首次超過第二產業，佔国内生产总值最大比重。中国货币历史悠久早在新石器时代一些类型的货币就通用。夏商時代中國使用天然海貝作为貨幣。商代晚期墓中出土的鑄造銅貝是世界上現存最早的金屬鑄幣。而现存最早的中国古代银质钱币被发现于战国时期的楚国。宋仁宗年间已于四川产生交子会子等纸币到元代纸币的流通扩大到全国范围称为钞。1935年中国四大国有银行颁布法律通告正式放弃银本位。2020年中国四家大型国有银行同时在深圳等城市对央行数字货币进行大规模测试中国人民银行行长周小川表示数字货币将取代有800多年历史的纸币。中國的語言包括漢語族藏語維吾爾語蒙語等但中文常常指代漢語。中國的主要語言是漢語族漢語在語言學上並不是一種語言而是屬於漢藏語系的語族包括官話吳語粵語閩語客家話贛語湘語等其中官話的人口較多和影響力較大不同地方語言保存了不同時期的古漢語音素。普通話屬於官話是中國大陸的官方語言和教學語言並由於推廣普通話政策有高於其他漢語的地位而粵語是香港和澳門的官方語言中文在海外現在常常指普通話和粵語。各地漢語可能發生無法用言語互相溝通的情況但中國文字（漢字）是不受語音影響（汉语的书面语高度统一各地通用）故兩千年來即使雙方語言不同但仍可以文字溝通無需翻譯甚至越南日本韓國不通漢語的人也可以通過筆談來交流。汉字是世界上最古老的三大文字系统中的一种，亦是唯一沿用至今的一种，是当今世界上使用人口最多的文字，也是当今世界上极少数不使用字母拼写的文字之一，汉字的历史可以追溯到6300年前的大汶口文化。汉字作为中华文化的主要载体，历经演化，早已逾越象形文字的阶段，汉字的字体依历史演进顺序包括甲骨文、金文、小篆、隶书、草书、楷书、行书等。几千年来，中文的发音不断演化，不同地区的中国人的方言也有很大差异，但中文的书写符号汉字极少变化，这在很大程度上保证人们之间的交流，汉字对于维系一个统一的中国也起相当的作用。甲骨文是中国已发现古代文字中时代最早、体系较为完整的文字。甲骨文主要指殷墟甲骨文，又称为“殷墟文字”、“殷契”，是殷商时代刻在龟甲兽骨上的文字。19世纪末年在殷代都城遗址在龟甲和兽骨上的文字。殷商灭亡周朝兴起之后，甲骨文还延绵使用了一段时期。在中国，除了汉字以外，还有藏文、蒙文、满文、女书、维吾尔文等文字，以及一些消亡了的文字如西夏文、契丹文等。中国的书法有着两千多年的传统，文房四宝之一的毛笔有着丰富的表现力。历史上有许多著名的书法家及国画家。联合国成立後汉语成為联合国的六種正式语言之一。中国在虞舜时代已经建立学校以后夏商周时代均有发展。古代中國官学体系最大規模的學府稱為府学县学。周代鄉校為諸侯設置當時不但是學習的地方還是人們閒時聚會交談的場所交談內容包括議論國家政事得失。漢代時地方官員亦會設置鄉校。唐代韓愈被貶潮州時曾在當地設置鄉校。自汉代独尊儒术后中国一直以儒学为正统学问教育。在官学体系以外另設私学书院义学社学私塾蒙学等均屬私学体系。书院是古代中國的另一種教育系統。中国最早的官办书院為唐代開元六年才改採鼓勵態度正式明令各省建書院書院漸興惟不分官立私立皆受政府監督不復宋元時的講學自由。直到庚子後新政庚子詔令將全國書院改制為新式學堂書院制度瓦解。清末中国颁布壬寅学制并取消科举制度中国教育由儒学为主体的教育转入近代新式学科教育。1922年北洋政府颁布壬戌学制建立起现代教育制度。中华人民共和国教育超初實行蘇聯共产主義教育改革开放后重新审视并進行改革。八十年代后中华人民共和国中小学教育普遍采用九年制义务教育制度规定学龄儿童均要接受小学和初中教育目前还在深圳珠海浙江福州唐山山东部分地区采用十二年制小学到高中免费教育体制。政策还规定应当免除一切学费和杂费。中国高等教育包括普通高等教育和成人高等教育实行高考制度来选拔学生进入大学本科或者高职高专就读如果因高考发挥欠佳升至高职高专的学生可在高职高专三年级当年参加专升本考试可转入大学本科就读但不同于高考和考研专升本仅限一次机会另外实行考研制度选拔大学本科毕业生攻读硕士和博士研究生。中国文学从先秦始，通过诗经、楚辞、汉赋、晋书、唐诗、宋词、元曲，以及明清章回小说、民国杂文、共產文學、網路文章等持續發揚。一词最早见于，这是正式以经史子集为类名的四部分类法中现存的第—部目录。它分经史子集4部，下分40细类，经史子集各部书籍六万九千五百七十余卷，译本书千三百二十余册，释藏七千零八卷，书画图象等约二百余种。其外又有藝術志、道書志、書志、畫志、通爲八目。自古以来，中国文学包含了著政治，许多的作品均以现实生活为主题。从政者也有著作不少的文学作品，与中国的政治有着密切的关系。故此，自宋以后，文学多出自官僚之手，是中国文学的一大特色。中国文学一向以韵文为主流，有不少以描寫景物及抒情为主题的诗歌，相比之下叙事作品於中国文学并不发达。然而有不少叙事作品，如《诗经·公刘》、《孔雀东南飞》，及《木兰辞》等卻是難得著名作品。中国散文文学最初兴盛于唐代。唐代散文的题材，除了一些例外，许多作品并非纯创作而是取材于现实，这个传统一直维持到現代。中国神话一般指的是关于上古传说、历史、宗教和仪式的集合体，通常它会通过口述、寓言、小说、仪式、舞蹈或戏曲等各种方式在上古社会中流传。某方面而言，上古神话会被假定是历史真实的一部份，关于中国神话的最初文字记载可以在等古老典籍中发现。由于中国民族众多每个民族都各自至少有一部神话史诗如少数民族的三大英雄史诗。诸如南方20个民族共有30多部创世史诗仅云南16个民族就有20多部创世史诗。不同民族间的神话史诗内容不同样式文学特点也会不同如汉族神话史诗多书面记载文献典籍丰富而众多少数民族多口头流传且内容篇幅多于汉族。并且也受地域的影响中国北方民族多流传英雄史诗南方多流行创世史诗。古代中国在春秋战国时期，出现过百家争鸣，思想文化飞跃发展的局面，涌现出老子、庄子、孔子、荀子、墨子、韩非子等众多思想家。古代中国文化自西汉尤其是宋以后，以道家文化、儒家文化等为主体，并含有阴阳、五行等观念。中国文化自成一体，有较大的独立性和稳定性。但在发展的过程中也不断吸收和借鉴其他文化的精华，比如历史上源自古印度的佛教文化就深深地影响中国。春秋战国之时思想进步人文理性精神煥发上古嬗变而来之宗教观念革新。季梁曰取代天为道德民意之化身这构成儒教信仰的一个基础。儒教以孔子为至圣先师以昊天上帝为至上神上帝给人类指派君和师让他们来教化治理上帝的子民。“天降下民作之君作之师惟曰其助上帝宠之四方。”传统的儒家典籍有三类孔子所定谓之经弟子所释谓之传或谓之记。汉武帝“独尊儒术”把儒家立为国教并设立五经博士五经成为国家法典开启春秋决狱的时代。熹平四年汉灵帝乃诏诸儒正定五经共刻七经於石碑为古文篆隶三体书法以相参检树之学门使天下咸取则焉。隋唐时代儒家思想法典化中华法系形成并覆盖汉文化圈。中國在儒家礼教思想的影響下以四書五經為基礎形成冠昏喪祭的習俗以及衣冠制度 冠禮婚禮喪禮祭禮等。五四运动后一部分中國人接受了马克思唯物主义辩证法并对各種宗教信仰以唯心主义的理由加以否定他们是無神論者并在此基础上产生了毛泽东思想。中華文化雖然孕育了諸子百家但主要哲學流派為儒道釋且三派間相互影響深遠。有人认为中國文化以儒道釋三家之說為總本﹐而又以道家為中心﹐儒家為主幹﹐佛學為相互配合。中國人的宇宙觀方面以易經與老莊為代表﹐倫理社會觀是以禮記孔孟之說為代表﹐佛家則以宣揚因果輪迴眾緣唯心的道理與儒道互相輔助而成。儒家思想是以。儒家重理，又提出格物致知。儒家重視科技及在物質上的實用，但同時注重全面的人格發展，反對把人變成物質的工具。儒家形上學在以後的理學、心學中進行了展開。儒家相當重視編修歷史的悠久傳統。道家思想是中國重要也是具有影響力的哲學思想之一。道家是道德家的簡稱。道家起源有一說是有出於史官。道家還有隱士一類的達觀厭世者他們驅使人們以。北京大學哲學系教授吳國盛認為，中国的科学传统，与渊源于古希腊、古罗马的欧陆科学，以及伊斯兰世界的科学，是各自独立发展。中国科学萌芽于先秦时期，受到当时的哲学家中注重逻辑思辩、认识论及几何学研究的墨家，以及重视辩论的名家所启蒙。汉代造纸术的普及提供了条件，使前人的科学思想知识及辩证，通过纸张保存了下来，后人得以前人的科学著作为蓝本作改良，或通过辩证后推翻，形成一套经验主义科学传统。至隋唐及宋朝时，中国的科学曾长时期高据世界领先地位。然而由于近代历史原因，许多古中国科学著作或失传或流失海外，均不利于中国科学史的发掘整理。科学著作的失传及流失，甚至令后世史家曾一度认为中国没有科学。古代中国为世界贡献诸多发明创造，包括：四大发明、丝绸、瓷器、石油井、纸币、火柴、漆器、风筝、热气球、連弩及中国青铜器等等，而且在天文、数学、医药、机械、冶金、陶瓷、纺织、建筑等众多方面发展出独具特色的先进成果。英國科學史家李約瑟所著中列举了中国領先於当时世界各國的多項创造發明。中国在商朝就开始使用十进制系统。战国时的《甘石星经》中的《石氏星表》测定当时一百二十余颗恒星的位置，次於《巴比倫星表》，被认为是世上第二早的星表，有从公元前六一三年到一九一零年间共十三次的记录。现今举世公认的最早的太陽黑子纪事，就是载于《》中的河平元年（即公元前二十八年）三月出现的太阳黑子。秦、汉时期的算经《九章算术》中，自由地引入负数，有了系统的分数运算方法。三国时期的刘徽在《九章算术注》中首先提出关于十进小数的概念。南朝刘宋的祖冲之将圆周率计算至3.1415926至3.1415927之间，并测算出一个回归年为365.24281481日，这比现今科学家测算的结果只差五十秒。隋朝數學發達，當時士人皆須學習簡易九數，在國子監（大學）設有算學。宋代有先进的土木工程、航海术和冶金学方面的发明。沈括后继创立会圆术和隙积术最早明确地谈到磁针偏角，并發現了「石油」。《梦溪笔谈》中还记载涉及力学、光学、磁学、声学等各个领域，明确指出化石是古代动物和植物的遗蹟，并且根据化石推论古代的自然环境。元朝在天文历法方面比较发达，一二八零年郭守敬等人主持编订的《授时历》延用了四百多年。明朝科技在航海方面的成就显著。明太宗時由於有鄭和下西洋的海上活動，使得繪製海圖以及羅盤運用的技術大為進步。清代有不少學者、匠師和科學家如黃履莊、黃履、孫玄球等對西方「奇器」有一定的研究和高度仿製，西方「奇器」在一定程度上亦推動中國的物理實驗和機械製造的發展，由於清政府對天文曆法的重視，民間的天文學研究也很活躍，主要代表人物有著有《曉庵新法》和《五星行度解》的王錫闡等。1840年鸦片战争之后西方科学傳统及技術传入並主導了中国在清末的洋务运动主张的主张。中华民国时期的科技水平不断提高。一九四九年中华人民共和国成立后取得两弹一星的重大科技成果改革开放以来中华人民共和国科技在航空-{zh-cn航天 zh-tw航太 zh-hk航天}-高速鐵路複合材料電子技術核技術替代能源生物工程學方面处于世界领先水平但同时在绿色能源发动机精密制造自动化等领域上与发达国家仍有差距。中國東部面海很早就出現有記載的海洋活動。東部沿海尤其以浙江福建等江南省份的造船業最为發達。文献中的中国帆船可追溯至漢代的中就有描寫當時往來印度洋的中國船隻。近年在泉州灣出土的宋代海船長十一點四丈寬三點三丈以十二道隔梁分隔出十三個船艙隔板厚達十至十二釐米每道隔梁用三四塊木板榫接而成並與船肋骨緊密結合在一起艙內採用水密艙壁。宋船曾採用榫接鐵釘加固船板縫隙中填塞捻合物的辦法來保證船的堅固性和水密性當時中國的造船技术已经相當成熟。南朝刘宋时期，中国海员掌握了从安息国所著的中说：“舟师识地理，夜则观星，昼则观日，阴晦则观指南针。”这是人类利用指南针进行海上导航的最早文献记载。明代早期1405年至1433年間明成祖命郑和率領以二百四十多海船組成的船队七下西洋足迹遍及東洋世界印度次大陸阿拉伯半島及東非马达加斯加北部水域是當時世界上規模最大的遠洋航海项目。鄭和的船隊拜訪了三十餘個西太平洋和印度洋的國家和地區。這段時期是在迪亞士發現好望角的七十年前及哥倫布發現美洲大陸的八十年前是當時世界上規模最大的遠航航海项目。郑和船隊七次下西洋的總航程達到七萬多海里長度相當於地球圓周的三倍有餘。十八世纪后，中国民间所用的帆船多为戎克船，该类型帆船排水量小，船底设有多道防水舱，活跃于中国近海，用作贸易时运载货品之用。王冠倬的为中国古船研究的整理性著作。中国境内的民族医学和宗教医学有中医学、藏醫學、蒙医、維醫學等。其中，中医学是以汉医学為主體的传统医学，至今已有数千年的历史。根据全国科学技术名词审定委员会的定义，中医学是。中医理论来源于对醫療經驗的总结及中國古代的陰陽五行思想，将人体看成是气、形、神的统一体，通过望闻问切四诊合参的方法，探求病因、病性、病位、分析病机及人体内五脏六腑、经络关节、气血津液的变化、判断邪正消长，进而得出病名，归纳出证型，以辨证论治原则，制定等治法，使用中药、针灸、推拿、按摩、拔罐、气功、食疗等多种治疗手段，使人体达到阴阳调和而康复。中医治疗的积极面在于希望可以协助恢复人体的阴阳平衡，而消极面则是希望当必须使用药物来减缓疾病的恶化时，还能兼顾生命与生活的品质。此外，中医学的最终目标并不仅止于治病，更进一步是帮助人类达到如同在中所提出的真人、至人、圣人、贤人的境界。传统的中医学思维模式与源于欧洲的现代科学并不相容，然而，当今之科学期刊已多有论文研究之，并试图用现代医学的角度分析中医中的部分现象和治疗机理。在现今世界的医疗体系中，中医学被归类为替代医学中的一支。美国食品药品监督管理局在定义“完整医药体系”这个概念时提到中医学：“NCCAM医学独立地或平行地演变的完整的理论和实践体系’。这些可能反映了独特的文化体系，比如中医学和印度的阿输吠陀医学。完整医药体系都有一些共同的元素，相信机体有自愈的能力，这种自愈可能涉及到了应用情绪、身体和精神的治疗方法。辛亥革命推翻满清统治以后，革命黨在初期主张「排满」和獨立成為单一的汉民族国家，立宪派则主张「合满」和建立包括五族在内的多民族国家，并为此与革命派展开过激烈论战，最後通过《中華民國憲法》建立一個各族平等的国家。中華人民共和國成立後，中国共产党对少数民族实行扶助政策，并设置了400多个民族自治区域。到了20世纪中期，维吾尔族历史学家翦伯赞針對中国和中华民族的问题，主张凡活动于今日中国境内的古代民族都算中国人；凡出现在中国历史上的民族，都是多民族国家的一个成员。按照中华人民共和国官方的划分，中国目前有汉族、满族、维吾尔族、回族、蒙古族、壮族、藏族等56个民族，汉族是人數最多的民族。汉族广泛分布在全国各地，其中主要集中在东北、华北、华东、中南、甘陕以及云贵川渝等地区。根据中华人民共和国2000年第五次人口普查，中国（包括中国大陆、香港、澳门）总人口为12.9533亿，其中汉族占91.59％。其他55个民族统称为。主要少数民族中藏族主要分布在西藏、青海、四川和云南等地；满族主要分布在东北，以及内地许多城市中；蒙古族主要分布在内蒙古自治区；维吾尔族主要分布在新疆；回族主要分布在宁夏；壮族主要分布在广西。其他各少数民族（如苗族、哈萨克族等）也分布在全国不同地方。中国人口在历史上一直占世界人口的较大比例。据估计战国末期各诸侯国人口总计有三千至三千五百万人。十九世纪上半叶清朝人口约占全世界人口的三分之一目前中国人口约占全世界的五分之一但新生儿数量仅占全世界的十分之一。因此未来中国人口占全世界比重将显著下降。进入21世纪后面對人口老化计划生育政策從2011年一对夫妻可以生育三个子女。古代中國與同時代不少文明一樣屬於專制社會過往有着上千年時間的君主制歷史在這段悠长的時間里中國人社会是圍繞着一個中心運作的那個就是皇帝或。社會被分成士農工商四個階層士即是學者和官員由於他們幫皇帝治理國家而排在第一層農即是農夫中國以農立國而且有龐大人口故解決吃飯問題最為重要而農夫也是中國傳統上最多人從事的職業農田也往往由父傳子所以農夫被排在第二層工即工匠他們負責製造瓷器和刀劍等用品故是第三層商即商人古代中國沒有重视商人對國家發展的作用商人在古代社會更被人塑造狡詐陰險的形象是最低的第四層至於士兵由於很多都是臨時由農民組成中國傳統社會也流行好男不當兵的思想故即使是職業軍人都無屬於他們的社會階層。古代中国社会等级森嚴皇亲国戚最有权势接下来是各级官员然后是士大夫最后是普通百姓。数千年的皇权统治使等级观念深入人心官本位思想浓厚。读书人钻研儒家经典参加科举考试学而优则仕。古代皇权政府提倡三纲五常这对于维系社会和谐稳定有正面的作用但是也束缚了中国人的思想。中國傳統社會是一個以人倫來維繫的社會，中国社会重视家庭、血缘关系。傳统儒家重視孝道，中国古代社会深受儒家思想影響，甚至到了過份的地步。表明沒有告知父母就娶妻也屬於不孝的一种。在礼教盛行的年代男女婚姻不是靠自由恋爱而是要听父母之命媒妁之言。傳統社會與同時期世界大部分地區一樣屬於父權社會妇女的地位並不高而納妾在古代中国上流社会中更是普遍的現象。中国历史上只有一个女皇帝武则天其余的皆为男性。原始社会的社会关系比较简单并没有法制而是依靠习俗和惯例来施行。中国奴隶制法律形成于夏发展于商完备于西周瓦解于春秋。战国时期魏国的李悝总结了各诸侯国立法经验制定了中國历史上第一部初具體系的法典。商鞅變法为秦国统一中国打下了基础。汉朝刘邦废除秦朝的苛法嚴刑颁布了约法三章“杀人者死伤人及盗抵罪”。中国法律之儒家化可以说是始于魏晋成于北魏北齐隋唐采用后便成为中国法律的正统。乾隆五年《大清律例》頒行是中國傳統法典的最後集大成之作。中国职官从夏朝开始出现，中国的职官系统非常复杂，变化也比较多。国君是一国之主，是国家的最高统治者，是最大的官；宰相是国君之下最高的行政长官。吏治是中國政治的特色。中國的貪污問題比發達國家嚴重。中国共产主义经济学家王亞南曾說：“中國一部二十四史，其實是一部貪污史”。古代中国差役是古代役法的一種軍戶民戶匠戶三大類分別服兵役徭役工役差役即為徭役的一種另外细分「里甲」「均徭」「雜泛」三種。差役是按丁田或丁糧輪差均徭則是以丁為主服務於官府內的經常性差事均瑤又分力差與銀差力差多由富戶應役名目多為皂隸獄卒門子馬伕驛館夫由應役人親身應役明後期准自募人代役銀差多為貧戶應役繳納以平衡負擔名目為歲貢馬匹草料工食材薪膳夫折價加上里甲差役的民壯巡警防火的總甲構成整個明代衙門主要的工作及人員的工食費用。清代因攤丁入畝已經將徭役部分折銀收入賦中原是該地方經費及勞動支出卻變成中央稅收僅發工食費靠常例規費生活與明代有很大的不同。中国艺术包括中国传统的各种工艺等。中国传统音乐是在中原音乐四域音乐和外国音乐的交流融合中形成发展起来的包括民间音乐文人音乐宗教音乐宫廷音乐等类别。中国传统音乐有鲜明的特色。常用的乐器有筝琴箫等音律以宫商角-{徵}-羽五音为基础。中国新石器时代出现的骨笛是目前已知世界上最早的管乐器。中国传统舞蹈有着悠久的历史体现中国的传统文化和美学而且和武术杂技戏曲有着密切关系。戏曲是中国传统的舞台艺术综合唱念做打等多种表演方式包括京剧豫剧河北梆子秦腔评剧粤剧越剧昆曲黄梅戏潮剧晋剧花鼓戏等多个剧种。中國書法是汉字的书写艺术，属于视觉艺术。许多书法作品是以书信、诗词手稿、碑文、墓志铭、牌匾、屏风、室内装饰品等形式存在的。中国书法与中国绘画、篆刻、舞蹈、音乐等艺术形式相互影响。中国绘画艺术的代表是国画，主要是用毛笔、软笔或手指，用墨和国画颜色在帛或宣纸上作画。中国画按照内容可分为花鸟画、山水画及人物画；按照技巧可分为工笔画、写意画、重彩画、水墨画、白描画、壁画、内画；按照艺术层次可分为具象国画和抽象国画等。中国画擅长写意，其重在神似不重形似，强调观察总结不强调现场临摹，运用散点透视法不用焦点透视法，重视意境不重视场景。中國傳統建築具有其獨特構造體系，且对汉字文化圈国家有深远影響，傳統建築以木材和磚為材料，且會降低建築高度，著名建築有故宮、天壇、頤和園佛香閣、長城等。這類屋頂設計有厚重的屋簷，四邊會略微向上彎曲形成斗栱。另外建築還經常以不同的彩瓷裝飾，包括彩磚、玻化磚、鑲嵌、鈴鐺等，並另行加上各式細節雕飾。現存的中国传统建筑多是樓高數層的木结构，且多采用坡屋顶，建筑群体采用水平方向发展的院落方式组合。中華人民共和國成立後中國建築则開以始受現代主義影響的現代建築為主直到1980年後才恢復多樣化設計這類建築有東方明珠廣播電視塔國家體育場上海環球金融中心國際金融中心廣州塔等。中国古城邑在规划上，很早便有在水利、交通運輸、排水、防灾、工業配套、軍事防御等範籌上的考量，對於世界城市规划史發展有顯著的影響。對於古代城市的选址一书中就反对商周以来用占卜确定营邑的方法説意思是建设城市要选择依山傍水的地形以免受旱涝之害节省开渠引水和筑堤防涝的费用是中國早期有關城市規劃的描述。中國許多古城的选址如杭州苏州北京南京西安洛阳开封都是经过周詳的考虑。据考古发掘分析中国石器时代的桥梁为木梁桥。随着铁器时代的来临加工大型石料成为可能石材成为主要的建筑材料。其中王莽时期修建的灞桥以石为墩以木为梁是石木结合的代表作。石拱桥的出现使中国古代桥梁进入了一个新纪元。建于隋朝的赵州桥制作精良结构独创其石拱桥跨径纪录直到1959年湖南黄虎港桥的建成才被打破。而卢沟桥和双龙桥都属于厚墩联拱石拱桥。与厚墩联拱相对应的是薄墩联拱石拱桥多见于南方软基水网地区其中最著名的是建于唐朝的苏州宝带桥。而最著名的竹索桥是四川省都江堰安澜桥是以竹蔑为索材的吊桥。而中国最著名的铁索吊桥是四川省甘孜的泸定桥。中国古代的造桥技术特别是石拱桥的建造技术为现代桥梁建设奠定了良好的基础。目前中国有超过100万座公路和铁路桥梁近十年来平均以每年2.7万座的速度增长。同时中国桥梁不断刷新世界桥梁纪录创造了众多“第一”和“之最”。不过中國桥梁建设取得的許多“第一”多集中在跨径塔高等指标上在桥梁工程技术的基础理论研究结构的耐久性和安全性成套施工技术等方面与发达国家相比还有一定距离。由于中国疆域辽阔，民族众多，各地的地理条件和生活方式都不相同，因此，各地人居住的房屋的样式和风格也不相同。中国古代的园林建筑，追求人工模仿的自然形式，。 在中国的民居中，最有特点的是北京四合院、西北黄土高原的窑洞、安徽的古民居、福建和广东等地的客家土楼和蒙古的蒙古包。方形建築為中式住宅的普遍類型。四合院的格局为一个院子四面建有房屋，通常由正房、东西厢房和倒座房组成，从四面将庭院合围在中间，故名四合院。四合院就是三合院前面有加门房的屋舍来封闭。若呈字形的称为三进院落。一般而言，大宅院中，第一进为门屋，第二进是厅堂，第三进或后进为私室或闺房，是妇女或眷属的活动空间。四合院在中国至少有三千多年的历史，在中国各地有多种类型，其中以北京四合院为典型。四合院通常为大家庭所居住，提供了对外界比较隐密的庭院空间。三合院为中国传统古厝的基本形制。三合院一般由北面正房、护龙依次下降。三合院是四合院的简化形式，通常是将四合院南房直接用院墙代替，大门也采用门楼样式。其它形式有一条龙、单伸手。徽派建筑是中国建筑中的一支重要流派，是徽文化最重要的组成部分之一。徽派建筑主要流行于皖南徽州六县〔歙县，黟县，绩溪，婺源，祁门，休宁〕，以及旧时的严州地区。馬頭牆是徽派建筑最重要的标志之一，徽州三雕和徽州壁画是最普遍的装饰物，有些雕刻作品和壁画如今也是相当珍贵的文物。徽州民居依靠着黄山，又有无数河流、小溪穿过。徽州民居一般都是小桥流水，曲径通幽，亭台楼阁，雕梁画栋，风格清新雅致，又不失奢华。徽州民居注重风水，强调与自然的统一，宏村的牛型设计更是享誉中外，至今来看也十分科学、精致。明清时期，徽商鼎盛，衣锦回乡后，将巨大的财富带回徽州各地，修建富丽堂皇的房屋、私家园林也便成了体现身份的方式之一，宏村等地有些房屋的墙壁甚至鎏以金粉，相当奢华。宏村有一称，保存着大量的画作、楹联、木雕等精美物品，是研究徽文化重要的途径。著名的徽派建筑代表有，棠樾牌坊群，许国石坊，西递，宏村，南屏，呈坎，唐模，屯溪老街，等等。其中，西递、宏村于2000年被列为世界文化遗产，亦是首个民居类的世界遗产。如今，许多地方都仿建徽派建筑，由以安徽省内居多，北京、南京等地亦有。其中大部分并不是标准的徽派风格，只是将建筑加上一些徽派元素，如马头墙安放在屋顶，加之白墙黑瓦。窑洞是一种民居建筑形式是中国大陆黄土高原地区例如陕西省和山西省的特色建筑。黄土高原比较缺乏木石等建筑材料和烧砖瓦所需的燃料但有质地细密的黄土层。窑洞特别是土窑充分利用了这一情况。外部的土层有利于室内恒温和隔音。下面是实地的地板可以大量承重。易燃材料不多因而火灾不易传播。建築的主要特点是顶上覆土内部下面方型上面拱型。多数后面比前面稍窄呈喇叭形。常见的单间窑洞宽約三點五米左右高约三至四米深約五至九米。前面有木结构带门和格子窗的外壁。内部墙面上抹泥熟石灰或掺石灰的泥还可以贴纸和窗花进一步装饰。窑洞前的地面平整后在周围围以土墙。土窑建築直接在黄土形成的崖壁上挖孔形成居室。多数在内部加盖砖或石墙以防止土层倒塌。福建省南部與西部常見此類型最著名的栱圆形建筑是福建土楼。福建土楼总数约三千余座主要分布地区包括龙岩市永定县和漳州市南靖县诏安县平和县华安县。福建土楼是世界独一无二的山区大型夯土民居形式产生于宋元兩代成熟于明末清代和民国时期。中国疍家人是以船为家的渔民。由于他们生活在船艇上，士大夫则雅称之为“艇户”。中国饮食讲究礼仪。飲食文化受地域影響历经數千年發展出多樣的類別並對食材火候刀工和調味的技巧極為重視。今日最有影響者為包括川菜粵菜蘇菜魯菜閩菜湘菜徽菜和浙菜美食。中國菜分成主食與副食在和配料的使用極為廣泛同時強調傳統中醫學的食療方法。菜餚主要的食材有肉類蔬菜水果和大豆等常用的辛香料有韭蔥薑蒜另外會搭配花生油芝麻油臘肉醋黃酒肉汁等。現今中國最受歡迎的肉類為豬肉約佔全國肉類總消費量的4分之3。一般來說靠近海洋氣候溫暖的南方地區民眾主要以稻米為主食並搭配海鮮和蔬菜菜餚北方乾燥地區的民眾則以小麥製成的麵點和麵條為主食。過去民眾飲食主要是簡單的米糧和蔬菜肉類則預留給特殊場合平日以豆腐豆漿等豆製品補充蛋白質。部分飲食則受到宗教影響發展出佛教徒的素齋和穆斯林的清真菜。另外還有許多從中國菜延伸出來的分支包括香港的飲食文化及由中國移民發展的美式中國菜而流行的菜餚有宮保雞丁鍋貼麻婆豆腐等。中國被認為是茶的原產地很早之前便發展出種植茶樹與發酵的方法並結合文化個性開發出飲用中國茶的方法。中國飲食文化具有極高藝術和文化價值強調飲食精緻審美享受情感交流與講究禮節與西洋世界的飲食文化不同中國主要餐具為筷子歷史上不少東洋世界國家同樣以筷子為餐具為一文化特色。中国是茶的故乡中国茶文化源远流长博大精深。几千年来中国不但积累大量关于茶叶种植生产的物质文化更积累丰富的有关茶的精神文化。中国是造酒的古国。在龙山文化时期出现自然发酵的果酒后来发展将谷物糖化再酒化的技术先秦时期出现曲法酿酒汉代以后发展制曲技术东汉引进葡萄酒宋代出现药酒元代明代出现从阿拉伯传入的蒸馏法酿制的烧酒。中国酒文化源远流长。酒不但用于祭祀会盟祝捷等公务活动还用于民间的喜丧礼仪欢聚迎送等场合。中国酒文化和诗歌戏曲也有着丰富的联系。中国菜已经历数千年的发展历史。它由历代宫廷菜官府菜以及不同的风味的地方菜系所组成分为八大菜系。中国菜选料范围广泛制作精细品类繁多注重色香味的统一和调料的使用体现精湛的烹饪技艺和丰富的文化内涵。中国菜的食物大多加工成小块宜食的尺寸固体食物使用筷子进食。中國服飾為華夏文明的重要組成部分。中國服飾在几千年的时间中通过历代中原王朝对周礼服制传袭下來，在儒教礼典中也不断适应时代的需要而产生朝代特色的常服。不同朝代的常服则不尽相同，各朝代往往对各个等级允许的颜色、式样有细致规定，朝代特征较明显。中国每个民族往往有自己独特的民族服饰，歷史上不同朝代的常服則不盡相同，對不同身份不同客層階級的人在衣裝方面也有細緻的規定，如唐裝、藏袍、蒙古袍、漢服、旗袍、中山裝等。距今七千年前的河姆渡文化和距今六千年前的仰韶文化等古文化遺址中，都發現了原始的織布工具和織物殘片遺存。夏商周時期服飾的典型特徵有交领、右衽、系带等。商代的織物顏色，以暖色為多，尤其以黃、紅為主，間有棕色和褐色，但並不等於不存在藍、綠等冷色。只是以朱砂和石黃製成的紅黃二色，比其他顏色更鮮艷，滲透力也較強，所以經久不變並一直保存至今。周代服飾大致沿襲商代的服制，只是略有變化。衣服的樣式比商代略寬松。春秋战国时期，服饰大致沿袭西周的服制，只是略有变化。百家学说对服饰的完善有着一定的影响。冠服制被纳入了“礼治”的范围，成了礼仪的表现形式，从此中国的衣冠服制更加详备。秦汉服装基本沿袭战国时期仍然以衣裳深衣襜褕为主袍按裁剪方式大致分为曲裾直裾两种都是男女均可穿着。武士则着短衣小袖大绔。汉代窄袖紧身的绕襟深衣衣服几经转折绕至臀部然后用绸带系束衣上还绘有精美华丽的纹样。衣袖有宽窄两式袖口大多镶边。衣领部分通常用交领领口很低。如穿几件衣服每层领子必露于外最多的达三层以上現代称。魏晋南北朝时期服装基本承袭秦汉的遗俗。男子的服装流行大袖翩翩的衫子。直到南朝时期这种衫子仍为各阶层男子所爱好成为一时的风尚。褲褶是游牧民族的傳統服裝基本款式為上身穿齊膝大袖衣下身穿肥管褲。這種服裝的面料常用較粗厚的毛布來制作。穿褲和短上襦合稱襦褲但封建貴族必須在襦褲外加穿袍裳只有騎馬者廝徒等從事勞動的人為了行動方便才直接把褲露在外面。封建貴族是不得穿短衣和褲外出的。到了晉代這種習慣才有所改變。南北朝的褲有大口褲和小口褲以大口褲為時髦穿大口褲行動不便故用錦帶將褲管縛住有又稱縛褲。隋唐妇女的常服仍然是襦裙。在隋代及初唐时期妇女的短襦都用小袖下着紧身长裙裙腰高系一般都在腰部以上有的甚至系在腋下并以丝带系扎唐代男子常服以幞头袍衫为尚幞头又称袱头是在汉魏幅巾基础上形成的一种首服。唐代官吏除穿圓領窄袖袍衫之外在一些重要場合如祭祀典禮時仍穿禮服。唐代初期至中期還流行漠北的君主制国家霍尔回鹘人的胡服。五代时期服饰基本筵沿袭了唐朝服饰。宋代女服基本式样有两种大襟右衽交领和对襟宋代男服沿袭了大襟右衽交领和圆领这两种传统服饰式样。遼代服裝以長袍為主男女皆然上下同制。金代男子的常服通常由四個部分組成即頭裹皂羅巾身穿盤領衣腰系吐骼帶腳著烏皮鞋多用環境色具有游牧民族的裝飾特點。元代的服飾有腰線襖。明代妇女的服装以襖裙为主與前代襦裙的主要差異在於上衣並不束在裙子內。明代男子服饰基本沿袭了大襟右衽交领和圆领这两种传统服饰式样但又有元代服饰特点发展出曳撒等特色服饰。明代開始於顯眼處使用纽扣在部分常服及軍服中使用较多禮服官服則仍然沿用交領及盤領款式不在顯眼處用扣子。清軍入关之后清朝統治者用武力推行剃发易服結果導致明代男裝及官服消失在清代的主流社會中但在的規範下部分地區的女性僧道兒童等的服飾並未強制改變。清代漢族婦女服飾變化方面較男服為少。后妃命婦仍承明俗以鳳冠霞帔作為禮服。普通婦女則穿披風襖裙。披風是清代婦女的外套作用與男褂相似其制為對襟大袖下長及膝。披風之上裝有低領點綴著各式珠寶。披風的裡面還有大襟大襖小襖小襖是婦女的貼身內衣顏色大多用紅桃紅水紅之類。婦女的下裳多為裙子顏色以紅為貴。裙子的樣式初期尚保存著明代習俗有鳳尾裙及月華裙等。清末在普通婦女中間還流行穿褲。陰历，又称农历，是源于夏朝的汉族传统历法，在儒教“行夏之时”的影响下沿用四千多年，属于阴阳合历，以十二个朔望月为一年，二十四节气来反映季节变化，在東亞文化圈影响广泛，汉族根据夏历形成的祭享民俗构成民俗节日。中國的歲時、歲事、月令、時令在日本被稱為“年中行事”或者“名節”，在韓國稱為“歲時風俗”。江戶時代齋藤月岑著有，朝鮮時代柳得恭著有《京都雜志。还有信奉佛教的藏族使用源自天竺的佛历，信奉伊斯兰教的回族、维吾尔族使用阿拉伯人的伊斯兰历，傣族則有傣族历法。中國傳統節日是華人隨著季節、時間和物候轉移，開展具有特定主題的風俗和紀念意義的社會活動日，並因應時地環境代代相傳，反映華人累積的傳統智慧和生活情趣以及人與自然、人際關係等，以華人四大節日最為有名。中華傳統節日類型多樣化，根據規定為強制性假日。中国大陆少数民族习惯的节日，由各少数民族聚居地区的地方人民政府，按照各该民族习惯规定放假日期；全体公民放假的假日，如果适逢星期六、星期日，应当在工作日补假；部分公民放假的假日，如果适逢星期六、星期日，则不补假；中国大陆放假一天的节假日，如遇星期三则不调休。中國有不少傳統遊戲，可分為棋类、牌类、猜射等類型。古代中国發展出不少棋類遊戲，如围棋就是起源于中国，中國古时有的大小決定勝負。围棋规则简單，但玩法千變萬化，被认为是目前世界上最复杂的棋盤游戏之一。另外，灯谜亦是中国受歡迎的傳統遊戲。在中国习俗的活动上会称做猜灯谜，每年逢正月十五元宵节，会将灯谜结合赏花灯，变成许多人可共同参与的猜谜游戏。与一般的谜语相比，具有更严格的规则。方法是将谜语贴在灯上，多数谜语都是诗词，猜中谜语的人，有时可获得奖品。随着时代改变，现今的灯谜活动未必都将灯谜写在灯笼上。猜灯谜有时又说为<射灯谜>，因此多会在谜语之后看到：“射一个字，某某格”之类的提示。此外觀看评书亦是中國傳统的余暇節目之一评书在湖北粤廣地区及闽南地区称為「讲古」在四川称为「讲书」古称「說話」是中國一种口头讲说的表演形式。评书在宋代開始流行。评书的語言載體一般是各地說書人自己的母語因此也是方言文化的一部份。清末民初時評書的表演為一人坐於桌後表演道具有折扇和醒木服裝為長衫至20世纪中叶多不再用桌椅及折扇醒木等道具而以站立說演服裝也較不固定。中國在远古时期就出现蹴踘、射御、角觝、擊劍、捶丸等運動。至唐堯、虞舜、夏、商、周五代，又出現劍術、拳術、投壺、弓矢、擊壤。角觝，又稱角力、摔跤或相撲。殷周時，角觝是軍事訓練的一種。周天子挑選出征的武士時，候選人須進行徒手的角力比賽。戰國時，則成為一種表演性競賽。至秦國時才明定成，主要為觀賞用。唐代皇宮中還有摔跤隊表演，民間也流行相撲，更於此時傳到日本。相撲形式上可分成兩大類：一類是正式爭勝負的比賽，具有打擂台的意味。這類有些由政府出面組織，有些是民間自發組織；一類則是在瓦社等遊藝場所日常進行的表演性組織。蹴踘是現今足球運動的前身。捶丸則是類似高爾夫的運動，規則是以將球捶進洞最多的一方贏出。至隋唐之時，古代體育發展出諸如摔跤、拔河、秋千等新類型，其中最為興盛的要數馬球與足球這兩種，此兩者在唐代傳到日本。宋真宗時，曾因相撲運動時有人受傷而下令禁絕。明清之際中国體育活動仍有發展。然而，部分活動經過清末至民初一連串的戰爭，中國古代運動至今多已失傳，然而如拔河、秋千等活動仍歷久不衰，如角觝等競技則為日本保存至今。中國武術俗稱中國功夫意即打鬥技巧它也被分成多個門派由拳腳至運用刀劍等的技巧也有中國人不單把武術作為打鬥技巧同時也作為一種健體強身和養生的方法現在中國武術也作為電影的主題。中国上古存在上帝及祖先崇拜等原始宗教信仰祭神祀祖自商朝为中国的国家宗教祖先神是人们祈求上帝的媒介。尧舜禹的臣子皋陶兴“五教”定“五礼”创“五刑”立“九德”亲“九族”。《尚書皋陶謨》曰「天秩有禮自我五禮有庸哉」。中國人的信仰以儒教祖先信仰道教佛教和各種中華民間信仰為主。由於道教佛教吸收儒教思想以及相互的影響在南北朝时期形成儒釋道三教合一的中國宗教信仰傳統這些俱有中國特色的佛教不單深深影響中國還通過交流而影響日本韓國和越南等東亞國家。此外中国还有伊斯兰教天主教基督教新教东正教等并有萨满教东巴教万物有灵信仰等本土地方宗教。佛教徒的构成中包括信仰藏傳佛教的藏族蒙古族珞巴族门巴族土族裕固族信仰南傳佛教的傣族布朗族德昂族以及信仰漢傳佛教的汉族等。中國遠古原始先民已有其獨特的神話，中國神話記載遠古時世界因盤古開天辟地而出現，之後又有女媧造人和補天的神話，當中神話中的龍後來也成為中國皇帝以至是中國的像徵。中國占星術将星宿划分為七曜或二十八宿等。除此之外，中國民間也流行有關十二生肖的神話。大多数中国神话主要发生在很古老的三皇五帝时代，其中主要由一本名叫的書記載。儒教的祭祀对象分为天神、人鬼和地祇。儒教百神，组成像人间官僚系统那样的等级体系。每个神的品级、爵位，一般说来，是由儒者规定的，并载入国家祀典。平素，它们依照规定，享受一方祭祀，如同诸侯的有封地和食邑；大祭时，则依品级配享、从祀于天坛之上。不入祀典的，被称为，祭祀有严格的等级界限。天神地祇只能由天子祭祀，祭天的圣所是天坛。诸侯大夫可以祭祀山川。士庶人则只能祭祀自己的祖先和灶神。 宗庙供奉祖先灵位。供奉和祭祀祖先的祠堂往往又被稱為。道教是起源於中国的宗教。春秋时期，老子创立道家，战国以后又产生神仙家，秦汉时期在道家和神仙家的基础上，吸收阴阳家、墨家、儒家诸家思想，先后兴起方仙道、黄老道，经过长期发展，到东汉，张道陵创立正一盟威道，正式形成道教。薩滿信仰在中國的傳統始於史前時代滿洲人的祖先女真人直到公元11世紀也保持著薩滿信仰。薩滿信仰清代以前便在中國東北盛行並與滿族的傳統結合起來。薩滿信仰（藏人稱之為苯教）在西藏早期居於絕對優勢地位擁有參政議政之權其勢力甚大信徒甚眾。在吐蕃軍隊出征的時候也往往會有薩滿巫師隨軍通過巫術來提高吐蕃軍隊的士氣。赤松德贊繼位之後為了加強王權大力扶持佛教勢力將佛教確立為國教並打壓苯教。赤松德贊這一政策遭到眾多大臣的反抗但都以失敗告終。此後的數代贊普都延續了這一政策赤德松贊和赤祖德贊在位期間更是在政務九大臣之上設置「僧相」一職將佛教僧侶地位置於世俗貴族之上。僧相強制推廣藏傳佛教對苯教的打擊則是變本加厲。這使不少苯教信眾逃避到阿里安多康區等偏遠地區。為了苯教生存苯教全面佛教化苯教供奉起了佛教的佛菩薩金剛明王改成紅色黃色的袈裟不再長髮披肩跟佛教比丘一樣剃髮成為藏密佛教的一支但保留了一些教義和儀式規則（例如朝塔時以反方向進行一般佛教徒以順時針方向進行）例如各派的活佛常常以轉世靈童傳承苯教則是以宗教考試取得最高的法王仁波切的地位。原始薩滿信仰與藏傳佛教結合的這種宗教形式在北元後期和清代被制度化並定為國教。在中華民國推翻清朝統治之後的一個世紀裡薩滿教幾乎消聲匿跡但是現今仍然可在北京故宮里仍然可以找到當年清朝皇族舉行儀式的堂子例如坤寧宮。西汉末年佛教由印度传入中国汉朝成立后有鉴于秦朝的法家思想并不能有效地帮助朝廷维持帝国的长久统治继而以无爲而治的黄老之道取代严管苛治的法家汉武帝时实行独尊儒术自此儒家思想成爲中国文化的主轴。两晋南北朝时佛教兴起并深受玄学影响。佛教在中國唐朝時發展最興盛因為當時有一名叫玄奘的僧人原因是他感於當時傳入中國的佛經翻譯不善而有太多不明所以之處故唐三藏親自去天竺取佛經他於古印度那爛陀寺鑽研和翻譯佛經然後把這些成果帶回中國這就是有名的唐三藏取西經。佛教對於中國習俗與其他宗教也產生了巨大的影響。具體表現在信三世。佛家認為世間的萬事萬物都因緣和合而生一切都在輪迴之中。雖然現世作惡而得福得壽但其業果若不報於現世而將報於來世。因信三世六道故信善惡定有果報或報之自身體或報之子孫或報之來世。同時還引進了悔罪植福延壽薦亡修德禳災設供祈願等觀念。佛陀之學即為佛學，佛學以因果輪迴為理論，以五戒十善法為規律，藉以出世解脫為佛家一主要思想﹐以萬事無常轉變生死痛苦為理論。以無我、緣生、苦空為方法﹐以證得無為自在為目的。強調需要出世與解脫，必須厭惡世間欲望，不斷自我修練，解脫是在脫離人世痛苦為目的。在大乘佛教根本精神更進一步強調要捨己救世。佛陀一生所教的内容主要就是知苦与灭苦。「四聖諦」學說是佛教教義的核心，就是苦締、集諦、滅諦、道諦。「苦諦」是佛教認為人生在世，谁也免不了生老病死等諸多苦難。這些苦難不會因為人的死亡而結束，因為人死之後仍然會在六道中輪迴不息，苦總是存在的，只是程度不同罷了。佛教還認為，世間的萬物都是變化不定的，沒有永恆，這叫做無常。因為於無常敗壞法起貪著，則將造成身心的熾燃大苦，因此說無常故苦。集諦是講苦產生的原因。佛教認為有情眾生之所以會受苦，在於因無明而於六根觸受起愛執，而導致後有生死的純大苦聚集。佛教認為只要是在六道中輪迴，就無法避免會受苦。要想從苦中真正的、徹底的解脫出來，只有脫離輪迴這一個辦法。道諦為了脫離輪迴，必須進行修行。佛陀給出的方法主要為戒、定、慧三學。依八正道，便可以達到涅槃，永遠從輪迴中解脫出來，证得阿罗汉。基督教传入中国的时间也比较早唐代时景教传入到明代时天主教传入中国这些宗教传入后为适应中国社会而本土化到清代因罗马教廷廢禁止中国教徒祭天祀祖雍正年间清政府禁止天主教在中国活动1840年西方的坚船利炮打开中国的大门大批传教士来到中国传教并先后在大清帝国和中华民国开办一些教育医疗等事业。十九世纪晚期基督宗教在华推行本色运动。当年教会常被指为西方列强入侵中国的工具因此教堂和西方传教士成为攻击目标。教会觉得应该结合中国文化传道摆脱与西方传教士的从属关系因此提出自治自养自传的“三自”观念以消除与民众的隔阂使基督宗教在中国扎根。一九二四年教宗碧岳十一世委宗座首位驻华代表刚恒毅总主教在上海徐家汇大堂召开第一届中国主教会议大会主题是要求建立一个正常的自由的中国化的天主教会。会中研讨适应中国地区之传道方向给中国教会制订了一套全备的传教典章为中国教务竖立了一个新的里程碑。会议中主教们决定了把中国奉托给圣母照顾保护并奉圣母为事经圣座核准施行会议开幕时举行了隆重的奉献典礼会后又由总主教率领数十位主教及神父赴佘山朝圣向天上母后举行再奉献礼。其时有不少外国建筑师在华工作他们开始以西方技术结合中国传统形式建造教堂以示对中国文化的尊重。中国伊斯兰教起源于穆罕默德的叔父带领使团出使中国，并且修建世界最古老清真寺之一的怀圣寺。 宋朝时期，中国穆斯林控制了出入口贸易，也在朝廷中逐渐有影响力，著名的穆斯林有郑和、带领设计和修建元大都的也黑迭兒丁等。明朝时期，早期穆斯林移民的后代在语言、姓名及习俗方面融入了中国社会，同时南京也成为了重要的伊斯兰教学习中心。信仰伊斯兰教的人群主要是回族、维吾尔族、哈萨克族、柯尔克孜族、塔塔尔族、乌孜别克族、塔吉克族、东乡族、撒拉族、保安族等十个民族。根據2006年的統計資料，中國現在有大約2000萬人為穆斯林。中华文化发源于黄河流域的中原地区。炎黄时代是华夏文化的初步形成时期经过尧舜禹和夏商周等时期的发展而日臻成熟。当华夏文明在中原发展的时候在中国疆域内还分布着其他各种文化。正统中华文化中有尊王攘夷的观念春秋大义中的华夷之辩以礼乐衣冠作量度。华夷之辨的宗旨植根于以汉文化礼义和炎黄血统作标准。种族民族主义是中国传统民族主义的其中一个方面另一方面它又是一种文化民族主义。华夏文化随着中原王国的对外交流和扩张而传播史载大禹的活动范围已经达到越地周泰伯建立吴国在春秋时期楚吴越等地已经成为华夏文明的一部分。自1840年鸦片战争以来中国传统文化受到西方文明的强烈冲击处于劣势地位的中国人产生前所未有的危机感。为了自保发展“师夷长技以制夷”起初以“中学为体西学为用”的态度向西方学习近现代科学技术再后来到民国采用民主共和政体建立现代国家。民初有識之仕發起与此同时各种西方政治文化思潮如“马克思列宁主义”“国家社会主义”也传入中国。中華文化在中国大陸的文化大革命期间遭受较大损失全國各地被毀文物被殺文人较多。目前在政治思想上中华人民共和国仍烙有马列主义的特征但近年来随着经济的崛起很多大陆民众逐渐恢复民族自信建立在现代社会基础之上的中国传统文化和以儒家为主体的中国传统信仰的恢复发展也越来越得到重视。中国文化的地域性也很强烈。除了一些普遍的特征之外，十里不同风，百里不同俗。1990年以后，随着中国其他地区的人员向各个主要城市的迁移，导致各地不同的风俗大量涌入少数几个城市，并对目的城市的文化造成影响。中国的少数民族有着自己独特的、丰富多彩的文化。然而近年来一些地方由于过度关注于经济发展，未能完好地保护或保存当地的民俗文化，一些地方的传统文化濒临失传。但现在部分传统中华文化也被年轻人追捧，譬如汉服文化、中国传统乐器文化等。 +中华人民共和国历史始于公元1949年10月1日在北京举行的开国大典，先后制定并通过了五部宪制性文件。截止2021年，中华人民共和国共经历了毛泽东、邓小平、江泽民、胡锦涛和习近平五位最高领导人，而华国锋曾担任过渡时期的领导人。截止2021年，中华人民共和国的历史以1978年12月中共十一届三中全为转折点，分为以社会主义转型及阶级斗争为主题的毛泽东时代。中国共产党是中华人民共和国建国以来唯一的执政党，并坚持对全国武装力量的绝对领导。重大历史事件参见“中华人民共和国历史年表”。中华人民共和国历史概述.1945年8月，日本无条件投降。抗日战争期间，既已存在的国共摩擦随即演变为国共冲突。1946年，中国共产党与中国国民党争夺中国政权的第二次国共内战全面爆发。1949年初，中国共产党领导解放军取得遼西會戰、徐蚌會戰與平津會戰三大战役的胜利。此前的1948年5月1日，中共中央号召“各民主党派、各人民团体及社会贤达，迅速召开新的政治协商会议，讨论并实现召集人民代表大会，成立民主联合政府。”1949年4月，人民解放军击溃中国国民党指挥的中华民国国军，在渡江战役中占领了中華民國首都南京市及全国经济中心——上海市，在中国大陆取得绝对优势。旨在建立中国新的联合民主政府的新政协筹备会议于1949年6月15日至6月20日在北平召开。筹备会决定在常务委员会领导下设立六个小组，分別完成下列各项任务：一、拟定参加新政治协商会议的单位及其代表名额；二、起草新政治协商会议组织条例；三、起草共同纲领；四、拟定中华人民民主共和国政府方案；五、起草宣言；六、拟定国旗、国歌及国徽方案。第一小組在筹备会成立会闭幕前，即拟定完成并获通过 。1949年中国人民政治协商会议筹备会议第四小组负责起草。新政权的名字起初普遍称为 。1949年9月21日至9月30日，中國人民政治協商會議第一屆全體會議在北平召開。9月27日，會議通過，會議代表全國人民的意志，宣告中華人民共和國的成立，組織人民自己的中央政府，並一致同意以新民主主義即人民民主主義為中華人民共和國建國的政治基礎。在普選的全國人民代表大會召開之前，政協代行全國人民代表大會的職權 。9月30日下午三點，會議開始，先以整個名單付表決的方法，一致通過已經協商的政協第一屆全國委員會，共180人；然後，以無記名聯記投票的方法，選舉中央人民政府委員會的主席、副主席和委員。檢票期間，全體代表到天安門廣場舉行人民英雄紀念碑奠基典禮，然後回到會場聽取選舉結果。會議主席宣布，毛澤東當選為中央人民政府主席，朱德、劉少奇、宋慶齡、李濟深、張瀾、高崗當選為副主席，周恩來任政務院總理兼外交部長，其他56人當選為中央人民政府委員。會議舉行簡單的閉幕式。1949年起，中国社会经历了一次由中央至地方、有其特色的巨大变革，从贫穷、落后转变为一个日益现代化的国家。第一章第一条定义中华人民共和国为一个社会主义国家；自邓小平时代起中国奉行“中国特色社会主义”的总体发展路线，部分人士进而提出“中国模式”。依据联合国开发计划署，2018年中国的人类发展指数排名世界第86名，发展程度为“高”、属于发展中国家。1950年代完成的“一五计划”奠定了中国工业化的基础。而截止1964年据中国官方统计扫盲运动使得全国文盲率从1949年的约80%降至52%仅为156美元81%的人口为农民全国文盲人数将近2.4亿文盲率达25%青壮年中有30%-40%是文盲。1970年代末到1980年代初，中国经历了拨乱反正、开始了改革开放，逐渐成为世界上经济发展速度最快的国家之一，2010年中国的国内生产总值超过日本、成为世界第二大经济体。2018年，国际货币基金组织数据显示中国大陆人均GDP达到9608美元（世界银行数据为9771美元）、位居世界第69名；2019年，中国人均国内生产总值人均GDP达到10276美元，开始向高收入国家迈进。2018年，中国大陆农村人口比例降至40.42%，另据联合国教科文组织统计2015年的中国文盲率下降至3.6%。中国官方数据显示，1981-2012年间中国大陆贫困人口减少7.9亿，大多数人民享有食品、住房、医疗等生活必需品。改革开放期间中国南方诞生了新兴超大城市深圳市被誉为。2019年依据杂志中国的世界500强公司数量达到129家超过美国的121家跃居世界第一。21世纪起中国高铁系统港珠澳大桥5G网络等社会大型基础设施的建设也引起瞩目。随着经济的发展和医疗条件的改善，中国人的平均寿命由1949年的35岁提升至2009年的73岁，部分沿海都市人均寿命接近发达国家水平；2019年12月，中国大陆总人口突破14亿，而1970年代以来实行的计划生育政策使得中国人口的增长率稳步下降。因此，中国一定程度上的解决了人口过剩和营养不良的问题。1960-70年间完成的工程奠定了中国航天和国防科技的基础。改革开放后，中国载人航天工程和中国探月工程、北京正负电子对撞机、大亚湾核反应堆中微子实验、北斗卫星导航系统、暗物质粒子探测卫星、量子科学实验卫星、500米口径球面射电望远镜、蛟龙号潜水器、天河二号超级计算机、袁隆平等人的杂交水稻技术等成就得到国际瞩目。21世纪以来，中国公民刘晓波、莫言、屠呦呦先后获得诺贝尔奖。1979年，中华人民共和国恢复了在国际奥委会的席位。21世纪以来，在历届奥运会奖牌榜上，中国国家队也位居世界前列。此外，中国还先后举办了2008年北京奥运会、2010年上海世博会、2010年广州亚运会、2011年深圳大运会，而北京也获得了2022年冬季奥运会的举办权。在外交上1949年后的中国变得较为独立自主虽然在长达22年的时间里遭受到美国及苏联两大国的封锁被联合国排除之外却依然被视冷战中少数几个独立于两阵营外的最重要国家之一。随着经济实力的发展中国也日渐成为全球瞩目的大国之一区域与全球影响力不斷上升改革开放后1991年加入亚太经合组织1997年香港回归1999年澳门回归2001年6月上海合作组织成立2001年12月加入了世界贸易组织截止2019年9月世界上共有180个国家与中华人民共和国保持外交关系。而一些重要的国际峰会开始在中国大陆举行譬如杭州主办了2016年二十国集团杭州峰会厦门主办了2017年金砖国家峰会。在军事方面，中国也取得了较大的发展，截止2019年中国人民解放军拥有约两百万名现役军人、是世界上兵力最多的正规军队，国防安全不再是重大威胁。1949年-2019年，中国人民解放军经历了11次裁军，其中包括较为知名的1985年百万大裁军，部队总人数由最初的600多万降至200万左右、并进行了现代化改革和精简编制。在发展过程中，中国社会出现了贫富差距扩大、城乡发展不平衡、产能过剩、缺乏自主创新技术、房地产泡沫、通货膨胀、人口过剩、人口老龄化、男女比例不均、社会竞争激烈等诸多较为严重的问题。与此同时，中国共产党长期一党专政下的中国社会产生了独裁、极权、滥权、腐败、垄断、特权、司法不公、官僚主义、权钱交易、人权受损、自由受限、民族冲突等种种问题甚至灾难。此外，中国官方以及部分海内外学者均指出，中国大陆经济数据存在长期造假问题，特别是夸大了经济成长的数据。中国的贫富分化现象较为严重根据中国国家统计局数据2018年12月中国的基尼系数为0.468属于高而国际货币基金组织数据显示自1990年起中国的基尼系数从0.35上涨到了2015年的0.5。一方面太子党等各大权贵家族垄断主要行业控制国家财富并存在大量“裸官”许多中央高层的子女或亲属移民海外或拥有外国绿卡。2020年位列透明国际“清廉指数”排名世界第78名。另一方面社会底层出现了严重的“农民工问题”2010年以来包括农民工在内的许多社会低收入人群逐渐构成了新兴的“蚁族”阶层。此外中国的城乡差距逐渐拉大1996年“三农问题”被正式提出。人口方面截止2019年底中国大陆人口数量达14亿居世界第一男性人口比女性人口高出3049万。2020年的第七次全国人口普查数据真实性和准确性则遭到多方面质疑。截止2013年中国国家人口和计划生育委员会等机构估计1970-1999年出生的适婚单身人口中男性人口比女性高出2315万 而截止2018年底中国国家统计局数据显示中国老龄人口占总人口的11.9%属于老龄化社会。此外随着工业化和城市化的推进中国大陆的环境污染资源短缺及过度开采人均资源占有量低生产监管漏洞等也逐渐成为较为严重的问题其中突出的例子包括矿难频发雾霾土壤污染淡水资源短缺等。中国大陆的食品药品安全问题也屡见不鲜21世纪以来曾曝光过毒奶粉事件地沟油事件假疫苗事件校园食物中毒等重大案件。与此同时20世纪90年代起至2019年中国大陆主要经历了四次越发严重的产能过剩钢铁煤炭冶金等行业供大于求造成大量企业亏损。2010年以来高新技术产业缺乏自主技术大城市的房价飙升等问题也日趋严重。1949年起中国的司法体系即受到中国共产党的控制而至习近平时期中国官方仍明确反对司法独立同时对部分维权律师进行了迫害和镇压。一直以来众多中外学者批评中国共产党和中国政府利用对媒体学术教育资讯的控制掩盖甚至篡改历史事实煽动民族主义和民族情绪对民众进行了欺骗和洗脑以维护一党专政和自身的“合法性”。中共官方及部分学者则将“还原历史”“重写历史”“否定党史及国史”的主张称为“历史虚无主义”。截止2020年依据杂志中国的民主指数为2.27/10仅位列世界第151名属于“专制政权”。截止2021年依据研究机构自由之家中国的总体自由指数得分为9/100属于“不自由”而依据国际组织无国界记者中国的新闻自由程度仅位列世界第177名。1949-1976年间，毛泽东时代的土地改革运动、镇压反革命运动、三反五反运动、肃反运动、反右运动、大跃进、人民公社运动、四清运动以及文化大革命等，对中国的民主、法制和宪政造成了严重的破坏，包括刘少奇、彭德怀、贺龙等中共中央领导人在内的数千万人遭到批斗和迫害，中国的知识分子、农村精英阶层等受到了巨大打击，文革时期中国的传统文化及道德沦亡、科研教育事业也遭受了重大冲击。据各方估计约有4000万-8000万人因此非正常死亡。1980年代邓小平赵紫阳等人推动的中国政治体制改革曾被外界寄予期望但后期的改革最终因为“六四事件”的爆发而失败中国政府也因此事件遭到了国际社会的普遍谴责和制裁。六四事件直接导致了中国经济上的改革开放放缓甚至停滞直至1992年邓小平南巡后才重新提速。1990年代末期起江泽民时代的镇压法轮功事件和兴起的非法器官买卖胡锦涛时代开始的对中国维权运动的打压也备受争议。2000年后随着网络时代的兴起中国政府采取了严苛的网络审查制度进行舆论控制异见打压导致谷歌雅虎等公司陆续退出中国大陆市场。其中中国政府还对包括维基百科在内的部分国外网站进行了网络封锁并被指责雇佣大量网络评论员发表拥护中国共产党和中国政府的评论控制舆论导向。2010年代，习近平主政下的中国政府为了“打击犯罪”、“弘扬诚信”，开始利用快速发展的大数据和人脸识别等技术建立全社会大规模监控体系和“社会信用体系”，截止2019年6月，中国政府官方数据显示已有3000多万人次因为信用分数不够而被禁止搭乘飞机和高铁，海内外的反对人士认为此举严重损害了公民的自由和隐私权等基本人权。2019年，习近平提出必须加强共产党对依法治国的领导，明确反对宪政、三权分立和司法独立。此外，新疆再教育营、香港反送中事件和中美贸易战等事件也在全球范围内引起广泛争议。1949年10月1日下午3時，在北京天安門廣場举行开国大典，毛泽东在天安门城楼上宣告中華人民共和國中央人民政府成立，中华人民共和国正式成立，以后每年的10月1日就成为中华人民共和国的国庆节 。中華人民共和國建立之初，中國經歷長期的動亂與戰爭，經濟水平落後，貨幣貶值，交通運輸不暢。建國後，一個全面模仿蘇聯工業化模式的共產主義社會便迅速建立起來。在1950年代早期，中華人民共和國政府進行大規模的城市工商業社會主義改造和農村土地集體化以及社會改革。新的政府成功地抑止通貨膨脹、重振經濟，並且建立起因戰火而受到嚴重損害的工業體系。中國共產黨對當時中國人民的日常生活的方方面面都有很大影響：政府根據黨的政策靈活應變，黨的基層組織深入到中下層勞工、婦女以及其它群眾中。1950年代开始的许多资本家和商人被迫害自杀亦有许多人士被处决或折磨致死中国大陆资产阶级消亡。中華人民共和國成立初期支持中華民國的部隊到處與解放军和新建的地方政权對抗。中华人民共和国政府在1950年开展全国性的的开展数年之后中华民国政府在大陆地区的残余武装被消灭殆尽。与此同时1950年6月25日朝鲜发動朝鲜战争。战争初期朝鲜人民军势如破竹幾乎占领整个朝鲜半岛但是联合国军在仁川登陆后战争形势逆转联合国军逼近朝中边境线。当时的中国领导人认为朝鲜若被联合国军占领将威胁新成立的中华人民共和国的国家安全因此决定以中国人民志愿军的名义入朝作战。在经过五次大规模战役后双方进入胶着状态。1953年7月27日双方签署。领土方面中共在1950年的昌都戰役消滅藏軍主力後1951年同西藏政府達成對西藏取得控制權。至此除台灣香港澳門少數沿海島嶼及其他與鄰國有主權爭議的領土以外中國大陆領土已全部被中華人民共和國政府控制。1953年的東山島戰役后国军未再组织成建制的反击。至1955年解放军发起一江山岛战役相继攻占浙东沿海还被国军控制的全部岛屿。至此中国大陆沿海只剩下福建沿海的金门和马祖还被国军控制 。1953年至1956年中国政府对生产资料所有制进行的社会主义改造。包括，又合称为，其目的是改变生产关系的性质。1956年底三大改造基本完成，中国政府认为中国已进入社会主义初级阶段，社会主义制度在第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议上通过，共4章106条。与此同时，各类政治运动逐渐展开。1955年7月1日，中共中央發出，毛澤東將各團體中鎮壓的比例定為百分之五。1957年，反右运动展开，上百万知识分子和民主党派人士等遭到批斗和迫害，中国大陆的民主制度遭到严重破坏。中國於1950年代末基本消滅血吸蟲病但是近年又有死灰復燃趨勢。1957年2月中国贵州省爆发爆发再度造成全球100万-400万人死亡（世卫组织数据）。1958年5月中共八大二次会议提出要使中国在15年或更短的时间内在主要工业产品产量方面在十年內超过英国十五年內赶美國提出的重要步骤达到1070万吨。人民日报经常报道某某公社农业大放卫星。在早稻亩产36000斤的基础上中稻亩产达到46000斤。田里的稻谷紧密得排在一起人都可以坐在上面。同年还出版发行祖国主要建设成就地图。當時的人們普遍看輕那些強調技術規範的專家批評他們為以阻冒進的指責希望能在短期內快速提升工業和農業產值。大躍進的結果是災難性的基層為達到不可能的目標虛報謊報誇大實際產出。農業上由于中共中央主席毛泽东等一些领导人错误的认为合作社规模越大越能发展生产力公社化也是加速建设社会主义并向共产主义过渡的最好形式所以将原有的農業合作社改組成2.6萬多個人民公社99%的農民加入到組織中來。大跃进导致原有正常的經濟體系被破壞農業產值大幅度減少。其特点是“一大二公”“一平二调”1960年開始的三年經濟困難更為國民經濟雪上加霜農村大批人口面臨饑荒。同时在思想上“左”的错误泛滥成灾浮夸风盛行。对于大跃进的评价社会主义总路线的提出反映了党和人民迫切改变经济落后状况的愿望但是忽略了客观经济规律其教训是惨痛的 。當時由於中國內地的消息封鎖一般專家不易精確的統計死亡人數因此导致死亡人数一直有所争议学术界人士各方估计有1500万-5500万人非正常死亡。死去的人主要死因幾乎都是饿死。此時中蘇關係也開始出現裂痕修正主義的爭論最終在1959年尖銳化。蘇聯撤走在華的所有人員並且停止對中國的技術協助中國的工業幾乎因此完全停頓。中蘇兩國的矛盾之後又迅速公開化兩國在國際論壇上公開翻臉。此外尖锐的矛盾导致了1958年的“循化事件”造成数百人死亡1959年爆发藏区骚乱造成约8万7千人死亡第十四世达赖喇嘛流亡海外。1960年冬中共中央和黨主席毛澤東開始糾正農村工作中的「左」傾錯誤並且決定對國民經濟實行「調整鞏固充實提高」的方針隨即在國家主席劉少奇國務院總理周恩來黨副主席陳雲書記處負責人鄧小平等的主持下制定和執行一系列正確的政策和果斷的措施這是這個歷史階段中的重要轉變 。1962年1月召開的七千人大会初步總結「大躍進」中的經驗教訓開展批評和自我批評。會議前後又為「反右傾」運動中被錯誤批判的大多數同志甄別平反。此外還給被劃為「右派分子」的大多數人摘掉「右派分子」帽子。由於這些經濟和政治的措施從1962年到1966年國民經濟得到比較順利的恢復和發展 。“两弹一星”工程在国务院总理周恩来副总理聂荣臻等人的主持下顺利完成期间两弹一星的工程遭受了文化大革命的冲击。1962年“七千人大会”后劉鄧兩人掌握著一部分黨政大權採取較為務實的經濟政策國民經濟在最初幾年曾有所好轉。但是毛澤東對這種務實的政策不滿共產主義遠景及自己的政治野心令他最終與國家主席劉少奇等人決裂。1965年開始毛澤東及其親信開始針對劉少奇鄧小平等人的政治攻擊。1966年5月。在中央层面在的第一副主席華國鋒取得。10月初華國鋒在葉劍英汪東興的支持下成功一举粉碎四人帮文革结束。此后华国锋正式出任中共中央主席和中共中央軍委主席繼任最高領導人。文革期间知识分子被视为反动分子资产阶级反动学术权威受到广泛的批判和迫害甚至被贬低为赵九章自杀身亡。截止1968年底中国科学院在北京的171位高级研究人员中就有131位被打倒全国范围内共有229人被迫害致死。毛泽东时代的中国在外交方面取得了一定的成绩譬如“乒乓外交”和“熊猫外交”。但也因对外输出革命而导致世界部分地区出现屠杀排华现象造成大量华裔伤亡。1950年代末1960年代初起中苏交恶1964年中苏边界谈判失败1969年中苏爆发連續的邊境衝突曾导致是建国以来最严重的涉外事件。许多中国驻外大使参赞几乎全部奉调回国参加政治运动许多人受到批斗驻外使馆的工作不能正常进行。对外政治经济文化交流和合作基本中断与各国元首和政府首脑级的互访急剧减少实际退出了几乎所有的国际组织也不出席国际会议外贸进出口大幅度下降派出的留学人员全部被召回国也停止接受外国留学生。1970年代毛泽东提出“三个世界”的理论。1971年10月25日中華人民共和國政府在第三世界國家的支持下成為聯合國中代表全中國的唯一合法政府標誌著中華人民共和國首次受到主要國際組織的承認。1972年2月美國總統尼克松應中國國務院總理周恩來邀請首度訪華並會見毛澤東本人。1973年中美雙方同意互設聯絡處增加聯繫。1970年代文革中后期起中國與英國联邦德国日本等國的關係也明顯改善并正式建交此前中国与法國已于1964年正式建交。毛澤東執政的近27年期間，作為中華人民共和國的創建者之一，對中國歷史產生重大影響。中國現代歷史打上毛澤東印記。一方面，在他的领导下中国共产党統一了中國大陸絕大部分地區，建立強而有力的中央政府，为以后中国的恢复和发展奠定了基础；中華人民共和國政府稱，1949年中國文盲率高達80%，平均壽命僅為35歲，而到毛澤東去世時，文盲率下降到不足7%，平均壽命則提升到70歲。但另一方面，毛澤東沒有積極控制人口增長，反而鼓勵生育，与人口学家马寅初展开论争、导致后者遭到批判。1949年中國大陆有4.5億人，到1976年時達到9.3億人。批評者認為造成災難性的結果，而也有學者認為人口增長並非來自於高生育率，而是來自於死亡率的大大降低。毛澤東以後的中國領導人面對這個嚴峻的問題時採取嚴格計劃生育政策。与此同时，如同過去中國歷史的開國皇帝，在其任內也有許多人遭到政治迫害及大清洗，尤其在他晚年，由於嚴重的政策錯誤，給中國精神文化領域造成巨大的損失。毛澤東時代歷經了建政初期1950-1953年的三大運動「抗美援朝、土地改革運動、鎮壓反革命運動」、1951-1952年的三反五反运动、1957年起的反右運動、1958-1962年的大躍進、1966-1976年的文化大革命，据各方估计造成4000万-8000万人的非正常死亡，亦有数千万人遭到批斗和迫害。其中，反右运动严重破坏了中国的民主制度建设并使得中国大陆进入了中共一党专政的时代，而文化大革命因給國家和人民帶來巨大的災難而被嚴厲批評和譴責，1967-68年间中国大陆因大规模武斗而进入全面内战，诸多地区发生大屠杀事件；此外，文革导致中国传统文化及道德沦亡，大量文物古迹被损毁，法制和宪政被严重破坏，文革还影响了柬埔寨的红色高棉大屠杀（毛泽东和中共大力资助了红色高棉政权，成为该时期中国输出革命的典例）。拨乱反正时期指的是1976年9月中共中央主席毛泽东去世之后，他的继任者们逐步结束文化大革命的混乱局面，平反冤假错案和步入改革开放的时期。拨乱反正时期是中华人民共和国历史上最有转折意义的时期，介于毛泽东时代与邓小平时代之间，这个时期里，最高权力完成了从毛泽东到华国锋再到邓小平的交接，整个国家的面貌发生了根本改变，进入了现代化建设时代。这段时期以粉碎四人帮作为标志性事件开始以两个凡是和真理标准大讨论为标志渐入高潮终于在中共十一届三中全会上改革派取得胜利开始了平反冤假错案和公审四人帮的工作并逐步将矛头对准了文化大革命和晚年的毛泽东。拨乱反正时期以的通过和中共十一届六中全会上中共中央主席华国锋辞职而结束。鄧小平在1977年重新出山再次恢復中共中央政治局常委和中共中央副主席等職務並在黨內安排許多自己的支持者。在1978年鄧小平成功地取代由毛澤東欽點的繼承人華國鋒。不過這次鬥爭並沒有像共產黨以前的政治鬥爭中那樣你死我活而是讓華國鋒漸漸地隱退。1980年華國鋒國務院總理的職務由趙紫陽取代而恢復設立的總書記職務則由胡耀邦取得。直到1989年11月在中共十三届五中全会后卸任中共中央军委主席鄧小平一直都被认为是中國的實際最高領導人雖然他後期握有的頭銜只是中央軍委主席和中央顧問委員會主任。1975年邓小平继任中共中央副主席和国务院第一副总理开始了大整顿史称“1975年整顿”整顿从工业开始延伸到农业和军队取得了显著成效。1975年秋天因为对待文化大革命的态度问题和与四人帮争吵升级毛泽东开始怀疑邓小平反对文革。毛泽东要求邓小平对文革下个三七开的结论被邓小平婉拒。随后又发生了邓小平转清华大学信件事件毛泽东发怒之下发动了批邓反击右倾翻案风运动。1976年1月，国务院总理周恩来逝世，全国发生了悼念活动和抗议运动，最后演化成了清明节天安门广场悼念事件，被毛泽东定性为反革命事件而镇压，史称四五运动。四五运动后，邓小平被撤销职务，中央军委秘书长叶剑英在家养病。随后毛泽东任命华国锋继任中共中央第一副主席和国务院总理，与纪登奎、陈锡联、吴德、汪东兴形成了工作班子。7月，唐山大地震，华国锋总理主持救灾工作受到毛泽东肯定。这时候中央形成了以华国锋为首的派别，以四人帮为首的派别，以及以叶剑英、李先念为代表的右派。1976年9月9日毛泽东去世23日举行了追悼大会中共中央副主席王洪文主持华国锋致悼词。随后四人帮和华国锋发生了激烈矛盾华国锋寻求叶剑英的帮助形成了华叶政治联盟。四人帮开始连篇累牍宣传享受与毛泽东生前同等的待遇。华国锋延续了毛泽东以“阶级斗争为纲”的路线，继续坚持在无产阶级专政下继续革命的理论。1977年2月7日，，社论里出现了“ 凡是毛主席作出的决策，我们都坚决维护；凡是毛主席的指示，我们都始终不渝地遵循”的说法，被称为两个凡是。这既是政治宣告，也是华国锋执政的基本依据。两个凡是受到了受文革迫害的老干部的强烈不满，成为以后政治变革的导火索。1977年8月，为了尽快确认华国锋的领袖地位，中共提前召开了第十一次全国代表大会。这次代表大会上，华国锋宣布第一次文化大革命胜利结束，同时将抓纲治国列入党的基本路线。这次代表大会上，华国锋正式当选为中国共产党中央委员会主席和中国共产党中央军事委员会主席，进一步确认了华国锋的领袖地位，华国锋的威望达到了顶峰。从1976年-1978年底，华国锋操控中共政局两年多，实行一系列政策。这一时期被共产党官方史料称为。在这一时期，文化大革命结束，国家由乱到治 ，经济开始复苏，同时大批在文革期间被打倒的干部得以重新工作，从而揭开改革开放的序幕。1978年，中共中央组织修改宪法，获得通过，但依然带有浓厚的文革色彩和局限性，成为中华人民共和国历史上的第三部宪法。四人帮倒台之后邓小平立即给华国锋写信表达了喜悦的心情并歌颂华国锋的丰功伟绩希望能分配一点技术性质的工作。起始华国锋没有理睬邓小平这封信。在粉碎四人帮之后的两个月里新闻报纸仍然鼓动事实上开始了停止批邓。1977年开始批邓的调子急剧降低。3月份邓小平给华国锋写了第二封信表达了希望工作的想法并请求将这封信公布全党。1977年5月，中共十届三中全会召开，这次全会有两个议题，一个是宣布邓小平恢复原有的中共中央副主席、第一副总理和军委副主席兼总参谋长的职务，一个是公布了四人帮的罪行。从此邓小平又重新回到了政治舞台。与之相应的，则是胡耀邦、赵紫阳、彭冲等也进入了中共中央政治局。胡耀邦开始主持中共中央党校，为拨乱反正做理论工作。十届三中全会正式恢复了邓小平的职务他作为中央副主席分管科教。1977年夏天邓小平主持召开了科教座谈会。而拨乱反正也延续到了邓小平时代的初期。拨乱反正及十一届三中全会.文革后的拨乱反正延续到邓小平时代早期。1978年5月邓小平胡耀邦等人推动了一场社会各阶层参与的真理标准大讨论反对华国锋的。这次讲话成为了中国近代史上思想解放的重要拐点。1978年12月12月18日至12月22日中国共产党十一届三中全会召开邓小平取代华国锋成为中国实际上的最高领导人否定了正式启动被广泛认为是中国近代史上的重要转折点。邓小平主张纠正文化大革命期间造成的错误1978年后的数年内邓小平胡耀邦等人主持了平反冤假错案全国平反的案件达三百多万件并特别为刘少奇彭德怀陶铸等在文革期间被迫害致死的中共中央领导人举行追悼会彻底平反恢复名誉。1980年11月20日北京最高人民法院特别法庭开庭公开审判江青反革命集团。江青张春桥被判处死刑缓期二年执行姚文元被判处二十年有期徒刑而王洪文曾说过“十年以后再看分晓”他的地位也最高罪行及影响仅次于江青和张春桥所以将他判为无期徒刑。1981年6月27日，中国共产党第十一届中央委员会一致通过，全面否定了文化大革命，也标志着意识形态上的拨乱反正基本完成。1983年，文化大革命后社会治安混乱、恶性犯罪事件频发，邓小平等人进行了大规模的严打，三年多共有2.4万人被判处死刑。1979年以後，中國走上更加務實的發展道路。原先被打擊的一大批知識分子、學者恢復工作。而藝術家、作家、記者們也給予更大的自由度，更多地從批評的角度來創作、報道。到1980年末，毛澤東的的經濟建設口號，擴大農村人口收入，鼓勵國有企業自主經營，降低中央計劃，並在中國建立外國直接投資。全會也決定加快司法體系改革，還向1979年6月召開的全國人民代表大會提交多份新法律的草案。1979年12月，邓小平在会见日本首相一行期间，强调了“四个现代化”，并提出了实现“小康”的概念；1982年，中国共产党第十二次全国代表大会正式引用了“小康”这一概念，并把它作为二十世纪末的战略目标。但在意识形态的解放上亦有阻力，1983年中国大陆的左派保守势力主导开展了“清除精神污染”运动，而1986年底至1987年上半年，左派保守势力再次主导展开了“反对资产阶级自由化”运动，但均被胡耀邦、赵紫阳等改革派领导人所平息。鄧小平的四個現代化目標指的是農業工業科技與國防的四個現代化。而實現這四個現代化使中國成為一個現代化工業國家的方法就是實行社會主義市場經濟。鄧小平指出中國處在社會主義的初級階段而黨的任務就是完善。這種對馬克思主義的新解釋降低意識形態在經濟發展中的重要性而更強調政策的有效性。鄧小平認為共產主義遠景需要很長時間需要幾代甚至幾十代的努力才能實現認為社會主義並不意味著共同貧窮例如亞洲四小龍等。中國的經濟改革與蘇聯共產黨中央委員會總書記戈爾巴喬夫在蘇聯實行的是中國經濟改革成功的關鍵因素。鄧小平的改革中計劃型中央管理的宏觀經濟由技術官僚負責而放棄毛澤東以前採取的全民運動式的經濟發展策略。但是與蘇聯體制或毛澤東時代不同的是這種宏觀管理是間接通過市場體制來實現的而很多還是從西方國家所採用的經濟規劃及控管機制中借鑒過來的。宏觀的經濟管理並不妨礙在較低層次的市場經濟。鄧小平與毛澤東一樣十分重視農業產出他用家庭聯產承包責任制來取代原有的集體化農業。在地方一級政府利用物質刺激而非政治口號來提高農民的積極性。農民被允許通過向自由市場販賣農產品來獲得額外的收入縣省一級也可以自己投資建設工廠政府鼓勵對輕工業的投資。鄧小平將中國的經濟引上一條重視輕工業以出口為導向的發展道路。輕工業產出對一個發展中國家而言往往是十分關鍵重要的。這種週期短成本低高外匯收入的產業所創造的收入能夠為以後技術含量高資本運作複雜的產業提供資金支持。然而與其它經濟改革並不太成功的國家如匈牙利或南斯拉夫相比中國的輕工業投資並不需要政府批准。而中國重工業投資主要來自銀行貸款而銀行的資金則主要來自消費儲蓄。鄧小平改革的第一個項目就是防止利潤通過稅收或銀行體制以外的任何方式進行再分配因此在更高端產業中的再分配往往是間接的。總而言之鄧小平的改革開啟中國的工業革命。這些改革措施與毛澤東的自力更生政策是相互補的。改革也十分重視勞動生產力的提高。新的物質刺激與獎賞制度在全國實施。農村市場恢復銷售家產或多餘的農產品，也促進農村工業發展，還為更艱難的經濟改革提供政治上的支持。鄧小平的市場社會主義在某些地方與列寧的新經濟政策或布哈林的經濟政策有某些相似之處。它們都允許私有企業以及貿易市場的存在，而不是完全的政府控制。有趣的是在鄧小平首次會見阿曼德·哈默時，鄧小平要求這位曾經參與投資過列寧時代蘇聯的工業家向他詳細地解釋列寧當時的新經濟政策。1987年9月，深圳率先试行土地使用有偿出让，出让了一块5千多平方米的土地使用权、限期50年，揭开了国有土地使用制度改革的序幕。12月，深圳市公开拍卖了一块国有土地的使用权，这是中华人民共和国建立后首次进行的土地拍卖。改革开放期间，中國決定通過增加國際貿易，特別是購買來自日本和西方的機械來加速現代化進程。通過這種出口導向經濟模式，中國獲得一定的外國資金、市場、先進技術與管理理念，從而加快其經濟建設的步伐。1979-1980年，鄧小平等人支持在深圳、厦门、珠海等中國多地建立經濟特區，吸引外國企業投資。1979年1月31日，深圳蛇口工业区正式建立，成为中国对外开放的第一个试验区，在袁庚等人的领导下逐渐发展出了。 1980年代，在袁庚的推动下，中华人民共和国第一家由企业创办的股份制商业银行——招商银行、第一家由企业创办的商业保险机构——平安保险，先后在蛇口成立。1984年5月大连秦皇岛天津烟台青岛连云港南通上海宁波温州福州广州湛江北海等十四个城市被定为沿海开放城市。与此同时众多海外企业进入中国市场也有相当数量的中国企业开辟了海外市场。改革开放期间美国日本法国德国英国等发达国家对中华人民共和国的作法表示支持并提供了包括无偿援助在内的各种形式的援助香港澳门和台湾也对中国大陆提供了大量资金技术人才理念等重要支持。1977年，邓小平主导恢复了由于文革而中断十年的高考。拨乱反正期间，“实施义务教育”的口号被提出；在邓小平等人的推动下，1982年“普及初等义务教育”被写入新编宪法《八二宪法》，恢复了对知识和教育的尊重。1985年，在时任国务院总理赵紫阳的提议下，人民代表大会通过，确定每年“9月10日”为教师节。1986年，中国大陆《义务教育法》颁布，九年制义务教育确立。邓小平曾提出“科学技术是第一生产力”“四个现代化关键是科学技术现代化”等观点。1981年12月邓小平批准修建“北京正负电子对撞机”此后又多次会见支持该项目建设的诺贝尔奖得主李政道1984年10月7日对撞机工程破土动工。1985年2月中国南极长城站建成是中华人民共和国的第一个南极科学考察站同年3月秦川核电站动工建设是中国大陆建成的第一座核电站。1986年3月在四位两弹一星元勋的建议下邓小平亲自批准开启了“863计划”由时任国务院总理赵紫阳负责同年即调拨100亿人民币作为项目专项资金863计划此后的重大成果包括神舟飞船蛟龙号潜水器天河一号及天河二号超级计算机龙芯等等。1987年深圳大亚湾核电站动工建设是中国建成的第二座核电站也是中国首座使用国外技术和资金建设的核电站。人才方面邓小平批准了包括陈省身在内的诸多外籍华裔人才的引进。1980年代起，深圳、北京中关村等地的高新电子技术产业崛起，后被誉为“中国硅谷”，其中华为（1987年起）、中兴（1985年起）、康佳（1980年）等知名企业在深圳创立，联想（1984年起）等知名企业在北京创立。1979年中华人民共和国恢复了在国际奥委会的席位。1984年射击运动员许海峰在洛杉矶奥运会上为中华人民共和国夺得了第一枚奥运金牌。此外拨乱反正改革开放时期还诞生了等一系列新的文学流派。1980年8月18日邓小平在中共中央政治局扩大会议上作了的讲话提出要进行政治体制改革建议废除干部领导职务终身制提倡民主集中制并向全国人民代表大会提出全面修宪建议强调但此后的对中国大陆的政治体制改革产生了负面影响。1982年12月4日，第五届全国人民代表大会第五次会议审议通过了具有历史性意义的收入了许多宪政主义的内容和条款，为改革开放奠基。其中的部分修订内容包括：随着中国改革开放的持续加速，中国社会出现了官倒、权钱交易、腐败、特权等种种问题，而进一步的经济改革也遇到了原有政治体制的阻碍。1986年上半年起，邓小平再次提出“政治改革”并启动了“政治体制改革”的研讨和制定；6月28日，邓在中共中央政治局常委会上说：“政治体制改革同经济体制改革应该相互依赖、相互配合。只搞经济体制改革，不搞政治体制改革，经济体制改革也搞不通，因为首先遇到人的障碍。事情要人来做，你提倡放权，他那里收权，你有什么办法？ 从这个角度来讲，我们所有的改革最终能不能成功， 还是决定于政治体制的改革”。8月18日，时任中共中央总书记胡耀邦在一次采访中提到，“我们说的政治体制改革是指领导体制的改革，不是指政治制度。... 政治体制改革不是否定这个制度。提出政治体制改革不是从今年开始的，邓小平同志早在一九七八年就讲过，后来我也讲过。为什么今年把这个问题突出出来？因为经济体制改革涉及政治体制，不进行政治体制改革，经济体制改革就改不动，改不了。”1986年9月“中央政治体制改革研讨小组”成立成员包括赵紫阳胡启立田纪云薄一波彭冲。9月3日邓小平在会见日本公明党委员长竹入义胜时说“我们提出改革时就包括政治体制改革”。但他的政治改革出发点是在中国共产党一党专政的前提下实行党政分开提高行政效率革除官僚主义弊端推动经济制度进一步改革等并要求不能照抄西方的宪政制度。邓强调要使行政机构能够有效地工作不能过多干扰行政机构的工作。决定了就办这是我们的优势这个优势不能丢。不能放弃专政不能迁就要求民主化的情绪。我们要搞一个什么样的体制？要搞一个增强行政效能的体制机构要精简。...民主还是个手段讲民主必须要和法制联系起来讲把法制搞起来才能有稳定的社会环境。我们的行政机构应该很有效能。此时体制内外的人士对加速政治体制改革的强烈要求是一致的而外界也对此次改革的决心和力度抱有期待。其中部分人士还公开提出了“多党制”“三权分立”“议会民主”“司法独立”等西方宪政主义的架构。虽然这些与邓小平等人的中共官方改革观点可能有所不同但在当时比较宽松的政治气氛下并没有受到过多的抑制与打压。1986年10月 赵紫阳提议的中央政改研讨小组办公室成立具体由鲍彤严家其贺光辉周杰等人负责并于次年向中央提交报告的报告该报告由鲍彤负责起草提出并论述了政治体制改革的方案和设想阐述了社会主义初级阶段理论提出了一个中心两个基本点的概念。该报告的第五部分详细论述了政治体制改革将邓小平1980年的作为改革的指导性文件阐述了许多符合宪政主义的内容其中包括进一步实行党政分开权力下放提倡法治和监督完善选举制度等等。十三大还首次实行了差额选举赵紫阳正式当选为中共中央总书记鲍彤当选为中共中央委员不久后鲍彤又被任命为中央常委政治秘书。同年年底中共中央政治体制改革研究室成立。1989年，随着六四事件的爆发，赵紫阳等人被撤职，80年代后期中国大陆的政治体制改革陷入停滞，有学者将此次政治改革的失利归咎于邓小平的个人局限性，也有人认为是由于中共左派保守势力的干扰和围剿，还有人认为六四事件中部分过于激进的学生也负有责任。在中国經濟發展的同時，對現實政治控制以及諸如物價上漲、幹部腐敗，雙軌制引發的官倒等社會問題的不滿也開始顯現。而此时的东欧民主化也影响了中国社会。學生和一些知識份子要求更大的政治改革與自由，中共內部的一些元老不斷懷疑改革的進度以及改革的最終目標與社會主義背離。1986年12月，一批示威的學生開始公開反對改革的緩慢進度，也使這些中共內保守派更確信對改革的懷疑，擔心這種改革可能危及社會主義制度和中國共產黨的統治地位。胡耀邦这一鄧小平的親信以及改革的積極推動者，被指責應該為1986年的示威事件負責，而於1987年1月被迫辭去中共中央總書記職務。國務院總理趙紫陽接任總書記，而副總理李鵬被任命為總理。在趙紫陽接任後，他所倡導的政治與經濟改革受到越來越多的攻擊。而他在1988年5月提出的價格調整也引起普通民眾對通貨膨脹的強烈不滿，有人提出應該加強中共中央在經濟上的控制，並且抵禦西方影響。這最終導致一場政治爭論。1987年-1989年3月，爆发拉萨骚乱。1989年4月15日，胡耀邦去世，北京的大學生以祭奠名義開始的請願活動，因政府的消极应对而升級。不斷擴大的示威人群要求政府處理改革带来的問題和更大的政治自由。抗議也迅速蔓延至上海等其它大城市。4月26日，。6月3日，中共调集20万戒严部队，同日晚，官方宣称北京，晚11時至6月4日清晨，戒严部队進入北京城區，以武力强行驱散示威学生及群众，据各方估计造成约200-10000余人死亡。六四天安门事件後，赵紫阳、鲍彤等中共改革派高层被撤职，国际社会对此事件普遍表示了谴责和制裁，也有部分国家表示同情或者支持。六四事件后中國再度進入快速發展時期。1990年底上海证券交易所深圳证券交易所先后成立。起初黨內主張減緩政治改革力度以維持政局穩定的觀點逐漸成為主流觀點為了維護局勢的穩定經濟改革步伐也曾一度減慢直到鄧小平1992年的南巡讲话後經濟局面有較大幅度的改善。鄧小平再度重申要發展市場主導的經濟拯救了中国新兴的资本市场。在中共十四大中包括朱镕基在内的一批年輕支持改革的新領導人取得最高領導地位。鄧小平及其支持者認為經濟自由化以及進一步的改革對提高中國的生活水平是十分必要的。除九二南巡以外中共中央政治局還公開支持鄧小平的經濟開放政策。雖然中國依然沒有進一步進行政治改革經濟開放卻依然是中國的首要目標。鄧小平主張經濟對外開放並且在社會主義體制下實行市場經濟。在鄧小平去世後，中國保持年均8%的經濟成長，成為全球經濟發展最迅速的地區之一。然而，鄧小平的改革也遺留很多未解決的問題。他市場改革的直接結果就是，在1990年代中期，很多國有企業已經無法贏利，而需要關閉。更嚴重的是，到1990年代中，很多鄧小平的經濟改革措施已經不再有成效；農村收入降低，中國的三農問題是現在領導人所面對的極大挑戰 。最後，鄧小平強調務實，否定毛澤東共產主義理想化的作風雖然在中共黨內占主導地位，卻引起西方世界的懷疑。很多在中國國內或國外的觀察家都懷疑一個一一党专政的政治體制是否依然能夠控制越來越活躍與繁榮的中國社會。然而，這種問題與六四事件之前的中國或1949年前中國所需要面對的戰亂、饑荒及社會不穩定等問題比起來，無疑是非常輕的 。根據雜誌記者吉姆·羅沃的說法， ，獲得和馬克思列寧主義、毛澤東思想同等的地位，並被寫入中華人民共和國憲法和中國共產黨章程。改革開放后，中國與世界的聯繫也更加緊密。1979年1月1日，中华人民共和国与美利坚合众国建立外交关系。鄧小平上台後出訪多個西方國家及日本，1979年，他訪問美國，與卡特總統會晤。1984年12月19日，中英兩國簽署，正式決定在1997年英國將歸還在鴉片戰爭中侵佔的香港。鄧小平同意在50年內不干涉香港的資本主義經濟體制和市民的生活方式。這種的構想後來沿用在澳門問題，中國政府也希望這個模式能夠在台灣問題上使用。另一反面，苏联作為世界的另一個超級大國，鄧小平認為由於地理上的原因，蘇聯對中國的威脅要比美國對中國的威脅還大，但1989年戈尔巴乔夫访华，与邓小平、赵紫阳等人会面，中苏关系正常化。1979年1月1日美國和中華人民共和國建交。在《中美建立外交关系联合公报》中美国宣布断绝与中華民國的外交关系转而承认中華人民共和國。美国再次重申上海公报中所提到的一个中国政策认知到台湾是中国的一部分认同中華人民共和國政府是中國唯一的合法政府中華人民共和國则表示同意美国人民继续与台湾人民保持商务文化以及其他非官方的往来。美国国内的《台湾关系法》则对现行法律进行修改以鼓励台美之间的非官方往来。中美建交也对中華民國造成了巨大的冲击。国民党召开11届3中全会应对此次冲击决定与中共誓不两立反共复国到底。1979年1月邓小平访美开启了两国之间一连串重要高级别的交流这些交流活动一直延续到1989年期間是兩國關係最好的時期。两国之间签署了多个双边条约特别是在科技与文化领域的交流活动以及贸易交流。自1979年初开始两国就在《科学技术合作条约》的框架下进行了数百个合作研究项目。中越战争于1979年2月17日爆发。中国人民解放军在短时间内占领越南北部20余个重要城市和县镇一个月之内便宣布胜利撤出越南。越方在中方撤出之后也宣布取得战争的胜利。这场战争令中越两国关系进一步恶化到最低点。进入八十年代后两国继续对抗在罗家坪大山法卡山扣林山老山者阴山等地区又相继爆发边界冲突时间持续达十年。九十年代苏联解体后两国关系逐步恢复正常陆地边界也最终划定。中国政府方面声称“越南种种举动威胁中国的边境安全和影响东南亚的局势稳定”但实质上是为支持红色高棉。而苏联为首的社会主义国家阵营认为是中国侵略越南亚洲大部分国家如日本印度和蒙古等国也要求越南停止侵略柬埔寨而中国也应自越南撤军。越南于1989年1月宣布将于在9月之前将越军全部撤出柬埔寨。1981年9月11.4万解放军参与了华北大演习是中华人民共和国成立以来解放军规模最大的一次军事演习。1984-85年邓小平等人推进了中国军队体制的现代化正规化改革进行了“百万大裁军”宣布中国人民解放军裁军一百万人精简编制。有观点认为邓小平时期中国共产党主导的拨乱反正存在局限性例如“四项基本原则”的入宪不许否定社会主义中国共产党的领导马克思主义毛泽东思想。 邓小平于1980年提出要批判和反对“资产阶级自由化的倾向”并一直坚持反对资产阶级自由化。还有学者认为邓小平在对毛泽东本人的评价上以及在对极权主义专制主义的反思中也体现出了邓个人的局限性尤其是在1980年代初的起草过程中邓坚持要求对毛作出“功大于过”的评价要求拥护“毛泽东思想”。改革开放以来中国社会出现了官倒权钱交易腐败特权垄断贫富差距扩大城乡发展不平衡等诸多问题。计划生育“一孩政策”其中的部分强制性举措（譬如强制引产结扎）和公民的人权受损也遭致诸多批评。此外政治改革的滞后官倒腐败特权等问题引发了大规模学生运动譬如八六学潮八九民运等等而邓小平李鹏等中共高层在六四天安门事件中的决策也一直饱受争议。江泽民及第三代领导时期（1989年6月24日-2002年11月15日）.江澤民是鄧小平以及其它中共元老的折中選擇來取代當時指定的繼任人趙紫陽。趙紫陽被認為對學生抗議過於容忍。雖然江澤民並沒有直接捲入對示威的鎮壓他因迅速穩定上海的局勢而受到賞識。當時接任中共中央總書記的候選人有兩個江澤民和李瑞環。鄧小平的健康狀況在1997年去世之前每況愈下。在九十年代開始江澤民及其同僚逐漸開始負責日常工作。這個領導集體是以江澤民為核心來運作的 。1998年3月江澤民在第九屆全國人大中連任國家主席。總理李鵬任期屆滿後擔任全國人大常委會委員長國務院總理一職由朱鎔基接任 。在1990年代，中國經濟依然保持正常發展，這使得中國在過去二十年內一直保持著9.7%的平均增長率。1992年，邓小平在中国南方巡视，重申改革開放。在全球經濟衰退的大背景下，中國大陸的國內生產總值依然保持7%的增長，這主要是通過國家對經濟的積極干預，加大政府在基礎設施領域的直接投資來實現的。另外政府也試圖用各種辦法來刺激需求，但是效果不明顯。政府直接投資的增加，也導致財政赤字的增加。雖然統計數據顯示經濟的持續增長，但是一些深厚的結構性問題仍然存在，甚至日益嚴重：貧富分化加劇，地區間發展不平衡、國有企業效率低下以及陷入呆賬的銀行系統。对此，1996年被正式提出，而西部大开发也于1999年启动。而處理效率低下的國有企業的同時引發大量失業工人，但是相應的金融保障體系剛剛建立，無法起到應有的作用，大量老工業基地的工人生活水平大幅度下降，陷入貧困狀態，社会不稳定增加。1994年底长江的开始建设。中国政府于1997年和1998年展开了大规模的私有化运动。除了少数大型垄断企业所有的国有企业都遭到了清算原属于国企的资产均被出售给了私人投资者大量国企员工被迫下岗。2001年12月11日中国成为正式加入世界贸易组织2001年至2004年间国有企业的数量减少了48％。与此同时江泽民和朱镕基还降低关税削弱贸易壁垒制订更开放的法规对银行体系进行改革废除毛泽东时代的社会福利制度将军事企业和解放军强行分离减轻通货膨胀 这些举动引起了一些群体尤其是私有化国有企业下岗职工的不满。2000年江泽民提出了三个代表的政治理论。同年中国卫生部门和世界卫生组织在同年确认该国已彻底消灭脊髓灰质炎。1997年7月1日，中華人民共和國開始對香港恢复行使主權 ；1999年12月20日，開始對澳門恢复行使主權 。1992年921工程获批。1994年北斗卫星导航试验系统正式立项。1995年全国科技大会上提出了“科教兴国”的战略以全面落实邓小平于1988年提出的“科学技术是第一生产力”的思想。1990年代中期，211工程启动；1998年，985工程启动。2002年5-6月，中国国家男子足球队在主教练米卢的带领下，首次晋级“世界杯”决赛圈。2002年8月，在美籍华裔数学大师陈省身的努力下，四年一度的国际数学家大会在北京召开，陈省身担任大会名誉主席、吴文俊担任大会主席，这是该大会首次在发展中国家召开。1990年代中华人民共和国外交形势嚴峻。冷戰的結束與蘇聯解体意味著中國與世界唯一超級大國美國之間原本存在著的最重要的合作基礎的喪失六四之後的中美關係也很難在回到八十年代的蜜月期。雖然江澤民與克林頓將兩國關係定位為的人認為在中國改善其自身人權民主等方面的紀錄之前美國應盡量疏遠甚至孤立中國。1999年中國駐南聯盟大使館遭襲事件2001年南海危機等令中美关系紧张2001年美国911事件后中美关系缓和。此时無論是中國還是西方的大部分國際政治學家都已經預見到中美關係將是新世紀中最重要的雙邊關係。2001年底經過長期的艱苦談判中國終於加入世界貿易組織。1991年蘇聯解體之後，中國與俄羅斯的關係顯著改善，兩國彼此間在許多國際問題上有著相近的立場與利益。2001年，江泽民與俄罗斯总统普京簽訂有效20年的，確定了中俄兩國合作的原则。中俄边界谈判取得突破，消除了两国之间的障碍。然而由於兩國國力所限，不可能在一些重大問題上聯手與美國為主導的西方國家正面衝突。1993年汪辜會談後江澤民發表八點對台工作指示，作為具體落實兩岸政策的指導。然而1994年千島湖事件對兩岸關係造成衝擊，1996年中華民國總統李登輝訪美觸怒中华人民共和国政府，之後又在中华民国首次總統直選前夕在台灣海峽舉行軍事演習，事態曾一度升級至迫使美國兩個航空母艦群進駐海峽，引发台海飛彈危機。1998年中華民國總統李登輝的兩國論不僅破壞汪道涵的原定訪台規劃，更進一步惡化兩岸局勢 。北京方面將中華民國總統李登輝稱作，並將希望寄托於他的繼任者：然而2000年中華民國實現政黨輪替，民主進步黨的陳水扁執政之后兩岸關係進一步惡化。在2008年中國國民黨的馬英九上任後，承认，極力與大陸修好，兩岸走向和平发展的局面，此路線也造成台灣內部的爭論 。1991年，中共中央总书记、中央军委主席江泽民访问苏联，与时任苏共中央总书记、苏联总统戈尔巴乔夫签订《中苏国界东段协定》，此后又于2001年与时任俄罗斯总统普京签订《中俄睦邻友好合作条约》，确定海参崴等远东地区100多万平方公里领土归属俄罗斯。而自2001年开始的领土谈判，至2004年胡锦涛时期签署《中俄边界东段补充协定》，最终确定中国将与俄罗斯平分黑瞎子岛。此外，江泽民时期与越南签订了相关协定（2000年），明确了白龙尾岛（中国以前所称的夜莺岛）属于越南领土。这些行为被部分人士认为是“出卖中国领土”或“卖国”。改革开放以来中国大陆的经济发展过程中缺乏自主技术缺乏创新能力对外依赖度过高并造成了严重的环境污染。此外政治体制改革滞后中国的司法体系逐渐受到中共政法委的控制太子党等各权贵家族不断敛财控制国家财富官场腐败和买官卖官也大规模兴起。而在胡锦涛上任后江泽民等人依然采用各种方式干预中国的政治走向架空胡锦涛温家宝等人甚至出现。此外民众的出行安全问题以及企业安全生产问题严重民航空难事故频发而各地小煤窑缺乏监管也导致矿难频发。1998年长江爆发特大洪水造成重大人员伤亡和财产损失许多水利工程质量低劣被时任总理朱镕基斥责为“豆腐渣工程”“王八蛋工程”而官方公布的伤亡人数也受到质疑。1999年，江泽民为首的中国官方决定镇压法轮功，引发争议。而从江泽民时期出现的非法器官买卖、移植事件也屡见不鲜。胡锦涛及第四代领导时期.江澤民等人在中共十六大上退出中央政治局和中央委員會，讓位給由新任總書記胡錦濤率領年輕的會把中國大陸帶入一個新的階段。國外的媒體更關注新政府在政治改革方面的舉措，而中國大陸的媒體則更關心新領導層的親民形象。2004年9月，中共十六届四中全会首次提出了构建社会主义和谐社会的历史任务。雖然经历了非典疫情的衝擊，2003年中国經濟成長還是達到近幾年來最高的9.1%。2010年，中国取代日本成为仅次于美国的世界第二大经济体。 2002年底，南水北调工程开始建设。但是經濟發展依然面對深層的問題，包括東西部發展不平衡、貧富差距拉大等問題。胡温政府提出幾項措施，包括繼續實施西部大開發、振興東北老工業基地，以及關注弱勢群體。加入世界貿易組織後的中國繼續開放其市場，雖然還是受到沒有完全履行入世承諾的指責。不過，多種外國產品的關稅已經下降了很多。2003年末，中國大陸與香港及澳門簽署，保證三地的產品能夠以零關稅進入中國大陸市場。中國的貨幣政策在2003年末成為焦點，美國政府批評中國故意將人民幣匯率控制在很低的水平，以取得在國際市場上的不公平優勢。而中國方面則不願意讓步，批評布什政府面臨選舉年，指責中國的貨幣政策只是為了其自己的選舉。2004年初，似乎有跡象顯示中國將會改變其貨幣政策，與美元脫鉤，曾經有中國媒體報道過，將會在2004年年內使到人民幣擴大浮動範圍，但是立即遭到當局的否認。自2005年7月21日起，中國開始實行以市場供求為基礎、參考一籃子貨幣調節及有管理的浮動匯率制度，人民幣對美元即日升值2%。国内的私营企业于2005年首次超过国内生产总值的50％，并在此后继续扩大。但是在石油业和银行业等行业，国有垄断企业仍然存在。在此期間，中國的房地產業迅速發展，甚至成為一些城市的支柱產業。與此同時，商品房價格，建築材料價格也大幅度上漲，這引發房地產泡沫和整個國民經濟的過熱。房地產泡沫和銀行巨額呆壞賬增加了金融風險。房價的過快上漲也導致非法佔地、拆遷糾紛等各種社會問題。中央政府試圖進行調控，但是由於地方政府和既得利益集團從中作梗，這些調控措施並沒有受到預期效果。2005年12月29日，十届全国人大常委会第十九次会议决定，自2006年1月1日起废止。由此，中国不再针对农业单独征税，一个在中国存在两千多年的古老税种宣告终结。与此同时，2005年起，中国政府开始大力整治、关闭小煤窑。2007年以来中国境内的恐怖主义事件明显增多。新疆维吾尔自治区发生多次发生恐怖性质的袭警爆炸案件包括2008年的喀什袭击事件库车爆炸案和2011年的和田718严重暴力恐怖事件喀什暴力恐怖袭击事件。此外也发生针对民航班机的恐怖事件如南航班机三七爆炸未遂案（2008年）和天津航空7554号班机劫机事件（2012年）。大多恐怖事件发生在中国大型活动（如2008年北京奥运会）举办前期在国内外造成巨大反响如2008年昆明公交车爆炸案和在新疆发生的数起事件。2012年王立军事件薄熙来事件爆发受到广泛关注。2003年10月15日中国首次发射载人航天器神舟五号飞船载送航天员杨利伟进入太空使中国成为继俄罗斯美国之后第三个有能力独自将人送上太空的国家。在随后几年中中国陆续发射多艘载人航天飞船将数位宇航员送人太空。2004年温家宝批准嫦娥计划北斗二号项目启动2011-12年开始提供导航服务。2010年蛟龙号潜水器启用。2011年天宫一号的成功发射是中国空间站建设的第一步。2012年3月深圳大亚湾核反应堆中微子实验的重大成果获得国际关注。2012年10月莫言成为获得诺贝尔文学奖的首位中国籍作家。与此同时，2008年8月8日，第29届奥林匹克运动会在北京开幕，东道主中国以51枚金牌位居金牌榜首位。借助北京奥运会，中国展示了经济发展的成绩、自信以及史无前例的开放心态，大规模的基础建设也极大改观了北京这座城市的面貌，政府与公众在奥运会这个舞台上取得了高度的统一，公众也表现出对政府少有的包容和支持。2010年5月1日至10月31日，上海世界博览会举行，是中国首次举办的综合性世界博览会，也是首次由发展中国家主办综合性世博会，共有256个国家和地区及国际组织参展。香港在1997年回歸中國後，由於亞洲金融風暴和一系列的經濟、政治難題的影響，當2003年初港府宣佈將就基本法第23條有關顛覆罪立法時，引起許多人的反對。部分香港人認為，23條立法是行政長官董建華受命於中央政府而做出的決定，他們擔心立法會限制到港人的政治自由。港府做出多項讓步，但是還是無法平息爭議，最終在7月1日回歸紀念日當天，50萬市民走上街頭抗議立法，該事件也引起中央政府的關切，遊行最終導致香港政府宣佈擱置立法計劃。在七一大遊行後，香港民主派開始更積極要求政治改革，他們公開提出，要2007年特首直選、2008年立法會全面直選。中國政府始終堅持香港是中國的內政，反對外國政府干預內部事務。中國政府的立場是，為先，中國是單一制社會主義國家，香港作為中國的一部分，沒有權利自行改變政治體制。2004年4月，全國人大常委會對做出解釋，否決2007年特首和2008年立法會直選，並重申解釋和修改基本法的權力在全國人大，而不是香港立法會。2005年全国“兩會”期間，董建華以健康原因辭去香港特別行政區行政長官的職務，由於的疏漏，特首的補選開始成為一個爭議的焦點，香港特區政府再度要求全國人大常委會釋法，期間曾蔭權代理香港特別行政區行政長官。然後，再由中央指定的選舉委員會補選特首。2008年3月，西藏拉萨爆发藏人抗议示威活动，后演变为暴力事件，造成18名无辜平民死亡。2009年2月起，发生在西藏、四川和青海等地部分传统藏区内的一系列僧侣自焚事件。2012年初，由于川西藏区喇嘛自焚和示威游行，酿成军警与藏人冲突事件。2009年7月5日新疆乌鲁木齐市维吾尔族发动游行示威活动随后演变成维吾尔族汉族和警方的大规模暴力冲突持续数日。官方宣称乌鲁木齐七五事件共造成197人死亡另有1721人受伤。2009年9月2日至4日针对汉族平民的500余起针扎事件引发汉族民众上街游行并发生零星暴力事件导致5人死亡及14人受伤。胡锦涛推行睦邻友好政策主张全方位外交重视对东南亚的中国周边邻国改善关系。在南海问题上胡锦涛政府推动与东盟国家开展海上对话与合作一定程度上维护了地区的稳定。2005年2010年全国多个地区爆发大规模反日示威活动。2005年3月至4月其间在中国各地举行的一系列大型游行和抗议活动主要是反对历史教科书和日本争取成为联合国安理会常任理事国的努力。2010年10月因中日撞船事件西安成都郑州宁波等地举行反日游行示威活动。 2012年8月中旬开始为抗议日本于2012年上半年提出的钓鱼岛国有化政策8月15日扣押香港保钓人士和8月19日日本右翼登陆钓鱼岛。9月10日日本政府正式“购买”钓鱼岛后中国大陆民众发起第二轮游行抗议活动最终演变成暴力民众对日系商家私家车的烧抢打砸。针对日本政府“购买”钓鱼岛胡锦涛政府表示坚决反对认为日方采取任何方式‘购岛’都是非法的无效的并采取了一系列反制措施。下表（可点击展开）只展示重大的自然灾害或人为事故（造成至少100人死亡或重大经济损失或重大社会影响）。2010年10月25日挪威诺贝尔委员会将诺贝尔和平奖授予中国持不同政见者刘晓波以表彰他长期以来以非暴力方式在中国争取基本人权。刘晓波成为第一个获得诺贝尔奖的中华人民共和国公民他曾发起并参与起草了。但他在2008年12月8日被以“涉嫌煽动颠覆国家政权罪”刑事拘留12月9日被监视居住2009年6月23日因涉嫌煽动颠覆国家政权罪经中国检察机关批准逮捕12月25日北京市第一中级人民法院以煽动颠覆国家政权罪判处有期徒刑11年剥夺政治权利两年。随着中国互联网的快速发展，信息的自由传播对中共维持执政地位构成挑战。为了应对来自网络发展形成的影响，中国建立世界上最为先进的网络审查制度，审查中国大陆的互联网内容，封锁服务器位于境外的政治敏感类网站，以达到其舆论控制的目的。谷歌、雅虎等公司退出中国大陆市场。此外，中国政府开始雇佣大量网络评论员来控制舆论导向。2011年，国家的“维稳”经费预算首次超越军费预算。与此同时，中国官场开始涌现大量“裸官”，许多中央高层的子女或亲属移民海外或拥有外国绿卡。美国杂志认为以胡锦涛总书记为首的中国共产党领导层控制国内舆论并强行镇压被中共官方所认定的邪教组织故该杂志在其2005年的“十大独裁者排名”栏目中将胡锦涛列为第四名2006年降调第六其后数年均名列十名内。无国界记者指责胡锦涛以“和谐社会”为借口阻止中国出现自由媒体把胡锦涛列入“新闻自由掠夺者”名单。2012年“无国界记者”报道中共中央总书记胡锦涛下令囚禁68名网民和30名记者是囚禁新闻自由捍卫者最多的领导人之一。此外温家宝有相当多争议和批评有人称其为“中国影帝温家宝”也有媒体称其为1949年以来中国最具争议的总理。其争议性主要集中于地质学出身且没有丰富的地方主政经验被称为经济门外汉譬如其任内提出的“四万亿投资计划”引发争议。虽然其任内中国GDP高速增长但应归功于中国自1980年代以来的改革开放的惯性推动特别是在加入世贸组织后使中国处于国际阶梯上有利位置造就的。然而科技创新对中国GDP的贡献率只占40%美德日等国则高达80%以上。截止2012年“财富世界500强”企业中中国上榜排名靠前企业全是石油电力和银行等垄断行业美国则多为科技企业。经济学家茅于轼认为温家宝政府只注重GDP数量不注重GDP质量。在个人品行方面温家宝被指曾出卖赵紫阳且惯于伪装作秀和煽情则曝光其拥有巨额家族财富。习近平及第五代领导时期.胡錦濤溫家寶等領導人在2012年11月的中共十八大上退出中央領導層由習近平按现有接班体制接任中国共产党中央委员会总书记和中国共产党中央军事委员会主席李克強留任中共中央政治局常委。习近平是第一位出生于中华人民共和国建国后的最高领导人。国务院总理李克强被认为重视改革其谈到改革是最大的红利提倡进行政府体制改革调整或裁减国务院的部门。2012年，中共中央总书记习近平提出等一系列反腐败措施。王岐山担任中纪委书记一職後，在處理貪污腐敗方面採取積極的態度，提出，目的是清除异己、打击政敌、掌握权力、巩固自身地位。自2012年11月中共十八届一中全会习近平上台伊始多次阐述其中国梦的设想。目标是到2021年中国共产党成立100周年和2049年中华人民共和国成立100周年时逐步并最终顺利实现中华民族伟大复兴国家富强民族振兴人民幸福。与此同时中国共产党全力加大了对国有企业和民营企业的控制力度。至少有288家公司修改了公司章程这使得中国共产党在企业的管理上拥有量更大的影响力反映了党的路线。2013年11月，习近平等人开始推动“全面深化改革”、国家治理体系和治理能力现代化，习认为，在全面深化改革进程中，要积极稳妥推进政治体制改革，以保证人民当家作主为根本，以增强党和国家活力、调动人民积极性为目标，不断建设社会主义政治文明。中国官方认为，从邓小平等人提倡的政治体制改革，到习近平等人提出的政改，是“政治体制改革在深化”、“走出了新路”、“硕果累累”，而外界和部分体制内人士则认为习的政改路线并没有遵循邓的政治体制改革道路，且改变了改革开放以来进行的政治体制改革方向，是政治倒退，重新回到了毛泽东时代的体制，即中国共产党最高领导人独揽大权的政治寡头统治以及“党领导一切”的模式。2013年12月全国人大废除了自1957年以来实施的劳动教养政策。2019年12月全国人大废除了自1991年以来实施的收容教育政策。2015年中国政府结束了自1979年以来实施的一胎政策改为二胎政策并在2021年实施更为开放的三胎政策。2013-2014年间，针对新疆地区出现的一些重大恐怖袭击事件，譬如莎车县暴恐袭击案、乌鲁木齐公园北街早市暴力恐怖袭击案等，中国共产党开始试点建设。2016年陈全国调任新疆自治区党委书记，此后营地规模迅速扩大，引起国际关注和争议。2017年3月，中国国务院总理李克强在召开的第十二届全国人大五次会议上的中，正式提出建设“粤港澳大湾区”的战略。李克强提出要推动中国内地与香港、澳门特区的深化合作，研究和制定粤港澳大湾区发展规划，以香港和澳门的独特优势，提升中国的经济发展。粤港澳大湾区是由围绕珠江三角洲伶仃洋，包括香港、澳门、广州、深圳、珠海、佛山、中山、东莞、肇庆、惠州和江门的城市群组成，是继美国纽约都会区、美国旧金山湾区和日本东京都市圈之后，世界第四大湾区。2017年4月雄安新区成立。2017年10月18日习近平在中共十九大报告中提出的决议习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想写入党章。2018年9月23日，广深港高铁香港段正式通车，香港纳入国家高铁网络。2018年10月24日港珠澳大桥正式通车。2019年2月中国官方媒体新华社引述中共中央报刊《求是》报道称中共中央总书记习近平在中央全面依法治国委员会首次会议上发言指出必须坚持加强党对依法治国的领导决不能走宪政三权分立和司法独立的路。2021年11月11日，中國共產黨第十九屆中央委員會一致通過，主要阐述习近平领导的中國共產黨在十八大以来的成就，強調中国特色社会主义新时代，同時注重銜接分別在1945年和1981年通過的兩份關於歷史問題的決議。2018年2月25日，中国共产党中央委员会向第十三届全国人民代表大会提出对邓小平时代，同时习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想写入中华人民共和国宪法。根据1982年制定的恢复设立自1968年缺位1975年被废除的国家主席和副主席职位不过取消国家主席在五四宪法中主持召开最高国务会议和领导国防委员会的权力失去了行政权和军权变成礼仪性的虚位元首。根据邓小平在1980年提倡的重新设立的国家主席和副主席任期为五年一届连任不能超过两届。这次修宪仅删除了连任限制并没有赋予国家主席拥有更大的权力但引发了体制内外的广泛争议。从1993年开始国家主席与中共中央总书记和中央军委主席形成“三位一体”的制度。根据中国共产党的领导原则和“枪杆子里面出政权”的政治理念党的总书记和军委主席是中国政治体系中拥有最大权力的两个职务而这两个实权职位在里没有连任次数的限制。由于“三位一体”制度国家主席的连任限制被取消后最高领导人的职务将不再受任何任期制限制。如历史上毛泽东曾终身担任中国共产党中央委员会主席直至去世。2015年10月，屠呦呦成为获得诺贝尔生理学或医学奖的首位中国籍科学家。2020年，量子計算原型機九章由中國科學技術大學相關技術團隊研製成功，達成了量子計算研究的第一個里程碑：量子計算優越性。同年11月，奋斗者号潜水器搭载3人成功潜入10909米深海域。此外，中国在航空航天领域以及空间探索上取得一系列突破：香港主權移交中国后，许多香港人士不满意中央政府对香港选举的干涉，要求进行要求全国人民代表大会撤回，该行動於2014年12月15日結束，歷時79日。2019年，香港爆发了全球瞩目的。习近平治下的中国逐渐扬弃了邓小平制定的“韬光养晦”外交战略思想继而转向“有所作为/大有作为”的理念。和胡锦涛时期相比中国外交正变得更为主动且更具全球性更积极地参与国际事务中国新领导人的首年外交足迹遍布全球中国正在“重新发现”过去被忽略的一些地区的战略价值和潜力。在处理世界热点如伊朗叙利亚朝鲜中东等问题上中国也开始站到“世界舞台的中央”不再充当置身事外的旁观者。此外RCEP和亚信峰会上合组织新开发银行亚洲基础设施投资银行等组织中国都具有实际主导力潜在的世界性影响力已经不容忽视而且不论主动或被动中国经济由于其庞大的规模全球性经济政策已经不能缺少中国的参与和配合。与此同时，习近平逐步扩大中国在全球的影响力，其主推的“大国外交”也引发了西方国家、日本、印度等国的忧虑与抵制。2018年起，新一轮的中美贸易战爆发。2020年5月起，中国和印度爆发边境冲突，造成人员伤亡。自2019年起，世界主要发达国家与中国在新疆、香港、台湾、南海、病毒溯源等问题上产生巨大分歧，而中国方面实行的“战狼外交”以及国家之间相互的制裁加剧了对抗和冲突。西方国家认为狂热的中国民族主义开始盛行，同时习近平的极权主义模式带来了威胁；而中国则认为西方政客“傲慢”和“无知”，且国际“反华势力”在打压和阻碍中国的崛起。与此同时，美国、英国、日本等主要发达国家开始削减或终止了自改革开放以来的对华援助。截止至习近平时期西藏新疆和内蒙古的独立运动已经基本受到控制但中华人民共和国在钓鱼岛南中国海等地依然与许多亚洲国家存在领土争议。台湾问题随着时间的推移两岸分治已久台湾有不同于中华人民共和国的价值观与制度新一代台湾人经过李登辉与陈水扁时期去中国化的教育对中华人民共和国认同感极低更不觉得有。习近平上台后推翻了自邓小平拨乱反正改革开放以来的部分政策。2017年习近平提出习近平的许多言论和举措招致了国内外的诸多反对声音部分学者对他的一系列作法感到忧虑震惊有人认为这是对毛泽东时代的复辟推行个人崇拜煽动民族情绪背离宪政主义是体制性倒退还有人认为这甚至有可能将中国推向第二次文化大革命。此外中国709维权律师大抓捕事件陕西千亿矿权案新疆再教育营香港反修例運動战狼外交均引起了巨大争议或批评。 +中華民國位於東亞的民主共和制國家曾在國際上廣泛代表目前實際統治範圍為臺灣島澎湖群島福建沿海的金門列島烏坵列嶼及馬祖列島與南海諸島的東沙群島太平島和中洲礁領土面積為36197平方公里首都為臺北市最大城市為新北市。實轄範圍總人口約2345萬主要由臺灣原住民族與漢族之組成。國家語言為各固有族群使用之自然語言及臺灣手語通用中華民國國語臺灣原住民語臺語臺灣客家語閩東語 金門話與莆仙語等書寫使用漢字。辛亥革命後，中華民國由孫中山於1912年1月1日在南京宣告成立，成為亞洲第一個得到國際廣泛承認的民主共和國，從清朝接收中國疆域之統治，中央政權歷經北洋政府、國民政府等時期變遷。二战后成為聯合國創始會員國及安理會常任理事國，并接收臺灣澎湖及南海诸岛，站上世界大國之林。1947年在制度上進入憲政時期；後因第二次國共內戰中對中國共產黨的戰事接連失利，中央政府於1949年底遷往臺灣，主要國土亦從中國大陸限縮至臺灣。韓戰爆發後美軍協防台灣，1954年與美國簽訂，在法理上終止國共內戰。由於多次縣市改制及東、南沙群島轉交高雄市管理，現行行政區劃設有2省、6直轄市等22個縣市，其中省經過兩次組織調整，原省轄之政務已完全移交予中央政府。中華民國在政府遷臺後於韓戰爆發後因戰略位置重要在美援幫助下經濟快速成長躍為亞洲四小龍之一現今已被視為已開發國家。1980年代末起的一系列政治改革使中華民國從黨國體制演變為兩黨制形成多黨的政治生態當前自由指數民主指數以及女性參政率在世界各國名列前茅且為亞洲第一個同性婚姻法制化的國家。1905年，中國同盟會在日本東京成立，提出的意義是仿效瑞士和美國，建立直接民權制度。他還曾比諸中華帝國，強調民國建立在人民基礎上。中華民國自成立後簡稱稱自己實際管轄的領土為臺閩地區臺灣地區自由地區且不承認中華人民共和國的合法性稱其治下領土為大陸地區大陸淪陷區直到前總統蔣經國逝世。自從中華民國總統開放給自由地區的公民能直接選舉後，因國內政治理念有分歧，中國國民黨籍的總統候選人常稱對岸政權為，例如：台美交流、台日關係。國際上1949年後稱中華民國為中华民国行政院认为这是由于中華人民共和國及相关国际法的影響。自1840年第一次鴉片戰爭战败後，清朝被迫開放海禁與外部世界接軌。面對與西方工業化國家的巨大發展差距和接連戰敗喪權辱國的情況，社會上的求新求變思想與漢族的獨立意識逐漸萌生並增強。19世纪末至20世纪初期，南方江浙湖廣一帶和海外一些國家開始出現由海外華僑、會黨、新軍、學生等組成的、主張推翻清朝統治建立新國的革命團體。自1895年廣州起義始，以孫中山為主要勢力的各地革命黨人先後發動多次武装起义，但多因遭到清廷镇压而失败。1908年11月，清廷領導者慈禧太后和光緒皇帝相繼逝世，繼任的掌權群體實力與威信大不如前。1911年9月，因四川保路運動，清政府遣湖北軍隊鎮壓。10月10日，共進會和文學社發動武昌起義，11日成立中華民國軍政府，數月內獲得各省陸續響應，是為辛亥革命，外蒙也自行宣布獨立。其後各省代表聚於南京，推舉孫中山為臨時大總統，孫提出五族共和。次年1月1日，中華民國臨時政府在南京成立。在清朝總理袁世凱逼迫下，2月，原清廷攝政的隆裕太后代年幼的宣統皇帝溥儀發表退位詔書，自此在中國存在兩千餘年的帝制宣告覆滅，袁隨後當選臨時大總統。3月临时参议院又通过。西藏自行宣布獨立。1913年，國民黨在中華民國第一屆國會議員選舉中胜选，但因候任總理宋教仁遭暗殺而引起二次革命。不久袁取締國民黨、另立約法取代臨時約法，並采取措施加强自身權力。沙俄迫中華民國承認外蒙古自治。1914年，一戰爆發，日軍奪青島。1915年，日本迫袁簽訂民四條約。袁稱帝，改国号中华帝国，引發護國戰爭。外蒙古撤銷獨立。次年，袁撤銷帝制。思想界發起新文化運動，批評孔子，倡用白話文，宣扬民主与科学。袁世凱病亡後，中央政府由國務總理段祺瑞執政，臨時約法恢復。此時全國已陷入割據，四川持續內戰。段欲推動武力統一及對德宣戰，引發與大總統黎元洪、國會的爭執及張勛復辟。因段拒恢復臨時約法並擬重選國會，孫中山南下與陳炯明共組护法军政府。1919年，學生不滿段欲接受，發起五四運動。日本於旅順設立關東軍。徐樹錚迫外蒙古撤治。1920年，直系曹錕獲執政權，局面愈發分裂。教育界產生京國之爭，京音成為標準音。1921年，中國共產黨在蘇聯幫助下成立，於次年加入共產國際。蘇聯與白軍為爭奪外蒙爆發戰役，蘇聯勝。1923年，孫中山制定聯俄容共方針，中共藉此於國民黨內擴張。1924年，張作霖取代直系執政，張、段邀孫中山和談，但孫不久病逝。1926年，蔣中正、汪兆銘發起國民革命軍北伐，中共煽動盲目排外，殺害地主富農，沒收其家產。1927年初，中共爭奪上海失敗。4月，張作霖搜查蘇聯使館，稱獲中共通蘇叛國證據，全國譁然。蔡元培號召，蔣介石清共並於南京另立政府，汪斥蔣分裂。7月，因汪拒絕土地革命，共產國際指示中共發起暴動，汪遂於武漢分共。9月寧漢復合。在十年建設期間，政府陸續成立中央研究院與中央銀行等機構，经济、交通及教育、文化等公共事业獲得不少发展。1928年，為阻蔣統一，日軍侵山東製造濟南慘案，張學良宣佈東北易幟，國民政府名義統一中國。1929年，張學良因試圖收回東北鐵路主權與蘇聯爆發衝突，國民政府發表對蘇交戰宣言，中共劉伯承、葉劍英協助蘇聯進攻海拉爾，11月，海拉爾被攻佔，12月，張與蘇媾和並簽署，採取安內攘外的方針，拖延與日本全面開戰的時間。日本發動九一八事變，張學良令軍隊不抵抗並撤至錦州。中共於蘇聯國慶日成立中華蘇維埃共和國。次年初，日軍攻上海，十九路軍抵抗，中共號召奪權，各國調停乃止。日本建立滿洲國。1933年，日軍攻山海關並陷熱河。新疆、福建分別成立東突厥斯坦及中華共和國，旋滅。國民政府發起新生活運動。1935年，日本策劃華北五省自治，殷汝耕割據冀東。次年，德王割據內蒙。國民政府迫中共撤往西北並藉以實控西部省份，張學良急欲抗日而發動西安事變。1937年七七事變導致抗日戰爭全面爆發，7月平、津陷，國民政府軍事委員會委員長蔣中正號召抵抗到底，中共參戰並撤蘇維埃共和國。中日激戰於華北、華東，11月太原、上海陷，政府遷重慶，12月南京陷，日軍大肆屠殺，韓復榘棄守濟南。次年，中華民國於台兒莊勝，並決黃河堤禦鄭州，致水災，日軍連陷徐州、武漢、廣州，至年底，戰線已達河南、湖北中部。日本於南京、張家口建立政權，汪兆銘附之。此後五年，戰勢稍緩，日軍陷南昌、南寧、宜昌，政府成功防守長沙。1940年，国民政府第89軍發動黃橋戰役，為中共新四軍殲滅，1941年，顧祝同擊敗新四軍，扣押葉挺，是為皖南事變。日軍轟炸重慶造成慘案。蘇聯簽訂日蘇中立條約，承認滿洲國換取日本承認外蒙獨立，中共認可，国民政府激烈反對。1942年，日侵緬甸意圖切斷英援補給，中國遠征軍赴緬。1943年，政府與英美廢除不平等條約，歐洲各國和加拿大陸續取消在華特權。1944年，日軍發動豫湘桂戰役，一度佔領三省大部。蘇聯策劃伊寧事變，最高蘇維埃決定納入唐努烏梁海。1945年1月，蘇聯支持的東突厥斯坦宣佈獨立，中蘇就蒙疆及東北問題談判，史達林威脅以外蒙獨立換取餘下主權，8月15日，日本因美、蘇進攻投降。1945年9月始政府即與中共爆發衝突10月外蒙在蘇聯操縱下通過獨立公投並於次年1月獲政府承認。政府並接管東北地區臺灣香港澎湖群島南海諸島但1946年初蘇軍違約將東北移交中共激化國共軍事衝突並侵佔大連。在美國斡旋下國共展開談判但未有實質協議。7月美國總統杜魯門決定對國民政府實施武器禁運12月制憲國民大會公布《中華民國憲法》但遭中共抵制。1947年國共內戰全面爆發政府發佈動員戡亂令。蘇聯支持下外蒙軍隊入侵新疆。因臺灣省行政長官公署施政錯誤等因素臺灣爆發二二八事件。1948年9月與外蒙戰爭結束。1948年8月起，政府陸續組織軍隊、文物、黃金、外匯及民眾遷往臺灣。1949年1月，發生太平輪沉沒事件，5月，陳誠宣佈臺灣戒嚴，10月1日，中国共产党在北平成立中華人民共和國中央人民政府，并将北平改名为北京。國軍在金門的古寧頭戰役中獲勝。12月7日，中央政府遷至臺北，是月，失去廣西、四川。1950年韓戰爆發後，杜魯門派第七艦隊巡弋台灣海峽，防止中国人民解放军攻入台灣。聯合國和多數西方國家因冷戰局勢影響而將中華民國政府視為合法政府。政府在臺灣實施地方自治、合作社、基礎教育政策，推動耕地三七五減租、公地放領、耕者有其田等土地改革，穩定農業發展，並因受美國援助，經濟逐漸恢復。1950年代，國軍在大陸的剩餘和游擊力量逐漸被瓦解。1953年，立法院及蔣中正總統宣佈廢除，中華民國進一步獲美國保護。1955年組織民眾撤離浙江大陳島。1956年开始籌劃反攻大陸，但1958年金門八二三砲戰後，臺海再未發生大型軍事衝突。1960年，美總統艾森豪訪問中華民國。1961年雲南人民反共志願軍撤退。國民黨雖推行地方選舉，但長期打壓異見者，白色恐怖時期有14萬人因被視為反對國民黨、親近中国共产党，遭監禁或處決。1960年代，政府開始強力促進民營企業與工商業發展，實現經濟工業化和技術導向。來自美國的資金援助和產品需求，使得國家經濟快速增長，甚至被稱作稱呼。1973年開始整理國字，確立標準字體，因受中東石油危機的影響，臺灣經濟增長陷入停滯，時任行政院長蔣經國提出十大建設。1975年蔣中正病逝，副總統嚴家淦繼任，繼續推動十大建設。蔣經國完全裁撤在雲南邊境的游擊部隊。1978年起，蔣經國接連當選第六、七任總統。1979年，與美國斷交，蔣沉著應對危機。高雄市發生激進抗議活動，毆傷警察182人，警依法偵辦，促使島內反對勢力團結。因應葉劍英的對台政策，蔣提出絕不與中华人民共和国方面交涉及三民主義統一中國，大力發展台灣經濟，並支援大陸民主運動。1980年代，台灣因經濟發展迅速，與香港、韓國、新加坡並稱亞洲四小龍。面對國際壓力和黨外運動，政府推進民主化，首個反對黨民主進步黨於1986年成立。次年，政府取消田賦，允許赴大陸探親，解除戒嚴，開放組黨、辦報，推動中央民意代表改選且不設大陸代表制。1987年3月7日，中華民國福建省金門縣發生三七事件，至少19名無武裝的越南難民在登島時遭中華民國國軍射擊並屠殺。1988年蔣經國逝世，副總統李登輝繼任。1989年，鄭南榕自焚籲民主改革，同年中國大陸發生六四事件，在台灣影响強烈。1990年，發生二月政爭，李登輝獲得國民黨主導權，3月，學生集會於自由廣場，要求進一步民主化，李同意要求，召開國是會議，終止動員戡亂，全面改選國會，推動修訂憲法，制定國家統一綱領，採取務實外交政策，停止義務支援大陸民運。1992年，臺灣人均生產總值突破1萬美元，成為發達經濟體。因907事件與千島湖事件，臺灣社會統獨立場劇烈變化。1995年，李登輝訪問美國，中华人民共和国政府舉行軍事演習，恫嚇首次總統直選，李反獲連任。李脫離蔣經國理念，向台獨方向傾斜，大量採行民進黨政策。次年，李大規模裁軍，中华人民共和国政府接收香港並打壓中華民國外交。1999年，李登輝先後提出中國七塊論和兩國論，9月，發生921大地震，中華民國第一次發佈總統緊急命令。這時期臺灣原住民族團體開始推動文化保存，並要求更高程度的政治自決與經濟發展政策。2000年國民黨選前分裂民進黨候選人陳水扁當選總統實現全國首次政黨輪替執政期間推行台灣本土化和去中國化政策促進人權保障。2001年陳水扁欲停建核四遭司法院反對未果。2002年陳政府積極推動高鐵雪山隧道的建設提出一邊一國論。2003年兩岸實現包機直航宋美齡逝世。2004年陳在選舉前受槍擊以微弱優勢獲得連任。2005年國民大會凍結立法院成為事實上的唯一國會。同年高雄捷運弊案發生致民進黨地方選舉失敗。2006年終止國家統一綱領將中正機場更名桃園機場。同年陳政府傳出多起貪污弊案引發倒扁運動。陳積極與中华人民共和国政府爭奪邦交國執政末期不惜採取金援外交政策。2008年入聯公投案失敗。2008年和2012年由國民黨候選人馬英九當選總統，並都在立法院獲多數席次。上台伊始，發生聯合號海釣船事件，與日本產生外交衝突。次年，颱風莫拉克造成水災。在任期間推動經濟成長，增進與各國的經濟合作，改善兩岸關係，並簽訂經濟合作協議。2014年，預備與對岸簽署服務貿易協議引發部分民眾疑慮與抗議。2015年两岸实现首次两岸领导人会面, 是自1949年政治分立以來，雙方最高領導人的首次會晤，象徵兩岸史上最大突破。會中主要就推進兩岸關係和平發展交換意見，不過雙方沒有簽署協議或發布共同聲明。2016年，民進黨候選人蔡英文當選成為首位女性總統，並在立法院首度取得過半數席次，帶領民進黨首次完全執政，並在2020年總統選舉中以817萬231張選票成功連任，成為中華民國於1996年首次民選總統以來，得票率最高的總統候選人。2019年5月，配合2017年司法院釋字第748號解釋與2018年中華民國全國性公民投票第10、12案結果而立法的法制化臺灣同性婚姻，使中華民國成為亞洲第一個將同性婚姻合法化的國家。今日中華民國99%的實際領土是與中國大陸相距180公里的臺灣島1%則是其他小型島嶼總領土面積36197平方公里。臺灣島西部為台灣海峽北部為東海東部緊鄰菲律賓海至太平洋南部為呂宋海峽西南方為南海。島嶼南北長約400公里東西最寬處達145公里。除了臺灣和附屬島嶼外另有臺灣西北方的澎湖群島及靠近中國大陸沿岸的金門群島烏坵列嶼和馬祖列島。南海上還有東沙群島中沙群島南沙群島但並無永久居民居住。臺灣周圍還有蘭嶼綠島龜山島基隆嶼棉花嶼彭佳嶼花瓶嶼釣魚臺列嶼等火山島和位在南部的琉球嶼七星岩等珊瑚礁島以及在雲林縣外海被喻為外傘頂洲。臺灣島位處地震活躍的環太平洋火山地震帶是西部和北部的揚子克拉通東北部的沖繩板塊東部和南部的菲律賓移動板塊撞擊形成為歐亞大陸板塊與菲律賓板塊碰撞而地體隆起的島弧。因地殼變動與造山運動發達臺灣有著複雜多樣的地形。其中大部分地質構造屬於歐亞大陸板塊菲律賓板塊為隱沒帶後者每年以平均22釐米速度朝西北方碰撞歐亞大陸板塊。受影響東部和南部則有複雜地質結構。臺灣地處板塊交界處而有許多易引發地震的斷層其中島內便有42條活動斷層但大多數地震源自於東側歐亞大陸板塊與菲律賓板塊交接處。臺灣島最早的地震紀錄於1624年的荷蘭統治時期而在日治時期便開始對地震進行科學研究。1991年至2000年間臺灣共有91起災害性地震且48起地震造成人口死亡1999年發生的921大地震更導致2415人喪生。臺灣島內部有數座死火山休火山和火山地形但僅有大屯火山群和龜山島具明顯活動大量溫泉景點也出現在斷層地帶每年吸引許多遊客觀光。臺灣本島形狀類似番薯，擁有山地、丘陵、盆地、平原、台地等地形，東部山區面積約有領土50%。山脈走向與地質構造大致一致，北部為東北至西南走向、南部為北北西至南南東走向，從東到西分別為海岸山脈、中央山脈、雪山山脈、玉山山脈、加里山山脈和阿里山山脈。臺灣是世界上，最高點為海拔高度3,952公尺的玉山，也有200多座超過3,000公尺的山峰。西部衝上斷層山地以西是起伏平坦的山麓丘陵與台地，台地多為頭嵙山層礫石層與晚更新世紅土堆積而成，有林口台地、桃園台地、大肚台地、八卦台地等，丘陵則多為台地遭河川侵蝕而成。臺灣本島受地殼變動、河流作用、差異侵蝕影響，一些山區丘陵因構造作用形成盆地。盆地因地勢平坦、土壤肥沃、水源充足而會發展成聚落，如台北盆地、台中盆地、埔里盆地群、泰源盆地等。因為河川中下游堆積作用和地盤隆起離水作用，西部沿海地區形成平坦的沖積平原，絕大多數人口居住於此。平原地形以嘉南平原為主，其他還有西部的彰化平原和屏東平原，及東部的蘭陽平原和花東縱谷平原。中華民國海岸線總長1,813多公里，其中臺灣海岸地形因方位而有差異，分成北部的岩岸、西部的沙岸、南部的珊瑚礁海岸和東部的斷層海岸。臺灣本島有151條河流和溪谷，超過100公里者有濁水溪、高屏溪、淡水河、曾文溪、大甲溪、烏溪和秀姑巒溪，另有大安溪、北港溪、八掌溪、蘭陽溪、花蓮溪、卑南溪等河流。長達186.6公里的濁水溪是最長的河流，高屏溪則是流域最廣的河流。政府設有經濟部水利署為主管機關，劃分中央管河川、跨省市河川、縣市管河川。受山脈走向影響，河流多流向西方或東方。且因中央山脈位置偏東，主要河川位在西半部。儘管臺灣降雨豐富，河川大多因夏季雨季而保持流量，冬季便露出河床；僅有淡水河、大漢溪、基隆河全年有穩定水量。湖泊則多在西側且僅少數為天然湖泊，最大的天然湖泊為8平方公里的日月潭，另有曾文水庫、烏山頭水庫、石門水庫等水庫和埤塘。臺灣澎湖列島風力較大，地表崎嶇，地表徑流較少，淡水資源不足。臺灣省北方三島（棉花嶼，花瓶嶼和彭佳嶼）多山，植被以草地為主，沒有大型樹木。同時，也由於常年風力較大而沒有常駐居民，僅有氣象站工作人員定期輪換工作和居住。福建金門列島中，在大金門島有若干淡水溪流，但淡水資源仍然不足，地勢以丘陵為主，平原較少。小金門沒有常年地表徑流，淡水供應困難，該島平地較少。福建省烏坵列島中，大坵島地勢較為平坦，而小坵島丘陵較多。福建省馬祖列島中各島都是花崗岩的岩石島嶼，土壤較少，耕種困難，沿海越野資源豐富。馬祖列島位於中國浙江省和福建省交界處，福州市的閩江口不遠處，是東海最重要的群島之一，與浙江省大陳島和一江山島隔海相望，具有重要的海洋和氣候生態研究價值。該列島處於副熱帶季風氣候區，位於中華民國實際控制領土的最北端，冬季溫和濕潤，有時較為寒冷，而春秋季少雨且乾燥，夏季多雨，與中國福建省沿海氣候類似。島上海鳥眾多，有銀鷗、信天翁、棕頭鷗等海鳥棲息和繁衍。島上由於主要為花崗岩質地，所以植被不豐富，以草地為主。福建省烏坵列島面積較小，但魚類和水生生物豐富，偶爾有中華白海豚出沒。福建省金門群島位於廈門島南面，北回歸線附近，為典型的熱帶季風性氣候，目前與廈門市聯合申請珍稀動物文昌魚棲息地自然保護區計劃。南海中的太平島和中洲島相互鄰接其中太平島是南海中最大的島嶼也是唯一有淡水的島嶼島上植被較為豐富。周邊的海南海洋資源豐富曾經發現過鸚鵡螺的踪跡同時有大量珊瑚礁保育區和珍稀魚類因而也是中華民國的海洋生態保育最重要的地區之一。臺灣本島位居北迴歸線上，介於海洋性熱帶與亞熱帶氣候間，北迴歸線以北為亞熱帶季風氣候、以南為熱帶季風氣候；整體氣候夏季長且潮濕，冬季較短且溫暖。冬季平均氣溫15°C至20°C間，夏季則達28°C。北部因東北季風而在1月至3月進入雨季，中部和南部地區則未有影響。5月進入梅雨季，6月至9月天氣炎熱和潮濕，南部降雨則多於北部。颱風在7月至10月襲擊臺灣，往往帶來強烈豪雨導致土石流災難，11月至12月則是乾季。臺灣平均降雨量2,600釐米，為世界平均降雨量的3倍，也是最多雨的島嶼，；其中南部地區有90%集中於5月至10月的夏季季風，而北部地區僅有60%。每人獲得的年均降雨量僅全球的6分之一，有46.2%雨水流入海中、33.3%蒸發散損失，可利用者僅佔20.5%。地區降雨量亦分佈不均，分別山地多於平地、東部多於西部、北部多於南部。臺灣本島棲息著豐富的野生動植物約有11%的動物和27%的植物為特有種例如山區水域的櫻花鉤吻鮭等有3000多種開花植物640多種真蕨在島嶼生長另有3000多種魚類500多種鳥類棲息。行政院農業委員會依照後中華民國內政部陸續設有9座國家公園總面積為7489.49平方公里。另外政府還設有自然保留區野生動物保護區等自然生態保護區佔实际统治地区近20%。自從1955年大陳島撤退後，中華民國僅實際管轄臺灣本島及其附屬島嶼，以及東沙群島和南沙群島之太平島、中洲礁等島嶼。政府遷台後，為適應國內外情勢，曾多次更改臺澎金馬地區的行政區劃。福建省與臺灣省分別在1956年和1998年將省級政府職能精簡，大部分省級政府機關併入中央政府，僅保留象徵性工作。而在1967年以及1979年時，臺北市和高雄市從原本的臺灣省省轄市升格成為直轄市。2010年，政府將同屬重要縣市的臺北縣、臺中市、臺南市升格成為直轄市，其中臺北縣改名為新北市，而臺中市與臺中縣、臺南市與臺南縣以縣市合併方式共同升格，高雄縣則與已是直轄市的高雄市合併。2014年，桃園縣升格為直轄市並改名桃園市。目前政府依據《中華民國憲法增修條文》和《》規定行政區劃層級，依序為一級行政區（省、直轄市）、二級行政區（縣、市）、三級行政區（鄉、鎮、縣轄市、區）、四級行政區（村里）、五級行政區（鄰）。當中臺灣省轄下分成11個縣以及3個市、福建省轄下分成2個縣，其中直轄市和市底下的轄區數共有170個，在縣底下的鄉、鎮以及縣轄市總數則有198個。當前中華民國政府實際統治地區的行政區劃分別為：中華民國大陸時期的陆地总面積為11,418,194平方公里，是全世界陆地面积第二大的國家，疆域北至唐努乌梁海的薩彥嶺、东至黑龙江與乌苏里江合流處、南至南沙群島的曾母暗沙、立地暗沙海域、西至帕米爾高原的噴赤河。北洋政府在1913年公布劃一令，確立省、道、縣三級行政區制度，隔年設立35個省級行政區。1921年又劃分，設有京都、津沽、淞滬、青島、哈爾濱、漢口等6個特別市。國民政府1927年在南京成立後，廢除道並設立行政督察區。1947年頒布的領土包括35個省份、12個直轄市、1個特別行政區和西藏地方。根據行政院《兩岸人民關係條例》《港澳關係條例》和《》中華民國領土包括自由地區和「中共控制之地區」（即大陸地區含港澳地區）。雖然釣魚臺列嶼和部分南海諸島不屬於三者的任何一個但中華民國仍聲索其主權。在退出聯合國前，中華民國政府被大部分国家視為代表中國的唯一合法政府。不過在經多次增修憲法後，居住在臺灣地區者與居住在大陸、香港和澳門地區者，在法律上有所區隔。1993年，有18名民進黨國會議員向司法院大法官會議提出釋憲聲請，請求認定中华人民共和国與蒙古国均已獨立，但後者將憲法的「固有疆域」視為政治問題，表示無權裁定。傾向獨立的陳水扁政府認定臺灣和中華人民共和國互不隸屬，行政院主計總處也在2005年10月3日廢止各行政區域代碼。馬英九政府則重申中華民國是代表中國的合法政府、而中國大陸是領土一部分。蒙古地方於大陸時期多次宣布獨立。受蘇聯施加壓力的影響國民政府於1946年承認蒙古人民共和国獨立。聯合國大會第505號決議通過後政府於1953年取消外交承認將外蒙古列為中華民國領土。1954年起國民大會通過若干涉蒙決議並以附圖的方式指出外蒙為固有領土外交部和行政院亦曾聲明。2017年底蒙藏委員會被裁撤。1912年3月，中華民國臨時參議院選舉袁世凱為第二任臨時大總統後，中華民國臨時政府也從南京市北遷至過去的清朝首都北京市。之後的臨時政府到北洋政府，都是以北京市作為中華民國首都。1928年國民政府完成國民革命軍北伐後改定都於南京市，並且在1931年制定的第五條中明文規定國都設立在南京市，確立南京市的首都地位。不過在1937年中國抗日戰爭全面爆發後，由於日本的軍事威脅使得國民政府於同年11月21日，宣布將所有中央政府機構由南京市遷往重慶市。國民政府在中國抗日戰爭中戰勝後發布《還都令》宣布於1946年5月5日將首都遷回南京市。在同年11月15日召開的制憲國民大會上對於有關國都設於南京市或北平市引起激烈討論其中原本《中華民國憲法》草案定為南京市但在審查會和第一讀會仍然決定改為北平市。之後制憲國民大會主席團代表蔣中正出面說明主張首都地點不必明定於憲法上並將第一讀會通過的「國都定於北平」一條給予刪除。但在施行之前第二次國共內戰便已經在中國大陸地區全面爆發。至1949年時中華民國國軍在中國大陸戰場上逐漸失利。而中華民國首都也因而經過多次遷移到1949年12月時中華民國中央政府各機關陸續播遷至臺北市。到了1967年時時任中華民國總統的蔣中正在中華民國總統府訓示官員時表示臺北市為中央政府所在地亦為戰時的首都。不過一直到2002年時中華民國行政院長游錫堃在立法院院會答覆質詢時明確表示中華民國首都位於臺北市並且承諾會要求相關單位修改教科書中關於首都位置之內容。中华民国是亚洲首个共和制國家。中華民國政府依和三民主義成立，前者定位國家為，後者提出各民族共處的民族主義、公民權力行使的民權主義、為民服務的民生主義。在經憲法修訂後採行半總統制，中華民國總統為國家元首和中華民國國軍三軍統帥，並依孫中山所創的五權憲法架構而將政府分成行政院、立法院、司法院、考試院、監察院5個機構。1994年第三次修憲後，確定總統由公民直接選舉產生，任期4年且得連任一次。總統有權協調行政院、立法院、司法院、考試院和監察院事務，並任命行政院院長，組織內閣。行政院負責國家行政管理工作依其組織法規定行使職權行政院院長即內閣的閣揆為總統任命不需經由國會同意。轄下設置部委員會等機關處理行政事務另有7名到9名政務委員。立法院，是最高立法機構，為一院制的國會，立法院院長由立法委員自行選出；113名立法委員則採單一選區兩票制選舉產生，任期4年。但因行政院院長由總統任命、不需立法院批准，立法院的決議則不需行政院和總統的同意，使得行政和立法機關衝突時難有協商空間。過去還設有一院制的國民大會，為常設性選舉人團，享有議會權力。但經數次國民大會改選和憲政改革後，2005年選出的任務型國民大會通過立法院提交的憲法修正案，正式廢除國民大會，並將憲法修正案的複決權改由公民投票決定。司法院，是中華民國最高司法機關，主要審理民事、刑事、行政訴訟、公務員懲戒。司法院院長、副院長和13名大法官組成大法官會議，大法官任期8年，由總統提名，並經立法院同意後任命，負責統一解釋憲法、法律或者法令，並召開憲法法庭審理總統、副總統的彈劾案、和政黨違憲的解散案。考試院，負責公務員資格遴選、政府官員考試、選拔、考核等工作，含考試院院長、副院長在內，共有7~9名考試委員，任期4年，由總統提名，並經立法院同意後任命，2008年共有338,305名公務員任職。監察院是監督政府運作的常設調查機構轄下各委員會能對行政機關進行行政調查含監察院院長副院長在內共有監察委員29人組織而成任期6年由總統提名並經立法院同意後任命。是中華民國制度的根本大法，內容確立國家主權由全體人民所有，保障人民擁有人身、言論、學術、居住遷徙、集會結社等各項自由權利不受侵犯；人民不分性別、宗教、種族、階級、黨派均受同一保障；並創立行政權、立法權、司法權、考試權、監察權等五權運作的中央政府、依照均權制度自治的地方政府、以及保障婦女兒童、國民醫療、社會保險、少數民族、原住民族權利等基本國策。1936年5月5日國民政府籌畫制定憲法並發表補充或暫停實施。受傳統中華法系影響，加之從清末以來引進日本、德國等法律，中華民國的法律採用歐陸法系的成文法系統，主要分為憲法、法律、命令三級，下級的法律不可以違反上級的法律。法律的制定和修正需經立法院審議通過，再由總統公佈施行，行政院、考試院或其他機關能發布命令。除了明文的法律之外，終審法院在過往仍會為了統一法律見解，而從判決中挑選部分爭議問題，選編作成判例。判例不強制下級法院的法官必須採用，但事實上有相當程度的影響力，除了選編判例以外，甚至終審法院曾經做成的一般裁判，也常在下級法院的審理中被引用。全國管轄民事刑事的普通法院採行三級三審在中央設有最高法院省設高等法院縣市設地方法院地方法院下設簡易庭。與政府間的行政訴訟則採行三級二審中央設最高行政法院下設高等行政法院普通地方法院下設行政訴訟庭負責處理簡易案件。除此之外還設有處理智慧財產和少年及家事的專業法院以及戰時審判的軍事法院。在憲法訴訟的層級則設有司法院大法官統一解釋憲法並有宣告法律無效的權力。各級法院目前都不採取的方式分別由一至五名的專門職業法官以合議或單獨的方式審理案件並要求審判必須公開進行。基於司法民主正當性的問題司法院亦在規劃制度使人民參與審判。中華民國是亞洲第一個同性婚姻法制化國家。社會雖對於承認同性婚姻與否仍有分歧但司法院大法官依法審判下認為未保障同性婚姻違反婚姻自由平等權限期要求立法院訂定法規保障同性婚姻。2019年5月17日立法院應司法院大法官解釋立法通過使同性可向戶政機關結婚登記。今日中華民國仍保有死刑制度但政府已逐步減少執行次數根據2006年的調查約有80%的民眾認為應該保留死刑。自從開放黨禁後，中華民國政黨數量逐年增加，在2015年時共有286個政黨。中國國民黨等傾向統一者被視為泛藍，傾向獨立的民主進步黨、台灣基進等被視為泛綠。兩者在國家認同、中華意識和台灣意識、海峽兩岸關係、臺灣政治地位、主權歸屬、一部分，並尋求外交承認或獨立建國。在外交政策上，雙方都積極倡導參與國際組織，並認為由國民決定主權發展。而時代力量和泛綠雖然在外交與國防方面的政治主張相差不多，但前者因強力監督的形象及在政治上更加堅守許多進步議題，因此被視為既不屬於泛藍也不屬於泛綠的第三勢力。1661年至1895年，一部分漢人從中國遷往臺灣。1940年代至1950年代，另一批中國民眾大量遷往臺灣，今日有95%人口屬於漢族。與中國大陸相同的文化淵源、和政治外交造成的地域分離，再加上長期主張擁有全中國主權，今日中華民國的國家認同為具政治色彩的議題。隨著主體意識與獨立運動興起，者。2013年10月TVBS民調中心的統計中，如果要二選一，則有78％自認是台灣人，13％自認是中國人。。儘管中華民國所統治的臺灣地區自1950年便具獨立性、且多民眾認為自身是主權國家，但受中華人民共和國的軍事威脅，使得臺灣獨立議題極為複雜。當中大部分民眾希望維持臺海現狀，不過主張獨立者又多於主張統一者。根據2018年主張臺灣主權未定。二戰後蔣介石政府的中華民國代表在聯合國仍持續代表全中國，而被大多數國家所接受，1971年後中國代表權轉至中華人民共和國政府，所以各主要國家都把在臺北的駐華大使館移往北京。現今中華民國的政治地位和存否存有爭議，屬於未受國際普遍承認國家，主因來自於中華人民共和國的時，有可能動用武力攻打臺灣。此外，也有法理論述否定中華民國統治臺灣的正當性或擁有臺灣領土主權，諸如中華民國流亡臺灣、中華民國殖民臺灣，以及臺灣地位未定論。中華民國成立初，為獲得外交承認而沿用清朝協議，爾後北洋政府和國民政府就不平等條約展開談判。1945年，中華民國參與創辦聯合國，並擔任聯合國安全理事會常任理事國。儘管在中華民國撤往臺灣後仍維持外交關係，但中華人民共和國於1971年通過的取得原則與中華民國斷交。今日因聯合國會員國資格喪失、缺乏廣泛外交承認等，使得中華民國政治和法律地位仍有爭議。迄今僅有14個聯合國會員國和聖座與中華民國維持正式外交關係，並在臺北市設有外交機構。部分國家則將“台湾”視為獨立實體，60多國在斷交後仍設立官方代表機構，維持政治、經貿與文化關係，並處理領事事務。中華民國則成立臺北經濟文化代表處，發展務實外交、推動政府開發援助和促進非官方交流，並設有提供領事服務的辦事處。今日中華民國獲得167個國家和地區的簽證優惠，並和美國、日本、加拿大、澳洲和紐西蘭結為盟友。不過中華人民共和國則與中華民國邦交國斷交，且要求邦交國支-{}-持主張，許多國際組織也因而不將中華民國或臺灣視為主權國家，大多數聯合國會員國為避免關係生變也不希望討論相關問題 。自1990年代以來，中華民國曾多次要求重新加入聯合國，但都遭聯合國大會總務委員會排除。由於僅獲得有限國際承認，政府便藉由臺灣民主基金會加入非聯合國會員國家及民族組織，並在護照上加註等名義加入世界貿易組織、亞洲太平洋經濟合作會議、國際奧林匹克委員會等組織，並積極參與經濟合作與發展組織、世界衛生組織、聯合國教科文組織、國際民航組織等聯合國及所屬組織的活動。中华民国政府迁台至解嚴，坚持汉贼不两立和三不政策，杜绝任何与大陆当局谈判的可能，两岸关系长期陷入僵局，两岸人民亦于几十年中没有接触。蔣經國政府期間，提出的主張。其间两岸发生数次台灣海峽危機。1996年更因中華民國第一次全民直選總統而发生臺灣海峽飛彈危機。而在1986年解嚴後，海峽兩岸經濟及文化交流日趨頻繁，但長期分治為許多臺商帶來困擾。1991年，李登辉政府開始針對，主張分階段統一中國。在這之後，他更提出中華民國在台灣的概念。1999年7月9日，前總統李登輝提出特殊國與國關係，主張，表示任何主權決定都應經過公民投票程序。2008年前總統馬英九改採活路外交政策，实现三通，要求中華人民共和國正視中华民国存在现实，但亦遭到不同批評，如台灣新世紀文教基金會董事長陳隆志于2009年担忧中国大陆会以其影响力限缩台湾的国际空间，且认为马的谈判不够透明。2013年服贸便在不透明不公开下签署，随后激起太阳花学运以致其被搁置至今。之後儘管臺灣和中國大陸與港澳地區社會差異尚存，海峽兩岸的政治、經濟等關係仍朝和平方向發展，雙方開始進行多次兩岸兩會高層會談，並就定期航線等議題達成共識，但相關議題仍是中華民國與中華人民共和國政府的敏感話題。對此前總統馬英九曾提出中華人民共和國方面聲稱中華民國已被其取代並稱在台灣地區的中華民國政府為「臺灣當局」。中華人民共和國政府對外主張「一個中國」原則認為臺灣地區和中國大陸都是中國一部分並認為中華人民共和國政府代表中國唯一合法政府並在1980年代提出「一國兩制」政策主張實現和平統一但拒絕放棄動用武力。2005年的《反分裂國家法》便提到動用武力確保統一的三種情況而福建省沿海也部署大量軍事設施。另外美國則希望中華人民共和國不使用武力或威脅動武中華民國則謹慎管理兩岸關係並反對雙方單方面改變臺海現狀。2019年1月2日時值中華人民共和國在1979年1月1日發布《告台灣同胞書》的四十周年中共中央總書記國家主席習近平出席紀念儀式並發表談話宣示兩岸和平統一一國兩制的方針。對此中華民國總統蔡英文表示台灣人民絕不會接受一國兩制並表示堅決維護台灣主權此言論在Facebook等社群網站上引發熱烈討論。2019年10月21日，台灣官方陸委會表示：2021年3月18日美國國防部报导中认为 。2021年3月21日，台灣外交部在美國國務卿布林肯及白宮國安顧問蘇利文（Jake Sullivan）與中華人民共和國官員會談後，雙方就台灣議題上有猛烈交鋒。外交部為此作出回應：「已注意到中國官員在會談中、會談後出現台灣主權屬於中國的誤謬、扭曲說法，這些說法悖離事實，也違反台灣人民意志。中華民國台灣是一個主權獨立的民主國家，主權屬於台灣2350萬人民，只有台灣人民有權決定台灣的未來。中華人民共和國從未統治台灣，而台灣也獨自存在於國際社會，這就是兩岸長久以來的事實和現狀，無論中國政府如何扭曲對台主張，都無法改變這事實，台灣人民只會更堅定對主權和民主的堅持，也會繼續和共享民主價值國家共同努力，維護並增進印太區域的和平、穩定與繁榮。」中華民國維持龐大且先進的軍事部隊下分中華民國陸軍中華民國海軍和中華民國空軍三個軍種中華民國總統為三軍統帥。直到1970年軍隊主要任務為奪回中華人民共和國統治的中國大陸今日則轉為防禦中華人民共和國武力統一重視海上封鎖空降突擊導彈襲擊等攻擊。軍隊發展重點也從陸軍轉往海軍與空軍控制權也交由文職政府管理。中華民國國防部並提出作為戰略指導原則計畫自行抵禦中国人民解放军入侵或封鎖並堅持到美國軍事回應。中華民國與美國也在1954年簽訂了，成立了美軍協防台灣司令部，高峰期有大約有20,000名美軍駐防台灣，直到1979年美國與中華人民共和國建交，並且與中華民國斷交後，駐台美軍隨之撤離台灣。由於中華民國國軍前身是中國國民黨參考蘇聯共產黨建立的國民革命軍部隊發展與國民黨密切相關。1948年至1949年因第二次國共內戰失利各軍事部門武器工業研究單位跟隨政府撤往臺灣在中國大陸成立的中華民國陸軍軍官學校中華民國海軍軍官學校和中華民國空軍軍官學校也分別遷往高雄市鳳山區左營區和岡山區。不過許多資深高階將領仍支持泛藍陣營直到這批將領退休與新兵服役後部隊政治傾向轉往軍隊國家化與行政中立規定。今日規定由總統統行使統帥權指揮全國軍隊並責成國防部部長命令參謀總長指揮。政府自1997年實施精實案裁撤兵力軍事員額從1997年的450000人降至2001年的380000人。2009年現役人數約有300000人左右。不過在2005年後備役軍人仍多達3600000人。過去實行以義務役為主和少量募兵併用制要求已滿18歲且符合資格的男性必須服兵役亦有多項至政府機關或國防產業的替代方案。不過當前計畫在未來十年內軍隊過渡至徵募並行制度並減少服兵役天數和轉為四個月的軍事訓練役如今近幾年已開始實施。不過儘管許多亞洲國家不斷減少國防預算，政府並未減少相關開支；除了持續強調防禦和進攻能力的現代化，並有一定的軍事部署。在2002年至2011年，國防預算額度約在2,500億至3,300億元間，占總預算的15.52%至19.51%。憑藉著提供防禦性武器的效力，迄今中華民國國軍已經向美國購買以及升級多項軍事設備，如F-16V等等以維持足夠的軍事防禦能力。過去法國和荷蘭也曾出售軍事武器和硬體設備給中華民國，但2000年代後便因中華人民共和國施壓而完全停止。中華民國政府自1949年提出多項並於1960年代發展出口導向經濟。自1990年開始政府減少對投資和貿易的監管部分國有銀行和企業逐漸私有化並分別針對中國大陸和東南亞國家提出戒急用忍與南向政策。因擔憂兩岸有過於緊密的互動陳水扁在2006年提出政策減少對中國大陸經濟的依賴。不過政策執行出口商品產業投資仍是產業改革主要動力同時擁有許多受良好教育的人力資源中華民國經濟部設有中華民國對外貿易發展協會推動國際貿易及中華經濟研究院與台灣東南亞國家協會研究中心提供經濟推測與研究。且不同於韓國或日本等國家發展大型集團而以中小型企業為主。其中工業機械產品為最大宗外銷商品倫敦金屬交易所並將高雄市列為交易處。2015年時中華民國GDP達到5230.1億美元2015年的貿易總額則有5225.6億美元出口和進口總額達2853.4億美元和2372.2億美元。農業生產總值從1952年的32.1%到2013年降至1.7%。最大進口者為中國大陸日本及美國最大出口者則是中國大陸香港美國其他重要貿易國有馬來西亞德國澳洲印度尼西亞菲律賓越南泰國等。當中在2008年中華民國投資中國大陸超過1500億美元並有5萬名臺灣商人及100萬名企業家和家屬定居中國大陸台资占中国大陸累计实际吸收境外投资总额的3.7%。。不過中華民國也與新加坡紐西蘭簽署自由貿易協定並尋求加入跨太平洋戰略經濟夥伴關係協議與亞洲基礎設施投資銀行。龐大的貿易順差讓外匯儲備僅次於中國大陸日本及俄羅斯2015年7月底的外匯存底為4219.6億美元。中華民國也和香港韓國與新加坡並稱被視為亞洲第5大經濟體。2014年國際貨幣基金組織指出中華民國人均國內生產總值達45853.742美元排名全世界第19名屬於發達經濟體之一。2015年世界經濟論壇全球競爭力報告將其列在世界第15名也是排行第一名的亞洲國家。21世纪起傳統製造等勞動密集型產業為降低生產成本而转移到中國大陆和東南亞并由資本和技術密集型產業所替代。但后果是造成了產業空洞化且失業率達到自石油危機以来最高水平2000年至2008年的失業率平均超過4%。馬英九政府曾為此提出633政見但失業率仍一度達到6.07%2015年6月則降囘3.71%。另一方面中華民國在世界各經濟體中也面臨邊緣化政府因而開始修改產業政策。政府亦積極加入國際經濟組織以推動經濟自由化與國際化例如2002年以的名義參與經濟合作暨發展組織和國際商會。負責交通網絡的單位為中華民國交通部其下設立交通部運輸研究所以解除交通擁擠狀況。中華民國公路依規定分成國道省道市道縣道區道和鄉道還有依用途分類的專用公路。臺灣島上的公路與橋梁總長度約有47000公里大部分集中在較發達的西部地區。最長的兩條道路系統都連接臺灣北部至南部分別有1978年通車全長373公里的中山高速公路。公共運輸部分，各地廣泛設有長途巴士的服務點，由數個私人運輸公司經營。臺灣鐵路管理局在臺灣鋪設密集的鐵路網路，鐵路運輸系統約1,066.6公里。根據2013年的統計，每天搭乘臺灣鐵路管理局鐵路者共有622,705人。2007年1月，政府委託台灣高速鐵路公司經營全長345公里的台灣高速鐵路系統，臺北市至高雄市的往返時間降至96分鐘。在2013年共有4,749萬人搭乘高速鐵路，2014年的營收更達約380億元。亦興建了台中捷運、新北捷運、台北捷運、高雄捷運和桃園捷運作爲短途交通接駁各市内建設。中華民國在臺灣本島上有7座重要商業港口，5個主要國際通航港口為基隆港、蘇澳港、臺中港、高雄港和花蓮港，政府還在臺北港、安平港和以上港口設立自由貿易港區。最大的高雄港在貨運吞吐量位居世界第十三名。當前國際機場有臺北松山機場、臺灣桃園國際機場、臺中清泉崗機場和高雄國際機場四座，2013年，共有63家航空公司開設往返臺灣的航線，主要經營國際航班的公司為中華航空和長榮航空。另外還有15座國內機場用於聯繫各島嶼交通，而台灣高速鐵路通車後使得國內空運人次大幅減少。中華民國電力供應系統的開發、運輸、配置等工作主要是由台灣電力公司提供，其本身便經營了78座發電廠，分別有27座火力發電廠、3座核能發電廠、11座風力發電廠、39座水力發電廠、10座太陽光電發電廠以及1座潮汐發電廠，並規劃在四年內建造2座地熱發電廠及海洋溫差發電廠，另外台灣電力公司也向一些民營企業購買電力能源。自來水供應則分成負責臺北地區的臺北自來水事業處，以及負責其他地區的台灣自來水公司進行，有31座自來水廠及47座水庫。郵政事業服務由2003年成立的中華郵政公司進行，而其前身則是過去中華民國交通部轄下的交通部郵政總局。當前中華郵政為中華民國交通部完全持股的國營公司，並且在各地經營20處責任中心局、3處郵件處理中心和1,322間郵局。中華民國一直到1996年以前只有中華電信作為唯一的電信服務供應商，之後開始有民間企業投入電信服務市場，目前中華電信在市場的最大競爭對手分別是遠傳電信和台灣大哥大，後來台灣之星和亞太電信也相繼成立。與此同時原本國營的中華電信也轉向私有化，其中2014年時其所有股份僅有35.29%歸屬於政府擁有，甚至在2003年時公司股票也於紐約證券交易所上市。 中華民國也是積極發展網際網路技術的亞洲國家之一，在2008年年底時有超過700萬名用戶使用寬頻網絡進行連線。其中中華電信除了提供手機和相關通訊工程外，在國內也是重要的網際網路服務提供商。在2005年時，政府推出有關於國內架設全球互通微波存取網絡之發展計劃，並且對於從事全球互通微波存取開發的公司提供資助。2020年中華民國電信主管機關NCC標售5G頻譜及釋照，此年被稱為｢中華民國5G元年」。中華民國在中國大陸時期受到民國軍閥割據外國列強干涉與各地戰爭動亂的影響導致自身科技發展緩慢。而在政府撤往臺灣地區後同樣帶來來自中國大陸地區的學術人才與科學技術並且作為之後發展科學技術的基礎。其中經過多年的發展中華民國科技面向約可分為朝向花卉產業以蝴蝶蘭為代表的農業科技朝向傳統產業製造技術以紡織為代表的的製造轉型科技以及因為自身大力發展半導體電腦週邊光電科技通訊產業等而在世界經濟具知名度的高科技產業。受到產業不斷外移的影響，中華民國面臨提升自身生產力、經濟發展更趨多元與提高科學研發能力，藉此讓企業駐留臺灣。自1980年起，政府相繼成立新竹科學工業園區、南部科學工業園區與中部科學工業園區等科學園區，大力鼓勵國內或者海外廠商投資積體電路、電腦等高科技產業，希望能夠以耗能少、污染低、附加價值高的技術密集型科技產業取代傳統產業。另外在1999年1月，中華民國在歷經10年發展的太空計畫後成功完成福爾摩沙衛星一號的發射工作，藉此建立中華民國自身太空科技技術、以及扶植國內產業發展衛星元件之能力。今日高科技已經成為中華民國重要經濟命脈並且產業架構亦在全球經濟中扮演著重要關鍵角色尤其電子產業更成為全球價值鏈的重要一環。許多科技公司在電子元件和個人電腦領域在訊息技術市場上有著國際實力且陸續將市場規模從臺灣地區擴展至全球例如個人電腦製作公司宏碁和華碩電腦手機製造商宏達國際電子和電子工業企業鴻海科技集團等著名公司但也被視為可能受到技術限制影響發展。2009年政府宣佈將從過去專注資訊半導體通訊及面板等產業轉而發展精緻農業生物科技醫療照護觀光旅遊綠色能源文化創意這六大新興產業另外還計畫與愛台十二建設和相關具體配套措施列為新階段經濟發展重心並設定在2011年達成人均國內生產總值2萬美元的階段性目標。當前具有中華民國戶籍總人口為23,451,837人，其中59.92%人口集中在直轄市；人口密度為每平方公里650人，在全世界千萬以上人口國家中僅次於孟加拉國而排行第二名。人口主要散布在臺灣本島，又以居住在臺灣西部平原最多；其他有103,419人住在澎湖群島、135,816人住在金門群島、12,727人住在馬祖列島，另外還有數萬名無戶籍的國民，中華民國允許雙重國籍，具中華民國國籍者皆為中華民國國民。而在族群組成部分，有95%人口為漢族，另有大約2.5%是隸屬南島語系的臺灣原住民族。民主進步黨曾提出這概念。其中有84%漢族是17世紀至1945年前便從中國移民的後代，這批臺灣地區居民又被稱作，當中有2%者是主要居住馬祖列島的福州民系。臺灣原住民族是400年前便居住臺灣的南島民族，過去曾被稱作；其佔總人口數2.36%、共計556,611人，政府又細分成16個主要族群<ref name="7E38D881F119320F00033F4C65F5B7123D3CD606F1172413BD7076C11633C29B71CFEE5341DC3880D0636733C6861689 現住原住民人口數按性別、原住民身分及族別分]. 中華民國原住民族委員會. 2014年7月 .</ref>。其中阿美族、泰雅族、布農族、噶瑪蘭族、排灣族、卑南族、魯凱族、賽夏族、撒奇萊雅族、賽德克族、邵族、太魯閣族、鄒族、拉阿魯哇族和卡那卡那富族住在西部平原以東地區，達悟族則居住附屬島嶼蘭嶼上，另外有部分平埔族尚未獲得承認，例如西拉雅族。另外隨著海峽兩岸交流以及國際化發展，中華民國目前則有數萬名中國大陸配偶、10萬名外籍配偶以及30萬名外籍勞工，總計外籍常住人口約有56.2萬人。這些臺灣新住民中分別有43.4萬人來自越南、印度尼西亞、泰國、菲律賓等東南亞國家，還有8.9萬人則來自中國大陸、香港和澳門地區。中華民國目前沒有法律明定之官方語言但華語扮演著實際官方語言角色 。中華民國在1912年於中國大陸成立後便推動國語運動中華民國教育部便成立教育部國語推行委員會統一規範。這時政府主張以實際存在的口語語音為標準以北京官話語音為中華民國國語標準音並訂定注音符號等標準。1920年代獲得新文學運動的響應中國大陸的國語推行持續到1940年代為止。政府於1949年撤退到臺灣地區後長期在學校機構教導中華民國國語作為主要語言並推廣正體中文作為書寫系統基礎教育上為國語語文教學的總時數佔最多不過往後開始將臺灣原住民語閩南語客家語閩東語和莆仙語與中華民國國語視為地位平等的語言。今日中華民國國語和正體中文仍是法律公文、學校教學、司法審判、部分機關、主要媒體的語言文字，也是平常談話時的共同語言。儘管與大陸地區一樣也是使用官话，中華民國过去长期採用的拼音為與中華人民共和國的漢語拼音不同的威妥瑪拼音；自2008年起，官方改用汉语拼音作为译名标准。但由于历史上采用的威妥瑪拼音和通用拼音的影响，无论是官方还是民间的汉语罗马音都存在一定程度的不同拼音系统混用的现象。儘管國語作為共通語被廣泛使用台灣的不同族群亦有各自不同的語言使用習慣。對於人數最多比例最高的閩南裔臺灣話常被視為母語使用金門縣居民則使用同屬閩南語的金門話客家人族群也常使用臺灣客家語交談。雖然絕大部分遷往臺灣地區的外省人用國語溝通大多數連江縣和烏坵鄉居民則將福州語與莆仙語視為母語。另外臺灣原住民族使用的臺灣南島語言常被視為南島語系發源地但臺灣原住民族會使用母語的人口逐漸下降國語的使用率則上升。目前臺灣原住民族14種現存語言中有5種被認為是可能滅絕的瀕危語言。但中華民國國語的推動也使得原來使用族群母語或日語的臺灣民眾需要重新學習本土語言使用因而逐漸式微。根據2010年人口普查6歲以上常住人口在家中使用中華民國國語與閩南語者分別佔83.6%和81.9%客家語和臺灣原住民族語的使用只佔6.6%和1.4%但閩南語台灣客家話及臺灣原住民族語使用也隨年齡層下降減少。在社會興起臺灣語文運動數個縣市推出鄉土母語教學政府取消語言教學限制後國語推行委員會也整合母語拼音和用字問題提出閩南語台灣客家語和原住民族語敎學。例如為保護馬祖福州語的使用使得馬祖列島上的小學便設計本土語言教學。自五四運動以來國語白話文逐漸成為民間主流的正式書面語書寫方式多採用直式書寫方式。不過 文言文仍在正式或禮儀慶典場合使用。例如中華民國國歌其歌詞就是採用文言文。 直至1970年代中華民國政府大多數的官方和法律文件仍採用文言文為主要書面語。1970年代嚴家淦擔任中華民國總統期間對於官方書面語進行改革朝行文。西元2005年1月1日後行政院也將沿襲已久的公文直式書寫習慣全面改成橫式書寫。現今文言文仍貫穿整個中華民國社會。目前中華民國政府公文法律文件司法文書法庭裁文採句式仍為文言文格式。除了官方和法律文件文言文在中華民國也用於正式或禮儀場合宗教祭文或文化儀式疏文。保障人民享有宗教自由和進行信仰儀式的權利且各宗教地位皆平等。根據世界銀行的資料中華民國的宗教自由程度非常高2018的自由程度量約9.2高於世界中位數 。由於中華民國實行宗教自由理念各個宗教相當興盛根據行政院國情介紹中華民國自由地區現有主要宗教統計類別計有22種。2019年臺灣地區的宗教建築宗教建築的密度之高在世界上亦屬罕見是華人世界宗教建築密度最高的地區。 臺灣也是華人世界裡宗教最興盛的地區。受到臺灣移民社會的影響，使得漢族移民固有的佛教、道教傳統信仰盛行且長期發展，而西方國家常見的基督新教、天主教與伊斯蘭教等宗教也擁有不少信眾。根據2005年的人口普查，有18,718,600人（佔人口81.3%）信仰宗教，另外14%至18%人口並無宗教信仰。而政府調查所分類的26個宗教中，排行前五名者分別是佛教（8,086,000人，佔人口35.1%）、道教（7,600,000人，佔總人口33%）、一貫道（810,000人，佔總人口3.5%）、基督新教（605,000人，佔總人口2.6%）及天主教（298,000人，佔總人口1.3%）。美國中央情報局的《世界概況》則指出超過93%人口為結合中國民間宗教、大乘佛教、儒教、祖先崇拜和道教的多神論信仰者，有4.5%的人口是信奉新教和天主教的基督徒信眾，另外低於2.5%的民眾則信奉伊斯蘭教等宗教。臺灣民間普遍祭拜觀世音菩薩釋迦牟尼保生大帝玄天上帝媽祖玉皇上帝關聖帝君城隍土地神各姓王爺廣澤尊王中壇元帥清水祖師等同時佛教和道教等信仰的分界並不明確。現今中華民國有近8成的民眾屬於臺灣民間信仰更有超過5成的民眾經常參加各類型宗教儀式與慶典。孔子提倡的儒家思想在過去中國是種哲學結合了有關世俗社會的道德倫理準則之後更成為中華文化和台灣文化間的基礎。大多數民眾往往將宗教信仰與儒家思想結合藉此提倡社會倫理道德的觀念。另外臺灣原住民族為基督宗教重要族群有超過64%的原住民族民眾信奉基督宗教。。截至2014年臺灣地區共有15385座寺廟和教堂分別有12106座供奉道教神祇的寺廟及3279座教堂或會堂平均每1500名市民就有可供信奉和參拜的宗教場所。過往許多廟宇內部的裝飾常藉傳統工法表達民間傳說故事今日廟宇則是台灣客家戲曲民間音樂表演民間藝術比賽的場地。中華民國的公共衛生、醫療服務與社會福利由2013年7月升格的衛生福利部負責，而1995年實施的全民健康保險則由衛生福利部中央健康保險署管理。全民健康保險是社會保險的一種，藉推行公民醫療保險計劃，補助大部分醫療服務和疾病預防等工作。當前99.5%公民已納入全民健康保險，全民健康保險也提供低收入戶、退伍軍人、3歲以下兒童、失業人士、受災用戶、老年人口、或殘疾人士的醫療費用補助。全民健康保險佔國內生產毛額約5.44%，並對各類型民眾設有保費計算指引，大眾可選擇由雇主或由個人繳費等方式。2013年的國民平均壽命為79.5歲，平均年齡是女性大於男性。在總和生育率不斷下滑的情況下，中華民國是全世界生育率最低的國家，在2013年時實際生育率僅1.065，65歲以上的老年人口也佔總人口10%以上，並估計在2024年達到人口最高峰後逐漸減少。而根據預測，2025年時老人人數便攀升至人口20%左右。今日大部分老年人由家庭成員自行照顧，但各地在2008年亦設立1,074所養老院。養老院每個月的費用主要取自老年年金，價格新臺幣3,000元至6,000元不等；無法提供退休儲蓄的家庭每個月則有5,000元的社會補助，政府也有基本醫療服務、流感疫苗防治、大眾運輸工具、文化表演折扣、免費餐點等福利。2007年時，任何25歲至65歲者在工作場所未提供社會保險時，依法必須納入國民年金保險。政府還將國民最低生活費訂在該地區每人可支配所得中位數的60%，並適當給予社會福利及相關補助。自2008年開始，政府提供每年總收入不超過新臺幣150萬元、孩子年齡未超過2歲的父母每個月3,000元的補助，也給撫養精神疾病或身體殘疾兒童的家庭社會援助。另外政府也提供具臺灣原住民族血統者更多機會，根據《勞動基準法》的規定所有政府機關、學校和超過百人的企業，必須至少有1%成員為臺灣原住民族；同時臺灣原住民族家庭購買房屋的貸款有較低利率或租賃優惠條款，而的學童亦有額外獲頒獎學金的機會。今日在中華民國社會平均每10000人享有20.02名醫生5.31位牙醫和69.01張病床的醫療服務。截至2012年為止臺灣共有502間醫院以及20935家診所其中包括82間公立醫院和447家公立診所。而2009年時在對隨機選擇的3360名病患進行醫院服務品質調查後有75.1%的人表示。2000年時臺灣人均衛生支出總額約752美元2001年時衛生支出則佔國內生產毛額5.8%其中64.9%支出則是由政府資金給付。與其他已開發國家相比，中華民國民眾享有豐富的營養來源，但也面臨慢性肥胖症和心血管疾病等健康問題。隨著醫療保健體系逐漸完善，男性和女性的預期壽命分別成長至76.2歲以及83.0歲。而在2012年時造成最多人致死的疾病為癌症，排行第二名、第三名以及第四名者分別為心臟疾病、心血管疾病以及肺炎。另外在2013年時，中華民國嬰兒死亡率為千分之3.9。為了降低肺癌喪生的患者人數，政府除了對菸草製品進行管制外、還禁止民眾於工作場所、學校、餐館以及火車站等所有公共場所吸菸，並推廣設立通風的指定吸菸區。除了現代醫學療法外中華民國國內亦廣泛使用中醫學診斷治療其中臺灣地區便有14家中醫醫院3462家中醫診所和77家西醫醫院附設中醫部門。中華民國的全國疾病預防控制中心為中華民國衛生福利部疾病管制署主要負責疫情監測疫情調查疫情宣傳和疫情防治等工作並且多次針對結核登革熱腸病毒嚴重急性呼吸道症候群甲型流感病毒H7N9亞型等疫情爆發進行因應。另外還有針對食品藥物安全所成立的衛生福利部食品藥物管理署負責確保藥物疫苗醫療器材食品輔助食品及化粧品的品質安全與有效性。中華民國教育制度混合中國與美國教育體系特點而成並在1945年接收臺灣後開始於臺灣地區施行由中華民國教育部負責。政府之後制定讓國民享有九年國民義務教育後來發展為九年一貫課程在2012年時則有99.15%學生會繼續就讀高級中學或技術型高級中學。今日教育系統包括6年國小教育3年國中教育3年高中職教育和4年高等教育。今日共有158所大專院校提供高等教育並分成普通教育兩大體系著名的大學有國立臺灣大學國立臺灣科技大學國立陽明交通大學國立中央大學國立清華大學國立成功大學國立中山大學國立政治大學等。中華民國教育部於2007年宣佈將推動十二年國民基本教育，但因為預算問題和家長反對而延期，以在政策配套上尋求共識。2011年1月，中華民國總統馬英九宣布計畫於2014年時，將本來的台灣九年國民義務教育分階段改為十二年國民基本教育；其中大部分高級中學排除在校成績為入學標準、而給予免試入學，僅有少部分明星高中保留考試入學制度。另外還有為年齡4歲至6歲孩童提供非義務教育的幼稚園保育，但近年政府積極投入扶持弱勢幼兒和早入學教育，著重減輕貧苦家庭負擔和盡早與國民教育接軌，計劃在2011年起將國民教育向下延伸1年。當前教育使學生在數學科學領域獲得極高測試分數但被批評學生壓力過大及過度強調記誦而減少創造力。學生經4年大學教育獲得學士學位後能進修取得碩士博士學位每年有許多學生出國留學最多人前往留學的美國達2.1萬人。教育部長年向海外華人比例較多的東亞與東南亞國家招收華裔大學學生近年積極開放國際學生與中國大陸學生就讀將重點放在課程英語化以應對國際化需求。除了正規的教育體制外不少學生還參加補習班或安親班提高數學自然科學英文等科目考試的解題能力。截至2012年底中華民國不識字率大約有1.71%左右。1999年中華民國取消對新聞自由的限制使得各式傳播媒體大量出現但也引起許多針對媒體亂象的討論。2008年時有1300多家新聞機構絕大多數都是私營小企業。當中最大的國家通訊社為1924年成立的中央通訊社其他重要新聞機構還有以經濟和金融新聞為主的中國經濟通訊社。當前有近2000多份報紙出版但只有30份常於市面上出現發行量前四名者分別是《自由時報》《蘋果日報》《聯合報》和《中國時報》。當中訂閱人數最多的《自由時報》每日約72萬份而排行第二名的《蘋果日報》則以小報式報導達到52萬份另外在捷運等公共交通上也會有免費的報紙供民眾閱讀。截至2013年10月為止書籍出版登記者共有1737家大多是資金與人力規模較小的微型企業。這些出版社創辦許多雜誌並廣受歡迎當中已向政府通報登記的雜誌有6000多份另有91%雜誌是於臺北市出版。廣受歡迎的雜誌面向有經濟和金融八卦時尚和旅遊雜誌最流行的八卦雜誌為。在2013年12月底為止則有171家無線廣播電臺最為流行者多為音樂電臺。無線廣播電臺使用的語言以國語和閩南語為主但依法也保障臺灣原住民族的收聽權益。電視傳播服務最早自1962年開始提供當時由臺灣電視公司中國電視公司和中華電視公司三家電視臺主導市場發展直到1993年開放有線和衛星頻道後才大量增加其他電視臺。最早開播的電視公司都由政府擁有之後則對國家政黨與財團所擁有的電視臺股份立法限制。2008年時有78.7%的客戶優先選擇觀看有線電視多數有線電視頻道內容則由衛星電視供應。2013年12月底政府總共核准108家衛星廣播電視節目供應者和7家直播衛星廣播電視服務經營者申請共計有280個頻道最受矚目的新聞頻道有TVBS新聞台三立新聞台和東森新聞台等。並且於2006年設立NCC國家通訊傳播委員會對通訊傳播進行監理政策之訂定法令之訂定擬訂修正廢止執行證照核發系統設備之審驗工程技術規範之訂定內容分級制度競爭秩序之維護等等。中華民國餐飲文化主要以台灣菜為主，融合各文化飲食風格，主要有臺灣閩菜、臺灣客家菜以及外省菜系。由於大部分人口為來自中國的漢族，因此菜餚大多源自中國菜，並融合中國各地區風格。因四面環海、黑潮洋流經過與冬季冷空氣南下，使得周遭海產資源豐富，民眾常食用魚類、貝類、甲殼類等海洋生物。但是肉類價格昂貴的緣故，雞肉、豬肉、牛肉或羊肉等肉類食品較少出現。由於耕地稀少使得糧食作物不單一，民眾以食用稻米、番薯或芋頭等作物為主食。受到漢人長期定居臺灣與被日本統治長達50年，閩南裔台灣人和客家裔台灣人菜餚、及日本料理深深影響今日飲食文化。台灣菜重視「清、淡、鮮、醇」，強調食材自身的原始味道，並常以醬油、米酒、芝麻油、豆豉、九層塔、油蔥酥、芫荽等調味；主要料理的作法則講究烹調技術和食材配料，餐會筵席上常見的菜色有佛跳牆、東坡肉和萬巒豬腳等。因為臺灣地處亞熱帶地區，使得餐點中也常常會食用各式水果。受到許多民眾信仰佛教、以及環保或者健康因素的影響，各處都有開設專門的素食餐廳，另外也有透過中藥藥材燉補各種食材而成藥膳料理。另外在街頭上還有著名的文化會將烹調後的料理分裝成小盤食用。各地小吃攤販則會集結為夜市廣受歡迎的夜市有六合夜市士林夜市羅東夜市花園夜市逢甲夜市等並成為重要的生活文化代表。常見的小吃包括有蚵仔煎香雞排臭豆腐鹹酥雞生煎饅頭米血糕蚵仔麵線滷肉飯肉粽肉圓擔仔麵牛肉麵小籠包等。著名的飲品則有泡沫紅茶和珍珠奶茶前者是因為果糖飲品等全數搖勻後的頂部泡沫而得名後者則是將粉圓倒入奶茶中飲用這兩者在傳至新加坡馬來西亞澳洲歐洲和北美地區後同樣受到歡迎。另外也發展出自身的酒文化並有金門高粱酒等著名品牌出現。中華民國受到1919年新文化運動的影響，發展出認同西方文化與共和制的觀點。臺灣過去則憑藉口傳和書面語記載，以傳統儒家和閩南文化為主，但也有基於原鄉認同的觀念對立；也由於臺灣曾經歷不同政權和民族統治，當前社會逐漸發展出以臺灣為自身認同特色的多元文化，但也因為臺灣問題而在國內廣泛爭論。當中除了結合傳統與現代文化外，也融合漢族儒家文化與臺灣原住民族等不同文化；今日認定的傳統民俗文化包括有臺灣原住民族的傳統習俗，以及漢族的剪紙、油紙傘、紙燈籠、木雕和刺繡等技藝為主的民間藝術，也涵蓋因海島文化而逐漸形成的春節、元宵節、清明節、豐年祭等節慶文化。中國國民黨執政的中華民國政府於1949年撤往臺灣地區後，將行政院文化建設委員會改制成中華民國文化部，以中國國民黨官方立場推動中國書法、中國畫、中國藝術和傳統戲曲等藝文活動。到了1987年解除戒嚴後，中華民國的藝文、美術活動隨著社會開放而進入多元發展的階段。而自2000年開始，台灣本土化運動及相關議題成為是中華民國自身文化論述的重要議題，主要解讀與內容圍繞著中國文化、原住民族文化和臺灣文化上。文學界長期以來便陸續發表各式風格的作品，但也曾針對台灣文學等發展方向而出現爭論。表演藝術除了過去曾在電視上盛行的歌仔戲和布袋戲繼續獲得政府重視外，也出現像是林懷民的雲門舞集等現代表演舞團。今日中華民國樂壇也呈現多元形式，並因不同族裔語系和歷史背景發展出南島語系的民族音樂、中國的傳統樂曲、西方古典音樂和各式流行音樂等。除了有各族民歌、傳統民謠、傳統童謠、說唱音樂、獨奏或合奏器樂、國樂、儀式音樂等各類風格的傳統音樂外，西方古典音樂也在中華民國獲得高度發展，包括小提琴家林昭亮、鋼琴家和林肯中心室內樂協會藝術總監等人都獲得許多關注。中華民國也是華語流行音樂的重要發展地，成功讓華語流行音樂在亞洲地區廣受歡迎，並推出張惠妹、周杰倫、蔡依林、飛輪海、五月天等專業歌手。而同一時期，臺語流行音樂樂壇受到1970年代以後受日本演歌文化影響，那卡西和夜總會等秀場文化在臺灣也十分盛行，如陳雷、蔡小虎、龍千玉、翁立友、蔡秋鳳、江蕙、黃乙玲等知名閩南語歌手即是出身秀場的代表人物。今日中華民國的影視娛樂服務樣貌不斷有所改變形成以無線網路有線網路網際網路媒體等數位科技為基礎發展而成的大眾傳播文化。其中受到各地歡迎已在新加坡馬來西亞以及其他亞洲國家播出過。許多電視公司也紛紛投入拍攝電視連續劇由於其迎合臺灣民眾的喜好而被獨立劃分為台灣電視劇類型像是等較受歡迎的作品還成功推廣至其他亞洲國家。另外由於今日社會具多元文化背景自由且富含創作力而能給予影視工作者良好的發展空間。台灣電影多次獲得國際電影獎獎項或者是在世界各地的國際影展上映，著名的臺灣電影導演包括有李安、蔡明亮、楊德昌、侯孝賢、魏德聖等人。早期電影是由臺灣電影文化公司、中影公司等官方製片廠製作，內容以新聞片與政治宣傳片之製作為主。1960年代中華民國總共製作了200部至300部電影，透過拍攝愛情片、武俠片和愛國片作品使得電影產業蓬勃發展。但隨著香港電影產業逐漸成熟後，中華民國自身的電影產業產能反而逐漸下滑。到了1980年，楊德昌和侯孝賢開始發展具有個人特色的電影作品，並且贏得多座著名的國際電影獎獎項。但這些作品在自身電影市場上並沒有廣泛獲得認同。對此李安和蔡明亮等年輕導演則推出較為吸引普通觀眾的電影，許多新銳電影導演也在市場低迷時繼續投入拍攝。同時政府也提供電影輔導金辦法以培育電影人才、促進影片製作品質和數量，希望能達到發展自身電影產業的目標。一直到2008年魏德聖執導的上映後，成功為臺灣電影帶來復興之熱潮，今日台灣電影在華語電影仍有一定影響力。另外自臺灣日治時期後，臺灣還陸陸續續出現鄧南光、李鳴鵰、張才、張乾琦、張照堂等著名攝影師，並因為解除戒嚴而促成攝影題材更加多樣化。前往中華民國旅遊觀光的遊客數量長期逐年增長，根據中華民國交通部觀光局統計，在2015年時有10,439,785名遊客抵達，比2014年同期增長5.34%；觀光遊客大部分來自亞洲，依排序為中國大陸、日本與港澳地區，亞洲以外的觀光客則主要來自美國和澳洲。而在2014年，中華民國在萬事達卡全球國際旅遊城市報告中排行第15名。其中重要旅遊景點包括各個國家公園、國家級風景特定區和觀光遊憩區，另外臺灣的休閒農場與溫泉景點也吸引不少遊客。當前政府也開始發展醫療旅遊，並且計畫建設數座醫療村提供服務。位於城市的重要景點則有在2004年至2010年期間為世界上最高建築的台北101，以及包括中正紀念堂、草悟道、各類紀念公園和各處夜市等。而今日中華民國設立有極高密度的24小時便利商店，除了能提供普通服務外還與金融機構以及政府機關合作，使得徵收停車費、水電費、交通罰款、信用卡支付以及郵寄包裹等服務都能夠在便利商店進行。中華民國境內約有535座博物館及10座虛擬博物館其中國立故宮博物院收藏近700000件中國青銅器玉器書法繪畫和瓷器被視為是世界上收藏中國藝術的重要博物館。自1933年開始中國國民黨所領導的中華民國政府便將原先收藏在北平市故宮的藝術品運出多次轉移收藏地後最終一部分物件在第二次國共內戰期間海運運輸至臺灣本島。儘管常設型展覽的內容每季都會更換但仍然需要花費12年才能將所有的藝術品全部展出。中国共产党曾多次表示這些收藏品是被國民黨當局給大陸當局但是自大陸地區爆發文化大革命後中華民國政府便認為這是保護藝術品不受破壞之必要行動不過今日雙方博物館也恢復中國傳統文物遺產的交流。而在中正紀念堂則有國家戲劇院和國家音樂廳提供藝文表演國立國父紀念館也會舉辦多項文化活動音樂會以及演講會等。另外一方面政府也在臺中市則成立了收藏明朝與清朝畫作以及臺灣當代藝術家作品的國立臺灣美術館。中華民國主要運動有棒球、籃球和壘球等，各地設有競技運動場館、國民運動中心、運動公園、多功能運動場所、游泳池、棒球場、高爾夫球場、單車徑等設施。被視為國民運動的棒球廣受社會大眾歡迎，中華民國棒球協會於1989年組建中華職業棒球大聯盟，並在2003年和台灣職棒大聯盟合併。今日中華職業棒球大聯盟有4支球隊，平均每場比賽有6,079名觀眾。中華民國曾舉辦2001年與2007年亞洲棒球錦標賽、2007年世界盃棒球賽和2013年世界棒球經典賽，並在1982年與1992年夏季奧林匹克運動會贏得銅牌和銀牌，另外還有像王建民、陳偉殷、曹錦輝、郭泓志、倪福德、胡金龍等棒球選手進入美國職棒大聯盟。政府過去曾推廣籃球運動且每年舉辦威廉瓊斯盃國際籃球邀請賽和超級籃球聯賽等賽事藝人陳建州亦於2020年成立職業籃球聯盟P. LEAGUE+。在朱木炎和陳詩欣於2004年夏季奧林匹克運動會贏得金牌後政府在楊宜蓁等選手協助下開始推廣跆拳道。另外在合球項目部分曾在2008年世界青年盃合球錦標賽和2009年世界盃合球賽贏得銀牌與銅牌。職業-{高}-爾夫球選手曾雅妮在美國女子職業-{高}-爾夫協會亦有傑出的表現曾連續109週於女子世界排名上位居第一名。其他常獲佳績的項目還有撞球羽毛球舉重拔河馬拉松乒乓球射箭和網球等。另外電子競技亦十分興盛台北暗殺星更在2012年贏得英雄聯盟全球總決賽總冠軍。受到中華人民共和國之影響，中華民國參與國際體育組織和賽事須以「中華臺北」（TPE）名義，並要以國旗歌和梅花旗替代國歌與國旗。政府為提倡全民運動，每隔2年舉辦中華民國全國運動會、中華民國全民運動會、全國原住民運動會和全國身心障礙運動會，每年亦有全國大專院校運動會與全國中等學校運動會。政府還藉由舉辦國際體育活動建設相關設施、獲得承辦經驗、取得籌辦機會，例如每年舉辦的台北國際馬拉松、國際自由車環台公路大賽、富邦LPGA台灣錦標賽等，及高雄市在2009年的世界運動會、臺北市在2009年的夏季聽障奧林匹克運動會和2017年的世界大學運動會。 +宗教有多种定义可以是联系人与神祇或超自然神聖存在的文化体系还可以定义为以热情和坚定地信念而坚持信仰的原则或理论体系。 按前者定义可分为多神论泛神论一神论。 按后者定义无神论自然神论 不可知论等也都是不同的宗教信仰。 这些宗教体系包括个人行为传统仪式价值观念世界观念经典作品朝拜圣地道德规范或社会团体等形式。宗教信仰是人们对其中某个体系的共识和崇敬。人类学家克利福德格尔茨声称与神话和哲学相辅相成宗教相当于人文社科中的一门包罗万象的“生存之道”。不同宗教可能包含不同元素包括但不限于神性圣物信仰超自然存在（一个或多个）给予信徒规范或力量的终极性或超验性生命体验。宗教的表现形式包括仪式讲道纪念或崇拜祭祀神明牺牲节日节庆殡葬服务婚姻服务祷告音乐艺术舞蹈公共服务或其他文化形式。宗教可能通过神圣历史叙述（可能通过神圣经文保存）符号意义和圣地来记录生命宇宙或其他事物的起源并以此表达生命的意义。传统意义上信仰被认为是宗教信念的来源。全世界大约有10000个不同宗教 大约84%的人口附属于6个世界主要宗教之一天主教基督教伊斯兰教印度教佛教道教或不同形式的民俗宗教。一些信仰團體，尤其一些新興宗教，可能會被人給定性為在漢語中，宗、教二詞各有其義，本不為一個統一的聯綴詞。按：故而，“宗”表示對被神格化和人格化的自然宇宙及人類祖先神靈的尊敬和敬拜。“教”則指教育、育化、啓發等，进而側重於表述對神道、人道、或某一家理論體系的信仰和傳播，這一點反而與西方的religion一詞內涵較為接近。近代中國常將儒家思想和傳統稱為“聖教”，此“教”的內涵即與西方的religion一詞極為相近。直至公元10世紀，「宗教」作為一個聯綴詞才出現，最先見於佛經，如《續傳燈錄》中：「吾住山久，無補宗教，敢以院事累君。」此處的為研究對象的學科。宗教學脫胎于更早的神學，卻超脫了傳統神學中帶有宗教偏見的研究方向，轉而以各個宗教之間的共性和特性、宗教的本質為研究方向，強調在宗教信仰外保持客觀性的研究。在西方语言中稱呼伊斯蘭等其他非基督教的信仰而今日的英文詞彙Religion及其對應的漢語概念則是中性詞彙可以用來代指基督教伊斯蘭教佛教及其他任何宗教。宗教有着各种各样的定义，多数定义试图在很多极端的解释和无意义表述中找到平衡。有人认为应用形式和理论去定义它，也有人更强调经验、感性、直觉和伦理的因素。東西方也因歷史背景的不同而存在理解差異宗教是一个翻译辭彙冯友兰指出「有其自己的意义不能在中文中看见一个有教字的东西就认为是宗教」。取「以供奉神灵的宗庙为教导方式」意关键是「作为祭祀场所的。」社会学家和人类学家倾向于把宗教看作是一个抽象的观念含义。这种抽象的概念是基于自身文化发展而建立起来的。現代知名僧人釋淨空對宗教的定義是--具有教育教學教化三種含義。而台灣僧人法鼓山創辦人釋聖嚴則認為｢有所宗而以為教者，即為宗教。｣以下是西方一些神學家對宗教所下的定義：一個宗教之所以成為宗教，是因為它包括三個層面，其一為宗教的思想觀念及感情體驗（教義），二為宗教的崇拜行為及禮儀規範（教儀），三為宗教的教職制度及社會組織（教團）。宗教的教義主要分為兩種。即人的神觀及對神的敬畏心態是整個宗教的內在因素及核心所在故存在由此構成多神教一神论單一主神教二元神教等也有超泛神論泛神論萬物有靈論等不同的神論。宗教對神靈觀念的解釋為，神學在宗教傳播、歷史演進、人類進步中不斷被調整修正。神學是自觉宗教與自發宗教的最大分別，因為神學有其理論化及系統化，而自發宗教是不具神學體系的。宗教的崇拜行為、禮儀規範屬於宗教的外在因素。體現出宗教教義的實踐，也反映出宗教傳統的改革及其社會文化背景。教儀是規範化、程式化、機構化及制度化的，其內容包括祈禱、祭獻、聖事、禮儀、修行及倫理規範。教義是基於宗教的理論体系而教儀則根據社會實踐的活動前者為後者提供依據及指導後者使前者的精神意趣得以推廣和外化前者由不斷詮釋匯集編纂宗教經典而深化後者也是經驗累積確定其施行的程度於是教義及教儀皆在所處的文化氛圍中產生一種人們公認的社會慣例。宗教的教職制度及教团體系，代表着宗教信仰體系的機構化及社會化，是宗教的最外殼，卻又不可或缺。一方面替宗教提供了活動空間，另一方面也給予存在保障。教職制度令宗教有了可見的外在形體，從而對社會起作用。在歷史上，政教常有合一或分離現象，體現了社會行政功能與祭司宗教功能的有機結合，說明了宗教這一個體與世俗社會既有聯繫，又有區別。教團及教職的形成，標誌著人類信仰體系的成熟，充實了宗教，補足了教義及教儀，由此凸現了宗教的獨特性與其他社會意識和社會文化歷史現象的不同特點。宗教源於准宗教現象，產生於原始宗教以前，為現今所知人類意識活動最早的形態之一，有一定程度的宗教因素，但當無超自然體的概念，對於客體尚未神化、無敬拜求告之念，一切全靠幻想，認為某些行動可影響某些現象或事物，如法術巫術、針刺木刻人形、佩戴玉石等。舊石器時代洞穴壁畫的野獸圖像遍佈被利器刺傷之痕跡多認為是行法術以增加狩獵命中率。而尼安德特人山頂洞人等的墓葬中都發現屍骨上撒滿紅粉及砂石可能是以血色物行法術以求死者死後安穩或再生。當宗教及神靈觀念形成巫術法術多成為宗教的附屬行動。研究宗教起源的學科為宗教人类学主要理論為萬物有靈論前萬物有靈論巫術論原始一神論功能論神話結構學說及語言疾病學說前四者屬進化論學派後三者屬文化圈學派。萬物有靈論由英国考古学家愛德華伯內特泰勒提出認為原始人在形成宗教前先有之概念人在對影子倒影回聲呼吸睡眠中覺得人的物質身體之內有一種非物質的東西使人具有生命而當中以夢境的感受影響最大當這種未知的東西離開身體時身體便喪失活動能力呼吸也停止泰勒稱這種未知的東西為Anima。原始人推演一切生長或活動之東西甚如日月皆有Anima然而近代宗教學家認為原始人未具這種抽象的推理能力也未發現任何考古實證。又稱之概念之時先具備一種概念就是認為整個世界是活的故世界每件東西也是活的並非以各物皆具有自己的獨立靈魂為前提然而也未發現任何考古實證。巫術論由弗雷澤提出，他認為人類精神是由巫術發展到宗教，再到科學。巫術是一種准宗教現象。原始人認為巫術可控制自然，原因不外乎是接觸律或相似律，即認為取得某東西的一部分作法可影響該物之全部，又或認為對該物之相似物作法可影響該物，但當人類不相信這種虛擬力量時，則轉移為對超自然存在物的撫慰和慈悲。語言疾病學說由德国哲学家馬克斯繆勒提出他認為古代印歐語言抽象詞彙少當中某些概念性詞彙必須賦予人格化的聯繫否則就無法運用。諸神最初只是自然現象的名字後來從詞彙中人格化造成實在感神話由此誕生。这样引起敬畏的對象逐漸被語言所掩蓋並由於隱喻行為而最終與直接的知覺相分離。原始一神論由施米特提出，他認為在最古老的文化中普遍有最上神的存在，可見於北美極地民族、俾格米人及澳洲東南土著，故一神論才是人類最古老的宗教觀，至上神的形象是來自神的最初啟示，往後的宗教發展呈退化趨勢，被諸神論及鬼靈精怪所掩蓋。功能论最先由英国人类学家馬林諾夫斯基所提出，亦為一系列之後的功能學派理論的總稱，他認為宗教儀式和巫術行為等是為滿足個體的心理需要，減緩生活壓力，提供積極的生活態度以面對生死考驗，也保護部落的傳統和價值觀，這些功能主要分為生物性、精神性及規範性三方面。神話結構學說由法国人类学家李維史陀提出他認為世界上不同的地方的原始人類的心靈皆有共同結構皆欲解釋世界上的事這種共相是發展出一套又一套神話的原動力。宗教理智論是以理智、邏輯去探討宗教，它就像一把雙刃劍，可反教也可護教。反教者觀點以羅素詞鋒最為突出，首先，他認為如果萬物都有起因，那上帝也應不例外，而宗教所說的第一起因根本是無邏輯可言。第二他認為科學帶有某程度的隨機性，今天我們得知量子力學、混沌理論也有一定程度的不可測性，這表明自然法則很可能非出自決定一切的上帝之手，而僅僅是不斷變化的科學的暫時結論。另外，他又認為神學家充滿了「人擇原理」的不合理期望，神學家認為世界之所以是這個樣子，是為了讓人們生存，這種比方無疑等於說人長出高高的鼻子是為了架眼鏡的道理一樣，將結果變為原因，羅素認為人類的出現只是自然進化的一個產物，如果上帝是創造者，為何創造了法西斯黨或這麼多恐怖主義？他又認為，如果是非標準取決於上帝的話，那上帝本身就不應該有至善性可言，如果相信上帝是至善，那麼就不得不承認是非標準由上帝以外的東西去下判斷，這種兩難，亦令有神論者為之結舌。斯溫伯恩是著名的理性論護教者，他主要從的其中一個可能解釋是一神論，因為在一神論中上帝肯定有能力做到這點，秩序性除令宇宙更美好外，還可讓人控制自然，改變自然以生存。進化論觀點在這個問題中是不可能優於設計論的，因為我們不免要問到進化這種法則到底是從何而來呢？這令我們要麼不作解釋，要麼從假設中作出解釋，即以一神論假設作出合理解釋。對於以上兩種從科學、理性去解釋宗教的理性論，用科學去反教或護教皆是無謂的，因為兩者所尋求的真理在不同的意域，理應分而治之，科學只可與另一科學相爭，宗教也只可與另一宗教相爭。他認為諸如量子力學測不準理論一推出，馬上就有人用來證明創世論、神跡說、自由說是可笑的。爭執得最烈的是進化論，反對者只拘泥於聖經的字面意義，把創世描述科學化，歪曲信仰。宗教情感論旨在表明宗教的本質與意義非體現於理智的活動和成果是一種直覺。情感論甫一推出即受到邏輯上的質疑施萊爾馬赫暗指沒有情感的宗教體驗是談不上信仰宗教換言之宗教情感可證明信仰。可是別忘記如果宗教是。另一宗教學家潘能伯格批評情感論者將宗教淪為個人經驗宗教只是各人自己對無限情感的主觀而這種主觀卻沒有任何約束力。宗教意志論起於帕斯卡，由威廉·詹姆士承之。總括來說，信仰輪不到我們用理智去選擇信與不信，而是分析風險作出賭注，可用，在目前我們正反兩方皆各有論據，在可見將來也不見得有人能完全支持或推翻神存在的命題，因此我們並不可委身理智而猶豫不決，因避免謬誤而喪失好處，而這也大有可能令上帝不悅，而信與不信可看成是人生一場重大的賭注，如果相信有上帝的存在，賭贏了可獲得一切，若賭輸了也不會失去什麼，然而若不信有上帝的存在，賭贏了只是情感上的勝利，而賭輸卻將失去來生的盼望。關於意志論的觀點，羅素批評意志論為「功利、主觀」，第一，詹姆斯只一廂情願認為信仰宗教可得到永生盼望，可是在這命題上他沒有去證實過，有可能信神反而要下地獄也說不定。另外，對虔誠的宗教徒來說，神是確切存在的，就如歷史上有過毛澤東這樣的一個人，正統的宗教徒會認為「我信上帝，故我有福」，而非詹姆斯所說的「如果信上帝，你就會幸福」。意志論將宗教的超越感、神聖抹掉、要求絕對委身的教徒變為功利的現代商人，只會令人變得只信好處，不探真實。人类普遍认可整个宇宙必定是同一于一个最终极的根源因此正如普遍认为的国家终将消亡一样宗教作为一种人类社会中有形的存在也应该会消亡于终极的包容性和同一性之中。由於信息發達、宗教自由，加上社會經濟再非自給自足，全球一體化實行，地球村逐漸形成。宗教間的對話不只是自我生存、宣揚正道的需要，也是免卻災難衝突的方法，無論是教會間、還是各宗教間，越來越多人提出要站出來對話，當中各宗教有其自我立場，分別為排他論、多元論及兼併論。排他論者主張眾多宗教中只有一種是絕對真實的其餘的皆為謬誤排他論者在真理問題上有一種絕對化的觀點而這也是宗教的本性如果某宗教不是唯一的「真理」那麼它就不值得信仰事實上任何一個教徒只要它表示對自己的宗教忠心就自然產生了一種內在的排他性。排他論是大多數一神論宗教的正統立場它們只認為自己的神才是真神只有委身於該宗教才可得到拯救其他的宗教被視為非真實。當這種排他性排除其他種族時成為種族主義或是排除其他異教徒而成為封閉宗教在人類可知歷史上有多次因此類意識形態的排他而起之大型爭鬥。亚伯拉罕诸教是典型的排他論宗教但基督宗教的部分派系也提出造成反排他論者認為這只是一種狹隘的拯救觀這並非至善至美的神該有的。多元論者主張世界各大信仰雖十分不同，但這只是我們稱之為神或上帝在生活中同等有效的理解、體驗和回應方式。希克認為各宗教就像。然而反多元論者認為這根本破壞了宗教的本質如果承認其他宗教也是對的那各宗教教義聖典就欠缺了獨一性。瞎子摸象非共享一終極實體的不同面而是全都錯了尾巴怎麼也不可能代表象。除非有人能說出整個象的實體否則各宗教站出來對話只是一對瞎子亂說與其說全部都有理不如說全部都錯。另外反多元論者認為要求基督教徒與佛教徒談話又要與不可知論者無神論者取得共識是不切實際的這只是一大堆盲人亂說一通與象的形態越來越遠。兼併論站在排他論與多元論之間，它一方面認為上帝只得一個，卻又把其他宗教看成是「合法的宗教」，神給予各宗教救贖的啟示，只是其他宗教在接受神的恩典時夾雜著因文化差異而出現的偏差，他們所表達的並不如某一宗教般正統，其他宗教只是一些「無名的教徒」，他們接受了部分正確卻部分錯誤的觀念，正統的教徒就是要去糾正他們。反兼併論者認為這種論調將兼併論放在一個很不利的位置因為若其他宗教接受啟示並不完善也可得到神恩典救贖那為什麼還要說服他們信正統宗教？而更是放諸四海皆準的說話既然大家都有神的恩典那一種宗教才是真正的宗教？那一種才是無名的宗教？這種隱含的排他性也使得兼併論者兩頭不討好。宗教在世界上各个国家和民族中都广泛存在。宗教与政治的关系很复杂，宗教信仰会影响法律。宗教也是一种社会意识形态，是上层建筑的一部分。在历史上，宗教常常被统治阶层用来作为统治人民的精神工具。另一方面，宗教也常常被反抗者用来作为反抗压迫的工具。现代在许多国家公民都有宗教信仰的自由既有信教的自由也有不信教的自由有信这种教的自由也有信那种教的自由它是公民的基本权利之一。中世纪时世界上有許多国家都采取政教合一的制度国家政权与宗教合而为一宗教首领就是国家首脑直接掌握国家政权设立单一的宗教成为国教教规就是国法公民必须信奉和遵守公民没有信仰其他宗教或不信仰宗教的自由否则会被认为是「异教徒」而遭到迫害。但在古代中国由于儒家思想的影响允许公民有信仰其他宗教的自由但各种其他宗教必须纳入儒家伦理的框架中。目前中华人民共和国所认定的宗教必须以爱国为思想教条之一。马克思主义的观点认为当社会发展到共产主义宗教将会消失。在宗教的發展過程中，不可避免的會與文化、藝術產生交集。历史上有许多著名科学家都有宗教信仰，如欧拉和柯西。费曼认为有超过半数的科学家无宗教信仰，而且科学不能论证上帝不存在。由于宗教很多的说法无法或未被证实但又被说成如同存在的，只是套套逻辑，内容并非实在而精密。其中基督教、伊斯蘭教和佛教常被称为世界三大宗教。印度教信教人口虽高于佛教，但它涵盖的范围一般仅在特定国家或民族之内，所以一般不列入世界三大宗教之中。清末救亡圖存的動亂中，康有為等人，試圖仿效西方基督教國家的國教習慣，將儒家改造成宗教，立為國教。此舉引發了孔教爭論。1917年中，的方案受到挫敗。另一方面，陳獨秀等反孔力量逐步做大。在某些國家和地區，儒學仍被視為宗教，如臺灣的中國儒教會，印尼的孔教會，香港的孔教學院。 +图书馆学是一门研究图书馆收集、加工、整理、保藏、控制、传递和利用文献訊息的理论、方法以及图书馆事业发展规律的科学，是一门综合性学科。“图书馆学”一詞最早由德国图书馆学家马丁施莱廷格于1807年提出他将图书馆学定义为“图书馆实施有目的的组织所需要的理论准则的概括”。图书馆学自概念提出已有200多年的历史。在過去因為出版商習慣不斷推出更新版本教科書價格不但昂貴同時資訊內容也很容易過時或不便對照。因為其在網路上容易更新的特質可以協助解決這類問題。同時使用開放授權以及維持線上也對老師們的幫助很大因為這樣一來老師便可以依照自己的課程需求來編修教學資源。在这200多年间图书馆学随着时代的发展不断革新。施莱廷格最早使用“图书馆学”这一名称表示图书馆学是一门独立的知识系统他认为图书馆学的研究对象为“图书馆整理”从而建立了图书馆整理论的理论体系这在图书馆学的发展历史上具有开创意义。此后也有众多学者提出定义但是由于时代在发展每个人的观点都受其所处环境的限制。由此可见图书馆学是随着时代的发展而变化的。图书馆学的研究对象随着定义的变化也在不断变化，从图书馆实体到訊息资源，以及图书馆用户都是其不可或缺的重要组成部分。图书馆学五定律在1931年提出。圖書館學新五律由美國學者W. Crawford與M. Gorman二人在1995年提出。圖書館的原始功能在於保存人類文化是故文明古國如埃及中國等皆為早期圖書館的發祥地。早期圖書館館藏大抵分為寺院典籍政府檔案商業簿契和宗族譜牒等四種類型。隨著人類文明的演進文學歷史與其他其參考留傳價值的文籍亦開始納入收藏。據記載，西元前3,000年的埃及和前2,000年的巴比倫圖書館館藏已有編排整理。著名的亞歷山大圖書館則是希臘文明於西元前3世紀初年建立的。該館館藏達700,000卷，乃為當時西方世界最大的圖書館。古羅馬對文化資源非常重視，亦帶動起圖書館事業的蓬勃。儘管早期羅馬圖書館的服務對象只限於貴族，但時至羅馬文化最盛時期，許多圖書館皆開放給民眾使用。此亦即公共圖書館的濫觴。羅馬之後，西方世界戰火連綿。古文化在歐陸淪於黑暗時期之際，全靠寺廟圖書館保存，免於流失。直到千餘年後的文藝復興，圖書館事業才又重見曙光。19世紀以降，系統化的圖書整理、保存、檢索及傳播等技術，更趨成熟，為圖書館事業的後續發展奠下基礎。在這時期竄起，而對未來影響深遠的圖書館學巨擘，計有德國的艾伯特、卡萊特、美國的杜威等人。目前，中国高校对图书馆学专业的学生的培养目标和要求如下：图书馆，IT行业，互联网公司，資訊咨询公司、資訊处理公司、数据分析公司 +這是年表列表年表或历史年表又称時間表時間軸是将有关历史的资料依时间或年份先后排列而成的列表即將一件發生在某年某月某日的歷史事件以最簡單的形式重點地記錄下來。它们对于了解历史起着重要的作用。请参见年代学和编年体。《义勇军进行曲》是1935年5月在中華民國上海市上映的華語電影《风云儿女》的主題歌。此音樂先有歌詞再配以樂曲原名《反满抗日义勇军进行曲》田汉作詞聂耳譜上人声主旋律阿隆阿甫夏洛穆夫編寫管弦乐总谱。此曲在中華民國的抗日战争時期是相當有名的軍歌國民革命軍第200師师长戴安澜定为该师軍歌該師在1942年远征緬甸也有奏唱。。1949年9月27日中华人民共和国定為暫定国歌。1966年文化大革命时作词者田汉被批斗至死《义勇军进行曲》的歌詞被禁而改為純音樂《东方红》取代《义勇军进行曲》为暫定国歌。1978年文化大革命期间集体填词的《义勇军进行曲》被正式通过为中华人民共和国国歌。1982年撤销1978年的新词恢复田汉作词版。1934年秋，田汉寫了電影剧本。1935年5月，唱片由由百代公司灌錄發行，由袁牧之、顾梦鹤及電通影片公司演唱队首唱。田汉所寫的《反满抗日义勇军进行曲》歌词是否有更早的雛型並無定論。2002年遼寧省中共黨史部門在採風時一名老人誦出的《血盟救国军军歌》歌詞與《义勇军进行曲》颇为相似不過老人所誦的曲調則近似於東北民歌《苏武牧羊歌》和《大帅练兵歌》而血盟救国军是1931年10月在遼東清原縣創建。此曲是知名的中華民國抗日战争歌曲。1937年9月吴晓邦参加上海救亡演剧队在京沪线上演出他根据编演了第一齣抗战舞蹈。國民革命軍第200師师长戴安澜定为该师军歌該師在1942年远征緬甸也有奏唱。1947年2月8日中華民國南京国民政府禁止广播及灌制。1949年7月4日在中南海勤政殿第一会议室主持召开了第六小组第一次会议叶剑英推选郭沫若田汉茅盾钱三强欧阳予倩等5人组成国歌词谱初选委员会郭沫若为召集人。8月5日第六小组第二次会议决定聘请四位音乐专业人士马思聪贺绿汀吕骥姚锦为国歌词谱初选委员会顾问。由郭沫若等人起草的等各大报纸连续刊登8天。同时中国内地香港和海外华侨报纸也纷纷转载。截止到8月24日，筹备会收到有关国歌稿件350多篇。同日，第六小组第三次会议在北京饭店举行，对应徵的国歌歌词进行分析，认为应选者很少。9月14日，第六小组第四次会议上，马寅初提出国歌在正式大会赶不出来。9月17日，新政协筹备会第二次全体会议召开，同意担任此项工作的第六小组直接向政协第一届全体会议主席团提出工作情况报告。9月21日，第六小组共收到应征国歌632件，歌词694首。当天，中国人民政治协商会议第一届全体会议在北平召开，55人组成的国旗、国徽、国歌、国都、纪年方案审查委员会成立，马叙伦为召集人。9月25日在中南海丰泽园，毛泽东、周恩来召开国旗、国徽、国歌、纪年、国都协商座谈会，郭沫若、茅盾、黄炎培、陈嘉庚、张奚若、马叙伦、田汉、徐悲鸿、李立三、洪深、艾青、马寅初、梁思成、马思聪、吕骥、贺绿汀等18人出席。马叙伦等建议用为国歌。”1953年定稿的管弦乐总谱出自李焕之。1949年11月15日为国歌的作用是一样的。”文化大革命時取消歌詞.因为田汉的歌词不能再唱了，当时社会上掀起了一股全民参与修改国歌歌词的热潮。 +中国人民邮政1979年发行的中华人民共和国成立30周年纪念邮票，编号J.46(1-1)，面额人民币8分，就有集体填词的《中华人民共和国国歌》和歌谱。中国共产党十一届三中全会以后1979年原中央专案组对田汉的被推翻。田汉得到昭雪平反1979年4月25日在北京八宝山革命公墓为他开了一个迟到的追悼会。1982年12月4日第五届全国人民代表大会第五次会议通过关于中华人民共和国国歌的决议撤销1978年3月全国人民代表大会通过的歌词恢复田汉作词聂耳作曲的作为国歌写入宪法。2005年5月26日，国家版权局答复中国音乐著作权协会表示，从文艺创作角度而言，国歌与其他文学艺术作品并无本质差别，应当同等地受到保护。尽管现行版曲谱中标注的词作者只有田汉一人，实际上，孙师毅、聂耳也参与了作词。孙师毅把田汉原诗的“冒着敌人的飞机大炮”改为“冒着敌人的炮火”，去掉了原作的语病，并更加简洁和富有象征性；聂耳将“冒着敌人的炮火，前进！”重复一次，并新增“前进！前进！前进！”作为结尾，强调了呼号感，使得这篇歌词更符合汉语歌曲对腔词关系的要求。2021年3月1日，国家语言文字工作委员会语言文字规范正式发布。根据2015年8月26日国家新闻出版广电总局发布的名单，排名第一。举行升旗仪式时，国歌为必奏歌曲，另外，每逢国庆节的国庆盛典，外交场合和中国代表队在国际性体育赛事夺得金牌时，也要奏国歌。中华人民共和国境内各少数民族自治地区在官方活动场合演唱本曲，习惯上都使用普通话。不过，并未规定演唱国歌时必须使用哪一种语言，理论上该曲的少数民族语言版本与普通话版本是可以并行使用的。另外，1965年创作的管弦乐曲的音乐元素。至于手语版本则以2021年3月1日起实施的执行。2021年3月4日在中国人民政治协商会议第十三届全国委员会第四次会议开幕会上中国残疾人艺术团团长邰丽华与手语翻译用手语演唱国歌。此外中央人民广播电台和中国国际广播电台的广播开始曲同样采用了该曲。其间上述于重要纪念日上午10点整播放国歌的条款则被暂时冻结。2020年1月1日起上述要求不再作为强制性规定但央视央广和绝大多数地方台至今仍按照此规定播放国歌。自從1997年7月1日香港回归起，《義勇軍進行曲》即在香港特別行政區作為國歌使用，國歌可適用於-{zh-hans:升旗;zh-hk:升旗;zh-tw:升旗;}-儀式、中國香港代表隊在中外國際賽事得獎升旗禮時、紀念二次世界大戰捐軀者活動或其他場合，如國際會議、太陽計劃同根同心慶回歸大匯演和特區政府就職典禮、各大學畢業典禮等。2004年10月1日起，香港各大电视台每天傍晚新聞前必須播放《心系家国》政府廣告，其中有整段國歌。2017年11月4日，第十二屆全國人大常委會第三十次會議通過把《國歌法》納入香港基本法附件三，將由當地立法引入香港成為香港法律一部分。2020年6月，經立法會三讀後時任行政長官林鄭月娥簽署《國歌條例》，6月12日刊憲生效。2020年11月16日起香港电台各电台频道统一在早晨播放国歌。香港商业电台新城电台也採取相同措施。自從1999年12月20日澳門回歸起《義勇軍進行曲》在澳門特別行政區作為國歌的使用及保護以第5/1999號法律（）訂定。該法律第七條規定國歌應依照本法附件四的正式總樂譜的準確規定進行演奏並且不得修改國歌的歌詞。依據第九條演奏國歌時蓄意不依歌譜或更改歌詞構成對國家象徵的不尊重。第九條也規定以言詞動作或散佈文書又或以其他與公眾通訊的工具公然侮辱國家象徵又或對之不尊重者處最高3年徒刑或最高360日罰金。雖然中文及葡萄牙文都是澳門官方語文但附件四的正式總樂譜僅有中文歌詞沒有葡萄牙文翻譯。另外澳广视各频道亦会在部分时段播放国歌。2017年11月4日第十二屆全國人大常委會第三十次會議通過把《國歌法》納入澳門基本法附件三引入澳門成為澳門法律一部分。在2015年9月3日的纪念中国人民抗日战争暨世界反法西斯战争胜利70周年文艺晚会上，进行了共同演绎，并由知名钢琴家郎朗进行钢琴演奏。抗日战争期间，美国黑人歌王保罗·罗伯逊在纽约听到。可參照保罗·罗伯逊演唱的英文版本。另外，斯洛文尼亚的乐队亦演奏电子版，用英语和汉语演唱；英国歌手戴蒙·亚邦参与了著名中文小说所改编舞台剧的作曲，便使用了该曲的曲调。第二次世界大战将要结束时美国国务院曾提出在反法西斯战争胜利之日演奏的各战胜国音乐时选定作为代表中國的音乐。第二次世界大战中法蘭克卡普拉拍摄的战争纪录片。而在米高梅公司出品的黑白抗日主旋律电影的旋律。《中华人民共和国宪法》第136条（2018年修改后为第141条）规定“中华人民共和国国歌是《义勇军进行曲》。”全国人大常委会法工委主任沈春耀在草案提审的说明中称“多年来国歌所承载的爱国情怀忧患意识和奋勇前行的民族精神深入人心广大人民群众热爱祖国尊崇国歌国歌奏唱和使用总体情况是比较好的。但实际生活中也存在奏唱国歌不规范参与者举止不得体国歌标准曲谱未予发布影响奏唱和播放效果等。”為規範國歌的奏唱中共中央宣傳部1984年8月1日下發了《關於中華人民共和國國歌奏唱的暫行辦法》2014年12月12日中共中央辦公廳國務院辦公廳印發了《關於規範國歌奏唱禮儀的實施意見》但兩者的立法層次都顯得很低僅僅只是一種效力十分有限的部門規章。曾任解放军军乐团团长的于海从2007年开始就关注国歌立法。2017年初中共中央总书记习近平对国歌立法作出重要批示全国人大常委会对习近平的批示高度重视将其列入2017年的立法工作计划。2017年5月2日全国人大常委会公布《2017年立法工作计划》《国歌法》于2017年6月初次审议。2017年6月22日在第十二屆全國人大常委會第28次會議上提請審議了《國歌法》草案。2017年9月1日12届全国人大常委会第29次会议表決通過《中華人民共和國國歌法》將於當年10月1日起實施。根据《国歌法》在全國人民代表大會和地方各級人民代表大會開幕會議閉幕會議中國人民政治協商會議全國委員會和地方委員會開幕會議閉幕會議憲法宣誓儀式升國旗儀式各級機關組織的重大慶典活動重要表彰儀式重大紀念儀式國家公祭等重大外交活動重大體育賽事以及其他需要奏唱國歌的場合均需要奏唱國歌。《国歌法》同时規定國務院確定的主管部門組織審定用於演唱的國歌標準曲譜錄製用於播放的國歌官方錄音版本。國歌標準曲譜和官方錄音版本應當在中國政府網上發佈。《国歌法》还规定在公共場合惡意修改國歌歌詞或者故意以歪曲貶損方式奏唱國歌損害國歌莊嚴形象的可以由公安機關處以十五日以下拘留。另外奏唱国歌时应当着装得体精神饱满肃立致敬有仪式感和庄重感自始至终跟唱吐字清晰节奏适当不得改变曲调配乐歌词不得中途停唱或者中途跟唱不得交语击节走动或者鼓掌不得接打电话或者从事其他无关行为。除外事活动可以连奏有关国家国歌或者有关国际组织会歌外国歌不得与其他歌曲紧接奏唱。中共中央宣传部还规定国歌要求人人会唱。小学要将教唱国歌列入课程应根据歌词的内容对学生进行爱国主义教育。从歌中体会中华民族苦难深重的历史和中华先烈不屈的战斗精神从而激发民族责任感从小树立为祖国奋斗献身的坚定信念。而提到2017年9月29日，国家新闻出版广电总局发布精神组织专家审定后录制。2017年11月4日第十二届全国人大常委会表决通过的刑法修正案十规定在公共场合故意篡改中华人民共和国国歌歌词曲谱以歪曲贬损方式奏唱国歌或者以其他方式侮辱国歌情节严重的处3年以下有期徒刑拘役管制或者剥夺政治权利。2011年2月27日因利比亚局势不断恶化中国军方开始其撤侨行动。由于护照丢失当时北京建工集团的车辆全被扣在检查站在中方工作人员高唱国歌后边防官员打开关卡放行。2014年7月21日中国国家主席习近平访问委内瑞拉在委方举行的欢迎仪式上例行演奏中国国歌《义勇军进行曲》。但在演奏时国歌曲调出现了严重跑调-{zh-hans引发zh-hant引發}-网友热议。委内瑞拉方面暂时没有公开解释演奏中国国歌走调一事中方也没有就此问题进行表态但在演奏时习近平等人表现淡定。2015年5月27日，中国国务院总理李克强访问智利期间，智利总统巴切莱特在总统府举行国宴欢迎李克强并现场播放国歌时，因突遇音响故障无法播放。后李克强提议改为现场歌唱，并为中国代表团领唱。2009年9月26日位于上海杨浦区大连路地铁站2号口的上海国歌纪念广场及国歌展示馆正式开馆至2010年9月25日正式对外开放。该馆主要展示诞生的背景和过程传唱和影响被确定为国歌国歌作者国歌故事等国歌知识。 +2000年，中国夏商周断代工程结题，该工程对盘庚迁殷至周共和元年（前841年）之间的君主进行了详细的断代，本处的年表，即为该工程的结果。不过，由于夏商周断代工程存在一些争议，该工程的最后报告繁本也一直未能通过。因此，本处所指的共和之前的年表，不能确定是否符合历史。禹、启、太康、中康、相、、少康、杼、槐、芒、泄、不降、扃、廑、孔甲、皋、發、履癸Qin/Ch'in 秦 前200 前300 前400 前500 前600 前700 前800 前900 前100 前1100 前1200<-----+ 汉 +-+ 秦 (Qin/Ch'in, 前248- 前207)+---东周战国--+ +------东周春秋-------+ (Western Zhou/Chou, 前1121?- 前771) +---------西周-----------+前200 前300 前400 前500 前600 前700 前800 前900 前100 前1100 前1200公元 皇帝/君王 备注前249 庄襄王(子楚,- 前247)即位前240 齐邹衍( 前305?- 前240)逝前221 灭齐天下統一設郡县收民间兵器定币制前220 北巡;治驰道于天下前219 泰山封禅派徐福东海求仙药前218 东巡,遭张良使人袭于博浪沙前214 蒙恬败匈奴;筑驪山寿陵前214 增筑长城西起臨洮东迄远东前213 李斯建议焚书令前212 筑阿房宮受侯生卢生譏訕坑儒460多人前210 南巡于沙丘宮病逝前209 陈胜吴广起义300 200 100 0 前100 前200 前300<----晋------+ +-三国-+ (Three Kingdoms, 220-280)+------东汉----------+ (Eastern Han, 25-220)++ 新莽 (Xin/Hsin 9-25)300 200 100 0 前100 前200 前300Western Han 西汉 公元 年号 皇帝 备注前202 项羽乌江自尽前197 韩信(- 前197)被杀前195 高后吕雉专政前180 文帝(刘恒, 前202- 前157)前180 贾谊为国学博士前178 陈平(- 前178)逝前154 吴楚七国之乱前141 年号使用开始前119 霍去病击匈奴于祈连山前105 乌孙公主嫁乌孙王猎骄靡前59 郑吉动员渠梨龜茲诸国数万人出迎匈奴日逐王前49 王皇后( 前71- 前13)外戚勢力抬头前33 王昭君(王嬙)嫁匈奴王呼韩邪单于6 居摄攝 孺子（刘婴6-8）嬰8 初始 西汉( 前206-8)结束 +Xin/Hsin (Wang Mang interregnum) 新莽 (9-23计15年)公元 年号 皇帝 备注18 赤眉之乱(18-27)起公元 年号 皇帝 备注23 更始 更始帝即位Eastern/Later Han 东汉 公元 年号 皇帝 备注25 建武 光武帝即位57 倭奴国王遣使至洛阳65 派蔡愔往天竺求佛典佛僧77 班超(Pan Ch'ao, 32-102)扺西域边境92 «汉书»作者班固死狱中97 王充(27-97?)逝著有«论衡»100 许慎著«说文解字»105 元兴 殤帝(刘隆105-106)125 少帝 即北乡侯139 张衡逝发明候风地动仪147 安息安世高至洛阳166 第一次党錮之祸167 月氏支婁伽讖至洛阳169 第二次党錮之祸189 光熹 少帝 即弘农王189 昭宁 何太后(-189)專政196 建安 曹操(155-220)挾献帝自重198 呂布(-198)被杀200 官渡之役曹操(155-220)破袁绍(-202)207 刘备(162-223)三顾茅庐请诸葛亮(181-234)208 赤壁之战,刘备,孙权破曹操219 孙权(182-252)斩关羽(160?-219)220 延康 曹丕篡漢东汉结束Three Kingdoms 三国 300 275 250 225 200<------+ 十六国 (Sixteen Kingdoms 304-439) +--------------吴---------------------+300 275 250 225 200公元 魏年号 皇帝 蜀年号 皇帝 吴年号 皇帝220 黃初 魏文帝即位221 章武 蜀昭烈帝即位221 张飞(-221)被杀226 魏明帝(曹叡,-239)227 诸葛亮写«出师表»228 诸葛亮(181-234)写«后出师表»229 黃龙 吳大帝孫權229 吳大帝正式即位251 司马懿(175-251)逝252 神凤 吴会稽王(孙亮)254 正元 魏高贵乡公 五凤258 景耀 永安 吴景帝260 景元 魏元帝(曹奂)262 竹林七贤嵇康(223-262)被杀263 竹林七贤阮籍逝263 炎兴 蜀后主退位264 咸熙 元兴 吴乌程公(孙皓)265 魏元帝退位 甘露265 司马昭(221-265)逝教育，通常有廣義和狹義兩種概念。廣義的教育泛指一切傳播和學習人類文明成果，即各種知識、技能和社會生活經驗，以促進個體社會化和社會個性化的社會實踐活動，產生於人類社會初始階段；狹義的教育專指學校教育，即制度化教育。廣義的教育則包含社會待人處事的方方面面，例如家教、禮儀等文明與社會的教育。在学校教育中教师直接向学生教授一系列课程包括阅读写作数学科学历史等。与之相对地职业教育中只教授单一的职业技能。除此之外人们还可以从其他渠道获得非正式的教育如博物馆图书馆互联网以及生活中的经验。其他一些新的教育方式也逐渐出现。如今，受教育权已被普遍认为是一项基本人权，1952年发表的《欧洲人权公约》和联合国1966年发表的《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》均承认此项权利。教育过程开始于出生并持续终身已被广泛接受。有些人甚至相信教育可以开始得更早，一些父母让子宫里的胎儿听音乐和故事，希望对孩子发展产生影响。“教育”一词的英文-{zh-hans词汇zh-hant字彙}- educate或education来源于拉丁语"ducti"意思是“引出”。此外，社会根据受教育程度选拔人才；人通过受教育实现社会地位的变迁。教育伴随着人类社会的产生而产生，随着社会的发展而发展，与人类社会共始终。对教育的定义，各国学者认识不同。如美国的杜威说：又或更具體地把學校教育也視為啟蒙，為公民參與民主選舉作準備（Michelli & Keiser, 2005）。中文裡的字。从汉字造字之初就说明了教育是一種強制性引導性使人們符合社會規範的作為。教学体系囊括了一种遵循或者根据日程表而制定的程序化教学它通常在教育体系设立之始即确立一定的预设目的。教育体系通常根据受教育人的心智年龄职业有关也和性别宗教等而产生不同类型。在正规教育中课程是指某所学校或大学所提供的一系列系统的完整的课程和内容安排。受教育人通过完成一定的课程而实行一定的社会目的比如孩子经过教育能够训练为一名成熟的人。课程是规范式或相对随意的通常基于更详细的教学大纲包括某些需要掌握的话题和知识点以及取得某一级别所需要的成绩或标准。一个学科通常是指某一类教授的知识或者是通过大学教育或者其他方法。某一学科通常包括一些子学科或分支其区分往往非常严谨比如自然科学类数学类计算机科学社会科学人类科学和应用型科学等。在一些国家的中学教育中往往教育单位甚至提供一些符合大学标准的课程作为选修比如音乐舞蹈或歌剧。学前教育是指提供未满学龄的孩子进行教育的学校或机构，通常是幼教学校为主。学前教育可以提供一个孩子尽早接触竞争性社会和教育环境的机会。孩子通过学前教育进行学习一些字母、数字、颜色与绘画等训练，往往在开始规范式教育时，领先于同龄的、未受过学前教育的孩子。但真正的学前教育，应当是提供以孩子为中心的、目的是拓展孩子的智能和自身潜力等。初等教育通常包括受教育者最初的五年至七年的正規教育。通常來說初等教育通常開始於受教育者五歲或六歲時這往往和其所在的國家規定相關。根據聯合國教科文組織統計全球範圍的89%適齡兒童正在進行初等教育而且這一比率呈上升趨勢。在其的工程下大多數國家已經完成初等教育的全部實現。在一些國家中比如大韓民國和中华人民共和国等初等教育被規定為義務性教育。提供此類初等教育的機構被廣泛稱之為在一些國家中初等教育學校還會再分為幼兒園和小學。在大多數現代教育體系國家中中等教育囊括了受教育者在青春期所進行的正規教育。它被當做是從常規的義務性初等教育向有競爭力的高等教育或技能教育的轉化期。基於這種教育體系下從事中等教育的機構包括普通中學初級中學高級中學職業學校等。這一區别也因國别不同而有所區分通常是包括七年級至十二年級的階段。在美國加拿大和澳大利亚的教育體系中中等教育和初等教育通常合稱。中等教育的目的是提供通識教育去幫助受教育者為高等教育奠定基礎或者向某一專業進行有目的的培養。中等教育在美国1910年方才兴起，很大程度上受到当时经济的提升与工厂对技能工人的要求。为满足此类工作岗位的需求，各地纷纷建立中学，其教学大纲往往聚焦于工作技能的培训，以帮助他们更好地升任白领工人或技术性蓝领工人的工作要求。这对雇佣者和受雇佣者都带来了益处，它帮助受雇佣者提高效率，并降低雇佣者的成本。而在欧洲，中等教育的普及更多是和公民教育等理念相应而生。中国随着清朝末期的学制改革，也相应引进了中等教育理念。在一些国家中，中等教育仍然被视为强制性的义务教育，尽管其受到了自主学习等教育理念的冲击。专科教育是指一类为某一需求或领域提供直接或专业性的培训教育，例如电脑专科学校。专科教育通常与培训、实习等相伴，其课程通常包括手工艺、农学、机械工程、药物、建筑、计算机或艺术等，以培养适应不同市场的人才。隨着社會變遷，自20世紀後期起，全球多國推行教育改革，除了傳統學科知識外，也開始重視21世紀技能。一些家長會為子女選擇非主流學校提供的另類教育如民主學校。一些政府視在學校接受教育為義務教育的唯一合法模式但也有一些政府容許家長安排子女在家自學。在1994年，柏林自由大学的Dieter Lenzen称：教育可以说是从几百年前开始，也可以说是从十八世纪七十年代末开始的，同时Lenzen也认为做为一种科学的教育学是很难和在此之前已经存在多年的传统教育区别开来。在西方，教育的起源受到宗教组织的巨大影响：神父们认识到教育的重要性，建立起学校体系。在欧洲，许多最初的大学都有天主教背景。苏格兰宗教改革之后建立了新的国立苏格兰教会。中國教育最早可追溯到夏朝，開始於中國古典著作，而不是宗教組織。漢武帝罷黜百家，獨尊儒術以後，儒學經典遂成為中國教育的主要教授和學習方向。古代中國任用經各種選拔制度後的受教育官員管理帝國，而後世主要用來選拔官員的科舉考試制度則建立於隋朝，歷經唐朝、五代十國到宋代後科舉制臻於完善。宋朝教育發達，苏轼在记录宋代福建南剑州农村“家乐教子，五步一塾，十步一庠，朝诵暮弦，洋洋盈耳”。南宋时“都城内外，有文武两学，宗学、京学、县学之外，其余乡校、家塾、舍观、书会，每一里巷须一二所。弘诵之声，往往相闻”。叶适说：“今吴、越、闽、蜀，家能著书，人知挟册。”直到清朝末期的1905年正式廢除，並以西方教育方式取代之。日本教育的起源与宗教密切相关。学校是培养想要研究佛教成为僧侣的年轻人的庙宇。后来想要学习的孩子就要去学习如何读写日文。在过去几十年中，未受任何学校教育的文盲人口的百分比下降了。从1960年的36%下降到2000年的25%。在发展中国家2000年文盲百分比只有1970年的一半。在发达国家文盲也从6％下降到1％未受学校教育者从5％下降到2％。私人组织如耶稣基督后期圣徒教会正在努力通过Perpetual教育基金使发展中国家的个人得到更多接受教育的机会。在各國自身努力和各界協助下部分欠發達國家的普及度有所改善但其教育水平仍不及較發達國家。另外部分國家的國民仍無法接受教育由於當地長期面對長期戰亂教師不足童工問題飢荒衛生條件威脅等問題教育機會較低和未能普及故識字率也較低。學校是一個按照一定的程序、有一定的場所和時程，專門用來教育特定對象人民，傳授知識和價值體系的地方。家长参与儿童的教育发展被認為是必要的。教育之目的乃免除無知。包括啟迪人類理性充實精神生活傳遞文明達成自我實現。联合国第29條列明教育兒童的目的應是 +計算語言學亦稱電腦語言學是一門跨學科的研究領域試圖找出自然語言的規律建立運算模型最終讓電腦能夠像人類般分析理解和處理自然語言。過去計算語言學的研究一般由專門負責利用電腦處理自然語言的電腦學家進行。由於近年的研究顯示人類語言是超乎想像的複雜現在的計算語言學研究多由來自不同學科的專家共同進行。一般來說研究隊伍的成員有電腦學家語言學家語言專家（熟悉有關研究項目所要處理的語言的人）以至研究人工智能認知心理學數學邏輯學等的專家。計算語言學具有理論和應用的成分。理論計算語言學聚焦於理論語言學與認知科學應用計算語言學聚焦於模擬人類使用語言的實用成果。對於計算語言學的定義是……從計算的觀點以科學方法研究語言的學問。計算語言學家關注於提供各種語言學現象的計算模型。計算語言學始於一九五零年代的美國，是人工智能研究的開端。當時，美國希望能夠利用運算又快又準確的電腦，將大量外語材料瞬間翻譯成英語；研究重點特別放在翻譯俄文寫成的科學技術刊物上，以窺探蘇聯的科技發展。電腦既然比人類運算更快、更準確，當初認為電腦很快就可以開始處理語言。計算與計量方法也曾經用於重建現代語言的早先形式以及將現代語言組成語群。早期的方法例如與語言年代學都證實未成熟、不準確。不過近年來跨領域研究借用生物學，尤其是基因作圖，產生了更精密的分析工具與更可靠的結果。當機器翻譯無法立即產生精確的翻譯，人類語言的自動處理被視為遠比當初所設想的複雜。計算語言學這個新領域於是誕生，從而發展能夠智慧處理語言資料的演算法與軟體。這個術語是由與的起始成員大衛•海斯所創。1960年代，人工智慧出現，計算語言學這個領域成為人工智慧的分支，處理人類層次的理解與自然語言的產出。為了翻譯一種語言成為另一種語言發覺必須理解兩種語言的語法包括詞法與句法。為了理解句法又必須理解語義與甚至語用學。因此本來只是兩種語言之間的翻譯演變成探究如何使用電腦去表述與處理自然語言。正如計算語言學可以由不同領域各個系所的專家進行研究研究的領域也可以劃分成各樣的主題。下面各節探討橫跨整個領域的一些現有文獻分為四個區塊發展語言學結構語言學語言產出以及語言理解。語言是個人一生中發展出來的認知能力。這個發展過程已有一些檢視的技巧運用計算是其中一種方法。人類的對於計算方法造成一些限制增加了以其理解語言發展的難度。例如兒童在語言習得期間大體上只遭逢正面例證亦即在個人語言發展期間只接觸到語言正確的形式而無不正確的形式這對於做簡單的假說檢定而言資料不足因此造成了使用計算方法去模擬個人語言發展與習得的界限。從計算的觀點去模擬語言習得的過程導致了與聯結模型。這方面的成果被提議用來作為解釋語言的起源之方法。利用模型已顯示語言的學習可以隨著兒童發展出更佳的記憶力與更長的注意期間經由漸進地提供簡單的輸入組合而達成。這同時也解釋了為什麼人類幼兒發展期之長。以上兩個結論都因為該計劃創建的人工神經網絡之優點而得以達成。嬰兒的語言發展能力也已利用機器人去模擬以便檢定語言學理論。一個可以如孩童般學習的模型根據直觀功能的概念而建映射行動知覺與效應並且連結到口語。重要的是這些機器人不需要語法結構而能夠習得字詞與意義之間的關聯大大地簡化了學習過程。這個模型揭示的訊息增進了對於語言學發展的理解必須注意的是這些訊息只能使用計算方法進行經驗測試。為了建立更佳語言的計算模型理解語言的結構至關重要。這個目標英語已利用計算方法周密地進行研究以便更佳理解英語在結構層次如何運行。研究語言結構的要件之一是具備大型的語料庫或樣本計算語言學家才能有足夠的原始資料進行模擬並且在大量的資料裡更佳理解任一語言的內在結構。最常引用的語料庫之一是賓大。這個語料庫來源多元廣泛例如IBM的電腦手冊和轉寫的電話談話包含超過四百五十萬個美式英文字。這個語料庫主要以詞類標記與句法加括來註釋並且已產生關於結構的大量實證觀察。語言結構的理論也已發展讓計算語言學家能在架構內運用多種方法發展假說從而增進對語言的理解。關於語法的內化與語言結構一個原創理論提出了兩種模型其中學習到的規則與模式會隨著接觸的頻率而增強。這種模型也留下一個問題有待計算語言學家解答嬰兒如何能在未學習簡單化語法的情況下學習特定與異常的語法。在這個領域的早期此類理論的成果設定了研究的方向對於其茁壯至關重要。語言結構的資訊可以用於認定兩個類似的語句， 例如近來已證實，根據人類言談模式之中的語言結構，概念的可以用來模擬資料並使其圖像化，對於自然語句的相似性，建立起可靠的測量方法。這種技巧對於更進一步探究人類言談的結構，是有力的工具。這個問題不用計算的方法，科學家無法獲得言談資料之中巨量複雜的資訊。語言產出有兩個同樣複雜的成分：語言內含的資訊，以及流利的產出者所需的技巧。亦即理解只是通訊問題的一半，另一半是系統如何產出語言，計算語言學家在這方面已有非常令人關注的發現。1950年艾倫·圖靈在一篇現在著名的論文裡，提出機器或許有能夠思考的一天。他提議一種，用來定義機器思考的概念，其中受試者以文字進行兩場談話，一次與真人，一次與模仿人的機器。圖靈提議，如果受試者無法分辨真人與機器之別，或許可以斷定該機器能夠思考。這種測試現今稱為圖靈測試，在人工智慧領域仍是重要概念。最早期著名的自然交談程式之一是，1966年由约瑟夫·维森鲍姆在麻省理工學院發展而成。該程式回答使用者提出的文字陳述或問題時，模擬一位羅傑斯式心理治療師。它看似能夠理解他人輸入的談話並且智慧地回應，但實際上只是執行句型對比的程序，只認得句子裡的幾個關鍵字。其回答是由未知的部分圍繞著轉化的已知單字而組成。以「你似乎厭惡我」舉例而言，ELIZA理解「你」和「我」 ，因而找出「你…我」的基本句型，再把「你」和「我」轉成「我」和「你」，然後回答「為什麼你會認為我厭惡你？」在這個例子裡，ELIZA並不理解「厭惡」這個詞，但不妨礙在這種心理分析的情境下形成一個合理的回答。許多最早期像ELIZA這種簡單的人機互動模式，電腦接受使用者的文字輸入然後產生回答。這種方法使用：電腦識別使用者打入詞句的類型，再據以回答。最近的科技比較重視語音互動系統。這些系統，例如iOS作業系統的Siri，運用的技巧類似文字系統的句型辨識，只不過使用者的輸入是經由語音辨識。這個語言學的分支，把使用者的語音當作音波來處理，並解釋音質與語言的形式，讓電腦得以辨識使用者的輸入。現代計算語言學多著重於語言理解。隨著網際網路的擴張人寫的文字隨處可見如果有程式能夠理解自然語言會帶來廣泛令人振奮的機會包括改良的搜索引擎自動化客服以及線上教育。語言理解的早期成果包括應用貝氏統計進行光學字符識別。其它貝氏統計的語言分析應用包括分析以決定作者是誰。理解口語方面，最初是奠基於1960、1970年代信號模擬的成果——分析未知的信號，從中找尋類型，並且根據歷史做出預測。這種信號模擬應用於語言，最早、還算成功的一例是在1989年利用隱馬爾可夫模型達成。這些統計方法更近期被應用在較難的任務，例如主題識別——估計貝氏參數以推斷文件主題為何的機率。現代計算語言學是門混合的學問包括計算機科學與程序設計數學 。計算語言學在社交媒體與網際網络的場域可能特別有助益。例如過濾聊天室與網站的內容必須利用計算語言學也有許多程序讓家長使用。計算語言學也能應用於文件檢索與分类。當你在線上搜尋時出現的文件與網站取決於你鍵入的文字相應的獨特標示。計算語言學可以根據語言的媒介與執行的任務區分：語音或文字；分析。主要包括以下几个方面语音编码等。在人机交互过程中经常用到语音识别技术和语音合成技术。机器翻译的主要方法包括规则机器翻译，实例机器翻译及统计机器翻译 +語音合成是將人類語音用人工的方式所產生。若是將電腦系統用在語音合成上則稱為語音合成器而語音合成器可以用軟/硬體所實現。文字轉語音系統則是將一般語言的文字轉換為語音其他的系統可以描繪語言符號的表示方式就像音標轉換至語音一樣。而合成後的語音則是利用在資料庫內的許多已錄好的語音連接起來。系統則因為儲存的語音單元大小不同而有所差異若是要儲存phone以及diphone的話系統必須提供大量的儲存空間但是在語意上或許會不清楚。而用在特定的使用領域上儲存整字或整句的方式可以達到高品質的語音輸出。另外包含了聲道模型以及其他的人類聲音特徵參數的合成器則可以創造出完整的合成聲音輸出。一個語音合成器的品質通常是決定於人聲的相似度以及語意是否能被了解。一個清晰的文字轉語音程式應該提供人類在視覺受到傷害或是得到失讀症時，能夠聽到並且在個人電腦上完成工作。從80年代早期開始，許多的電腦作業系統已經包含了語音合成器了。直到19世紀貝爾實驗室對於電子語音合成技術的研究才開啟近代語音合成技術的發展。貝爾實驗室在1939年製作出第一個電子語音合成器VODER是一種利用共振峰原理所製作的合成器。1960年瑞典語言學家G. Fant則提出利用線性預測編碼技術來作為語音合成分析技術並推動了日後的發展。後來1980年代Moulines E和Charpentier F提出新的語音合成演算法PSOLA此技術可以合成比較自然的語音。這通常是使用字詞預錄的方式，將各字詞的發音預先錄製好，經處理後存放在資料庫中。使用時再將預發音的字句斷成字詞，再把發音的資料自資料庫中取出，交由DSP去處理發音的合成。参见 Github 语音合成主题Github论文收集库：awesome-speech-recognition-speech-synthesis-papers第二次世界大戰簡稱二戰是1939年至1945年爆發的全球軍事衝突。第二次世界大战涉及全球絕大多數的國家。包括所有的大國并最終分成兩個彼此對立的軍事同盟——同盟國和軸心國。這次戰爭是人類史上規模最大的戰爭動員1億多名軍人參與這次軍事衝突。主要的參戰國紛紛宣布進入總體戰狀態幾乎將自身國家的全部經濟工業科學技術用於戰爭之上同時將民用和軍用的資源合併以便規劃。包括有猶太人大屠殺南京大屠殺肅清大屠殺卡廷大屠殺馬尼拉大屠殺戰爭中日軍對中國軍民進行細菌戰以及最终美国對日本首次使用原子彈等事件。第二次世界大戰也是有紀錄以來最多大規模民眾死亡的軍事衝突总死亡人数达7000萬是人類歷史上死傷人數最多的戰爭。第二次世界大战改变了世界局势英国法国等欧洲殖民帝国衰落美国苏联則取代欧洲殖民帝国的地位成了新的超级大国并在战后形成兩強格局直到1991年蘇聯解體。在1931年9月日本便侵佔中國東北建立傀儡國家滿洲國。至1937年7月7日盧溝橋事變後中日更爆發中国抗日战争。不過大多人把第二次世界大戰的爆發定為1939年9月1日纳粹德國入侵波蘭開始這次入侵行動即導致英國和法國向德國宣戰。然而德国在入侵波兰後開始嘗試在歐洲建立一個帝國自1939年到1941年為止發動一連串戰爭使德國幾乎佔領歐洲大部分的地區並和意大利日本簽署三國同盟條約。而保持中立的蘇聯在和德國簽訂後也開始侵略陸續佔領或吞併在歐洲邊界的6個國家在這之中也包括第二次世界大戰爆發時所佔領的波蘭領土。英國及大英國協的成員國則持續與軸心國作戰並在北非和大西洋海上爆發多次軍事衝突而這也使英國成了歐洲少數仍繼續抵抗德軍入侵的主要武力之一。1941年6月歐洲的軸心國決定撕毀和蘇聯的合作約定聯合入侵蘇聯這次攻勢也使得人類歷史上規模最大的地面行動爆發也就是巴巴羅薩行動但在之後讓幾乎統轄整個歐洲地區的軸心國投入大量軍力來維持作戰優勢。到了1941年12月，亞洲軸心國日本在華作戰已經多年而趨於疲軟，為了在亞洲及太平洋地區獲得領導地位，發動珍珠港事件，襲擊位于太平洋的英美殖民地以獲取南洋資源，導致美國向軸心國宣戰，歐亞戰場合攏的格局明顯浮現，雖然日本很快於西太平洋和东亚戰區獲得了主導權，但到了1942年時，日本開始在一系列的海戰中戰敗，在中途島海戰損失四艘航空母舰，歐洲的義大利也陸續於北非戰役及德國在斯大林格勒戰役中敗退，這些都使軸心國暫停進攻的腳步。1943年時，義大利在西西里島戰役被同盟國部隊經其殖民地突尼西亞登陸打败投降，推進至義大利南部，國內政變，總理贝尼托·墨索里尼失勢，導致分裂成兩個國家，另一方面德軍在库尔斯克会战戰敗後失去對於東線的主動權，同時美國在太平洋戰區中獲得了一連串的勝利，自此軸心國逐漸失去主導權並開始將佈署於各地的前線部隊進行撤退。到了1944年時，盟軍決定登陸法國諾曼第以開闢第二戰場，而蘇聯除了收復過去被佔領的領土外，也開始轉往進攻其他軸心國。在蘇聯部隊攻入柏林後，德國元首希特勒自殺，第二次世界大戰歐洲戰區最終在1945年5月8日德國投降的情況下宣告結束。而另一方面美國在1944年和1945年成功擊敗了日本海軍部隊並陸續佔領數個重要的西太平洋島嶼，這使得日本列島隨時面臨同盟國部隊入侵的危機。最後在美軍分別於廣島市和長崎市投下原子彈並造成大量日本平民死亡。1945年8月8日蘇聯進攻日本控制下的中國東北地區，8月14日日本跟進宣佈願意接受無條件投降的條件，而隨著亞洲戰事的停息也意味著第二次世界大戰正式結束。1945年時，第二次世界大戰同盟國勝利宣告結束。第二次世界大戰對世界影響極為深遠改變往後世界的政治版圖和社會結構特別是戰敗的軸心國集團被迫接受同盟國的安排。1945年10月24日聯合國亦宣告成立期望能夠促進各國合作並防止未來的軍事衝突同時戰勝的盟軍各國也紛紛在聯合國各個機構中擔任重要職位特別是以美國蘇聯中國英國和法國5個國家為首成立聯合國聯合國安全理事會的常任理事國主導着世界的秩序。然而第二次世界大戰的結束也促使美國和蘇聯二者勢力大幅擴張成為彼此對立的超級大國並在戰爭結束後展開長達44年的冷戰局勢。與此同時過去各個歐洲大國的影響力則逐漸下降促使各個亞洲與非洲殖民地出現非殖民化的運動陸陸續續有許多地方宣告獨立。而為了面對戰爭所帶來的破壞各個國家也開始為自身的產業推出振興經濟措施另外為了能夠穩定各國之間的外交關係歐洲也開始推動歐洲一體化的目標。一般認為戰爭是於1939年9月1日爆發，這樣的論點是以德國入侵波蘭做為起點，3天之後英國和法國便先後對德國宣戰。不過對於戰爭開始的日期仍然存有許多不同的意見，其中一些人便認為實際上戰爭早在1937年7月7日盧溝橋事變發生，中國抗日戰爭爆發之後便已經開始。英國歷史學家安東尼·畢佛等人則認為第二次世界大戰的起源，應該從1931年9月18日日軍發動九一八事變開始計算。另外也有如英國歷史學家A·J·P·泰勒等抱持著不同的想法，認為抗日戰爭和在歐洲以及其殖民地所爆發的戰爭剛開始只不過是同時發生的不同軍事衝突，兩場戰爭最終於1941年合併而稱其為的一部份。對於戰爭結束的確切日期，在學界同樣也沒有達成一致的意見，而第二次世界大戰勝利紀念日的日期各國也多有差異。有些人認為應該要參考如歐洲的第二次世界大戰歐戰勝利紀念日作法，以納粹德國政府於柏林正式簽訂投降書的當天作為基準，從而將第二次世界大戰的結束日期訂在1945年9月2日，也就是日本正式簽署停戰協定那天。亞洲戰區的民眾普遍認為在二戰結束應是1945年8月15日，因為那天日本投降，而不是日本參與投降儀式正式投降的1945年9月2日那天。後者也認為前一種說法反而會使戰爭結束於1951年，因為直到那年日本才與世界各國簽署了對日和平條約，而德國甚至因為分裂的緣故則一直到1990年两德统一前夕才簽署和平條約。第一次世界大戰結束後徹底改變了協約國和同盟國的政治版圖其中作為戰勝國的法國比利時意大利希臘和羅馬尼亞獲得領土作為賠償並且立即於這些領土上設立新的地方行政區劃以進行有效的管理而戰敗的德意志帝國奧匈帝國和鄂圖曼帝國則紛紛宣告瓦解。另外一方面在1917年時俄國的布爾什維克黨成功自末代沙皇尼古拉二世奪取了俄羅斯帝國的政權也讓原本作為參戰國之一的俄羅斯帝國跟著宣告結束。儘管在戰爭結束後社會開始出現追求和平主義的聲音許多歐洲國家仍充斥著民族統一主義和復仇主義的民族情節且越來越深化。特別是德國在簽署的種種限制德國仍然失去包括德國自身13％的領土以及所有海外殖民地過去德國在戰爭期間吞併的他國領土也被迫允許獨立並以戰爭開銷與賠償為由徵收巨額賠款。條約中更進一步限制德國軍事力量的規模以及配備包括了撤除空軍以及撤銷參謀部。而與此同時俄國內戰漸趨緩和並且另外成立蘇聯掌管政權。1918年到1919年德國十一月革命爆發，導致德意志帝國瓦解並由另外建立的民主政府取代，新成立的德國政府後來又稱魏玛共和国。然而在戰間期的這段時間，剛剛成立的魏玛共和国便面臨了國內右派與左派各自支持者的權力爭奪衝突。另一方面在第一次世界大戰中期，與英國和法國簽署1915年倫敦條約的意大利以獲得領土為條件決定轉而投靠協約國集團，但是意大利的民族主義者不滿在戰爭結束後兩國並沒有遵守領土轉移的承諾，隨後因為這次領土擴展事件反而讓意大利社會爆發衝突。而從1922年到1925年開始，以本尼托·墨索里尼為首的法西斯黨成功於-{zh-cn:意大利;zh-tw:義大利}-獲得執政權力，並且以民族主義與極權主義廢除了原本的代議制民主結構，不斷打壓意大利當地的社會主義、左派和自由主義的的活動；同時意大利政府也積極展開許多外交策略，期望能夠將意大利發展成為世界大國之一，而成為「新羅馬帝國」。另一方面在德國，以阿道夫·希特勒為首的納粹黨則開始嘗試在德國建立一個法西斯政府。伴隨著經濟大恐慌爆發之後，德國社會開始支持納粹黨執政，到了1933年希特勒出任德國總理。在國會縱火案發生後希特勒開始大力提拔納粹黨成員擔任政府重要官員，並開始將德國塑造成法西斯極權的一黨制國家。中國的國民黨則為了能夠清除軍閥的勢力在1920年代中期由蔣中正領導國民革命軍開始自南向北展開北伐在奉系領袖張學良宣布歸順後名義上統一中國。然而北伐結束後執政的國民黨便與原本一同合作的中國共產黨發生衝突中國很快又再度陷入國共內戰中。1931年大日本帝國內軍國主義正趨高漲帝國政府開始策劃如何能夠有效掌控中國領土並且獲取自然資源進而藉此發展出足夠的實力來掌管亞洲地區。日本發動九一八事變入侵滿洲並隨即另外建立作為傀儡政權的滿洲國。此時蔣中正以「先安內後攘外」的方針回應日本的入侵行為繼續剿共戰爭以便穩定局勢另一方面則期望國際聯盟協助處理日軍進佔中國領土的問題但日本在遭到國際聯盟譴責行為後隨即宣布退出該組織。在這之後日本又發動了一連串的挑釁行為如上海熱河河北一直到1933年中日簽署《塘沽協定》雙方才一度宣告停戰。不過中國仍組織志願部隊繼續在滿州察哈爾和綏遠等地抵抗日軍入侵。儘管阿道夫希特勒曾在1923年時發起一場以失敗告結的政變嘗試推翻德國政府出獄後競選總統輸給保羅馮興登堡但在1932年保守右派前總理帕彭向政敵報仇的策劃下透過右翼國家人民黨及德國企業家們政商合作身為國會第一大黨的納粹不僅獲得資助解除瀕臨破產的危機更因此得到政商名流聯名遊說最終說服興登堡任命他於1933年合法成為德國總理。他宣布廢除民主制度同時藉由民族主義的風潮提出要重新修正世界秩序並很快便開始大規模地重整軍備。與此同時法國為了​​確保意大利仍然與其合作維持同一陣線之協議允許意大利將埃塞俄比亚列為自己的殖民地。然而在希特勒的主導下德國於1935年再度合併原本作為德國領土的薩爾盆地地區而在獲得民意支持的情況下德國隨後推翻且加速重整軍備的計劃甚至以大規模徵兵的方式擴充部隊兵力而這些強調國家主權的舉動也更加加深了德國社會對於希特勒的聲望。為了能夠抗衡納粹德國的不斷發展，英國、法國和意大利決定成立斯特雷薩陣線。另外蘇聯也懷疑德國的目標也包括占領東歐的廣大領土，蘇聯為此也與法國簽署的部分限制。而美國則於同年8月通過了中立法案，表示不會干涉美洲以外的國際事務。這也促使意大利於同年10月時入侵衣索比亞，德國是少數願意表態支持意大利入侵舉動的歐洲國家，這也使得意大利在稍後德國吞併奧地利並未表示反對。儘管1936年3月阿道夫·希特勒不顧，意大利則在隔年也加入其中。這時中國也發生了西安事變後，國民黨和共產黨軍隊同意停火並組織統一戰線來反對日本入侵。意大利入侵衣索比亞（1935年—1936年）.第二次義大利阿比西尼亚戰爭是一場十分簡短的殖民地戰爭1935年10月義大利王國軍隊从意属索马里兰和厄立特里亚发动对阿比西尼亞帝國的军事入侵最终于1936年5月成功完成軍事佔領并将之并入意屬東非作為殖民地。這次軍事衝突也暴露出國際聯盟缺乏維護和平的力量儘管義大利和阿比西尼亞皆是國際聯盟的成員而義大利也明顯違反了國際聯盟所訂定的第十條規範但是國際聯盟仍無法阻止意大利的作為。直至1941年盟军在此击败意大利侵略军埃塞俄比亚才得以复国。德國和意大利为西班牙的弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥將軍领导的国民军提供军事支持，並且協助打擊當時受到蘇聯支持、而明顯朝向左派傾斜的西班牙第二共和國政府。德國和蘇聯也藉由這次代理人戰爭作為契機，不斷拿這次衝突來測試新型武器和戰術。其中1937年4月德國禿鷹軍團蓄意轟炸格爾尼卡而受到當時社會的關注，這也使国际社会担心未來的重要戰爭將会把平民居住區也納入轟炸範圍內。1939年4月国民军赢得内战，佛朗哥接掌政權並成为独裁者。他在第二次世界大战中与同盟国和轴心国都进行了交涉，但没有达成任何重要的协议，不过他仍然派出志愿军前往东线为德国作战，但在总体上仍然保持中立，不允许任何一方借道或進駐西班牙国土。同一時間，葡萄牙由安東尼奧·薩拉查推行法西斯獨裁統治，承認西班牙的佛朗哥法西斯軍事獨裁政權，並鎮壓葡萄牙共產黨及其他反對派，簽署反共宣言，擴大並鞏固海外殖民地，並且建立葡萄牙青年團，仿效-{zh-cn:意大利;zh-tw:義大利}-總理墨索里尼的黑衫隊進行軍隊訓練。1937年7月7日日本發起七七事變，七月底，日軍便攻下過去曾數次作為首都、具有重要政治意義的北平，然而日本此時也已經把整個中國納入其軍事行動的最終目標。在中國與德國隨時都有可能結束彼此間的合作關係時，中國選擇與蘇聯迅速簽署；之後蘇聯也開始提供軍需物資以支援中國對日作戰，而已經轉往支持日本的德國則在年底停止與中國的貿易合作關係。日本攻佔北平後，見中國並沒有屈服，決定於1937年8月中旬進攻上海。國民革命軍總司令蔣中正決定部署自己轄下素質最佳的部隊防衛上海。历经3個月戰鬥，上海於11月遭到日軍佔領。日軍之後不斷逼使中國軍隊往西方後退，1937年12月13日日軍成功佔領首都南京，并屠杀大量中国平民和缴械军人。1938年6月，中國軍隊為了阻止日軍繼續由河南繼續向前推進至湖北，而故意造成黃河氾濫。同時中國將拖延下來的時間拿來繼續加強武漢市的防禦工事，但是到了10月時日軍仍成功佔領武漢當地。然而日本軍事上的勝利並沒有如日軍希望般瓦解中國政權的抵抗，相反地中國政府在遷往位於內陸的重慶市後仍繼續堅持作戰，並定都當地。1938年7月29日，日本於張鼓峰事件中首次入侵蘇聯領土，蘇聯部隊也隨即與日軍展開交戰。雖然這次戰鬥是以蘇聯勝利作為結束，然而日本也因為這次軍事衝突而有了外交談判的機會。稍後在1939年5月11日，日本決定將武力部隊移動到蒙古邊境哈拉哈河附近。儘管日本最初成功擊敗蒙古紅軍的防衛，但是在蘇聯的支援下最後日本關東軍仍然战敗。在幾次與蘇聯的軍事衝突後日本政府深信他們應該盡可能與蘇聯政府透過外交手段調解以避免蘇聯稍後對日方於中國的戰場有所干預。两年后世界局势剧变苏联深深地感到了来自德国的压力双方便签订了《日苏中立条约》同時日本也決定將之後的軍事目標轉往由美國和歐洲掌握的南太平洋地區。另一方面這次作戰也促使數名經驗豐富的蘇聯軍事領導人得到提拔例如格奧爾基康斯坦丁諾維奇朱可夫便在之後莫斯科戰役中便成了關鍵性的角色。在歐洲德國和意大利的舉動更加變得大膽，1938年3月德國併吞了奧地利，然而這件事只自其他歐洲列強中得到一點反應。這鼓舞希特勒希望能夠將過去作為索賠的對蘇台德地區重新納為德國領土，並且以該塊土地是在捷克斯洛伐克內作為少數民族的德意志族群主要生活地區而要求合併。法國和英國在不詢問捷克斯洛伐克政府的情形下，很快就在慕尼黑協定中承認蘇台德地區應該歸德國所有，在種種壓力之下使得捷克斯洛伐克只能接受領土移交的要求。但是不久之後，德國和-{zh-cn:意大利;zh-tw:義大利}-仍繼續迫使捷克斯洛伐克割讓更多領土，這也使得鄰近的匈牙利和波蘭也開始備受威脅。到了1939年3月德國入侵捷克斯洛伐克境內尚未統一的部分，隨後在德國安排之下將捷克斯洛伐克分成德國管轄的波希米亞和摩拉維亞保護國和和親近德國的附屬國斯洛伐克共和國。英國和法國對於德國的舉動感到震驚，但是希特勒仍進一步要求但澤自由市與其合併，這促使法國和英國向波蘭保證支持其獨立。而當意大利在1939年4月攻佔阿爾巴尼亞後，英國和法國同樣保證會支持羅馬尼亞和希臘。稍後不久英法與波蘭陸陸續續結為同盟，而德國也與意大利正式簽署了交互合作的。1939年8月德國和蘇聯秘密簽署了。同時雙方也秘密於條約簽署時分配各方之後在中所獲得的利益也對之後如何處理波蘭問題上達成了協議。雙方約定由德國佔領波蘭和立陶宛西部地區而蘇聯則是佔領波蘭東部領土芬蘭愛沙尼亞拉脫維亞和比薩拉比亞等地。这一协议对希特勒来说相当重要因为它保证了德国在击败波兰之后不必如在一战中一样两面作战。8月末德国继续向波兰边境进行动员局面逐渐演化为全面危机。在与-{zh-cn意大利zh-tw義大利}-外长齐亚诺伯爵的私人会谈中希特勒表示波兰是一个以免日后在同西方国家的战争中消耗德国的兵源。同时他不认为英国和法国会介入这一冲突。8月23日希特勒下令于8月26日进攻波兰但在听说英国与波兰达成了正式的互助协定以及意大利将保持中立之后决定延迟进攻。作为对英国希望直接谈判的回应德国于8月29日要求波兰派出代表来到柏林商讨关于割让但泽和波兰走廊以及保护波兰境内德意志族裔的事宜。波兰拒绝了这一要求于是在8月31日晚间德国宣布谈判破裂。1939年9月1日德國和其附屬國斯洛伐克一同進攻波蘭。9月3日法國英國和大英國協成員國紛紛正式向德國宣戰但實質上給予波蘭的支援則十分少只有在法國薩爾當地發起薩爾攻勢。不過9月3日時英國和法國也派遣海軍部隊封鎖德國外海期望能夠破壞德國的經濟發展並給予戰況有些許支援。1939年9月15日蘇聯在與日本就日蘇滿蒙邊界戰爭簽署諾門罕停火協議之後9月17日也緊接著入侵波蘭波蘭領土隨即被納粹德國和蘇聯瓜分而立陶宛和斯洛伐克也獲得一部分土地。但儘管如此波蘭政府始終沒有宣布投降相反地另外組織波蘭地下國和波蘭救國軍繼續在之後連同佈署在波蘭周遭各條戰線的盟軍部隊一同作戰。此外大約有100000名波蘭軍事人員則撤退到羅馬尼亞和波羅的海國家這些士兵後來也加入抵禦德國部隊進攻的行列而著名的則帶著有關破解密碼的資料撤離到法國。同一時間日本則對具有重要戰略意義的中國城市長沙市首次發起攻勢但是在9月下旬被中華民國國軍擊退。在對波蘭和立陶宛政府進行干預後蘇聯依照。在這之期間儘管法國和英國已經向德國宣戰但是仍盡可能援助芬蘭抵禦蘇聯的入侵而蘇聯也因為這入侵舉動而被國際聯盟剔除。而在西歐英國開始將其軍隊部署到歐洲大陸但由於英國部隊始終沒有和德軍發生軍事衝突這使得這段時間又稱。一直到1940年4月開始德軍再發起大規模入侵的情況下才有所交戰。1940年2月時蘇聯和納粹德國除戰前協議外另外簽署由蘇聯提供各式原料來換取德國的軍事和工業設備而德國也能夠藉此迴避盟軍對其的原料封鎖。1940年4月德國為了避免盟軍藉由來阻擋瑞典出產的鐵礦砂運往德國的路線，決定入侵丹麥和挪威以確保原料的運輸。丹麥立即宣告投降，而儘管盟軍提供協助予挪威，德軍仍然在2個月內攻佔挪威。1940年5月為了避免德國搶先攻占，英國隨即入侵冰島以實施軍事管制。同時因為挪威戰役的失敗，溫斯頓·邱吉爾於1940年5月10日取代內維爾·張伯倫，成為英國新任首相。1940年5月10日德國開始策劃入侵法國比利時荷蘭與盧森堡在幾天內德軍便以閃電戰和空降戰術成功攻下荷蘭和比利時。法國所設下的馬奇諾防線使得法軍認為透過天然屏障能讓德軍裝甲車輛無法突破然而德軍則先攻佔防禦較為薄弱的阿登森林後隨即攻擊位在比利時的盟軍側翼。最終到了同年6月初時英國軍隊放棄其運到歐洲大陸的重型裝備並將軍隊自敦刻爾克緊急撤離。而6月10日時意大利也跟著德軍入侵法國並且向法國和英國宣戰12天過後法國政府便宣布投降。向軸心國投降的法國一部分領土很快便被納入德國和意大利佔領區而法國本土則是由殘存國家身分的維琪法國所管理着。7月3日英軍則襲擊停泊在法屬阿爾及利亞的法國艦隊以防止德國將法軍艦隊納入自己的海軍中。同年6月在法國戰役即將結束的最後幾天，蘇聯也強行併吞了愛沙尼亞、拉脫維亞和立陶宛等國家，同時也吞併了羅馬尼亞具有爭議性的比萨拉比亚地區。與此同時，納粹德國也和蘇聯在政治與經濟合作上逐漸陷入僵局，這使得德國和蘇聯開始為彼此交戰進行準備。在成功瓦解法國後，德國開始嘗試藉由空中優勢來發起取得英國上空的制空權，同時也發起海獅計劃即一項空降與海上登陸的計畫，準備入侵英國。然而德國空軍的作戰行動並沒有達成目標，損失不少飛機，且無法奪取制空權，這使得入侵計劃在9月時便宣告取消。而儘管德國開始將其佔領的法國港口作為其新基地，但是德國海軍對於仍保有一定實力的英國皇家海軍並沒有獲得收益，這使得德國決定改以U型潛艇在大西洋巡邏並對英國航運展開攻勢。另一方面-{zh-cn:意大利;zh-tw:義大利}-則將重點放在地中海及東非周遭地區，於6月時開始圍攻馬爾他、8月意大利佔領英屬索馬利蘭，並且在1940年9月時意大利入侵埃及。日本則在9月時開始強化對中國的封鎖，派遣部隊進駐位在法屬印度支那北部的數個基地。在此期間態度保持中立的美國決定採取新方案，即租借法案，以協助中華民國和西方盟國作戰。1939年11月美國政府就中立法案進行修訂，允許盟軍以的方式來購買軍事物資與裝備。在1940年時德國成功攻佔巴黎後，美國海軍也藉由開始顯著擴大其規模；而在日本入侵印度支那後，美國則對日本實施有關鐵、鋼和機械零件的禁運。到了同年9月，美國還同意英國購買原本於美國基地封存的驅逐艦。但儘管如此，一直到1941年珍珠港事件以前大部分的美國公民仍繼續反對美國對任何軍事衝突直接干預。而為了對付於背後支持同盟國的美國1940年9月底日本意大利和德國簽署《三國同盟條約》正式組成軸心國集團並建立口號（歐洲新秩序）。《三國同盟條約》中規定除了因應蘇聯主動進攻而另外處理外任何國家都必須協助任何雖未參與戰爭但仍被攻擊的軸心國國家。在這段期間美國則繼續通過了租借法案來支援英國和中國作戰美國也授權美國海軍保護英國所購買的物資和裝備運往大西洋中間的安全區之後由英國艦隊接手進行管理。也因此德國和美國在1941年10月陸續在大西洋北部和中部發生數次海戰但是美國在官方立場上仍然持續保持中立。1940年11月時，軸心國開始大規模擴展自身的勢力。1940年10月時意大利嘗試入侵希臘，但是在幾天內便被擊退到阿爾巴尼亞地區而陷入僵局。至1940年11月，匈牙利王國、羅馬尼亞王國和斯洛伐克共和國相继加入了軸心國行列，而大英帝國所組成的部隊也開始對對位在埃及和東非的意大利軍隊展開攻勢。到了1941年年初，意大利軍隊已經被大英帝國部隊逼到利比亞，而邱吉爾也將下令派遣部隊前往非洲的動作稱為「光采行動」，並且藉此加強正在與希臘交戰的意大利王國部隊的壓力。意大利皇家海軍於戰爭中遭受了十分慘重的損失，皇家海軍派遣航空母艦攻擊位在塔蘭托的意大利部隊在這次的攻擊中也導致3艘意大利的戰列艦受損，而之後在馬塔潘角海戰中意大利又損失更多艘軍艦。因此德國便決定介入此戰事並協助意大利對英作戰。希特勒於2月時將部分德國軍隊派遣前往利比亞當地並且在3月底時已經對德部隊便已經數次發動小規模進攻。而到了4月時以德軍部隊為首組成的聯軍成功推進到埃及周遭甚至對盟軍發起了托布魯克圍城戰。之後大英帝國部隊於5月時發起簡潔行動6月時再度發起了戰斧行動但這2次針對軸心國部隊的攻勢隨後都面臨失敗。而3月初時保加利亞王國簽署加入軸心國集團以及南斯拉夫王國發生退出軸心國的政變這促使納粹德國決定要對巴爾幹地區進行干預隨即入侵希臘和南斯拉夫並另外組織政府。軸心國部隊在巴爾幹地區很快獲得進展在5月底德軍部隊攻佔希臘克里特島後成功迫使同盟國軍隊於此處撤退。6月中旬由德國及義大利扶植的傀儡政权克羅埃西亞獨立國加入轴心国。不過處於劣勢的盟軍，在這段期間也有獲得少數勝利，德國佔領法國及扶植維希政府後，本來希望法屬敘利亞託管地能夠在中東參與對英國的作戰，然而同盟國部隊成功破壞在維希法國空軍基地內的德軍，進而阻止敘利亞於伊拉克後方發動叛亂。稍後在自由法國部隊的協助下，同盟國部隊也接管法國在中東的託管地敘利亞和黎巴嫩，以防止這類事件再度發生。同時，英軍在1941年向意屬東非反攻，成功奪回索馬里及埃塞俄比亞等東非地區的控制。而在大西洋，英國成功擊沉了德國旗艦俾斯麥號，這使得日益低迷的民眾士氣再次受到鼓舞。同時英國皇家空軍也在不列顛空戰中成功抵禦了德國空軍的轟炸，最終德國於英國上空的主要空襲行動在1941年5月宣告結束。而在亞洲戰區儘管雙方都互有發起攻勢但是在1940年時中國和日本之間的戰爭陷入僵局。日本為了增加對中國所施加的壓力決定開始優先攻佔重要位置以阻止供應路線同時與準備與西方列強展開戰爭。這一時期日軍也繼續佔領了印度支那南部地區並給予軍事管制。同年8月中國共产党在華北发起百團大戰打擊日軍部隊作為報復日本則決定在佔領區內對共產黨黨員和一般民眾實施嚴厲的三光政策希望能夠藉此方式有效減少共產黨游擊隊的人力補充和物資供給。另外中國共產黨和中國國民黨之間仍持續存在著互相牽制的氣氛到了1941年1月雙方爆發武裝衝突後便宣布結束彼此的合作關係。為了能夠成為之後歐洲和亞洲穩定之後的霸主德國日本和蘇聯開始對之後可能爆發的軍事衝突進行準備。儘管德國與蘇聯正逐漸處於緊張的局勢日本考慮到一方面德軍在歐洲戰場上仍占有優勢而另一方面自身的目標則是奪取歐洲國家殖民下的東南亞地區及其豐富資源為此日本與蘇聯2個強盛國家在1941年4月簽署了。但是在另一方面德國則逐步在蘇聯邊境佈署軍事武力準備在之後直接攻擊蘇聯。1941年6月22日德國發起巴巴羅薩行動，聯合其他歐洲軸心國集團的成員國以及芬蘭共同入侵蘇聯，苏德战争爆發。目標是期望藉由兵分三路的快速突擊攻佔波羅的海地區、莫斯科和烏克蘭，北方主力由里布元帥的德國北方集團軍和芬蘭軍進攻，中路由博克元帥的德國中央集團軍進攻，南方由倫德施泰特元帥的德國南方集團軍下轄曼斯坦因等名將和羅馬尼亞軍進攻。最終戰略目標則是在1941年末攻下從阿斯特拉罕至阿爾漢格爾斯克所連結的AA戰線以內範圍，並且能夠有效掌握裏海和白海的周遭交通。希特勒的目標是藉由發展成為軍事大國的德國來​​消除蘇聯本身以徹底消滅共產主義，並且藉由驅趕當地居民的方式來獲得所謂的；同時德國也希望能夠攻佔蘇聯的重要地區，並且藉由當地的戰略資源進而能夠擊敗德國的其他對手。雖然蘇聯紅軍在戰爭之前亦有準備戰略反攻計畫，但是軸心國部隊發起的巴巴羅薩行動仍迫使蘇聯最高統帥部只能夠採取作戰。到了夏日期間，軸心國成功進佔大量的蘇聯領土並且也造成蘇聯軍方巨大的人員和物資損失，交通幾乎癱瘓。然而到了8月中旬德國國防軍陸軍總司令部決定讓漸趨勞累的德國中央集團軍暫止發起對於蘇聯的包圍作戰，並且連同第2裝甲軍團（2nd Panzer Army）一同向烏克蘭以及列寧格勒推進。德軍在對基輔的攻勢中獲得壓倒性的成功，導致一共有4個蘇聯集團軍遭到圍剿和殲滅，這也讓德軍得以更早占領克里米亞到烏克蘭東部的工業發達地區。將近75%的軸心國部隊以及絕多數原本佈署於法國和地中海中部的空軍部隊陸陸續續轉移到東線，這促使英國政府重新思考其大戰略計畫。同年7月英國和蘇聯一同組成反對德國的英蘇協定，同時英國和蘇聯也一起入侵伊朗，以確保波斯走廊（Persian Corridor）和伊朗當地油田不會落入德軍佔領之下。到了8月英國和美國則一同簽署《大西洋憲章》。到了10月，芬蘭軍隊入侵蘇聯佔領冬季戰爭前被奪去的領土並發起攻勢更進一步佔領了彼得羅扎沃茨克，並威脅摩尔曼斯克和整個卡累利亞，大量蘇軍被芬蘭牽制；在東線南方，羅馬尼亞軍隊靠著德軍闪电战的威力奪回巴撒拉比亞和北布科維納等過去割讓給蘇聯的領土。並在敖德薩戰役重創蘇軍並佔領该市，烏克蘭西南部部份領土被羅馬尼亞佔領，在稍後德羅聯軍成功攻陷塞瓦斯托波爾，並且將主要的兵力改調往莫斯科以展開進攻。在經過兩個月的激戰後，德軍部隊幾乎達到莫斯科外圍地區，並隨即包圍莫斯科，莫斯科為蘇聯情報及交通中心，蘇聯共產黨總書記史達林經過思考決定死守城市，莫斯科戰役展開，然而經過長期行軍而疲憊不堪的部隊也迫德軍暫緩進攻，而且遇上嚴寒士兵凍傷十分嚴重。儘管軸心國部隊成功攻佔廣大的領土，然而在這次交戰中並沒有達成主要目標；許多重點城市仍然在蘇聯堅持抵抗下始終無法擊潰，這也使得蘇聯在之後仍保留相當程度的軍事潛力，德國暫停攻勢也讓蘇聯有喘息的機會，而在巴巴羅薩行動宣告結束之後，也意味著歐洲戰場的閃擊戰階段也已經結束。12月初古德里安的德軍下令停止对莫斯科的包圍而亦蘇聯正式動員所有後備部隊並準備與軸心國部隊展開作戰。蘇聯開始依據理查佐爾格等間諜所蒐集的資訊陸陸續續將軍隊移往東線準備作戰期望能夠防止軸心國集團繼續往蘇聯領土進攻而面對日本關東軍則只佈署最少的兵力來作為警戒用。同時因德國開始受到阻滯日本放棄了北進。到了12月5日開始蘇聯發了大規模的反攻作戰對佈署戰線長達1000公里的德軍展開攻勢並成功往西推進100公里—250公里之處。德國1940到1941年在歐洲所獲得的一連串勝利在某些程度上也鼓勵日本對歐洲各國政府施展壓力。已流亡英國的荷蘭政府同意繼續供應日本由荷屬東印度所製造的石油但是拒絕將該殖民地的控制權移交給日本政府。相反的維琪法國則同意日本繼續占領法屬印度支那。到了1941年7月美國英國和其他西方國家政府決定以日軍試圖占領中南半島為由而凍結所有來自日本的資產而提供日本近80%石油的美國也決定嚴格實施石油禁運政策。這項石油禁運政策促使得日本可能必須放棄其在亞洲的野心計畫並且逐一暫緩對中國所發起的戰爭或者是以武力攻佔領土的方式來獲取所需要的自然資源。對此日本軍方完全捨棄第一個方案，並且許多軍官認為石油禁運實際上就是對日本展開的潛在。對於這種情勢，日本計劃迅速以武力的方式攻佔歐洲位於亞洲的殖民地地區，並隨即建立一個延伸至太平洋中線的大型防衛圈。隨後日本便會盡可能使用在東南亞所獲得的資源，來對遭受第一波攻擊的同盟國軍隊展開防禦作戰。為了防止之後美國對於日本的作法展開干預，日軍從一開始便策劃對於防衛圈外圍的美國太平洋艦隊展開殲滅性攻勢。於是計畫突襲美軍夏威夷的海軍基地，珍珠港。1941年12月8日，日本同時對由英國與美國所掌握的東南亞周遭地區和太平洋島嶼展開攻勢，在這其中也包括有偷襲位於珍珠港的美國艦隊、攻佔泰國和馬來西亞地區以及占領香港等等。這一系列的襲擊促使美國英國澳洲中華民國和其他同盟國國家正式對日本宣戰納粹德國意大利王國和其他簽署的內容除了繼續依照過去與日本簽署的協議而對於日軍保持中立的態度同時本身對於自決原則也沒有表達正面支持。而從1941年史達林陸陸續續要求丘吉爾以及羅斯福在法國展開。其中東部戰線當時已經成為歐洲戰區的主要戰場蘇聯在這次軍事衝突中有將近數百萬的傷亡者相反的同樣作為同盟國成員的西方國家則大約損失數十萬人。不過丘吉爾和羅斯福則表示他們需要更多的準備時間在其他同盟國始終無法確保優勢的情況下使得蘇聯只能夠繼續單獨抵抗德軍攻勢這也使得蘇聯在戰後不斷以此來向西方國家要求賠償。1942年4月日本與其合作國泰國已經幾乎完全占領緬甸、馬來亞、印尼、新加坡和拉包爾等地，盟軍部隊在日軍攻勢下普遍造成嚴重的損失，同時日軍也俘虜大量的囚犯。儘管日軍在科雷吉多島當地遭遇強硬抵抗，1942年5月菲律賓最終仍然遭到日軍占領且逼使得菲律賓自治領政府被迫流亡。而日本海軍也在在南海、爪哇海和印度洋中獲得勝利，並且成功轟炸盟軍部隊位於澳洲的重要海軍基地達爾文。這段時間中盟軍對於日本唯一的取得勝利則是中華民國於1942年1月上旬爆發的第三次長沙戰役，而獲勝主要原因在於日本過度自信能夠輕易取下勝利，而對於國軍並無完善的準備。面對美國海軍開始大力協助英軍運補作業納粹德國海軍決定主動對美國大西洋沿岸所有運輸船隻展開攻擊。而儘管德軍已經造成蘇聯極大的人員與物資損失歐洲軸心國成員停止對於主要佈署在俄羅斯中部和南部地區的蘇聯軍方展開攻勢相反的開始強化自身對於所占領領土的控制能力。而在北非戰場方面德軍於1月時對英國展開大規模攻勢一直到2月初英軍才勉強在加查拉戰線中抵禦德軍進攻。但儘管軸心國集團暫緩部隊的進攻速度以德國為首的歐洲軸心國仍加緊準備以投入下一波攻勢。軸心國停止攻势 (1942–43年).早在1942年5月日本開始發起兩棲作戰的MO作戰準備占領莫士比港來阻斷美國和澳洲之間的通訊以及物資流動。然而盟軍成功在珊瑚海海戰之中阻止了日本海軍持續往前推進。在美軍成功空襲東京之後日本計劃占領中途島並引誘美國航空母艦在周遭作戰期望能夠一次徹底擊潰美國太平洋艦隊的主力與此同時為了能夠吸引美軍的注意日本也另外派遣部隊佔領隸屬於阿拉斯加的阿留申群島。日本軍方將大規模的攻擊計畫設定在6月初展開然而美國於5月下旬時成功破解日本海軍的通訊密碼在充分了解計劃內容和部隊安排後美軍成功憑藉著資訊優勢取得決定性的勝利大日本帝國海軍在中途島戰役後也勢力大為削減許多。在積極策劃的中途島戰役反而損失大量航空母艦後，日本改將重點放在自陸地上發起攻勢佔領位於巴布亞領地的莫士比港。而美軍則是計畫對位在日本索羅門群島南部的軍事基地展開反擊，陸陸續續準備佈署兵力前往瓜達康納爾島，同時美軍也希望能夠另外發起攻勢打擊日本在東南亞重要基地的拉包爾。美軍兩項計畫於7月開始展開然而9月中旬時日本將瓜達康納爾島列為優先保衛的目標。日本首先將於布納-哥納當地與美國和澳洲部隊作戰的日本新幾內亞部隊撤離陸陸續續開始將大量兵力從莫士比港地區移往北部省當地支援。而在瓜達康納爾島成為雙方激烈爭奪地區後雙方的支援部隊與物資開始紛紛嘗試藉由船艦運送的方式提供。最後到了1943年日本決定不再繼續增加支援部隊並開始規畫準備撤離。同一時間盟軍也開始在緬甸發起數起攻勢。首先在1942年年底之針對若開邦發起作戰行動然而反遭到日軍的反擊並損失大量人力與物資最終在1943年5月重新撤退回到印度。另外緬甸戰區的盟軍也派遣緬甸遠征軍特種部隊在日軍勢力範圍處展開騷擾作戰並在4月下旬成功獲得些許戰果。而位在德國東線戰場部分，軸心國集團成功在刻赤半島和卡爾可夫中擊敗蘇聯反攻。1942年6月時，德軍決定對於蘇聯南部地區發起大規模的藍色行動，希望藉此佔領高加索地區的油田與庫班沙地，同時繼續維持在保北方和中部地區的佔領區統治。為此德國南方集團軍將自身兵力分成兩大部分，分別是負責攻佔頓河的A集團軍與佔領高加索東南側窩瓦河一帶的B集團軍。另一方面，蘇聯則決定於德軍極有可能攻佔的斯大林格勒進行駐防。11月中旬時儘管德軍已經攻下斯大林格勒，然而之後所面臨的城鎮戰卻使得德軍遭遇苦戰，這時蘇聯也開始準備第二次的冬季反攻計畫。其中蘇聯部隊成功在天王星行動包圍德軍絕大多數的部隊勢力，但是在稍後展開的火星行動中蘇聯卻反而獲得大量的損失。不過在一連串反攻計畫下在1943年2月上旬德國陸軍已經難以繼續維持戰線，其中原本佔領斯大林格勒的德軍部隊宣告投降，而軸心國集團也將前線往回撤到夏季攻勢前的位置。不過同樣在2月下旬，隨著蘇聯部隊的撤離行動反而讓德國對卡爾可夫發起攻勢，最後軸心國部隊在庫爾斯克建立了較為突出的前線陣地。另一方面在1941年11月時盟軍於北非發起反攻，在十字軍行動（Operation Crusader）中成功收復原本德國和義大利的佔領地區。而為了避免日軍佔領維希法國所統轄的馬達加斯加作為基地，1942年5月上旬英軍發起佔領攻勢。稍後軸心國集團成功自利比亞發起攻勢擊敗同盟國部隊，同時逼使盟軍被迫退回到埃及，雙方最終於阿拉曼當地陷入膠著情況。而在歐洲大陸這一部分，儘管同盟國戰略性派遣突擊隊攻佔迪耶普的重要設施，但最後仍然遭到擁有優勢兵力的德軍部隊所擊潰。這次作戰也使得同盟國部隊了解除非有更好的計畫策劃、武器裝備以及後續規畫，否則西方同盟國並無法發動大規模的入侵行動。1942年8月，盟軍成功擊潰德軍對阿拉曼發起的第二次攻勢，但在面臨重大損失以及需要物資補給的情況下英軍發起基座行動援救馬爾他。兩個月後盟軍自埃及發起大規模作戰行動，成功逼使軸心國部隊撤離利比亞而於更西方北非基地駐守。同一時間英國與美國聯合部隊也跟近占領法屬北非，這也促使統轄該地區的殖民政府決定加入同盟國行列。面對法國殖民地改投靠同盟國集團的作為，希特勒決定派遣部隊佔領維希法國。雖然對於這違反停戰條約的軍事行動法軍並沒有抵抗，然而法國仍特意破壞自己的海軍艦隊以防止納粹德國將其收歸使用。隨後德意志非洲軍開始自突尼西亞當地撤離北非戰場，到了1943年5月同盟國軍隊則成功佔領該地。瓜达尔卡纳尔岛战役結束之後盟軍針對日本於太平洋地區的部隊開始展開反擊行動。1943年5月同盟國軍隊前往阿留申群島與占領當地的日本部隊進行交戰。之後盟軍將其目標轉往拉包爾並開始嘗試佔領周遭島嶼以阻礙日軍的補給路線同一時間也針對太平洋中部日軍所佔領的吉爾伯特及馬紹爾群島展開反擊。1944年3月底時盟軍成功完成這兩個目標此外也瓦解了日本於加羅林群島的重要根據地特魯克島。到了4月時同盟國部隊決定優先奪回西新幾內亞地區。東線戰場方面德國和蘇聯在1943年春季和夏初都沒有進行作戰相反的彼此都計畫於蘇聯中部展開大規模攻勢來化解僵局。1943年7月4日德軍自其戰線突出的庫爾斯克地區展開大規模攻勢行動然而在蘇聯故意吸引德軍深入再殲滅以及優良的防禦措施準備下德軍持續一個禮拜的攻勢後便開始被迫撤離。然而儘管德軍在這次會戰中有數次成功取得戰術性成功然而在希特勒的強烈介入之下反而使得行動提前宣告結束。在這其中部分原因是由於西方同盟國於7月9日對西西里島展開入侵行動而在這之後一個月後同盟國部隊成功擊潰義大利軍方並且開始大規模追捕墨索里尼。1943年7月12日蘇聯則發起自己的反攻作戰，這次行動成功消除了位於東歐的德國部隊期望能夠繼續保持僵局戰況的期望。而自库尔斯克会战是以蘇聯勝利結束後，除了意味著德軍於東線的優勢逐漸消逝外，同時也給蘇聯東線戰場的主動權地位。雖然德國試圖匆忙強化佈署的，然而蘇聯軍對仍然自斯摩棱斯克和第聶伯河展開攻勢，並成功突破德軍於東線的防備。1943年9月西方盟軍入侵意大利本土後意大利政府隨即開始與盟軍協商停戰事宜。在面臨即將失去意大利部隊協助的情況下德國派遣部隊試圖奪取意大利部分地區且實施軍事管理並且另外設立一連串的防線駐守著。同時德國特種部隊也在橡樹行動中成功救出墨索里尼並且盡快將其送往德國占領地區內另外成立新的意大利社會共和國。而在意大利本土經過數場戰鬥後一直到11月中旬西方盟國的主要部隊才開始與德軍設立的冬季防線交戰。而德軍與大西洋海上的作戰也開始受到阻撓自1943年5月開始盟軍新開發的反潛設備成功阻擋德國潛艇的攻勢而大量德軍潛艇損失也迫使德國海軍暫停在大西洋海上的攻擊行動。1943年11月富蘭克林德拉諾羅斯福溫斯頓邱吉爾與蔣中正於開羅召開會議在會議上首次確認了有關日本所佔領土的解決。而稍後羅斯福邱吉爾和史達林也則召開德黑蘭會議繼續討論戰後問題其中西方盟國約定將在1944年入侵歐洲大陸而蘇聯則是同意在德國戰敗後3個月內向日本宣戰。從1943年11月日本與中國爆發持續7週的常德會戰，在這之中中國政府希望能夠迫使日本在戰爭中必須付出極高昂的代價，並且期望同盟國部隊能夠協助中國繼續維持作戰能量。1944年1月盟軍針對義大利戰場的防線發起了一系列攻勢，甚至希望能藉由兩地包抄的方式瓦解德軍防線。同樣在東線戰場，蘇聯在1943年年底開始嘗試對包圍列寧格勒地區的德軍展開攻勢，並在這攻勢中成功結束歷史上持續最長且最致命的圍攻作戰。隨後蘇聯展開列寧格勒-大諾夫哥羅德攻勢以逼使德國北方集團軍撤離波羅的海地區，但是在納爾瓦戰役後成功佔領過去德國所統治的愛沙尼亞後短暫停止進攻，並且協助愛沙尼亞流亡政府重新掌握政權，而之後針對波羅的海國家作戰時蘇聯也多以這種模式處理。1944年5月下旬，蘇軍成功攻佔克里米亞，這成功促使位在烏克蘭的軸心國部隊紛紛開始向西方後撤；然而在同一時間蘇聯入侵羅馬尼亞時，則反遭到當地駐守的軸心國部隊所擊退。而同盟國部隊亦在義大利戰場上獲得戰略性勝利，成功促使德軍部隊往北方防線撤離，到了6月4日時成功攻佔羅馬。然而在亞洲戰區上同盟國部隊卻始終沒有獲得更加進一步的進展其中1944年3月時日本決定從兩個地區展開反擊。首先針對位於英國於印度邊境地區發起烏號作戰並且一度使得英軍部隊在英帕爾與科西瑪遭到圍困。不過在1944年5月時英國軍隊發起反擊成功逼使日軍撤回緬甸而在1943年年底時進攻緬甸北部的中華民國部隊也成功將日軍圍困於密支那地區。另一方面日本也決定強化對於中國入侵行動的進展而發起一號作戰除了一方面藉此攻勢確保日本所佔地區的交通運輸外另一方面也期望徹底破壞同盟國提供中國物資的機場設備。到了6月時日本已經佔領了河南省並且針對湖南省與長沙一帶展開大規模的攻勢。在蘇聯的施壓之下1944年6月6日西方盟軍開始大規模入侵法國北部。同一時間佈署在意大利的數支盟軍部隊在重新劃分單位後繼續襲擊法國南部地區。伴隨著登陸計畫的成功駐守在法國的德國陸軍部隊始終無法有效阻擋同盟國的攻勢。在法國抵抗力量的協助之下自由法國於8月25日時宣告成功解放巴黎而在整個下半年間西方同盟國陸續逼迫其他駐守於西歐各國的德國軍隊撤離。但是儘管盟軍部隊從西歐往東進攻的計畫並無遇到大規模阻擋然而當盟軍部隊企圖空降荷蘭當地的市場花園行動卻以失敗作結束這使得盟軍原本打算另外自德國北部攻擊的計畫只能暫止。在此之後西方盟軍逐漸往德國逼近並在嘗試穿越盧布河時遭到德軍較大規模的攻勢阻擋。而原本計畫從義大利往北進攻的盟軍部隊同樣被最後一個德軍所設下的哥德防線所阻擋著。而在6月22日時，蘇聯則發起巴格拉基昂行動來向白俄羅斯展開主動進攻，並幾乎摧毀了德國中央集團軍的主要兵力。而在這之後，蘇聯部隊則開始向烏克蘭西部和波蘭東部的德國軍隊展開攻勢。蘇聯的快速進展促使許多波蘭家鄉軍成員開始展開暴風行動（Operation Tempest），其中又以華沙和斯洛伐克南部地區的反抗聲勢最大。然而在蘇聯沒有積極提供協助的情況下，這些反抗行動紛紛遭到德軍部隊的鎮壓。隨後蘇聯紅軍戰略性包圍並殲滅了佈署在羅馬尼亞東部的德國南烏克蘭集團軍（Army Group South Ukraine）部隊，並促使8月23日羅馬尼亞王國國王米哈伊一世政變拘捕親德總理安東內斯庫。9月8日保加利亞王國當地發生政變：蘇聯支持下的保共推翻了保加利亞王室，年僅6歲的沙皇西美昂二世被驅逐，攝政王基里尔王子則被槍決。隨後這蘇軍佔領這兩個國家便宣告加入同盟國的行列。1944年9月蘇聯部隊提前進入南斯拉夫這項作法一方面成功逼使佔領希臘的德國部隊迫迅速撤離外另一方面也促使阿爾巴尼亞和南斯拉夫的軸心國部隊遭到孤立。為此自1941年開始領導共產黨游擊隊的約瑟普布羅茲狄托開始進行更大規模的游擊行動最終成功掌控南斯拉夫境內並且阻止德國部隊的進佔。另外蘇聯也提供少數資源協助在塞爾維亞北部的游擊隊反抗塞爾維亞救國政府部隊最終兩者在10月20日時一同解放首都貝爾格勒。幾天過後蘇聯發動大規模進攻並於1945年2月攻陷德國邊境並占領匈牙利的重要城鎮布達佩斯。但相較於蘇聯在巴爾幹半島地區獲得的一連串勝利蘇聯在針對芬蘭所發起的攻勢之中始終遭遇芬蘭反抗勢力的反擊而無進展雙方並在卡累利阿地峽隨即陷入膠著。最後芬蘭同意以和平且不併吞為前提的情況下於1944年9月簽署放棄所有冬季戰爭前的領土隨後芬蘭隨也轉移到同盟國陣營的行列。而自7月開始，位在東南亞的英國部隊成功擊退日本發起的大規模攻勢，同時將日軍逼往欽敦江地區駐守，而中國部隊也成功奪回密支那。但是在中國本土則遭到日本嚴重打擊，日軍在6月中旬時成功攻下長沙、並在8月初佔領衡陽。不久之後日軍南下入侵廣西一帶，在11月底時成功擊敗中國軍隊主力並且佔領桂林與柳州一帶。而到了12月底時，日本已經成功建立了聯結中國與印度當地作戰的兵力聯繫。不過美國在太平洋戰場上則漸漸獲得優勢，並且不斷自太平洋往日本周遭島嶼逼近。1944年6月中旬，美軍開始針對馬里亞納群島及帛琉等地發起一連串的攻勢，並且在菲律賓海海戰中對日本海軍獲得決定性的勝利。一連串的戰事失敗逼使得東條英機辭去日本首相一職，同時美國陸航隊也開始自周遭基地對日本本土發起密集的襲擊。10月下旬美軍部隊成功佔領菲律賓雷伊泰島，而在作為歷史上最大規模之一的雷伊泰灣海戰成功獲得關鍵性勝利。軸心國崩潰，同盟國勝利.1944年12月德國開始集結剩下的部隊以及後備武力並於阿登發起大規模反擊攻勢德軍希望德國在進行談判時能夠獲得有利地位<ref name=>Danny Parker. Battle of the Bulge Hitler's Ardennes Offensive 1944-1945 +辽宁省，简称辽，舊稱奉天省，中华人民共和国的一个省份，省會位于沈阳市。是环渤海经济区的重要组成部分。辽宁省东北与吉林省接壤，西北与内蒙古自治区为邻，西南与河北省毗连，是连接华北地区与中国东北地区的要道。辽宁省东南以鸭绿江为界河与朝鲜隔江相望，南临黄海和渤海。辽宁在自古以來便是通往关外的軍事要隘，也是將辽东地区聯繫内蒙古通向歐亞國家為交通上所必經之要道。营口出土的金牛山文化表明早在28万年前辽宁省就有人类在此活动。辽宁在春秋战国时期为燕地。秦始皇统一六国之后又在此地建立了辽东辽西右北平郡。西汉时隶属于幽州增设玄菟郡。东汉增设辽东属国。三国时襄平城公孫延家族镇守辽宁和朝鲜半岛。经过公孫延、公孫度、公孫康、公孫恭、公孫淵五代人的经营辽东，不斷開闢疆土，東伐高句麗，西擊烏丸，北伐扶余，越海攻東萊。領土擴張後分割遼東郡，辽东王公孙家族238年春被司馬懿和高句麗王高位宫降服，纳入魏国直属版图。西晋属于平州。东晋时，晋朝官方宣称被营州所管辖，而实际上五胡乱华后相继存在了前赵，后赵，前燕，前秦，后燕，北燕等政权管辖。在北魏统一北方，龍城相继成为后燕，北燕的首都，后成为北魏的重要军事重镇。337年鲜卑人慕容廆子慕容皝于大棘城称燕王建燕国史称前燕。342年迁都龙城东破辽宁东部的高句丽鲜卑宇文部及夫余。前燕成为当时一个重要的国家与前秦东晋鼎足三分。397年 魏鲜卑人拓跋圭攻击后燕都中山。燕王慕容宝逃往龙城。409年，原后燕将领汉人冯跋自称燕天王，仍以燕为国号，都龙城，史称北燕。436年四月，北魏大军又攻龙城。五月，冯弘在高句丽军保护下率龙城百姓东渡辽水，奔高句丽。北魏军入占龙城，北燕亡。404年，辽东被高句丽所据。隋朝为辽东郡、柳城郡、燕郡。唐朝属河北道。贞观十七年，身兼范阳、平卢、河东三节度使的安禄山在范阳起兵，史稱安史之亂。五代时辽宁地渐渐被南下的契丹占领后唐后成为辽朝的核心部分及发源地。1922年5月11日徐世昌颁布大总统令解除张作霖东三省巡阅使蒙疆经略使奉天督军兼省长。然而5月12日张作霖宣布东三省独立。随后奉天省议会推举张为东三省总司令兼奉天省长孙烈臣吴俊陞为副总司令张作霖开始全面控制奉天省。1929年东北易帜后归顺南京国民政府。由於考量到此为辽宁得名的开始但当时民間仍习惯稱。當時該省的行政划分如下1931年，九一八事变爆发，全省数日内沦陷。次年3月1日，日本扶植的满洲国成立。本省分为安东省，奉天省，锦州省三省。伪满洲国成立后，日本向伪满洲国租借关东州。1937年日满达成了新租借协议，将满铁附属地行政權交给伪满洲国，但仍保留关东州于名义上独立的伪满洲国之外，直至1945年二战结束日本投降后改回辽宁省。1945年9月东北地区分为九省后，本省的行政划分变为辽宁（省会沈阳）、辽北（省会辽源）。沈阳市于1947年6月升直辖市。大连、沈阳二市為直辖市，直隶行政院；1946年1月11日辽宁军区成立时辖辽阳、鞍山、辽中、台安、盘山、本溪、沈阳、抚顺、铁岭、兴京、海城、盖平、营口等县市，此时辽东省委兼辽宁省分委的工作。3月30日，中共东北局决定撤销辽宁军区，所属第1、第2军分区合并组成辽南军分区归辽东军区直辖，其余部队划归安东军区建制。1946年5月5日，东北局发出，辽北省位于中东路以东的辖区与通化省合并，及清原、兴京、抚顺一部、铁岭等县，组成新的辽宁省分委、辽宁军区。1945年10月12日东北局宣布组建中共辽宁省工委安东省委沈阳市委并任命了主要领导干部辽宁省工委书记为陶铸副书记兼组织部长白坚组织部副部长饶斌民运部长张逢时辽宁省政府党团书记兼省政府副主席朱其文辽宁省政府主席兼辽宁省保安司令张学思辽宁省工业管理委员会主任兼党团书记吕东辽宁省工委委员为陶铸白坚张学思朱其文饶斌张逢时吕东孔原陈郁汪金祥邓华。1945年11月苏联红军要求中共党政军势力撤出沈阳等大城市移交给国民政府东北行营。1945年11月25日东北局决定陶铸和邓华带部分干部和部队去法库组成辽西省委和辽西省军区张学思和辽宁省工委书记白坚带另一部分干部和部队到本溪组成辽宁省委辽宁省政府和辽宁省军区张学思任辽宁省委常委辽宁省政府主席辽宁省军区司令员白坚任辽宁省委书记和辽宁省军区政委。11月26日张学思率领辽宁省政府机关向本溪出发转而在本溪办公。1945年12月18日辽宁省政府在本溪发布通令公布了辽宁省行政区划全省设置1个行署区(辽西行署区驻法库辖锦州市和新民法库锦县锦西兴城绥中义县康平北镇黑山11县）3个专区另省直辖2个市2个县。1946年1月11日辽宁军区成立，辖辽阳、鞍山、辽中、台安、盘山、本溪、沈阳、抚顺、铁岭、兴京、海城、盖平、营口等县市，辽东省委兼辽宁省分委的工作。原辽宁省分委名义保留；肖华、江华、程世才、白坚、张学思、刘澜波、罗舜初为辽东省委常委，肖华为辽东省委书记，江华为辽东省委第二书记。1946年3月30日中共东北局决定撤销辽宁省政府省军区。1946年4月4日辽宁省第一第二专区合并组建辽南地委辽南专署辽南分区驻地岫岩县小蘑菇峪直属于辽东省委与辽东军区领导。辖鞍山市城工委辽阳市城工委辽阳海城营口县委和辽台盘联合县委。辽南地委常委陈一帆高扬赵承金邹鲁风林辉山郑自兴刘云鹤为以陈一凡为书记高扬为第二书记。邹鲁风为专员刘云鹤为副专员。司令员赵承金政委陈一帆。不久陈一凡高扬调走杨春茂任书记。辽宁省其余地域划归安东省建制。中共中央东北局于1946年5月5日决定，将中共辽北省委、辽北省政府。辽宁省府、辽宁省军区驻梅河口；辽宁省分委委员为白坚、张学思、刘汉生、刘惠农、解沛然、万毅、周赤萍、王铮、刘东元、连柏生、杜者蘅等11人，白坚、张学思、刘汉生、解沛然、刘东元为常委；其中，张学思任辽宁省军区司令员，解沛然任副司令员，白坚任辽宁省军区政委，刘惠农任省军区副政委兼政治部主任。1946年5月16日正式成立辽宁省政府。1946年5月4日驻地由梅河口迁至通化、临江，1947年6月又迁回梅河口。1948年7月辽宁省政府与辽南行署合并，辖区划归辽北省和安东省。辽宁省政府主席张学思。下辖：地理坐标位于东经118°53′至125°46′北纬38°43′至43°36′之间，东西之间宽约550KM，南北之间宽约550KM。辽宁省的陆地面积大约是14万平方公里占中国陆地面积的1.5％。陆地面积的59.8％是山地占8.72万平方公里平地面积为4.87万平方公里占33.4％水域面积1万平方公里占总面积的6.8％其余为海域其中黄海面积为7.19万平方公里渤海面积为7.83万平方公里。海岸线东起丹东市的鸭绿江入海口，西至山海关的老龙头，全长为2178公里，占中国海岸线总长的12％。近海分布着506个大小岛屿，总面积为187.7平方公里。本省地势大体为北高南低，从陆地向海洋倾斜；山地丘陵分列于东西两侧，向中部平原倾斜。1.东部山地丘陵区。以沈丹铁路为界划分为东北部低山地区和辽东半岛丘陵区面积约6.7万平方公里占全省面积的46%。东北部低山区此为长白山支脉吉林哈达岭和龙岗山之延续部分由南北两列平行的山地组成海拔500～800米最高山峰海拔1300米以上为本省最高点。辽东半岛丘陵区以千山山脉为骨干北起本溪连山关南至旅顺老铁山长约340公里构成辽东半岛的脊梁山峰大都在海拔500米以下。区内地形破碎山丘直通海滨海岸曲折港湾很多岛屿棋布平原狭小河流短促。2.西部山地丘陵区。由东北向西南走向的努鲁儿虎山、松岭、黑山、医巫闾山组成。山间形成河谷地带，大、小凌河发源地并流经于此，山势从北向南由海拔1000米向300米丘陵过渡，北部与内蒙古高原相接，南部形成海拔50米的狭长平原，与渤海相连，其间为辽西走廊。西部山地丘陵面积约为4.2万平方公里，占全省面积29%。3.中部平原。由辽河及其30余条支流冲積而成辽河平原面积为3.7万平方公里占全省面积25%。地势从东北向西南由海拔250米向辽东湾逐渐倾斜。辽北低丘区与内蒙古接壤处有沙丘分布辽南平原至辽东湾沿岸地势平坦土壤肥沃另有大面积沼泽洼地漫滩和许多牛轭湖。本省境内有大小河流390多条，总长约16万公里。主要有辽河、浑河、大凌河、太子河、绕阳河以及中华人民共和国，朝鲜民主主义人民共和国两国共有的界河鸭绿江等，形成本省的主要水系。境内大部分河流自东、西、北三个方向往中南部汇集注入渤海。本省有多个大型水库较为著名的有抚顺大伙房水库辽阳参窝水库铁岭清河水库等。本省海域广阔辽东半岛的东侧临黄海西侧环渤海是中国水温最低纬度最高的海域。海域面积15万平方公里沿海滩涂26.8万公顷。陆地海岸线东起鸭绿江江口西至山海关老龙头。本省近海岛屿506个面积1921平方公里占中国海洋岛屿总面积的 0.24%岛岸线全长628公里占中国岛屿岸线总长的5%。主要岛屿计有大长山岛小长山岛石城岛大鹿岛菊花岛大小笔架山长兴岛蛇岛等。全省森林面积418.5万公顷森林覆盖率为28.7％.辽宁地处中纬度地区，属温带湿润性季风气候。日照丰富，雨热同季，四季分明。阳光辐射年总量100-200卡/平方厘米，年日照时数2100-2600小时，全省各地年平均气温为5.2℃～11.7℃。其中，最高为大连，最低为西丰。极端最高气温43.3℃。与常年相比，全省各地平均气温正常偏高，其中春夏秋三季普遍偏高，冬季气温偏低。年降水量全省大部在400～969毫米,时间，空间分布不均，全年平均无霜期130-200天，由西北向东南逐渐增多。年日照时数全省各地在2120～2861小时之间,其中朝阳地区最多为2861小时，丹东地区最少为2120小时。春季大部地区日照不足;夏季前期不足,后期偏多;秋季大部地区偏多；冬季光照明显不足。各轄市氣候數據請參閱該條目以下為省會氣候辽宁省现辖14个地级市，下设59市辖区、16县级市、17县、8自治县。2017年辽宁省有人口4369万人出生率0.649%死亡率0.693%人口自然增长率-0.044%。城镇人口占67.5%乡村人口占32.5%。近年来辽宁省面临人口减少流失的问题。排除移民因素2012至2016年人口自然增长率除了2014年正增长外其它年份均为负数。截至2017年年末，0～15岁人口2886.2万人，占66.06%；60周岁及以上人口998.4万人，占22.85%，其中65周岁及以上人口626.8万人，占14.35%。。2014年，辽宁省人类发展指数（HDI）为0.798，居中国（大陆）省级行政区第六位。辽宁是一个多民族的省份。遼寧省总人口中，汉族人口为3511万。由于各民族长期生活在一起，形成了大杂居小聚居的特点。早在1950年代就建立的阜新和喀左两个蒙古族自治县，而在改革开放之后又建立了新宾、清原等8个满族自治县。由於歷史原因，遼寧省是全國滿族人的主要聚居區和滿族文化的重要發祥地。根據2012年的一項調查，遼寧只有大約10％的人口屬於有組織的宗教，最大的群體是佛教徒，佔5.5％，其次是新教基督徒佔2.2％，穆斯林占0.6％，公教基督徒佔0.2％。報告沒有提供其他宗教的統計數字；大約90％的人口無宗教或信奉中國民間信仰，佛教，儒教和道教。本省有各种植物161科2200余种具有经济价值的1300种以上。药用类830多种如人参细辛五味子党参天麻等野果淀粉酿造类70余种如山葡萄猕猴桃山里红山梨等芳香油类89种如月见草藿香薄荷蔷薇等油脂类149种如松子苍耳等还有野菜类染料类纤维类等。本省动物种类繁多有两栖哺乳爬行鸟类动物7纲62目210科492属827种。其中有国家一类保护动物6种二类保护动物68种三类保护动物107种。具有科学价值和经济意义的动物有白鹳丹顶鹤蝮蛇爪鲵赤狐黑熊海豹海豚等。鸟类400余种占全国鸟类种类的31％。本省矿产资源丰富大体齐全配套。己探明储量居全国前列的矿种有铁锰石油天然气油页岩钼熔剂灰岩滑石菱镁矿硼矿金刚石玉石等是全国黑色金属有色金属化工产品和石油矿产的生产基地。本省水产品种繁多共大类520余种。第一类浮游生物107种第二类底栖生物280余种第三类游泳类生物137种。淡水鱼主要有青鱼鲢鱼鲤鱼等。可供利用的海洋生物有鱼类117种虾类20余种蟹类10余种贝类20余种。海产品主要有大黄鱼小黄鱼带鱼蛤鲍鱼海参对虾海蜇扇贝海带等。2017年辽宁省生产总值23942.0亿元比上年增长4.2%。其中第一产业增加值2182.1亿元增长3.6%第二产业增加值9397.8亿元增长3.2%第三产业增加值12362.1亿元增长5.0%。全年人均地区生产总值54745元比上年增长4.3%。辽宁省GDP逐渐衰落2016甚至成为全国唯一一个出现GDP负增长的省份不过2018年以来已逐渐恢复。辽宁省工业的发展开始于19世纪末。 辽宁省中部城市产业带主要有沈阳的机械电子医药化工汽车航空纺织轻工石化抚顺阜新的轻工电力石化钢铁辽阳的化纤鞍山本溪的钢铁建材纺织铁岭的电力煤炭等等。1929年5月，中国第一辆国产汽车“民生”牌75型载货汽车于沈阳民生工厂问世。这辆车采用65马力6缸汽油发动机，液压制动，装载量为1816千克，最高时速64千米。除少数重要部件委托国外依图纸代制以外，其余均为自制。位于沈阳的中航工业沈阳飞机工业集团及其下属的沈阳飞机设计研究所，沈阳飞机工业公司，沈阳航空发动机研究所，沈阳黎明航空发动机公司等是中国航空工业飞机设计和制造的摇篮。本省素有之称省内既有鞍钢本钢等钢铁大厂又有遍地开花的中小钢厂。2004年9月东北三家企业跨地域重组东北特钢集团正式挂牌成立。辽宁是一个农业强省，农业生产力发展水平在中国居领先地位。进入21世纪，辽宁农业继续有所发展。2004年粮食总产量达1720万吨，成为历史上仅次于1998年(1828.9万吨)的第二个丰收年。辽宁省交通十分发达，已经形成了以铁路为骨干，港口为门户，公路四通八达，民航、海上、内河相配套的综合交通网。铁路密度位居全国首位有哈大沈山沈丹沈吉锦承魏塔大郑等铁路干支线57条以沈阳锦州为枢纽向四周辐射。2001年开通秦沈客运专线2012年12月开通哈大客运专线2013年开通盘营客运专线2015年开通沈丹客运专线和丹大城际铁路2021年开通京沈客运专线至此每个地级市都至少有一条高铁通过。另外有沈阳东塔机场沈阳于洪全胜机场沈阳新民农用机场沈阳苏家屯红宝山机场沈阳辽中机场大连长海大长山岛机场等。沈大高速公路北起沈阳，南至大连，是全国第一条高速公路，2004年全线升级，成为国内第一条双向八车道高速公路。全线依次贯穿沈阳、辽阳、鞍山、营口、大连五个工业大中城市，沟通大连港、营口港和鲅鱼圈港，是辽宁地区重要的运输动脉。沈丹高速公路北起沈阳，南至丹东，全长222公里。主要港口有大连营口丹东庄河锦州旅顺羊头洼国家级有大连港营口港（均位列全国十大港口）。颇具水平的有沈阳京剧院和大连京剧院，前者是国家十大重点京剧院团之一。沈阳唐派是京剧的重要流派。评剧在流传过程中产生了一大批表演艺术家和众多的表演流派，其中有3大流派韩、花、筱，都出自辽宁沈阳，评剧表演艺术家韩少云创立了韩派、花淑兰创立了花派、筱俊亭创立了筱派。在中国相声地图上，沈阳的位置仅次于北京及天津。於1970至1980年代，王志涛和杨振华在全国颇具影响。2006年的央视相声大赛上，沈阳的常佩业、贾承博又一举夺魁。知名评书演员有袁阔成刘兰芳田连元和单田芳等。在每年的央视春晚上，有大批来自或成名于本省的演员，如赵本山，黄宏，巩汉林，潘长江，范伟，黄晓娟等。中國首艘航空母艦以遼寧省為名──遼寧號航空母艦。全省共有9处国家重点风景名胜区、2处国家历史文化名城、35处全国重点文物保护单位辽宁省全年九年义务教育按时完成率95.7%。高等教育毛入学率43.5%高中阶段教育毛入学率95.6%初中毕业生升学率 93.4%小学学龄儿童入学率99.98%。全年幼儿园在园幼儿86.2万人。普通小学招生37万人在校生216.8万人毕业生37.7万人。初中学校招生37.7万人在校生119.6万人毕业生43.6万人。普通高中招生23.6万人在校生71.3万人毕业生23.4万人。普通本专科招生26.4万人在校生90.2万人毕业生23.6万人。研究生培养单位招生3.1万人在校生8.7万人毕业生2.4万人。特殊教育在校生8935人。辽宁省的主要高等学校有：东北大学、大连理工大学、辽宁大学、大连海事大学、中国医科大学、东北财经大学、辽宁石油化工大学、沈阳药科大学、辽宁师范大学、大连民族大学、中国刑事警察学院、沈阳音乐学院、鲁迅美术学院、辽宁工程技术大学等。 +华侨华人一词包括华侨和海外华人两个概念。其中，华侨一詞在晚清以後普遍作為對移民并定居海外的中国人的稱謂，现指僑居海外，具有中华民国国籍或中华人民共和国国籍的公民。关于海外华人一词，在中国大陆方面，根据，定居境外的华侨应当注销户口，而当华侨加入或取得住在国国籍后，就丧失了中华人民共和国国籍，就成为外籍华人，也称海外华人，简称华人。在台湾方面，因中华民国法律承认双重国籍，因此华侨加入或取得住在国国籍仍可保留中华民国国籍，被视为华侨或台侨。在不强调国籍或法律内涵的情况下，华侨、华人有时候会混用，或使用“华侨华人”之综合称谓。中國移民史可以上溯到2000多年以前。明清两朝执行等的消极形象并不存在真正意义上的华侨。洋务运动之后清政府对华侨的态度开始转变。中华民国在创立过程中得到海外华侨的鼎力相助和支持此后华侨的地位及形象出现了根本性的改变。鸦片战争前夕，移居国外的中国人达到100万人以上。到20世纪30年代，移居国外的中国人已达1000万人左右。到1949年中华人民共和国成立时，移居国外的中国人达到1300多万。目前，海外华侨、华人已达数千万人，其中华侨约占10%、外籍华人约占90%，分布在五大洲160多个国家和地区。在20世纪以前是指漢族20世纪以来在狹義上指漢族廣義则包括在文化上與漢族文化具有一體性的人。近代开始華人華僑有了法律上的定义与中国人的含义也有所区别。“侨”是寄居客居之意。1878年清驻美使臣陈兰彬在奏章中把寓居国外的中国人称为“侨民”。1883年郑观应在给李鸿章的奏章中使用了“华侨”一词。1904年清政府外务部在一份奏请在海外设置领事馆的折子里提到“在海外设领经费支出无多而华侨受益甚大。”此后“华侨”一词就普遍作为寄居海外的中国人尤其是东南亚的中国移民及其后裔的称谓了。根据中华民国华侨身分需满足的条件是根据華僑指定居在国外的中国公民。具体指華人（英語）除了泛指具有中华民族血统的人士之外还特指旅居海外不具有中华人民共和国国籍或中华民国国籍的华裔人士也称外籍华人或海外华人例如印尼华人泰國华人馬來西亞华人美國华人加拿大华人澳洲华人等。华裔（英语Overseas Chinese Descendants）指華人或者華侨在海外（非祖籍國）出生的后代。中華人民共和國政府不允許大陆居民拥有雙重或多重國籍香港和澳门居民因一国两制不受此限制。若大陆居民取得外國國籍即自动丧失中國國籍被称为“外籍華人”其法定身份已是外國人受居住國法律保护。根据《中华人民共和国归侨侨眷权益保护法》華裔是指外籍华人或中国公民的外国籍后裔。而中華民國國籍法採用血統主義，其生父或母存歿時，擁有中華民國國籍，其子女得為認可擁有。因此，中華民國國民在海外所生子女，一律具有中华民國國籍，也被称为海外华侨。中華民國政府、香港特區政府、澳门特區政府皆認可雙重國籍存在，但如擔任中華民國、香港以及澳門公職，則須放棄外國國籍。若已取得外國國籍且未丧失中華民國國籍的中華民國公民，被称为中外双重國籍人，或海外華侨。中国移民史可以上溯到2000多年以前。据历史记载，汉朝日南郡朱吾县居民不满县吏苛政，逃至屈都昆（今马来西亚登嘉楼）。唐朝贞观年间，僧人孟怀业到佛逝国取经，后留恋佛逝不回故乡。五代时苏门答腊就有中国人耕种，其中巨港华人最多。他们是黄巢起义失败后逃亡至苏门答腊的华侨。宋嘉佑年间，安南虏走大批中国人到安南。中世纪时，有三名中國婦女在東歐定居，並與阿什肯納茲猶太人結婚。元朝航海家汪大渊所著记载单马锡有華僑定居。唐人到真腊国居住经商会娶真腊女子为妻。洪武三十年時旅居三佛齊的華僑一千多人擁戴廣東南海人梁道明爲三佛齊国王。嘉靖年间潮州江洋大盗林道乾聚集二千余人攻占北大年因助暹罗王破安南受暹罗王嘉奖赐其女与之成婚。清雍正年间，广东澄海华富里成立了。第二次鸦片战争后清朝的国门被迫打开加上航运也比古代提高了不少华人人口开始较大规模地迁徙到世界各地。清代錢莊為長途匯款的便利需要派駐職員長居海外。19世纪華人開始移居东南亚從事金融貿易生意。越南的移民被稱為明鄉（Minh Hng）或華（Hoa）及不同名稱。新加坡最古老的华人墓葬能追溯到1833年此时华人只占小部分。在康雍乾年間的福建與廣東的華裔移民主要是做金融貿易生意為主。嘉庆以后清帝国的可耕地已無法乘載過剩的人口由清末開始便屡屡發生饑荒加上清帝国的產業結構早已因戰亂而損毁嚴重便令失業率上昇累積着過剩的勞動力其中以華南地區的情況最為嚴峻。這時不少廣東和福建的失業人口萌生遠赴海外謀生的意向很多選擇到東南亞工作當中廣東台山人多選擇移居英美加澳-{zh-cn新 zh-tw紐 zh-hk新}-等國。廣東土客衝突時期，很多廣東人更成為了契約華工，被賣到秘魯、巴拿馬、墨西哥、古巴一带。淘金熱時期，有人被卖往北美洲、南美洲、大洋洲、南非等国家從事危險的工作，如開採金礦與鐵路工程等。根据记载，被卖往中美洲的契約華工死亡人数逾半数以上，当中許多人被骗，契約到期也不得回家。在這段時期，成功變得富有的契約華工僅為少數，例如廣東的開平碉樓便是契約華工衣錦還鄉出資興建。1912年中華民國成立以前，定居在海外的漢族，在书籍上多以在中华民国成立以前，是未被廣泛教導和使用的。因此遷移海外福建人和广东人因为语言不通，难以交談良久，遂皆需倚靠各自的会馆和语言群來生存。由於当年辛亥革命成功依靠大量海外華人支持所以中華民國《》接受同時擁有中華民國國籍與他國國籍的双重國籍身分將華裔定義为只要血統上具有華人血緣者皆為華裔接受海外華人入籍為中華民國國民造成了印尼華人國籍問題。中華人民共和國在1950年代到1980年代間，嚴格限制公民移民的時期。1984年，英國主動洽詢香港主權是否轉移至中華人民共和國，這引起了香港另一次往英國、澳大利亞、加拿大、美國、拉丁美洲和其它地區的移民潮。1989年的天安門事件也引發了移民潮。移民潮在1997年香港主權移交之後逐漸平息，而不少移民外國的香港人已回流香港。許多香港原居民和香港人為了改善生活而移居至英國、荷蘭等国。目前的海外華人主要生活於东南亚、欧洲、北美地区。东南亚因邻近中国，自晚清起，就成为中国移民的目的地。當地為相對多數民族的新加坡及在當地為相對少數民族的馬來西亞、泰國、菲律賓、印度尼西亞與越南。這些地區的海外華人，又被称为南洋华侨、南侨，主要来自的福建省與廣東省 。晚清至民国时期时期中国移民主要是前往東南亞和北美地区。1940年代海外華僑有1100萬人其中100萬分散在歐美各洲有1000萬分散在南洋群島而這1000萬人中約有六七百萬是廣東人假定廣東以3000萬人口計算每五個人中就有一個是華僑惟而今海外华人总数约为五千万人。中华人民共和国初期人口尚可自由流动。其后人口流动停滞。随着改革开放自1980年代起普通民众移民机会增多。隨著中國人的收入教育程度資加技術移民人數也開始增加除了歐洲和北美洲華人人口稀少的澳大利亞紐西蘭也成了今天的熱門移民地文化相對近且經濟發展的東南亞也有部分移民。而前往遙遠非洲南美洲的也在有所增多。統計數據使用當地政府數據或可信度最佳的估計。百分比可能因人口普查結果或估計結果而有所不同。前二十名海外華人人口.統計數據來自中華民國僑務委員會2005年及2014年的統計結果。美加澳-{zh-cn:新; zh-tw:紐; zh-hk:新}-四国华人人口都会区排名.美国数据为2015年资料澳大利亚数据为2016年估算资料新西兰为2013年普查数据加拿大为2016年统计数据。英属印度和東南亞國家的海外華人們已經奠定了他們的商業與財政地位。在北美洲、歐洲與大洋洲，華人所從事的職業則多樣化，範圍從餐飲業到重要類別如醫學、會計、投資、法律、藝術與教育等專業。华人在各地组织建立了许多華社及僑商商會较知名的有世界福州十邑同鄉總會马来西亚华人公会砂拉越人民聯合黨董教总马来西亚华校董事联合会总会马来西亚华校教师会总会美国亚裔社团联合总会百人会美國香港總商會等。英属印度和欧洲此外泰國的一些混血华裔多认同泰國人的身份沒有華人的味道。在緬甸華人很少與當地人通婚而受同化但此情況並不常見。與馬來西亞僅有一水之隔的新加坡華人在當地佔大多數。新加坡華人語言以英語和華語為主並與馬來西亞華人一樣保留不少中華文化。在菲律賓，很多年輕的海外華人被徹底同化，然而老一輩的華人則傾向被視為「外國人」。華人也為一些國家帶來中華文化的影響力，如保留部分中華文化的越南；越戰結束後，大批人口逃往海外，未返中國。海外華人使用的語言除了現代標準漢語及各種漢語外也會使用居住國的當地語言。西方國家早期的華人移民通常使用粵語而近期的華人新移民則使用普通話居多。在東南亞南方漢語而名字使用所在國通用的名字的情況也很普遍。海外華人、华侨會受到敵對的眼光與歧視。如1998年印尼排華事件與馬來西亞的五一三事件。在美國與加拿大，很多職業與鐵路相關的北美海外華人於十九世紀深受種族歧視之害。儘管今日有些不平等的法律已經廢除或不復施行，但兩個國家都曾經立法禁止華人入境移民，如美國有排華法案，加拿大有1923年華人移民法案。清朝的华侨政策以1860年为界可分为前、后两个时期：前期禁止中国人移居国外，限制华侨归国，对海外华侨进行防范与漠视；后期抛弃消极放任政策，对华侨实行保护和监督政策。中華民國與中華人民共和國兩者皆與海外華人有著高度且複雜的關係。兩者皆成立中央部會來處理海外華人事務。中华全国归国华侨联合会是由中華人民共和國归侨、侨眷组成的全国性人民团体和非政府組織，是参加中国人民政治协商会议的人民团体。僑匯是指国际移民将其在国外所得的部分收入向来源国家庭或社区进行的财务或实物转移。侨汇收入曾经是中国外汇的重要来源渠道之一。華侨在1911年为辛亥革命供應了絕大部分革命資金。据海关关册统计，1868～1936年中国外贸入超额累计50亿美元，而同期侨汇总数为24.4亿美元，接近外贸入超额的一半。中國抗日戰爭时期，海外华人也提供了中華民國大量财力，支持抗日事业。如1937年侨汇4.74亿元国币，外贸入超1.15亿元，侨汇占入超411%；1938年侨汇6.44亿元，外贸入超1.24 亿元，侨汇占入超521%。这种状况持续到1941年底太平洋战争爆发南洋沦陷前。国民政府依靠侨汇弥补了外贸入超，还利用这些外汇购买军火等战略物资用于抗日。然而由于国共内战，恶性通货膨胀，外汇价格一日数变华侨汇款回国，常遭25%～50%的损失。据统计，1946年中国银行和广东省银行收入侨汇总数约3000万美元，1947年降至1000多万美元，1948年不足500万美元，1949年侨汇几乎断绝。中华人民共和国成立后，经济条件很差，侨汇是外汇收入的主要来源之一。但出于对中国共产党的疑虑和恐慌，侨汇在1951年达到1.86亿美元后不断减少，在1962年下降至0.5亿多美元，达到历史最低点。为扭转侨汇严重下降局面，中国政府连续颁布多个文件争取侨汇，侨汇因此从60年代中后期到70年代末一直呈上升趋势。到20世纪末，进入中国的外资中60～70%是港台资本，直接来自东南亚华人的资本不到4%。2007年以来，侨汇规模相当于外资规模的50%左右。《世界移民报告2020》称，中国2018年接收的侨汇金额超过670亿美元，成为继印度之后全世界第二大侨汇汇入国。来自中国的移民数量是继来自印度和墨西哥的移民数量之后，世界第三大出生于居住国以外地区的移民群体。歸國華僑简称歸僑是指海外華僑回到中國作為自己的長期或終身居住地。中國抗日戰爭时期有数万华侨回国参战。当时中華民國空軍战斗机飞行员中华侨後裔几乎占了四分之三，中華人民共和國开国上将叶飞即是菲律宾归侨，曾参与指挥车桥战役。1950~70年代，东南亚华侨为躲避当地排华政策的危害，纷纷返回中国。中国政府成立，协调与海外华人关系密切的广东、福建、广西、云南等地，新建、扩建了多个华侨农场以紧急安置华侨。归侨在中华人民共和国占有重要地位，实业家陈嘉庚曾出任中華人民共和國政协副主席一职。不过，中華人民共和國到了文革时期，与海外华人的联系受到严重影响，当时有海外关系甚至会受批斗，许多归侨都受到不公正的待遇。改革开放后，對海外華人的政策恢复到原有水准并得到加强。在1980年代，中華人民共和國嘗試積極地在其它方面尋求海外華人的支持，尋求他們的技術與資金來幫助發展。現在，很多海外華人投資中國大陸，提供了包括財政來源、社會與文化網路、互相交流與機會。今日在中華人民共和國，全國人民代表大會設有歸國華僑的席次。中華民國保障了海外華僑在立法機關的席次與華僑。僑生指回到祖國就學的華僑學生。清光緒三十二年兩江總督端方上書光緒皇帝請求允許“南洋各島及檀香山舊金山等處僑民”回南京讀書以“宏教澤而係僑情”。1907年2月底第一批华侨学生21人抵达南京。不久又有第二批侨生10名抵达。此后又有不少來自新加坡马来西亚等地的华侨学生前来求学。中國大陸和台灣都實施僑生教育。从1949年至1958年先后回中国大陆的侨生有5万人左右。侨生集中的北京集美广州汕头南宁昆明和武汉等七个城市设立了“归国华侨学生中等补习学校”集中接收新回国的华侨学生。从印尼回国的华侨学生在临行前都会被当地政府要求签字承诺永远不再回印尼并在护照上写下“Tidak akan kembali lagi ke Indonesia（同意永远不再回印度尼西亚）”。据畢業僑生后除原在臺設有戶籍者外應一律返回僑居地。1911年拉美发生排华暴乱，清政府电令正在北大西洋海域游弋的重巡洋舰海圻号前往古巴，古巴总统拜谒舰长程璧光时表示:“古巴军民决不会歧视华侨。”墨西哥政府就排华事件正式向清政府赔礼道歉，承诺偿付受害侨民生命财产损失，缉捕暴民。但中华民国成立后，墨西哥的一些承诺便不了了之。1918至1921年俄国内战期间，中华民国北京政府组织力量从西伯利亚撤回3万多外侨，这是中国历史上首次大规模武装撤侨。中华人民共和国成立后，组织了多次海外撤侨。其中1960年从印尼接回6万多华侨。2011年利比亚撤侨行动中，撤侨3.6万多人，包括所有在利比亚持中国护照的官员、学生、商人、中资企业人员、外派劳工、旅客、游客，以及主动要求回国避难的利比亚籍华人。 +人工智能亦稱智械機器智能指由人製造出來的機器所表現出來的智能。通常人工智能是指-{zh-hans通过 zh-hant透過}-普通電腦程式來呈現人類智能的技術。該詞也指出研究這樣的智能系統是否能夠實現以及如何實現。同时通過醫學神經科學機器人學及統計學等的進步常態預測則認為人類的很多職業也逐漸被其取代。人工智能於一般教材中的定义领域是。 人工智能可以定義為模仿人類與人類思維相關的認知功能的機器或計算機如學習和解決問題。人工智能是計算機科學的一個分支它感知其環境並採取行動最大限度地提高其成功機會。此外人工智能能夠從過去的經驗中學習做出合理的決策並快速回應。因此人工智能研究人員的科學目標是通過構建具有象徵意義的推理或推理的計算機程式來理解智慧。人工智能的四個主要組成部分是人工智能的研究是高度技术性和专业的各分支领域都是深入且各不相通的因而涉及範圍極廣。人工智能的研究可以分为几个技术问题。其分支领域主要集中在解决具体问题其中之一是如何使用各种不同的工具完成特定的应用程序。AI的核心问题包括建構能夠跟人類似甚至超卓的推理知识规划学习交流感知移物使用工具和操控机械的能力等。人工智能目前仍然是该领域的长远目标。目前弱人工智慧已經有初步成果甚至在一些影像辨識語言分析棋類遊戲等等單方面的能力達到了超越人類的水平而且人工智慧的通用性代表著能解決上述的問題的是一樣的AI程式無須重新開發算法就可以直接使用現有的AI完成任務與人類的處理能力相同但達到具備思考能力的統合強人工智慧還需要時間研究比较流行的方法包括统计方法计算智能和传统意义的AI。目前有大量的工具应用了人工智能其中包括搜索和数学优化逻辑推演。而基於仿生學認知心理學以及基于概率论和经济学的演算法等等也在逐步探索當中。人工智能的定義可以分為兩部分即即由人设计为人创造制造。關於什麼是「-{zh智能 zh-hans智能 zh-hant智能 zh-tw智慧}-」较有争议性。這涉及到其它諸如意識自我心靈包括無意識的精神等等問題。人唯一瞭解的智能是人本身的智能這是普遍認同的觀點。但是我們對我們自身智能的理解都非常有限對構成人的智能必要元素的瞭解也很有限所以就很難定義什麼是「人工」製造的「-{zh智能 zh-hans智能 zh-hant智能 zh-tw智慧}-」。因此人工智能的研究往往涉及對人智能本身的研究。其它關於動物或其它人造系統的智能也普遍被認為是人工智能相關的研究課題。人工智慧目前在電腦領域內，得到了愈加廣泛的发挥。並在機器人、經濟政治決策、控制系統、仿真系統中得到應用。目前人工智慧的研究方向已經被分成幾個子領域研究人員希望一個人工智慧系統應該具有某些特定能力以下將這些能力列出並說明。演绎、推理和解决问题.早期的人工智慧研究人员直接模仿人类进行逐步的推理，就像是玩棋盘游戏或进行逻辑推理时人类的思考模式。到了1980和1990年代，利用概率和经济学上的概念，人工智慧研究还发展了非常成功的方法处理不确定或不完整的资讯。对于困难的问题，有可能需要大量的运算资源，也就是发生了：当问题超过一定的规模时，电脑会需要天文数量级的存储器或是运算时间。寻找更有效的演算法是优先的人工智慧研究项目。人类解决问题的模式通常是用最快捷直观的判断而不是有意识的一步一步的推导早期人工智慧研究通常使用逐步推导的方式。人工智慧研究已经于这种解决问题方法取得进展实体化Agent研究强调感知运动的重要性。神经网络研究试图以模拟人类和动物的大脑结构重现这种技能。知识表示是人工智能领域的核心研究问题之一，它的目标是让机器存储相应的知识，并且能够按照某种规则推理演绎得到新的知识。有许多需要解决的问题需要大量的对世界的知识,这些知识包括事先存储的先验知识和-{zh-hans:通过; zh-hant:透過;}-智能推理得到的知识。事先存储的先验知识指：人类-{zh-hans:通过; zh-hant:透過;}-某种方式告诉给机器的知识。-{zh-hans:通过; zh-hant:透過;}-智能推理得到的知识指：结合先验知识和某种特定的推理规则（逻辑推理）得到的知识。首先，先验知识可以指描述目标，特征，种类及物件之间的关系的知识， 也可以描述事件，时间，状态，原因和结果， 以及任何知识你想要机器存储的。比如：今天没有太阳，没有太阳就是阴天。那么以命题逻辑语言，这些知识可以被表示为：今天>没有太阳， 没有太阳>阴天。这些知识是先验知识，那么-{zh-hans:通过; zh-hant:透過;}-推理可以得到新知识：今天>阴天。由此例子可以看出，先验知识的正确性非常重要，这个例子中没有太阳就是阴天，这个命题是不严谨的、比较笼统的，因为没有太阳可能是下雨，也可能下雪。另外如果人工智慧能看出太陽，除了該如何判斷的這件問題，在這個前提之下，應該也能判斷出陰天與晴天的差異。逻辑命题表示在知识表示中非常重要，逻辑推理规则是目前主要推理规则。可以在机器中用逻辑符号定义每一个逻辑命题，然后再让机器存储相应的逻辑推理规则，那么自然而然机器便可进行推理。目前知识表达有许多困境尚无法解决，比如：建立一个完备的知识库几乎不可能，所以知识库的资源受到限制；先验知识的正确性需要进行检验，而且先验知识有时候不一定是只有对或者错两种选择。智能Agent必须能够制定目标和实现这些目标。他们需要一种方法来建立一个可预测的世界模型（将整个世界状态用数学模型表现出来，并能预测它们的行为将如何改变这个世界），这样就可以选择功效最大的行为。在传统的规划问题中，智能Agent被假定它是世界中唯一具有影响力的，所以它要做出什么行为是已经确定的。但是，如果事实并非如此，它必须定期检查世界模型的状态是否和自己的预测相符合。如果不符合，它必须改变它的计划。因此智能代理必须具有在不确定结果的状态下推理的能力。在多Agent中，多个Agent规划以合作和竞争的方式去完成一定的目标，使用演化演算法和群体智慧可以达成一个整体的突现行为目标。机器学习的主要目的是为了让机器从使用者和输入数据等处获得知识从而让机器自动地去判断和输出相应的结果。这一方法可以帮助解决更多问题减少错误提高解决问题的效率。对于人工智能来说机器学习从一开始就很重要。1956年在最初的达特茅斯夏季会议上雷蒙德索洛莫诺夫写了一篇关于不监视的概率性机器学习一个归纳推理的机器。机器学习的方法各种各样主要分为监督学习和非监督学习两大类。监督学习指事先给定机器一些训练样本并且告诉样本的类别然后根据这些样本的类别进行训练提取出这些样本的共同属性或者训练一个分类器等新来一个样本则通过训练得到的共同属性或者分类器进行判断该样本的类别。监督学习根据输出结果的离散性和连续性分为分类和回归两类。非监督学习是不给定训练样本直接给定一些样本和一些规则让机器自动根据一些规则进行分类。无论哪种学习方法都会进行误差分析从而知道所提的方法在理论上是否误差有上限。自然語言處理探討如何處理及運用自然語言自然語言認知則是指讓電腦「懂」人類的語言。自然語言生成系統把計算機數據轉化為自然語言。自然語言理解系統把自然語言轉化為計算機程序更易于處理的形式。機器感知是指能夠使用感測器所輸入的資料然後推斷世界的狀態。電腦視覺能夠分析影像輸入。另外還有語音識別人臉辨識和物體辨識。情感和社交技能對於一個智能agent是很重要的。首先-{zh-hans通过 zh-hant透過}-了解他們的動機和情感狀態代理人能夠預測別人的行動。此外為了良好的人機互動智慧代理人也需要表現出情緒來。至少它必須出現禮貌地和人類打交道。至少它本身應該有正常的情緒。一個人工智慧的子領域，代表了理論所定義的創造力。相關領域的研究包括了人工直覺和人工想像。史蒂芬霍金比爾蓋茲馬斯克 Jaan Tallinn 以及 Nick Bostrom 等人都對於人工智慧技術的未來公開表示憂心人工智慧若在許多方面超越人類智慧水平的智能不斷更新自我提升進而取得控制管理權人類是否有足夠的能力及時停止人工智慧領域的「軍備競賽」能否保有最高掌控權現有事實是機器常失控導致人員傷亡這樣的情況是否會更加擴大規模出現歷史顯然無法給出可靠的樂觀答案。特斯拉電動車馬斯克（Elon Musk）在麻省理工學院（MIT）航空航天部門百年紀念研討會上稱人工智能是「召喚惡魔」行為英國發明家Clive Sinclair認為一旦開始製造抵抗人類和超越人類的智能機器人類可能很難生存蓋茲同意馬斯克和其它人所言且不知道為何有些人不擔憂這個問題。DeepMind的人工智慧系統在2016年對戰南韓棋王李世乭獲勝開發商表示在內部設立倫理委員會針對人工智慧的應用制定政策防範人工智慧淪為犯罪開發者。科技進步人工智慧科技產生「自主武器」軍備競賽已悄悄展開英國以色列與挪威都已部署自主飛彈與無人操控的無人機具「射後不理」（fire-and-forget）能力的飛彈多枚飛彈還可互相溝通分享找到攻擊目標。這些武器還未被大量投入但很快就會出現在戰場上且並非使用人類所設計的程序而是完全利用機器自行決策。 霍金等人在英國獨立報發表文章警告未來人工智慧可能會比人類金融市場科學家人類領袖更能操縱人心甚至研發出人們無法理解的武器。專家恐發展到無法控制的局面援引聯合國禁止研發某些特定武器的「特定常規武器公約」加以限制。新南威爾斯大學人工智慧的沃爾什（Toby Walsh）教授認為這是一種欺騙因為機器無區別戰敵和平民的技術。據CNN財經網數字媒體未來學家兼Webbmedia集團創始人艾米韋伯（Amy Webb）美國在線...等紛紛預測一些即將被機器人取代的職業日本野村總合研究所也與英國牛津大學的研究學者共同調查指出10至20年後日本有49%的職業(235種職業)可能會被機械和人工智慧取代而消失直接影響約達2500萬人例如超市店員一般事務員計程車司機收費站運營商和收銀員市場營銷人員客服人員製造業工人金融中間人和分析師新聞記者電話公司職員麻醉師士兵和保安律師醫生軟體開發者和操盤手股票交易員等等高薪酬的腦力職業將最先受到衝擊。2017年6月份马云在美國底特律舉行產業大會，會上提出人工智慧可能導致第三次世界大戰，因為前兩次產業革命都導致兩次大戰，戰爭原因並非這些創新發明本身，而是發明對社會上許多人的生活方式衝擊處理不當，新科技在社會上產生新工作也取代舊工作，產生了新的輸家和贏家，若是輸家的人數太多將造成一股社會不穩的能量而這股能量被有心人利用可能導致各種事件。他認為各國應該強制訂定規定AI機器只能用於人類不能做的工作，避免短時間大量人類被取代的失業大潮，但馬雲沒有提出這種世界性規定將如何實現並確保遵守的細節方案。数据科学和人工智能被哈佛商業評論称为公司於2012年成立，焦点是数据科学，大数据，和人工智能企业培训，提供国际大数据培训服务。此議題目前分成兩個學派此學派的代表是天文物理學家史蒂芬·霍金，以及特斯拉執行長伊隆·馬斯克。霍金認為AI對人類將來有很大的威脅，主要有以下理由：主要是Google、Facebook等AI的主要技術發展者，他們對AI持樂觀看法的理由：AI逐漸普及後將會在企業管理中扮演很重要的角色而人類的管理者應如何適度的調整自己的工作職能有以下幾點建議強人工智能和弱人工智能.人工智能的一個比較流行的定義，也是該領域較早的定義，是由當時麻省理工學院的約翰·麥卡錫在1956年的達特矛斯會議上提出的：人工智能就是要讓機器的行為看起來就像是人所表現出的智能行為一樣。但是這個定義似乎忽略了強人工智能的可能性。另一個定義指人工智能是人造機器所表現出來的智能。總體來講，目前對人工智能的定義大多可劃分為四類，即機器應廣義地理解為採取行動，或制定行動的決策，而不是肢體動作。強人工智能觀點認為能推理和解決問題的智能機器並且這樣的機器將被認為是具有知覺有自我意識的。強人工智能可以有兩類弱人工智能觀點認為像是智能的但是並不真正擁有智能也不會有自主意識。弱人工智能是對比強人工智能才出現的因為人工智能的研究一度處於停滯不前的狀態下直到類神經網路有了強大的運算能力加以模擬後才開始改變並大幅超前。但人工智能研究者不一定同意弱人工智能也不一定在乎或者了解強人工智能和弱人工智能的內容與差別對定義爭論不休。就當下的人工智能研究領域來看研究者已大量造出「看起來」像是智能的機器取得相當豐碩的理論上和實質上的成果如2009年康乃爾大學教授Hod Lipson 和其博士研究生Michael Schmidt 研發出的 Eureqa電腦程式只要給予一些資料這電腦程式自己只用幾十個小時計算就推論出牛頓花費多年研究才發現的牛頓力學公式等於只用幾十個小時就自己重新發現牛頓力學公式這電腦程式也能用來研究很多其他領域的科學問題上。這些所謂的弱人工智慧在神經網路發展下已經有巨大進步但對於要如何整合成強人工智慧現在還沒有明確定論。對強人工智能的哲學爭論.主條目：人工智能哲學、图灵测试、物理符號系統、皇帝新脑、、一詞最初是約翰羅傑斯希爾勒針對電腦和其它信息處理機器創造的其定義為 +關於強人工智能的爭論不同於更廣義的一元論和二元論的爭論。其爭論要點是如果一台機器的唯一工作原理就是轉換編碼數據那麼這台機器是不是有思維的？希爾勒認為這是不可能的。他舉了個中文房間的例子來說明如果機器僅僅是轉換數據而數據本身是對某些事情的一種編碼表現那麼在不理解這一編碼和這實際事情之間的對應關係的前提下機器不可能對其處理的數據有任何理解。基於這一論點希爾勒認為即使有機器通-{}-過了圖靈測試也不一定說明機器就真的像人一樣有自我思維和自由意識。也有哲學家持不同的觀點。丹尼爾丹尼特在其著作裡認為人也不過是一台有靈魂的機器而已為什麼我們認為呢？他認為像上述的數據轉換機器是有可能有思維和意識的。有的哲學家認為如果弱人工智能是可實現的，那麼強人工智能也是可實現的。比如在其哲學入門教材Think裡說道，一個人的看起來是像是智能的，那就不能完全否定這機器是真的有智能的。布莱克本認為這是一個主觀認定的問題。需要指出的是，弱人工智能並非和強人工智能完全對立，也就是說，即使強人工智能是可能的，弱人工智能仍然是有意義的。至少，今日的計算機能做的事，像算術運算等，在一百多年前是被認為很需要智能的。並且，即使強人工智能被證明為可能的，也不代表強人工智能必定能被研製出來。目前没有统一的原理或范式指导人工智能研究。许多问题上研究者都存在争论。其中几个长久以来仍没有结论的问题是是否应从心理或神经方面模拟人工智能?或者像鸟类生物学对于航空工程一样人类生物学对于人工智能研究是没有关系的？智能行为能否用简单的原则来描述？还是必须解决大量完全无关的问题？智能是否可以使用高级符号表达，如词和想法？还是需要“子符号”的处理？約翰·豪格兰德的概念，也提议人工智能应归类为，这个概念后来被某些非GOFAI研究者采纳。20世纪40年代到50年代许多研究者探索神经学信息理论及控制论之间的联系。其中还造出一些使用电子网络构造的初步智能如格雷華特和約翰霍普金斯野獸。这些研究者还经常在普林斯顿大学和英国的Ratio Club举行技术协会会议。直到1960，大部分人已经放弃这个方法，尽管在80年代再次提出这些原理。当20世纪50年代，數位计算机研制成功，研究者开始探索人类智能是否能简化成符号处理。研究主要集中在卡内基梅隆大学，斯坦福大学和麻省理工學院，而各自有独立的研究风格。約翰·豪格兰德。60年代，符号方法在小型证明程序上模拟高级思考有很大的成就。基于控制论或神经网络的方法则置于次要。60－70年代的研究者确信符号方法最终可以成功创造强人工智能的机器，同时这也是他们的目标。1980年代符号人工智能停滞不前，很多人认为符号系统永远不可能模仿人类所有的认知过程，特别是感知、机器人、机器学习和模式识别。很多研究者开始关注子符号方法解决特定的人工智能问题。1990年代，人工智能研究发展出复杂的数学工具来解决特定的分支问题。这些工具是真正的科学方法，即这些方法的结果是可测量的和可验证的，同时也是近期人工智能成功的原因。共用的数学语言也允许已有学科的合作。Stuart J. Russell和Peter Norvig指出这些进步不亚于。有人批评这些技术太专注于特定的问题，而没有考虑长远的强人工智能目标。人工智慧基本的應用可分為四大部分：指的是人類透過感官所收到環境的刺激察覺訊息的能力簡單的說就是人類五官的看聽說讀寫等能力學習人類的感知能力是AI目前主要的焦點之一包括指的是人類透過學習判斷分析等等心理活動來瞭解訊息獲取知識的過程與能力對人類認知的模仿與學習也是目前AI第二個焦點領域主要包括指的是人類產生新思想，新發現，新方法，新理論，新設計，創造新事物的能力，它是結合知識、智力、能力、個性及潛意識等各種因素優化而成，這個領域目前人類仍遙遙領先AI，但AI也試著急起直追，主要領域包括：AI作曲、AI作詩、AI小說、AI繪畫、AI設計等。指的是人類深刻瞭解人事物的真相能探求真實真理明辨是非指導人類可以過著有意義生活的一種能力這個領域牽涉人類自我意識自我認知與價值觀是目前AI尚未觸及的一部分也是人類最難以模仿的一個領域。机器视觉指纹识别人脸识别视网膜识别虹膜识别掌纹识别专家系统自动规划無人載具等。人工智能是一門邊緣學科屬於自然科學和社會科學的交叉。 +中华人民共和国国旗，即五星红旗，是中华人民共和国的国家象征之一；左上角镶有五颗黄色五角星的红色旗帜，旗帜图案中的四颗小星环绕在一颗大星右侧呈半环形，大五角星象征着中国共产党，四颗小五角星象征着工人阶级、农民阶级、城市小资产阶级和民族资产阶级，五颗星的排列图形象征中国领土海棠的形状。该旗的设计者是来自浙江瑞安的普通公民曾联松。随着中国共产党在国共内战中取得胜利1949年7月新政治协商会议筹备会发出了征集国旗图案的通告曾联松设计并提交了他的国旗样稿。在2992幅应征国旗图案中曾联松的设计被选入38幅候选草图。经过多次讨论和少量修改他的设计被选为了中华人民共和国国旗。1949年9月27日中國人民政治協商會議第一屆全體會議通過中華人民共和國國旗為五星紅旗以後歷次憲法均作同樣規定。在1949年10月1日的开国大典上毛泽东宣告了中华人民共和国中央人民政府成立并按动电钮在天安门广场上升起了第一面五星红旗。1990年6月28日，第七届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十四次会议通过了现行的《中华人民共和国国旗法》，于同日-{zh-cn:通过; zh-tw:透過; zh-hk:通過;}-中国国家主席杨尚昆签署的第28号《中华人民共和国主席令》公布，并于1990年10月1日起开始施行。《国旗法》不仅规定了国旗的制法、悬挂场合及悬挂方式，还强调了国旗是。1949年7月4日，新政治协商会议筹备会第六小组决定发出征集国旗、国徽图案和国歌词谱的启事。经过毛泽东和周恩来的修改审定的等各大报纸连续刊登。该启事中列出了国旗图案的注意事项：征集国旗图案的启事发出后当时在上海工作的曾联松希望设计一幅国旗图案来表达他对新中国的爱国热情。时值七月中旬他在自家的阁楼上开始设计国旗图案。他想到中国共产党领导的工农红军是以五角星作为自己的标志而且中国共产党又是中国人民的大救星进而决定用五角星来象征它。而毛泽东在一文则指出当时人民由四个社会阶级他於八月中旬将自己的设计“红地五星旗”寄给了筹备会。截至8月20日国旗国徽评选委员会共收到了2992幅（一说为3012幅）国旗图案郭沫若陈嘉庚等筹备会成员也提交了他们设计的样稿。这些应征图案在临时选阅室内进行了展示评选委员会从中精选出38份草图并将之汇编入《国旗图案参考资料》提交给新成立的中国人民政治协商会议讨论。曾联松的方案最初并未入选后来在田汉的主张下才被收为并根据小组讨论的意见去除了类似苏联国旗的锤子镰刀的标志。9月23日上午政协全体会议代表分组讨论了国旗方案但并未形成定论。23日当晚彭光涵向周恩来推荐了32号图案周恩来对该设计感到满意并要求彭光涵绘制较大的图样。两天后毛泽东在中南海召开了座谈会说明了他赞成红地五星旗的理由并在与会代表间取得了共识。 9月27日中国人民政治协商会议第一届全体会议正式决定采纳红地五星旗方案并将其改名为。9月29日，刊发了新国旗的图样和制法说明，提供社会各界制作使用。1949年10月1日，在中华人民共和国的开国大典上，五星红旗首次在北京天安门广场升起。第一面飘扬在天安门广场上的国旗由女缝纫工赵文瑞缝制，她在9月30日下午1时完成了这项工作。另外有国旗、国歌、国徽评选委员会的秘书彭光涵，北平市国营永茂公司的宋树信等两种说法。曾联松最初并不敢确信五星红旗是他设计的，因为在公布的图案中，大五角星上没有镰刀和锤子。然而，中央人民政府办公厅后来给他寄送了公函，正式告知他就是国旗的设计者，并随信附带了五百万元旧人民币作为酬谢。1954年9月第一届全国人民代表大会通过第一部以后至今，五星红旗一直是中华人民共和国的宪定国旗。其樣式：旗面為紅色，長方形，長和高為三與二之比，左上方綴黃色五角星五顆，一星較大，其外接圓直徑為旗高十分之三，居左；四星較小，其外接圓直徑為旗高十分之一，環拱於大星之右，並各有一個角尖正對大星之中心點。國旗旗面之紅色象徵革命。星用黃色是為了在紅地上顯出光明。旗上的五颗五角星及其相互关系，象征中国共产党领导下的革命人民大团结。四颗小五角星各有一尖正对大五角星的中心，代表着围绕一个中心的团结。大五角星象征着中國共產黨，四颗小五角星象征着工人阶级、农民阶级、城市小资产阶级和民族资产阶级。在曾联松最初对国旗的描述中，大五角星象征着中国人民，四颗小五角星象征着毛泽东在中提出的中国人民四个阶级的秋海棠叶形状；五角星使用黄色则是因为中华民族是黄色人种。1949年通過的《》规定，新中国政權（即当时即将成立的中华人民共和国）的国旗为“红地五星旗，象征中国革命人民大团结。”这也是国旗目前最为准确的官方定义。为什么建国时会选择五颗星官方并未说明有说法认为“作为历史学家军事家的毛泽东经常阅读记载有“五星出东方利中国”的等书中国传统的数术学和天文学都认为五星聚会或五星联珠会给中国带来好运。因此他之所以选择五星红旗作为国旗是因为它很好地兼顾了中华历史文化传统民族心理与现实革命艺术与当今政治的关系。”这一观点常常将五星红旗与“五星出东方”护膊一起作为文化传承的见证。有时候五颗星会被误认为是代表中国的五大民族这其实是与五色旗的含义混淆了后者是中华民国北洋政府在1912年－1928年使用的国旗其中的五种不同颜色分别代表着汉满蒙回藏五个民族。曾联松的方案是。1949年9月23日上午，政协全体会议代表分组讨论了国旗方案，但并未形成定论；会中有代表觉得32号方案中的四颗小五角星提法不妥，认为不应提到资产阶级。毛泽东和大多数代表起初都赞成一颗星一条横杠的复字第3号图案，但张治中后来向毛泽东表达了他的反对意愿，认为一条横杠有分裂国土、分裂革命之嫌疑，而且容易使人联想到孙悟空的金箍棒。23日当晚，彭光涵向周恩来推荐了32号图案，而周对该设计感到满意，并要求彭绘制较大的图样。此外，陈嘉庚也曾向毛泽东和周恩来提出建议，认为政权特征比地理特征更为重要，因此无需坚持使用象征黄河的横杠。中国人民政治协商会议第一届全体会议主席团在1949年9月28日公布了国旗的制法。根据第四条规定，制作国旗的企业由省、自治区和直辖市的人民政府指定。国旗的长宽之比为3:2。中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局和中国国家标准化管理委员会颁布的GB 12982-2004：国旗标准中亦给出了国旗的制法说明。还给出了国旗的五种尺度规格。其中一号国旗主要用于大型运动会的开幕或闭幕仪式以及作为大型会议场的背景旗。二号国旗适用于15米以上高度的旗杆上三号国旗一般悬挂于10至13米高的旗杆四号国旗用于9至10米高的旗杆。五号旗常用作一般不挂在立地旗杆上。在五种规格之外还有六号和七号国旗常用作彩旗导游旗等。八号国旗主要用于手摇旗串旗等。九号国旗可以用作会议桌旗。国家质量监督检验检疫总局和中国国家标准化管理委员会颁布的GB 12983-2004：国旗颜色标准样品规定了国旗所使用的颜色。该标准按照CIE标准照明体D65和CIE 1964补充标准色度系统给出了下列的色度数据。旗杆套為白色。根据《中华人民共和国国旗法》第九条规定，网络使用的国旗图案标准版本在中国人大网和中国政府网上发布。网络使用的国旗图案标准版本的色彩如下（PNG源文件中的sRGB色彩）：在举行升旗仪式时应奏唱中华人民共和国国歌参加者应面向国旗肃立并行注目礼军人敬军礼少先队员敬少先队礼。国旗应该早升晚降在恶劣天气时可以不升挂。当企业旗帜校旗区旗等其它旗帜与中华人民共和国国旗同时升挂时国旗应该挂在显著的位置其它旗帜则挂在国旗的两边高度比国旗低。全日制的中小学应在假期以外每周举行一次升旗仪式。不过在2017年7月30日举行的庆祝中国人民解放军建军90周年阅兵行列中中国共产党党旗领先于中华人民共和国国旗。2019年10月1日举行的庆祝中华人民共和国成立70周年大会阅兵式上也同样出现党旗领先于国旗的情况。此举被认为违反第十条亦规定按照法条竞合原则第十条被官方作为特殊规定适用亦是党旗领先国旗的主要原因。下半旗是公众表示哀悼的重要礼节，为当今世界上通行的一种志哀方式。第14条第2款和第3款规定，在不幸事件或严重自然灾害导致重大伤亡时，亦可由国务院决定下半旗志哀。下半旗时，应当先将国旗升至杆顶，然后降至旗顶与杆顶之间的距离为旗杆全长的三分之一处；降下时，应当先将国旗升至杆顶，然后再降下。据统计，截至2014年，中华人民共和国国旗在建国后曾下半旗约50次，其中47次为中外政要。另据历年报道，从1953年至2012年，天安门广场不少于17次为外国元首和政党领袖降半旗。此外，为悼念汶川大地震、青海玉树地震、甘肃舟曲特大山洪泥石流中的遇难者，全中国及驻外机构也降下过半旗。另外，中华人民共和国的国家公祭日期间，纪念地点也会下半旗志哀。香港特别行政区政府除了在全国性的志哀活动中下半旗之外还曾为香港旅行团在马尼拉被挟持事件香港南丫海難及大埔公路雙層巴士翻側事故中的遇难者下半旗志哀。1949年10月1日，中华人民共和国开国大典上，天安门广场升起了第一面五星红旗。这面五星红旗长460厘米，宽338厘米，是用五幅红缎子拼接压制而成，黄星采用黄色绸缎。1951年7月1日，北京市人民政府将这面国旗拨交原中国革命博物馆，现藏于中国国家博物馆。开国大典上的旗杆高22.5米，原本要求旗杆与天安门城楼等高（35米），但当时条件有限，未能达到要求。天安门广场的旗杆在1991年更换过一次，新旗杆高30米。原来的旗杆于1991年改造后立在原中国革命博物馆，2007年拆装后于馆内库区收藏。2011年6月21日，在中国国家博物馆重新对公众展出。天安门广场的升旗仪式经历了几个阶段。建国初期，升旗仪式由北京市纠察总队负责，而升旗任务由北京市供电局实施。1977年5月，北京市卫戍部队接替了升国旗任务，由3人负责升国旗，时称。1982年12月28日原武警北京总队第六支队十一中队五班进驻天安门，负责天安门广场升降旗仪式。1991年2月23日，天安门广场扩建国旗基座，武警北京总队六支队十七中队国旗仪式》正式实施。1992年12月，在原来国旗班的基础上，扩建成立国旗护卫队，即中国人民武装警察部队北京市总队第二师十四支队二大队六中队。2018年1月1日起，中国人民解放军陆海空三军仪仗队和军乐团取代中国人民武装警察部队国旗护卫队，开始担负国旗护卫任务。2018年1月1日7时36分，天安门广场升国旗仪式，首次由中国人民解放军陆海空三军仪仗队执行。中国人民武装警察部队国旗护卫队不再负责升降旗任务，番号同时撤销。在武警国旗护卫队时期，按照2001年3月天安门地区管理委员会颁布的共演奏3遍，时长2分7秒，与太阳经过地平线的时长对应。降旗由国旗护卫队单独实施，没有音乐。自2018年1月1日解放军接替武警国旗护卫队执行国旗护卫任务起天安门广场国旗升旗仪式有了一定的变化。根据安排每月1日天安门广场升国旗按126人编队方案实施其中护旗队员96人礼兵30人分别着14式陆海空军礼服。护旗队由前至后依次为国旗组3人陆海空军分队长3人陆海空军队员90人。队员90人编为6路15列行进队形分准备迎旗护旗升旗和返回5个步骤全程10分钟。重大节日升国旗仪式一般参照每月1日升国旗方案执行特殊情况根据任务需要增加编队人数鸣放礼炮。每日升旗时一样演奏。平日升国旗由66人编成国旗组6人分队长6人队员60人编为4路15列分护旗升旗和返回3个步骤全程8分钟。降国旗则全年按66人编队方案实施列队形式和行进动作与平日升旗仪式相同不安排伴奏。每日升降旗时间以北京天文台提供的北京每日日出日落时间为准。的第七八条亦对其他情况下国旗的升挂作出了规定。第七条规定国庆节国际劳动节元旦和春节各级国家机关和各人民团体应当升挂国旗。第八条规定举行重大庆祝纪念活动大型文化体育活动大型展览会可以升挂国旗。中华人民共和国交通部根据规定中国籍船舶中50总吨及以上的船舶航行在中国领水以外水域和香港澳门地区的船舶以及公务船舶都应当每日悬挂中国国旗进入中华人民共和国内水港口锚地的外国籍船舶也应当每日悬挂中国国旗。该办法还规定了不同长度的船只应当悬挂的国旗尺寸。中国的航空公司中只有中国国际航空公司可以在飞行器上喷绘中华人民共和国国旗。此外，中国人民武装警察部队的士兵国防服役章和警官礼服臂章都有中国国旗的图案。1951年发行的中苏友谊万岁奖章也含有中国国旗和苏联国旗图案。1945年抗日战争结束，中华民国国旗作爲國旗开始在台湾使用至今。在当今的台灣，因爲兩岸政治原因，除了中華人民共和國當局自己使用外，使用五星红旗的往往是爲了一定政治或者商業因素。經歷保釣運動的外省人或本省人第二代子弟，或是近年大量移民台灣的原中華人民共和國公民（陸配，依親等），如陳映真跟王津平與王曉波等人參與的中國統一聯盟很早就公開打出支持中國和平統一的口號，在海外或者台灣本土打出了五星紅旗的旗號。在十一國慶或者台灣光復節的時候，曾有人開著掛著五星紅旗的車在街上遊行，著名例子有台北的戴忠和台南台灣共產黨主席王老養。另外，在台灣名勝日月潭，曾發生一遊覽船業者為了吸引中國大陸籍遊客，在船尾懸掛五星红旗。而有台灣旅館為了对大陸遊客表现友好，也開始升起了中華人民共和國國旗。而國立成功大學也多次將中華人民共和國國旗與中華民國國旗並列懸掛，以迎接中國大陸訪客。中华民国共产党以五星红旗为党旗。台湾的极左派团体中华爱国同心会也经常在台北101等公众场合展示五星旗。2017年10月1日，中华统一促进党成员在張安樂帶頭下身穿印有中華人民共和國五星红旗，並標示為「我的國旗」的外衣，在台北街頭遊行示眾。地區在海外部分華人社區中華民國國旗也很常见。尤其在雙十節期間部分華人社區都掛上青天白日滿地紅旗。但隨著改革開放很多中華人民共和國公民移民海外改變了當地華人的結構很多華人團體開始慶祝十一國慶並在海外的中國城和華人眾多的地方升起五星紅旗。自從1997年7月1日香港回歸起，中華人民共和國國旗在香港的使用及保護以國旗及國徽條例訂定。該條例第4條禁止展示或使用破損、污損、褪色或不合規格的國旗。第5條第（2）款規定國旗必須按照附表1所列規格製造。第6條第（1）款禁止國旗或其圖案展示或使用於商標或廣告或私人喪事活動，否則依據第（3）款，如未經合法授權或並無合理辯解違反之，即屬犯罪，一經循簡易程序定罪，非法用於商標或廣告可處第5級罰款，而非法用於私人喪事活動可處第2級罰款。第7條規定，公開及故意以焚燒、毀損、塗劃、玷污、踐踏等方式侮辱國旗，即屬犯罪，一經定罪，可處第5級罰款及監禁3年。自從1999年12月20日澳門回歸起中華人民共和國國旗在澳門的使用及保護以第5/1999號法律訂定。該法律第5條規定國旗或其圖案不得展示或使用於行政長官限制或禁止展示或使用國旗或其圖案的其他場合或場所。依據第九條焚燒毀損塗劃玷污或踐踏國旗構成對國家象徵的不尊重。第九條也規定以言詞動作或散佈文書又或以其他與公眾通訊的工具公然侮辱國家象徵又或對之不尊重者處最高3年徒刑或科最高360日罰金。依據第11條違反第5條規定者可罰澳門幣5千元至五萬元罰款。五星红旗的颜色布局及内涵与蘇聯国旗相仿五角星为社会主义国家常用标志。但苏联和朝鲜国旗的长宽比例为21中华人民共和国和越南国旗采取32比例。李光耀在其回忆录中称新加坡国旗的五角星是为了照顾华族民众希望效仿中华人民共和国国旗在国旗上加五颗五角星惟代表意義略有不同。中国红十字基金会会标的整体造型也与五星红旗相似。中华人民共和国海关曾经使用的关旗为中华人民共和国国旗的右方下角加饰关徽的旗帜。中国人民轮船总公司曾使用在中华人民共和国国旗上添加原招商局旗上水波纹的旗帜。香港与澳门区旗上也有五星图案。 +海上田园是一个位于中國廣東省深圳市西部寶安區沙井街道的海上休闲度假及生态旅游景区，也是深圳是深圳最大的一座生態文化主題旅遊景區，面積1.73平方公里，西臨珠江出海口，2001年9月29日開始營業。旅遊或旅遊业是指个人的旅行遊览活动和為旅客提供休閒設施與服務的產業。是一种复杂的社会现象涉及政治经济文化历史地理法律等各个社会领域。旅遊也是一种休闲娱乐活动，旅游业也是休闲产业的一种，具有异地性和暂时性等特征。旅遊人士稱為一般旅客、遊客。跟團旅遊時，共同旅伴稱為同團團員；自由行之旅客，亦稱為背包客。一般而言，旅游具有观光和游历两个不同的层次，前者历时短，体验较浅，后者反之，也称为深度游。與旅行的概念不同，旅遊是指為了消費、休閒或公幹，到其居住地及工作外的地方進行遊覽活動，它是一種複雜的社會現象，旅遊要涉及社會的政治、法律、經濟、文化、歷史、地理等各個社會領域。旅遊也是一種娛樂活動。世界旅遊組織指旅客的定義是某人出外最少離家55英里。旅游业已经成为许多国家和地区重要的收入来源。在世界旅游组织1980年会议上马尼拉宣言认为旅游是国民生活中一项必要的活动因为它直接影响到社会文化教育经济领域。旅游业通过提供游客可以赚取大量收入自2011年起占到世界服务贸易的30%总体商品和服务出口贸易的6%。同时也提供了与之相关的第三产业的就业机会。从旅游业受益的服务业包括运输业。当然还有卖给游客的商品包括纪念品。在古代，到一个人居住地以外的地方旅游休闲仅限于富裕阶层。他们偶尔会去遥远的地方，欣赏宏伟的建筑和艺术品，学习新的语言，体验新的文化，品尝不同的料理。 最早的旅游可以追溯到乌尔国王舒尔吉，虽然国王自诩是为了修路和建造驿站，给其他旅行者提供方便之用。 最早的休闲旅游可以追溯到公元前1500年的古埃及。 在罗马共和国时期，富人流行去这种地方做SPA和海滨度假。保萨尼亚斯在公元2世纪写书《希腊描述》。在中国古代，孔子花费14年周游列国，到过泰山，有孔子的名句。到了中世纪，和佛教都有朝聖的传统。乔叟的坎特伯雷故事集和吴承恩的西游记，分别是英語文學和中国文学的经典之作。10世纪到13世纪的宋朝涌现出了一些旅游作家有苏轼范成大。明朝有徐霞客。意大利的彼特拉克在1336年登旺度山后写了游记赞扬这次旅行但批评他缺乏好奇心。勃艮第公爵诗人在1430年游览侏罗山后写了恐怖回忆录。现代旅游可以追溯到壮游指的是欧洲上層階級的年轻人环游欧洲（主要是德国和意大利）。1624年波兰王子瓦迪斯瓦夫四世进行了一次横跨欧洲的旅游这在当时波兰贵族中是风俗习惯。 他游览了相当于现在的德国比利时荷兰领土并受到的西班牙军队法国瑞士意大利奥地利捷克的赞赏。这是一次教育之旅其中一项成果是将引进波蘭立陶宛。该传统一直活跃到约1660年直到1840年代大规模的鐵路運輸的出现形成了标准的旅游行程。虽然这主要限于和有钱的但是北歐新教徒有类似的旅行并从18世纪中叶开始有南美美国和其他海外年轻人加入。铁路和蒸汽船的出现使得旅游变得简单中產階級也因此受益这其中有并流传了一句谚语叫。到了18和19世纪，壮游成了上流社会学生的象征，约翰·约阿希姆·温克尔曼的关于经典文化的霸权理论很受欧洲学术界的欢迎。艺术家、作家、旅行家肯定了意大利、法国、希腊在传统艺术领域的霸权地位。因为这些原因，壮游的主要目的地便是前往这些地方。休闲旅游可以关联到英国第一次工业革命时期，人们的闲暇时间增加。 起初，受益的群体是生产机器的拥有者、寡头政治、工厂主、贸易家。这其中也包含新出现的中產階級。 于1758年创办的是第一家正式的旅游公司。旅游业这项产业起源于英国这在很多地名中得以体现。在法国蔚藍海岸的度假胜地尼斯一条著名的海滨步行道叫盎格鲁街（意为卡尔顿酒店 美琪酒店这些都体现了英国的统治地位。是第一批做旅游生意的。1841年7月5日库克安排铁路公司收取每位乘客1先令这包括火车票和旅途中的餐食。1855年库克推出了第一个出国游从莱斯特到加来并前往参加世界博覽會次年则推出欧洲大环游。 1860年代他组团前往瑞士意大利埃及美国。许多游客会到海滨的海水浴場休闲旅游，热带海滨地区不管是冬天还是夏天都很热门。大众旅游指的是按照计划有组织的跟团游，通常会在导游的带领下进行。 该旅游形式在19世纪下半年在英国形成，开创者是托马斯·库克。库克利用了欧洲快速发展的铁路网络优势，创办了一家公司，除了为提供价格实惠的一日游以外，还为富人提供了去欧洲、印度、亚洲、西半球的长途旅游。到1890年代每年都有2万名游客购买的旅游产品。旅游交通到20世纪早期开始有汽车，后来又有了飞机。交通的发展缩短了人们在旅途中花费的时间。歐洲大陸，最早的海水浴場为1793年开发的海利根达姆，位于波罗的海。到了20世纪中叶地中海沿岸成为了大众旅游的热门目的地。利基旅游指的是近年来出现的形形色色的特殊旅游形式。比较普遍的利基旅游市场有冬季旅游的发源地是1860年代的瑞士圣莫里茨。人们去到滑雪場滑雪。 +鄧麗君。於1967年發行第一張個人唱片專輯，1970至80年代在华语地区與日本達事業高峰，1990年代初淡出樂壇，1995年哮喘發作，猝逝於泰國清邁。鄧對華人社會影響甚鉅，世人盛譽之謂。1953年1月29日的清晨，鄧麗君出生於中華民國臺灣省雲林縣褒忠鄉。父親鄧樞是河北省大名縣大街鎮鄧台村人，是因第二次國共戰爭而隨中華民國政府遷台的國軍軍官，母親趙素桂則是山東省東平縣人。父母以字音，故鄧麗君就成為她日後投身歌唱事業的藝名。她在家中排第四，有三兄一弟。及至兩三歲鄧麗君隨家人先後遷居臺東縣池上鄉及屏東市。1959年父親退役舉家遷往臺北縣蘆洲鄉眷村而鄧麗君入讀蘆洲國小。小學階段她參與校內遊藝會演出參加演講及朗誦比賽也漸培養對歌唱的興趣課餘時間駐紮於學校附近的空軍93康樂隊裡面有一位胡琴樂師當她的音樂啟蒙老師後來她也隨空軍93康樂隊到處勞軍表演也曾參加僑大先修班的校內晚會演出其歌唱天分漸嶄露頭角。此時鄧麗君7歲是為歌唱生涯的萌芽期。由於分心歌唱她沒有考入心中理想的公立中學因而轉而考進私立金陵女中。1964年，年僅11歲的鄧麗君參加中華廣播電台舉辦的黃梅調歌唱比賽，以一曲〈訪英台〉奪得冠軍；翌年以〈採紅菱〉在金馬獎唱片公司舉辦的歌唱比賽奪冠。其後，鄧麗君利用課餘時間參加正聲廣播公司舉辦的歌唱訓練班，學習歌唱技巧，以第一名成績結業。初中階段的鄧麗君，在課餘時間參加晚會演出，歌藝被歌廳老闆賞識，邀請在歌廳駐唱，以清純活潑形象定位，招牌歌曲正是〈一見你就笑〉。隨着鄧麗君展開走唱生涯，漸無法兼顧演唱及求學，在1967年選擇休學展開歌唱事業。不到1年時間，鄧麗君成為歌廳、夜總會、餐廳及飯店等爭相邀請演出的歌手，更成為台北七重天歌廳的駐場歌手，接拍電視廣告，亦經常到參與勞軍義演。1967年，鄧麗君加盟宇宙唱片，發行個人第一張專輯，飾演能歌善舞的女大學生，片中她並唱了十首曲風青春活潑的歌曲，正式成為歌影視三棲的歌手。1969年9月參加和興白花油董事長顏玉瑩組織的颱風賑災義賣活動其後積極參與慈善活動並在海外登台年底獲中廣推薦到新加坡參加慈善義演名聲大噪12月27日受邀赴港參加工展會爲《華僑日報》發起的「助學救貧運動」義賣白花油籌得善款5100港元隔月當選「白花油慈善皇后」。1970年，與香港無線電視台簽約。8月，隨凱聲綜藝團第二次赴香港，在明愛中心、皇都戲院演唱，期間曾助港九街坊會、呂氏宗親會籌集善款。鄧不冶艷打扮，而以清新的形象風靡香港。此時她的演唱收入已經大為提高，一場大約可領到一千多港幣。鄧麗君說：這種說法給香港觀眾留下很好的印象。1971年至1973年下半年在香港新加坡馬來西亞菲律賓泰國越南和台灣巡迴演出並頻繁參與慈善。1971年為籌設香港保良中學救濟香港水災義演7月在越南海南醫院看望孤寡老人1972年再度參加白花油義賣當選「慈善皇后」6月參加新加坡「歌樂飄飄慈善晚會」為殘廢兒童救濟基金募款1973年於新加坡國家劇場出席遠東十大巨星慈善晚會。期間還出演電影《歌迷小姐》《天下一大笑》等在臺灣買下一座別墅與馬來西亞富商林水成之子林振發相戀。各地華人對鄧麗君的慈善義舉熱情響應。返台後被台北美國學校錄取為插班生主修英文。1974年主演喜歌劇節目救濟貧困民眾如果在台灣的話必定親自參與和呼籲。1976年，首次在香港利舞台舉行個人演唱會，門票銷售一空；後連續兩年在此地開辦個人演唱會。1970年代初期日本寶麗多唱片公司指派佐佐木氏在香港尋找女歌手前往日本發展並在東方歌劇院發現鄧麗君。隨後舟木稔積極邀請她前往簽約並成功說服不願讓女兒前去日本重新發展的鄧樞同意此一提議。1974年鄧麗君在母親陪同下前往日本發展並取藝名為〉公開發行但銷量只有十幾萬張。同年7月1日她的第二張日語單曲〈〉正式發行並在一個月內以70萬餘張總銷量進入全日本流行榜前15名還因此榮獲日本唱片大獎新人獎。1975年7月，鄧麗君簽約加盟香港寶麗金唱片公司，並於9月在當地發行系列專輯，其中包含了日本流行歌曲、由日本流行歌曲改編翻唱以及原創的的華語流行歌曲。1977年3月17日，為宣傳新曲。12月28日，赴台視捐新台幣五十萬元，予自強救國基金。1979年2月14日，鄧麗君持印尼護照入境日本，遭日本拘留。當時，鄧麗君因中華民國政府與日本政府已無官方邦交關係與雙方出入境管制程序之障礙，而決定持印尼護照自香港搭乘中華航空CI116班機由東京羽田機場入境日本。同月22日，日本入國管理局東京事務所公佈調查結果，結果證明鄧麗君所持印尼護照並非偽造護照，她亦無為他人出售偽造護照，最後無罪開釋。同月24日，日本法務省裁決鄧麗君一年內不得再度入境，而持著蓋有美國入境簽證的中華民國護照前往美國，並在該國履行表演和唱片合約。鄧麗君先到美國舊金山落腳，然後到洛杉磯的南加州大學進修英文，之後轉學到加州大學洛杉磯分校，學習日文、生物及數學。期間完成了〈甜蜜蜜〉和〈小城故事〉的錄製。4月，在舊金山、洛杉磯和溫哥華舉行演唱會。12月，與因一片大紅的成龍在美國相遇，兩人相互愛慕，但因成龍的不成熟，失望透頂下的鄧麗君於是離去，此後兩人便維持朋友身份。次年5月，受邀在林肯表演藝術中心演唱，獲紐約市長贈胸針。7月，在紐約、舊金山和洛杉磯舉行第二次巡迴演唱會，聽眾大多是華僑，但也不乏美國人，受到熱烈歡迎，尤其是與聽眾合唱〈梅花〉，令鄧感動流涕。時任中華民國總統蔣經國頒布三不政策與中共抗衡時香港唱片公司請鄧麗君赴中國大陸傳聞甚囂塵上於是派中央文化工作會主任楚崧秋赴美以盛大排場請鄧回台蔣經國亦有意利用鄧麗君的影響力進行政治宣傳因此鄧麗君回台後積極參加勞軍以及育幼院養老院等各種義演活動。1980年10月4日鄧麗君返回臺灣舉行演唱會捐所得新臺幣一百五十万零六百元予1981年1月被行政院新聞局授予獎牌由時任行政院新聞局局長宋楚瑜頒獎。3月在台灣各地舉行演唱會。5月与李季準合作主持金钟奖颁奖典礼。8月鄧麗君跑遍台灣各地軍營勞軍一個月她前往看望各地的國軍將士並為他們歌唱。此後台視製作並播放了電視特輯同名主題曲〈君在前哨〉為左宏元作詞作曲。1983年3月，与张帝合作，再度主持金钟奖颁奖典礼。1984年1月，在台北中華體育館先後兩天举办演唱会，3月青年節，救國團總團部頒發給鄧麗君獎。蔣經國擔任總統晚期中國大陸方面邀請鄧麗君演唱蔣派宋楚瑜與鄧聯絡請其勿去鄧麗君思考後應允事後宋本想宴請鄧麗君以示歉意但反被鄧麗君請喫飯。1970年代後期鄧麗君的歌聲已經傳入中國大陸並受到歡迎但主流文化一直批評其1980年大陸音樂協會還召開西山會議予以嚴厲批判。1983年後對鄧樂的批評有所減弱但直至1995年鄧麗君逝世中國大陸央視才不再批評她。儘管如此，民眾還是反覆用卡帶錄下台灣電台所播放、偷偷地聽著鄧麗君的歌曲。1979年12月，大陸女排在亞洲排球錦標賽中戰勝日本，奪得冠軍，鄧麗君受霍英東之邀，在宴會中為隊員們演唱了兩首歌曲。1980年，載有17名大陸船員的荷蘭籍貨船停靠在基隆，船員們特地跑到台北購買鄧的錄音帶；次年，又有因故迫降中正國際機場的大陸桌球隊員，到免稅店搶購錄音帶；甚至有大陸飛行員駕機相投。1980年代初，在中國大陸，鄧麗君的盜版卡帶充斥市面，擄獲了民眾的心，〈何日君再來〉、〈小城故事〉、〈路邊的野花不要採〉、〈美酒加咖啡〉在大街小巷中傳唱，人們開玩笑地說：。1980年10月15日为香港仁濟醫院筹款，在海城夜总会举行义演，收入作为医院基金。12月18日，在香港推出個人首張粵語大碟。1981年4月29日在星洲演唱會舉行義演所得捐新加坡國家劇場基金與譚詠麟錄製單曲〈愛人女神〉10月28日與郭孔丞訂婚12月初在香港參加慈善晚会。1982年1月8日至11日鄧麗君在香港伊利莎伯體育館舉行演唱會含一場慈善義演為鄧麗君預定退出演藝圈的告別演出後來原定3月17日在新加坡舉行的婚宴因故未成婚。7月獲國民黨頒發「热心公益演艺人员」奖。該年年底鄧麗君接受臺北ICRT電臺英語訪問表示她一年會有四五個月密集工作。因為保護嗓子平日不抽煙但會喝點小酒淺嘗即止。她愛網球及釣魚也愛看愛情電影。此外她會利用空檔閱讀英文與日文書。1983年2月2日，鄧麗君發行以古典詩詞為主題的專輯發行後結束合作關係，後續華語專輯改由台灣金聲唱片和台灣寶麗金唱片代理發行。1984年，唱片公司也從寶麗多〉再次於日本出道。該曲經由有線放送，一點一滴地匯集人氣後，一發不可收拾地大受歡迎，頒獲日本有線大賞等好幾個大獎。1985年所發行的〈愛人〉一樣與荒木、三木合作，大受歡迎。鄧麗君藉此曲登上第36回NHK紅白歌唱大賽，並以親自設計的楊貴妃造型出場。〈愛人〉在有線放送要求點播榜，獲得連續14週第1名。1985年12月，在NHK音樂廳舉行個人演唱會，此演唱會被評為她個人最佳的現場演出，將所得悉數捐給當地慈善機構。1986年春節由日本返台在台視出演特別節目《與君同樂》。與荒木三木所合作的第三個歌曲〈時流身（我只在乎你）〉發行也大受歡迎並於該年憑藉此曲再次登上NHK紅白歌唱大賽的舞台。〈〉和〈愛人〉在日本皆有150萬張的銷售紀錄，〈時流身〉則是200萬張的驚人佳績，並位居1986年日本卡拉OK歌曲点唱总量第2位。從1984年到1986年間，在「日本有線大賞」及「全日本有線放送大賞」的東、西有線大賞裡獲得史上第一個大賞・金賞三連霸。1987年6月，發表單曲〈别予感（別離的預感）〉，〈時流身〉位居當年日本卡拉OK歌曲点唱总量第1位。1988年1月發表單曲〈恋人神话（戀人們的神話）〉〈别予感〉位居當年日本卡拉OK歌曲点唱总量第1位。1991年，第三度受邀參加第42回NHK紅白歌唱大賽。1980年代後期鄧麗君將工作重心逐漸轉移到英國和法國。1988年，鄧麗君以700萬港元購入香港赤柱一棟雙層高西式別墅，並在裝修一年後於1989年正式入住定居香港，直至1995年逝世之前，香港亦成為鄧麗君最後一個家。1989年鄧麗君在六四事件前後表態支持參與學生她在香港不顧周遭親友反對而參加了抗議集會。5月27日她在跑馬地活動中懸掛手書的牌子並演唱〈我的家在山的那一邊〉。6月21日晚她又在電視直播中悲慟地演唱新曲〈香港〉。1991年3月儘管暫住巴黎鄧麗君仍返回臺灣參與勞軍演出並在金門前線馬山觀測所向大陸同胞喊話。5月華東地區發生嚴重水災鄧與一眾演藝界人士在香港舉行賑災演出。1992年鄧麗君出席在巴黎的六四事件紀念活動演唱〈血染的風采〉〈小城故事〉和〈歷史的傷口〉她說。1993年連續第三年返台參加勞軍演出。1994年3月她在節目勞軍晚會。隨著氣喘發作情況日益嚴重鄧麗君在1994年12月底與男友保羅前往當時以空氣清新著稱且較少華人聚居的清邁調養度假並開始著手寫作復出歌壇的歌曲。1995年1月1日，鄧麗君因氣喘病發引致呼吸不順並前往當地蘭朗醫院求醫，但診斷結果顯示並無大礙。1995年4月底鄧麗君與保羅入住清邁梅坪酒店位在15樓的總統套房。同年5月8日泰國時間下午4時左右鄧麗君氣喘病再次於保羅外出採買雞肉時發作當時藥瓶已空她急促地用氣喘噴霧噴向鼻部以助呼吸和緩下來但仍無濟於事於是她奔出房間求救並不斷呼叫「媽媽媽媽」最後因氣喘而引發心肌梗塞便在該層職員櫃台前不支倒地。酒店職員立時將面無血色的鄧麗君送往蘭朗醫院急救（雖當時酒店附近有一小型醫院）。由於接近下班時間繁忙交通延遲車程途中鄧麗君再次發出微弱呼喊聲後停止了呼吸救護員替她持續施加心外按壓及心臟電擊接近45分鐘但最後於當地下午5時30分被宣告不治享年42歲。後來鄧麗君的家人和保羅都同意不讓她的遺體進行解剖5月11日遺體經空運抵達中正國際機場。5月25日中華民國總統府頒發褒揚令以表彰她的愛國情懷和演藝成就並准予在她的靈柩上覆蓋青天白日旗和青天白日滿地紅國旗當時總統府秘書長吳伯雄等四人擔任國旗覆旗官國民黨中央委員會秘書長許水德等四人擔任黨旗覆旗官。此外總統李登輝亦頒發題名行政院長的連戰前任行政院長郝柏村時任國防部長的蔣仲苓時任臺北市長的陳水扁等政治人物也親臨致哀。中國大陸中央電視台及香港臺灣日本地區的大眾媒體也紛紛在新聞中發出哀悼她過世的訊息。5月28日眾人於臺北市第一殯儀館為她舉辦出殯儀式她的遺體隨後在眾多歌迷目送下安葬於金山的金寶山筠園墓園她父母與二哥的遺體也先後安葬於該墓園。邓丽君18歲那年在馬來西亞演出，與造紙廠董事長林振發交往，兩人感情很好，但林振發突然心臟麻痺猝死，無緣結為連理。1979年鄧麗君在美國留學時曾與成龍交往兩人和平分手並維持好友關係。1980年與馬來西亞郭鹤年之子郭孔丞交往，1981年10月28日訂婚，並預定在1982年3月17日与郭孔丞举行婚礼，却因为男方的祖母郑格如阻撓，就此分手了。据香港媒体报道，由于郑格如的观念比较保守，所以她对身为当红明星的邓丽君感到不悦。于是，她在谈论婚礼细节的时候，对邓丽君提出了三个苛刻的条件。：理解了以上三个条件，邓丽君非常纠结，并反复考虑。最后，她作出了与郭孔丞分手的决定。1989年，鄧麗君旅居法國，在朋友沈雲開的酒樓相識相戀比她小15歲的法國攝影師保羅。保羅當時住在巴黎唐人區19號的一間酒樓上。鄧麗君因工作需要請保羅幫忙拍照。保羅由此而成為鄧麗君的私人助理，負責她的照片與錄影帶的攝製。保羅是家中獨子，從小居住在法國北部諾曼第省。他原來是音樂人，會作曲，但因為特別喜歡攝影，就到巴黎唐人街當了一名攝影師。保羅與鄧麗君相戀5年，到1995年5月8日鄧麗君在泰國因哮喘意外過世後，保羅獨自居住於鄧麗君在香港的赤柱別墅裏3年，直至1998年方返回法國生活。1995年保羅接受香港媒體採訪時透露喜愛小孩的鄧麗君生前已與保羅訂婚並已計劃在同年8月結婚。鄧麗君父母的家鄉方言均係中原官話，父母的家鄉雖分屬河北與山東，實則只距140公里不到，方言相近。父系一方，爺爺與父親都是河北省大名縣人，處河北省最東南角，毗鄰山東省界與河南省界，方言屬中原官話鄭曹片。母系一方，外公與外婆是山東省靠河南省界上的東平縣人與梁山縣人，兩縣毗鄰，方言都是帶冀魯官話過渡性質的中原官話，母親成長於河南開封，開封方言屬中原官話鄭曹片。鄧麗君雖學會幾句「山東話」（一般指山東兩大方言冀魯官話或膠遼官話而非山東省界邊陲上的中原官話），但其家鄉方言並非山東話而是中原官話。不管如何，鄧麗君的母語國語帶北方口音。鄧麗君因練唱臺語歌曲而學習臺語，日常生活通話不成問題，但遇到生難詞彙或俗語就不行了。鄧麗君在香港與日本長期發展歌唱事業亦常上綜藝節目能流利使用香港粵語與日語。又在居香港時跟上海籍的香港演藝朋友學會了上海話。其他方面，英語程度能在美國大學聽課，電視上曾接受葉麗儀的英語訪問。，法語因旅居法國的關係，能基礎溝通。還有一些只能背誦歌詞，但不足以口說的，如印尼語等。過世後獲中華民國政府頒發褒揚令獲頒原因為中國國民黨中央委員會榮譽狀中華民國立法院院長王金平：中華民國教育部部長和中央研究院副院長曾志朗表示非常喜歡鄧麗君的歌聽到她的歌聲會讓人聯想到和平純真人間有愛他最愛哼唱的就是因為那是一首會平靜人心的歌。當年鄧麗君的歌響徹台灣大街小巷對台灣來說是一個時代人物佔有相當重要的地位。他回憶早年還在美國洛杉磯教書時在加州大學洛杉磯分校 旁邊有一家長青書店他經常在那家書店看見鄧麗君買書她當時打扮得非常樸素輕鬆綁馬尾牛仔褲不敢相信那是鄧麗君。中华民国情治单位人员谷正文在邓丽君去世后不久接受《独家报道》采访时表示邓丽君是国民党情报人员但原则上与专业间谍有着根本的区别充其量也只能算是个信息传递媒介而已《邓丽君的真实》作者日本记者宇畸真和作家渡边也对邓丽君的间谍身份得出了肯定的结论认为“冷酷的国际政治硬将邓丽君推上了政治舞台”。鄧麗君的啟蒙老師左宏元「她的歌聲像花捲淡淡的咬一口便知內有層次聽起來溫柔卻很有力量。」雖然遲至1995年，中國大陸才正式解禁鄧麗君歌曲，但她從1979年開始成為流行音樂的標誌，擁有廣泛的歌迷，連當時中华人民共和国文化部部長劉忠德都是其中一員。她柔和的歌聲穿透了兩岸。鄧麗君和當時的中國共產黨領導人鄧小平一起成為老百姓熟悉的名字，並流傳著等語。鄧麗君母親说「也不懂为什么她从小就关心大陆那边的事儿老问咱们为什么会离开大陆来到台湾？天性吧！她是很想回去看看的不是去开演唱会赚大钱她没那心思只是想回去看看。回去看看我想这是她永远也圆不了的终生遗憾……」1987年天津電視台記者徐少英偶遇鄧麗君並熱情邀請鄧到天津演唱鄧高興地回答「謝謝希望有機會。」上文亦提及1989年前中共方面曾邀請鄧演唱但先後因蔣經國總統勸阻及六四事件未成行。中國大陸央視前副台长（1980-1992）洪民生退休前也曾邀邓丽君演唱邓却说不想来因为她是有国民党背景的。当时洪民生信誓旦旦地跟同行说「现在政治氛围已经开放了总有一天邓丽君可以回国登台」。總之由於種種因素邓丽君一生都未到大陆演出。2009年9月為迎接中華人民共和國成立六十周年由中國大陸國務院新聞辦公室主辦的中國網發起一項。現任中國共產黨總書記習近平是鄧麗君的歌迷，1979至1982年擔任耿飚秘書期間，習近平與耿飚的司機楊希連，。于丹：「对于中国文化的意蕴来讲，她已经不是一个歌手，其歌艺成就已超越流行音乐的范畴与层次。」董文華「鄧麗君是華語樂壇永遠無法逾越的高峰。」李宗盛「在演艺圈很多人是『奇迹』但唯有邓丽君可以称为『传奇』。」王菲表示鄧麗君是她的偶像和啟蒙老師王菲有三張翻唱鄧麗君歌曲的專輯分別是。1996年王菲曾在香港电台十大中文金曲颁奖典禮演唱〈我只在乎你〉2013年又在大陸央視首播的演唱〈清平調〉〈獨上西樓〉〈初戀的地方〉和〈微風細雨〉。張學友曾在第17屆金曲獎頒獎典禮演唱〈但願人長久〉、〈甜蜜蜜〉、〈海韻〉、〈忘記他〉和〈假如我是真的〉。張五常在〈鄧麗君現象的延伸〉一文描述道，一九八四年初他有機會在香港看到她表演一場，認為橫看直看都是一百分，是炎黃子孫中數世紀一見的演唱天才。長得好看，唱得悅耳，舉手投足瀟灑利落，反應快，多種語言流水行雲，聽眾用什麽語言提問她就用什麽語言回應。北京當年不容許她到內地演唱是人類的損失。鄧麗君在日本演藝界備受尊崇不少歌手都把能與鄧麗君合唱視為心愿一樁只可惜除了在現場的合唱之外鄧麗君的日文專輯中並沒有合唱歌曲。2010年1月發行的是一張後期合成的合唱和重新編曲的鄧麗君日文歌曲精選集在這張專輯中與鄧麗君跨越時空合唱的歌手有夏川里美秋元順子村上哲也BEGIN等等。日本歌手德永英明，於2010年4月特別發行翻唱專輯，緬懷鄧麗君逝世十五週年。此張專輯獲得連續四週冠軍，及單月冠軍，打破日本唱片史上翻唱專輯的紀錄。在韓國鄧麗君的代表作〈月亮代表我的心〉〈甜蜜蜜〉是家喻戶曉的名曲。2018年南韓藝人姜山恚就曾赴北韓演唱〈月亮代表我的心〉表達他出生於北韓的父親在韓戰後無法再回鄉的思念之情。1999年，马来西亚《南洋商报》邀请中文流行曲的专家，对20世纪具影响力的歌星一一评估，鄧位列榜首，《南洋商报》稱其為「最耀眼的星星」。 +游戏既可以指人的一种娱乐活动也可以指這種活動過程。游戏的道具可以为玩具。在英語體育比賽亦是遊戲的一種而體育運動亦是由遊戲演變出來。游戏是一種有組織的玩耍一般是以娛樂為目的有時也有教育目的。游戏不同於會有對應金錢報酬的工作也不同於呈現美學或是概念元素的藝術。不過彼此之間的分界不一定很明確像職業運動員的游戏和工作可能是一體而像拼圖遊戲則同時具有游戏和藝術的成份在內。游戏的主要成份有目的規則挑戰及互動。遊戲一般會有心理或是身體上的刺激許多遊戲可以培養相關技巧有體能性教育性模擬性或心理上的意義。從西元前2600年起，遊戲就是人類經驗的一部份，出現在所有文化中，像烏爾王族局戲、塞尼特及播棋都是其中歷史相關悠久的遊戲。路德维希·维特根斯坦.路德维希·维特根斯坦可能是第一個試圖為遊戲下定義的哲學家，在其著作《哲学研究》中，维特根斯坦提出遊戲的幾個要素，像是玩耍、規則及競爭，但這些都無法適當定義遊戲。维特根斯坦認為人類用「遊戲」來稱呼許多不同的活動。不過隨著之後遊戲定義的提出，現在的哲學家認為维特根斯坦提出的不是最終的結論，像就認為Bernard Suits對遊戲下了很好的定義。法國社會學家在著作定義遊戲是有以下特性的活動：電腦遊戲設計者是《電腦遊戲設計期刊》的創始人試圖用一連串的二分法定義遊戲遊戲可以依分類一般會稱為游戏性遊戲的主要元素也包括道具及規則。遊戲常常會依玩遊戲時需要的道具來分類。像在皮革容易取得的地區，自有歷史以來，球類就是受歡迎的活動，全球性的球類遊戲有橄欖球類運動、籃球、足球、棒球、網球及排球等。其他遊戲需要的道具會隨地區而不同。像歐洲有標準的遊戲牌組，像西洋棋等棋類可以由其棋子看出棋類的演進及發展。有些遊戲用代表物表示其他東西代表物可以表示棋盤上的棋子或是其他遊戲中用到無形的東西。像捉迷藏等遊戲不需要特殊的道具，不過其互動性也和環境有關，若環境不同，遊戲即使有相近甚至相同的規則，也可能變成不同的遊戲，例如在學校捉迷藏可能就和在公園捉迷藏不同。賽車即使用的車相同，在賽車場或是一般道路的難度也會不同。游戏也常常依規則來分類規則可能會有變動甚至更改當更改到一定程度就變成一個新遊戲了。例如棒球可以用一般棒球來玩也可以用威浮球來玩都還是棒球。不過若大家約定只有三個壘包那就變成另一種遊戲了。不過也有些遊戲的特點會和其規則的變化有關只是即使如此仍然會有不變的元規則。規則會決定玩的順序玩家的權利及義務以及玩家的目的。玩家的權利可能包括可以使用資源或是移動代表物一般勝利的條件可能是第一個收集到特定數量的點數或是代表物（例如卡坦岛）在遊戲結束時有最多的代表物（例如地產大亨）或是雙方的代表物有某種特定的關係（如西洋棋的將死）。游戏的道具及規則會影響游戏在技巧策略及運氣的不同程度也有可能是上述的組合。包括動作上的技巧，如摔跤、拔河、跳房子及射擊運動，也包括心智上的技巧，例如西洋跳棋及西洋棋。策略遊戲在西洋跳棋、西洋棋、印度鬥獸棋、圍棋及井字棋中都會用到，一般會需要配合特殊的裝備。博弈遊戲強調其運氣成份，像賭博類遊戲和蛇梯棋、剪刀、石頭、布等，多半需要牌或是骰子。不過大部份的遊戲會用到技巧、策略及運氣中的二種甚至全部。例如美式足球及棒球都會用到技巧及策略，而、撲克及地產大亨會以策略及運氣為主。許多棋版類遊戲會用到技巧、策略及運氣，大部份吃磴遊戲的運氣成份較小，像戰國風雲、卡坦岛及卡卡頌等策略式遊戲也是如此。许多学者发现，游戏不仅存在于人类当中，在许多哺乳類動物裡也存在着大量的游戏行为。游戏历史非常悠久，但是作为理论进行研究是在近代才开始的。对游戏的本质的研究还正在发展，目前还没有一个最终性的认识结论。德国诗人和剧作家席勒提出了一种游戏理论。这种理论认为，「人类在生活中要受到精神与物质的双重束缚，在这些束缚中就失去了理想和自由。于是人们利用剩余的精神创造一个自由的世界，它就是游戏。这种创造活动，产生于人类的本能」。剩余能量说是英国哲学家赫伯特·斯宾塞提出的一种游戏理论，他是对席勒的本能说的进一步补充。德国生物学家对英国哲学家赫伯特斯宾塞的剩余能量说和席勒的本能说进行了修正。这种理论认为游戏不是没有目的的活动游戏并非与实际生活没有关联。游戏是为了将来面临生活的一种准备活动。例如小猫抓线团是在练习抓老鼠小女孩给布娃娃-{zh-hans喂 zh-hant餵}-饭是在练习当母亲男孩子玩打仗游戏是在练习战斗。弗洛伊德也曾提出过一种游戏的理论。他认为，遊戲是被压抑欲望的一种替代行为。遊戲有很多種，在不同的媒體會以不同型式出現，使用的道具或參與的人數不一樣也會衍生出不同類型的遊戲。其中包括：人类用人體或使用玩具娱乐自己。較為常見的有有時體育活動甚至武術比試也被人們視為遊戲。常用的玩具有布偶球冷兵器等。桌上遊戲用來描述任何在桌子或平面上玩的遊戲其中包括版圖遊戲紙筆遊戲紙牌遊戲骰子遊戲近年來桌上遊戲的設計者越來越有把許多動作聲音節奏道具圖片公仔故事背景甚至是如動畫影視音樂舞蹈等藝術文化及多媒體等素材加入遊戲的趨勢提供玩家或玩家們更多感官的刺激和不同於以往的經驗以提升遊戲的樂趣與品質。版圖遊戲用來描述將圖文符號畫在硬板上作為紀錄工具的遊戲，也就是需用棋盘及棋子进行的游戏，有包括常見的棋類遊戲，象棋是其中一種。參與人數可以是一人，二人，甚至多人。飞行棋、围棋等等皆是较常见的版圖遊戲。用來描述將只需筆和空白紙便可玩樂的遊戲包括井字棋數獨你畫我猜和填字遊戲等等。又名卡片遊戲或卡牌遊戲，廣義上是使用卡片來進行遊戲的總稱。狹義上則是指使用撲克牌的遊戲。又稱集體遊戲，參與的人數必須多於三個。種遊戲可視為一種實驗學習的活動，幫助團員從遊戲中了解自己，學習人際關係技巧以及如何讓團隊運作。參加者及或主持者可能為一些團體，如教會、老師和學生等。由於參加者可能很多，所以通常需要較大的空間來進行遊戲，如禮堂或學校操場。包括电视游戏、电脑游戏及攜帶型遊戲機等。其特色為必須使用含有顯示屏的電子設備作遊戲，參看遊戲機。在遊戲中，玩家扮演虚擬世界中的一個或者幾個隊員角色在特定場景下進行遊戲。角色根據不同的遊戲情節和統計數據（例如生命值、法力、力量、靈敏度、智力等等）具有不同的能力，而這些屬性會根據遊戲規則做對應的改變。其中角色扮演遊戲又分為桌上角色扮演遊戲电子角色扮演游戏與臨場動態角色扮演游戏。迷题游戏又或者益智类游戏智力类游戏难题游戏此类游戏要求玩家运用自己的智慧来解决游戏中的难题以达到游戏过关的目的。最新的商业游戏通常添加动作要素使得益智类游戏可以通过游戏的方式锻炼游戏者的脑手眼的协调性有一定维持智力开放思维的效果。多人在线战斗竞技场游戏.简称为moba类游戏，起源于的一个叫做的模式，因其瞬息万变的游戏局势与多元的游戏因素而备受欢迎。这类游戏多通过与队友合作以达到击败敌对阵营的目的。当前比较知名的moba类游戏有英雄联盟DotA其他的一些遊戲類型包括戶外遊戲、有好玩的戲及數學遊戲等等。 +自然数指非负整数 formula_1为免歧义有时也直接以非负整数代替自然数使用。数学中一般以formula_2代表以自然数组成的集合。自然数集是一個可數的無上界的無窮集合。非零自然数即指正整数formula_3。数学家们使用formula_4或formula_2来表示所有自然数的集合。较早的教科书也有使用formula_6来表示这一集合的情况。为了消除是否包含0的歧义有时通过上下标的形式表示集合中是否包含0基于序数理论提出的皮亚诺公理可以得到自然数的许多特性，这五条公理用非形式化的方法叙述如下：其中一个数的后继数指紧接在这个数后面的数例如0的后继数是11的后继数是2等等公理5保证了数学归纳法的正确性从而被称为归纳法原理。在基数理论中，集合论的一般做法是将0定义為空集後，将任一非零自然数看作是所有比該數小的自然数组成的集合，即通過無窮公理可以得到存在一个只包含全體自然數的自然數集formula_2。另外，在此定义下，在集合formula_11内就有formula_11个元素；而若formula_11小于formula_14，则formula_11会是 formula_14的子集。自然数的集合是无限集。根据定义，这种无限称为可数无限。可以与自然数建立双射关系的所有集合都具有这种无限性，称作，这个集合的势为formula_17。自然数加法可经formula_18及formula_19递归定义而成。因而得出交换幺半群formula_20，是由formula_21生出的自由幺半群，其中幺元为formula_22。此幺半群服从消去律，可嵌入一群内：最小的是整数群。同理自然数乘法formula_23可经formula_24及formula_25 得出。而formula_26亦是交换幺半群；formula_23和formula_28符合分配律：我们说formula_30当且仅当有自然数formula_31使得formula_32。formula_33是一个良序集，即每个非空子集都有一个最小的自然数。此序也和加法及乘法兼容，即若formula_34，formula_35和formula_31都是自然数且formula_30，则formula_38及formula_39。给定两个自然数formula_34和formula_35其中formula_42可找到唯一的两个自然数formula_43及formula_44使得formula_43称为“商数”而formula_44称为“余数”。 若formula_48则稱formula_34可被formula_35整除记为formula_51。相关概念有辗转相除、质数及其它数论概念。自然数由数数而起。古希臘人最早研究其抽象特性当中毕达哥拉斯主义更视之为宇宙之基本。其它古文明也对其研究作出极大贡献尤其以印度对0的接受为人称道。零早于公元前400年被巴比伦人用作数码使用。玛雅人于公元200年将零视为数字，但未与其它文明有所交流。现代的观念由印度学者婆罗摩笈多于公元628年提出，经阿拉伯人传至欧洲。欧洲人一开始仍对零作为数字感到抗拒，认为零不是一个“自然”数。19世纪末集合论者给自然数一个较严谨的定义。据此定义把零包括于自然数内更为方便。逻辑论者及计算机科学家接受集合论者的定义。而其他一些数学家主要是数论学家则依从传统把零拒之于自然数之外。在全球范围内，目前针对0是否属于自然数的争论依旧存在。在中国大陆2000年左右之前的中小学教材一般不将0列入自然数之内或称其属于。在2000年左右之后的新版中小学教材中普遍将0列入自然数。認為自然數不包含零的其中一個理由是自然數所指為自然界中存在的數例如一棵大樹兩條魚十億個細胞等等而鮮少有人說零個物品。国际标准中从集合论角度规定符号 formula_2 所表示的自然数集是包括正整数和0。中国大陆于1993年制定的强制性国家标准参照国际标准ISO 31-11規定formula_2表示formula_54。但自2017年3月23日起该标准转化为推荐性标准不再强制执行。自然数用于计数时称之为基数，用于定序时称之为序数。基数用于判定集合的大小，序数用作排列。对于有限序列或有限集合序数及基数皆与自然数同。 +代数数域是数学中代数数论的基本概念，数域的一类，有时也被简称为数域，指有理数域formula_1的有限扩张形成的扩域。任何代数数域都可以视作formula_1上的有限维向量空间。对代数数域的研究或者更一般地说对有理数域的代数扩张的研究是代数数论的中心主题。代数数域是域的一类。域是装备了两个二元运算。域的一个重要的例子是有理数域formula_1。域的扩张研究各类域之间的关系最早的应用包括多项式方程一般求根公式问题等。在给定的域中加入不属于此域的元素的扩域”。称是的子域。一般将“到的域扩张”记作⊂或/。另一个基础概念是向量空间。向量空间特别是有限维向量空间的概念是三维空间以及其中向量概念的推广其中的向量除了可以相加减还可以乘以中元素进行放缩。有限维的向量空间可以借助其中的有限个向量来刻画。这些向量之间必须满足特定的条件称为空间的基。选定了空间的基以后空间里的任何向量都可以表达为以中元素组成的有序数组formula_4。其中的是基中向量的个数也称为空间的维数。设是域的一个扩域。将中的元素看作向量以作为系数域可以证明是一个向量空间。如果这个向量空间是有限维的就称是的有限扩张。作为向量空间的维数称为扩张的次数记作 。若域是有理数域formula_1的有限扩张，则称之为代数数域。最小最基本的代数数域是有理数域formula_1。因为formula_1自身是formula_1向量空间维数是1。因此formula_1是formula_1自身的域扩张formula_11高斯有理数formula_12（为虚数单位）是数学家发现的第一个非平凡代数数域的例子，它是所有形同：的数构成的集合。可以证明，formula_12是域，而且是formula_1向量空间，以formula_16为基，空间维数是2。所以formula_12是formula_1的二次扩张，formula_19给定不是完全平方数的正整数或相反数不是完全平方数的负整数二次域formula_20在formula_1中添加的平方根而得的扩域。与高斯有理数域类似可以证明formula_20是formula_1向量空间以formula_24为基空间维数是2即formula_25考虑多项式方程formula_26的个复根formula_27它们被称做次单位根具体可以写作在formula_1中添加formula_27得到的扩域称为次分圆域记作formula_31。可以证明formula_31是有限维formula_1向量空间维数为formula_34即formula_36实数域formula_37、复数域formula_38和进数域formula_39都不是formula_1的有限扩张，因此都不是代数数域。任何有限域都不是formula_1的扩域，因此也不是代数数域。全体规矩数构成的域formula_42和全体代数数构成的域formula_43不是formula_1的有限扩张因此都不是代数数域。代数数是指能够成为某个有理数系数多项式向量。考虑以下的 + 1个向量：它们都属于。根据向量空间的性质，它们是线性相关的。即存在不全为零的 + 1个有理数：formula_50，使得：考虑非零多项式formula_52formula_53即是多项式formula_54的根。所以是代数数。由上可知任一代数数域的元素都是代数数。代数整数是指能够成为某个首一整数系数多项式的根的数。显然代数整数是一种代数数。任何整数都是一次整系数多项式的根，因此是代数整数。给定代数数域，中所有代数整数构成一个环，称作中的（代数）整数环，也称为整数环，记作formula_55。例如formula_1上的代数整数环就是formula_57，因此在代数数域研究中formula_57也被称作“有理整数”（有理数域中的整数），以区别于其余的代数整数。代数数域中的整数环formula_55与formula_57有不同的代数性质。formula_55不一定是唯一分解整环。举例来说设formula_62中的整数环是formula_63。formula_64都是formula_55中的“素数”。正整数6作为formula_55中的元素它的素因数分解有两种方式有理整数的唯一分解性质在不少代数数域的整数环中失效。这个事实说明了拉梅对费马大定理的证明是错误的。为此库默尔等引进了理想数来作为弥补由此发展出理想理论。代数数论中一个重要的事实是formula_55的每个理想都可以唯一表示为素理想的乘积即为戴德金整环。这种“理想的唯一素分解”可部分弥补“代数整数一般不能唯一素因子分解”的不足在历史上使代数数论发展起来。设为次代数数域的整数基是任一由个整数组成的集合使得任一个整数都能唯一地表示为这个整数的整线性组合即换句话说，整数基是formula_55作为自由formula_57模的基。给定的一组整数基，可以证明，所有中元素都可以唯一地表示为其中元素的有理线性组合，即：这说明是作为维formula_1向量空间的一组基。而且由于中元素都是整数故名为整数基。此外可以证明是整数当且仅当所有formula_77都是有理整数。设为次代数数域。作为维formula_1向量空间包含如下形式的基其中每个元素都是某个特定的数的乘幂。根据域扩张理论中的本原元定理这样的一定存在称为域扩张formula_80的本原元。如果不仅是本原元还是整数那么这时也是整数基称作乘幂整数基称为单衍域。 +数域是近世代数学中常见的概念指对加减乘除四则运算封闭的代数系统。通常定义的数域是指复数域formula_1的子域。“数域”一词有时也被用作代数数域的简称但两者的定义有细微的差别。设formula_2是复数域formula_1的子集。若formula_2中包含0与1并且formula_2中任两个数的和差乘积以及商都仍在formula_2中就称formula_2为一个数域。用域论的话语来说复数域的子域是为数域。任何数域都包括有理数域formula_8，但并不一定是formula_8的有限扩张，因此数域不一定是代数数域。例如实数域formula_10和复数域formula_1都不是代数数域。反之，每个代数数域都同构于某个数域。除了常见的实数域formula_10和复数域formula_1以外通过在有理数域中添加特定的无理数进行扩张得到的扩域也是数域。例如所有形同的数的集合就是一个数域。可以验证任何两个这样的数它们的和差乘积以及商都能写成formula_15的形式故仍然在集合之中。这个集合记作formula_16是有理数域formula_8的二次扩域。可构造数也叫规矩数指的是从给定的单位长度开始能够通过有限次标准的尺规作图步骤做出的长度数值。所有可构造数的集合记为formula_18是一个数域。因为给定了两个已经做出的线段后可以通过符合尺规作图规定的手段在有限步内作出长度为两者长度之和差乘积以及商的线段。formula_18是formula_8的扩域次数为无限大是实数域formula_10的子域。代数数指能够成为某个有理系数多项式的根的数。所有代数数的集合记作formula_22，是一个数域。formula_22也常被称为代数数域，但与定义为的代数数域是不同的概念。不过，每个formula_8的有限扩张生成的域都可看作是formula_8中加入某个代数数扩成的，所以都是formula_22的子域。可构造数构成的数域formula_18也是formula_22的子域。由于虚数单位也是代数数，所以formula_22不是formula_10的子域。另一方面，自然对数的底以及圆周率都不是代数数，所以formula_10也不是formula_22的子域。數論是纯粹数学的分支之一主要研究整数的性質。被譽為的數學領域。正整数按乘法性质划分，可以分成質数，合数，1，質数產生了很多一般人能理解卻又懸而未解的問題，如哥德巴赫猜想，孿生質數猜想等。即，很多問題虽然形式上十分初等，事实上却要用到许多艰深的数学知识。这一领域的研究从某种意义上推动了数学的发展，催生了大量的新思想和新方法。數論除了研究整數及質數外，也研究一些由整數衍生的數。整数可以是方程式的解。數論早期稱為算術。到20世紀初才開始使用數論的名稱而算術一詞則表示。卡尔弗里德里希高斯曾說数论早期铺垫有三大内容以上工作成为现代数论的基本框架。在中世紀時，除了1175年至1200年住在北非和君士坦丁堡的斐波那契有關等差數列的研究外，西歐在數論上沒有什麼進展。数论中期主要指15-16世纪到19世纪是由费马梅森欧拉高斯勒让德黎曼希尔伯特等人发展的。最早的發展是在文藝復興的末期對於古希臘著作的重新研究。主要的成因是因為丟番圖的一書的校正及翻譯為拉丁文早在1575年Xylander曾試圖翻譯但不成功後來才由Bachet在1621年翻譯完成。皮埃爾德費馬沒有著作出版他在數論上的貢獻幾乎都在他寫給其他數學家的信上以及書旁的空白處。費馬的貢獻幾乎沒有數論上的證明不過費馬重覆的使用數學歸納法並引入无穷递降法。費馬最早的興趣是在完全數及相亲数因此開始研究整數因數這也開始1636年之後的數學研究也接觸到當時的數學社群。他已在1643年研讀過版本的丟番圖著作他的興趣開始轉向丟番圖方程和平方數的和。費馬在數論上的貢獻有：費馬在1637年聲稱證明了對於大於2的任意整數formula_10，不存在formula_11的非尋常的正整數解但只在一本丟番圖著作的旁邊寫到而且他沒有向別人宣稱他已有了證明。歐拉對數論的興趣最早是由他的朋友哥德巴赫所引發讓他開始專注在費馬的一些研究上在費馬沒有使當代的數學家注意此一主題後歐拉的出現稱為。歐拉數論的貢獻包括以下幾項 +GNU自由文档许可证的內容開放的版權授權條款。它是由自由軟體基金會爲了GNU計劃於2000年發佈的。該授權條款適用於所有電腦軟體文件以及其他參考及指導材料。授權條款規定，所有使用了該授權條款的材料的衍生品，不論是經過修改或轉載，也都必須採用GNU自由文件授權條款。採用該授權條款的材料可以用以商業用途，但必須允許任何願意遵守該協定的人士在該協定下進一步修改或散發材料。GNU自由文件授權條款是設計用於使用手冊、教科書、參考資料、指導性質的素材等。然而，它可以應用在任何文字作品。在網路上採用GFDL發佈的文件協作計劃中，维基百科是規模最大的计划之一。GNU自由文件授權條款最早在1999年以草稿的形式發佈2000年3月經過改版後的自由文件授權條款以1.1版正式發佈接著1.2版在2002年12月發佈。2007年12月1日吉米威爾士宣布維基媒體基金會自由軟體基金會創作共用等經過長期的討論與協商決定修改GNU自由文件授權條款。在維基媒體基金會的要求之下自由軟體基金會在2008年11月3日發佈了1.3版。在1.3版當中規定符合一定條件的Wiki網站可以改用創作共用-姓名標示-相同方式分享3.0版授權條款。GNU自由文件授權條款第二版的第一份草稿已於2006年9月發佈同時也發佈了GNU宽通用公共许可协议的草稿。新版本有許多改進包括為了增進國際化引入GNU通用公共授權條款第三版的新用詞有關應用此授權條款於聲音及影像規定更加明確等。新提議的GNU較簡自由文件授權條款去除了以便於不想使用這些特色的作者。GNU自由文件授權條款明確地區分。次要章節可以用來描述作者與文档主題的關係但不可包含文档主題的相關內容。次要章節可以被指定為。被指定為不变章節的文字不可以被修改或刪除。維基百科並未使用不变章節。GNU自由文件授權條款與GNU通用公共授權條款雙向不相容，導致範例-{}-程式碼必須雙重授權才能既使用在文件又使用在程式內。這點受到批評。GNU自由文件授權條款要求在複製時附上若未遵守此條件則不能散佈分發複製後的文档。這表示被授權者在列印以GNU自由文件授權條款發佈的單篇文章時必須將完整授權條款同時列印出來而授權條款及聲明的長度可能比文章本身大得多。「透明格式」是個較為複雜的概念。它要求文档的格式必須是「廣泛使用的軟體」可以編輯的。文档的透明格式相當於程式的源碼。這個概念是為了確保文档可以易於被修改。该许可证也举出了一些「透明格式」的例子：没有标记的纯ASCII、Texinfo输入格式、LaTeX输入格式、使用可以公开取得其DTD的SGML或XML、合乎标准的简单HTML、PostScript或PDF。「透明影像格式」的例子有PNG、XCF和JPG。 +陈相屯镇是坐落于中国辽宁省沈阳市苏家屯区南郊的一个镇。主要企业有沈阳钢铁总厂。沈阳第一水泥厂。石油部器材仓库 学校：有一座幼儿园、两座小学、沈阳市第六十七中学、沈阳城市学院等。自然景观有塔山、马耳山、沙河等。中國共產黨簡稱中共在中國大陸地区常簡稱為共产党或党是中华人民共和国長久且唯一被宪法允許執政的執政黨世界第二大政党。现任第十九届中共中央总书记为习近平。该党创立于中華民國大陸時期由陳獨秀和李大釗领导组织於1920年8月草创自称社会党1921年7月23日正式成立共产党1922年加入共产国际接受指导和援助并与中國國民黨合作共同发起国民革命运动。1927年第一次国共合作破裂後两黨进行了長達10年的军事斗争。1930年代起中國共產黨逐渐摆脱共产国际的影響改由以毛泽东为首的本土派掌权随后于1931年成立了中國第一个由共产党建立和执政的共产主义政权中华苏维埃共和国。在抗日战争期间共产党与国民黨进行了第二次国共合作遂建立抗日民族统一战线。1945年抗战胜利后中国共产党组建并领导中國人民解放軍在第二次國共內戰中擊敗中国国民党及其领导的中華民國國軍進而取得中國大陸地區及其絕大多數沿海島嶼的統治權於1949年建立中华人民共和国。自1980年代開始中國共產黨開始排除意識形態問題和许多非共產主義的政黨建立关系。1989年东欧剧变和1991年蘇聯解體後中國共產黨開始加强和其它社會主義國家執政黨的交流並且繼續維持和世界各地非執政黨的共產黨聯繫。将中国共产党描述为“中国工人阶级的先锋队中国各族人民利益的忠实代表中国社会主义事业的领导核心”。中國共產黨的組織架構主要基於民主集中制主張應共同維護已獲得共識的政策。中國共產黨最高機構是全國代表大會每五年召開一次。中央委員會作為全國代表大會閉會期間的核心權力機構通常每年召開一次會議。因此多數職權和日常工作都由中央政治局和其常務委員會掌握。中央主要負責人自1993年開始會同時擔任負責黨內和民間事務的中央委員會總書記負責軍事事務的中央軍事委員會主席和具外交禮儀性質的中華人民共和國主席而其能有效掌握三個職位時常被外界稱作最高領導人。習近平自2012年11月的第十八屆中央委員會第一次全體會議至今担中共中央總書記成為中共最高領導人。截至2021年6月5日中國共產黨共有9514.8万名黨員基层党组织則有486.4万个其中大专及以上学历-{占}-52.0%女性-{占}-28.8%少數民族-{占}-7.5%。中國共產黨始終宣稱其理想與目標是共产主义并將自身視為代表工人階級領導工農聯盟和統一戰線的政黨。其中指出中國共產黨堅持馬克思列寧主義毛澤東思想鄧小平理論“三个代表”重要思想科學發展觀和习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想等意识形态並將中國共產黨表述為的口號來發展資本主義生產方式。20世紀末期中共认识到缺乏弹性的苏联式政治制度不可行以及多样化拓展社会主义道路的必然性此后加速轉變至社會主義市場經濟。1920年9月1日党派名称最早在陳獨秀在。中國共產黨早期發展時並沒有設計統一官方標準的標誌，而是允許個別黨組織參考蘇聯共產黨製作標誌。1942年4月28日，中國共產黨中央政治局下令制定統一的官方標誌，在決定中提到「中共黨旗樣式寬闊為三與二之比，左角上有斧頭鐮刀，無五角星，委託中央辦公廳制一批標準黨旗，分發各主要機關」。後來斧頭被替換為槌子，成為鎚子鐮刀，並規定標準黨旗橫120公分、豎80公分，在左上角的中心（距離邊界4分之一的長度和寬度處）設計有直徑30公分的黃色鎚子和鐮刀。旗杆左套為白色並且寬6.5公分，這寬度也就是旗幟橫長十八分之一。1945年4月23日，在延安召開的中國共產黨第七次全國代表大會豎立鎚子鐮刀標誌的中國共產黨黨旗，但各機關仍偶爾使用「斧頭鐮刀」標誌。中國共產黨黨旗採用紅色背景視為象徵革命鎚子鐮刀象徵工人和農民的工具黃色標誌則象徵光明這也意味著中國共產黨代表人民群眾及其利益。發展至今日中國共產黨黨旗具有5種尺寸其尺寸分別為橫388公分豎192厘米。1966年9月21日中共中央辦公廳印製进一步明确了党旗和党徽的制作使用等有关规定。并在其附录中对党旗党徽的制作标准及方法进行了详细说明。发展党员可以分为5个阶段25个流程。入党积极分子的确定和培养教育.发展对象的确定和考察.16、上级党委派人谈话18再上一级党委组织部门备案预备党员的教育考察和转正.1917年俄國十月革命成功後，共產主義思想传入中國。1919年3月，共产国际在莫斯科宣告成立，鼓勵全世界無產階級推翻資產階級的統治，進而建立無產階級專政。五四運動中，中國無政府主義、共產主義等激進意識形態開始与社会運動結合，許多学者於中國各地建立起共產主義研究小組。其中，陳獨秀是首位公開支持列寧主義與世界革命的中國知識分子。1920年4月，新成立的俄共远东局派遣吳廷康等人作為代表前往觀察中國狀況，计划在上海建立第三國際東亞書記處並且在中國組建共產黨。吳廷康隨後在翻譯楊明齋陪同下先是前往北京與李大釗會面，之後則到訪上海和陳獨秀共同商討建黨問題。同年8月，陳獨秀、李漢俊、李達、陳望道、俞秀松等人在上海組織成立了“中國共產黨”，並且推選陳獨秀為書記，後來在上海組建的这個中國共產黨組織被稱為。中国学界一般将它的成立，视为宣告中国共产党成立。次年，举行的中国共产党第一次全国代表大会，视为宣告中国共产党正式成立。上海共產黨早期組織成立後實際上成為中國各地建黨活動的聯絡中心。1920年10月李大釗張申府和張國燾發起成立北京共產黨早期組織並且由李大釗擔任負責人。此后羅章龍劉仁靜鄧中夏高君宇何孟雄繆伯英范鴻劼張太雷等北京大學馬克思學說研究會成員先後加入。儘管李大釗和陳獨秀就是否要在中華民國政壇從事政治改革之論點有所差異然而兩人都把俄國十月革命作為開創性的行動認為它預示著許多被壓迫的國家即將進入新的時代。1920年秋季施存統周佛海在日本建立旅日共產黨早期組織由施存統為負責人。同年秋冬之際毛澤東何叔衡等人在長沙以新民學會骨幹為核心秘密組建共產黨早期組織。1920年年底至1921年年初王盡美鄧恩銘等人則在濟南建立共產黨早期組織。1921年春季陳獨秀聯合譚平山陳公博譚植棠等人重新組建廣州共產黨早期組織並且先後由陳獨秀和譚平山擔任書記。同一年張申府周恩來趙世炎劉清揚等人在法國巴黎也建立了由留學生組成的共產黨早期組織並以張申府為負責人。中国当代学术界将这八个小组视为中国共产党的启始阶段统称为中国共产党早期组织。這些在各地成立的共產主義小組最早參考了列寧所提出的先鋒主義運作並且被蔡和森等學術界視為中國共產黨的雛形。這些共產主義工作小組成員有組織且有計劃地擴大有關馬克思主義的研究和宣傳並且批判各類反對馬克思主義的思想同時還在各個地方還發起建立社會主義青年團創辦工人刊物開辦工人學校並且領導工人成立工會以發動工人運動這些進一步促進了馬克思主義理論和工人運動的結合。其中在1920年9月上海共產主義小組把等。各地共產主義小組以此為基礎積極深入工人群眾進而舉辦工人夜校和建立工會組織同時還在各地組織社會主義青年團。從1920年開始，有關共同組建團體以改革中國社會的思想成為普遍的共識。1921年6月第三國際派遣馬林等人前往上海協調召開全國代表大會，進而组建中國共產黨。1921年7月23日，來自中國北京、漢口、廣州、長沙、濟南等地和日本的13名共產主義小組代表與2名第三國際代表全部抵達上海法租界召開代表大會。7月30日，上海會場遭到警方搜查，會議地點轉往浙江嘉興的嘉興南湖一艘遊湖船上進行。第一次全國代表大會宣布建立中國共產黨以及其宗旨和原則等決議，並且制定有關工作機構和工作計畫的臨時性綱領。在第一次全國代表大會上還選舉陳獨秀、張國燾、李達三人組成的中國共產黨中央局為領導機構，分別由陳獨秀擔任書記一職，而張國燾和李達分別負責組織與宣傳工作。在1922年7月的第二次全國代表大會上明確提出了中國共產黨的最高綱領和最低綱領，同時還通過加入共产国际而成為其分支機構的決議，同意接受共产国际的指導。其中中國共產黨將自身定位在實施列寧主義路線的共產主義革命政黨，同時作為左派政黨而與當時其他右翼政黨爭奪政治權力。當時中國共產黨發展初期絕大部分運作經費是由總部設在莫斯科的第三國際所提供，其作為國際共產主義運動的一部份而接受第三國際的指揮。而後者提供的資金來源除了美元和盧布外，還包括有貴重的珠寶、鑽石、鴉片等。1923年1月12日，第三國際作出，系統性地闡述了對於國共合作問題的指導性意見。1923年6月，中國共產黨第三次全國代表大會提出全體共產黨黨員以個人名義加入中國國民黨、並與中國國民黨建立的三大政策。之後10名中國共產黨黨員入選成為中國國民黨中央執行委員會委員或者候補中央執行委員會委員，至此形成第一次國共合作關係。但是當孫中山於1925年3月逝世後，蔣中正開始排斥中國共產黨。1926年3月中山艦事件後，國共關係陷入緊張。1927年，蔣中正率領部隊進駐當時由共產主義武裝成員控制的上海，并於1927年4月12日發起大規模捕殺中國共產黨黨員和支持人士的四一二事件。之后蔣中正試圖進攻武漢，但是遭到中國共產黨將領葉挺軍隊的阻攔。與此同時，蔣中正許多盟友張作霖、何鍵等也开始打擊中國共產黨。在這次清黨过程中，中國共產黨党员人数从25,000多名锐减至10,000人。清党初期，中國共產黨仍支持武漢國民政府，但在7月12日后則遵照第三國際的指示改組中央領導機構，退出國共合作統一戰線。7月15日，以汪精衛為首的武漢國民政府宣布停止與中國共產黨的合作，開始清除所有原本在中國國民黨內部的中國共產黨黨員，第一次國共合作全面破裂。1927年8月1日，中國共產黨將領周恩来、叶挺、贺龙、朱德率領部隊发动南昌起義。由于不斷遭到國民政府部隊的攻击而被迫南撤至汕頭，最後被趕至福建省边區。隨後中國共產黨於8月7日召開八七會議，確定武力奪取政權的方針。隔天，汪精衛在武漢下令處決中國共產黨黨員。9月，中國工農紅軍的毛澤東以長沙為據點，在湖南省、江西省發動秋收起義。在9月15日認定進攻長沙失敗後，他率領1,000多名倖存者往東前往位於江西省的井岡山。12月11日，中國共產黨發動廣州暴動並且宣布成立蘇維埃政府，但隨即被張發奎率兵鎮壓。1928年4月28日，朱德的南昌起義部隊與毛澤東的秋收起義部隊在江西省井岡山會師，並於1928年5月合併組建為中國工農紅軍。後來中國共產黨便在其軍隊勢力範圍內展開土地改革，並與國民政府派遣的國民革命軍在1930年至1934年間發生5次反圍剿戰爭。另外在黨內自身政治結構上，1927年8月13日時中國共產黨中央領導機構發出第44號通告，進而發起反對托洛斯基主義鬥爭外。而中國共產黨原先在城市的組織系統遭到破壞也促使得黨內制度的變革，除了原本作為革命組織政黨的中國共產黨確立採取民主集中制，並建立中國共產黨中央政治局、而由其成員擔任中央委員會常務委員。這樣的改組結果增加中國共產黨內部的集權狀態，同時新成立的中央政治局含原先實際掌握權力的中央執行委員會在各個層面有所重疊。1929年中國和蘇聯因為中東路事件而在中國東北地區爆發戰爭，陳獨秀等人因為反對中國共產黨內部的方針而被開除黨籍。自此中國共產黨內部早期知識派系因而失勢，爾後陳獨秀於1931年5月1日在上海托洛斯基主義組織统一大会上成為總書記。而在陳獨秀遭開除黨籍後，1929年至1930年則由李立三實際掌握政黨組織。但是李立三的一連串錯誤決策反而讓中國共產黨一度接近瓦解狀態，之後第三國際開始積極介入並且在1930年取得主導權。1931年九一八事變爆發後，中國共產黨在蘇聯支援下於11月7日在江西省瑞金縣成立中華蘇維埃共和國；其中中華蘇維埃共和國在該區頒布憲法以及發行貨幣，並且在隔年10月召開的寧都會議上解除毛澤東的軍權。不過在1934年第五次圍剿戰爭爆發後，中國工農紅軍主力被迫從瑞金縣撤退展開長征，期間與國民政府部隊多次交火而損失慘重。此時一連串與中國國民黨為首的國民政府部隊的衝突，使得中國工農紅軍內部被迫重組，主要由中國共產黨的政治部門負責領導和監督部隊；並且自1934年5月開始，由博古、李德和周恩來組成的三人團作為當時為中國共產黨最高領導圈。1935年1月長征途中的中國工農紅軍第一方面軍在遵義市召開中國共產黨中央政治局第一次擴大會議博古和李德的軍事路線遭到毛澤東等人批判。會議結束後毛澤東重新獲得軍事領導權並且和周恩來與王稼祥確立為軍事最高領導。儘管當時政黨事務依然由第三國際所掌控然而這時毛澤東已經成為中國共產黨的非正式領導者而擔任正式主管的周恩來和張聞天則成為他的非正式代表。同年8月時在毛兒蓋召開的沙窩會議上確立由張聞天毛澤東和周恩來擔任中國共產黨最高領導圈。到了同年10月中國工農紅軍第一方面軍抵達陝西省延安市與部署在陝北紅軍會合。1936年10月中國工農紅軍三大主力在甘肅省會寧縣會合長征宣告結束。而在1936年5月時中國共產黨遵照蘇聯的要求。1937年7月日本發動七七事變中國抗日戰爭因而全面爆發。中國共產黨和中國國民黨隨後暫緩衝突針對日軍入侵中國組成統一戰線進而展開第二次國共合作。同年8月22日陝北地區的中國工農紅軍納入國民革命軍而改編為八路軍到了10月位於南方的中國工農紅軍游擊隊整編為國民革命軍的新四軍。儘管中國共產黨和中國國民黨在名義上維持合作關係但是在1940年時雙方便結束所有合作關係。原因在於儘管正式結為統一戰線中國共產黨利用這次機會擴大和發展自身獨立的根據地進而為之後可能與中國國民黨間爆發的戰爭做出準備。為此中國國民黨自1939年開始限制中國共產黨的擴張但這導致中國共產黨的部隊和中國國民黨的軍隊間經常發生衝突。但是由於雙方不希望在面對日本入侵時爆發內戰使得有關的衝突一度逐漸減少。自1940年代開始，中國共產黨內部意識到要摆脱外國勢力的影響才能取得政權，因此展開整風運動，排除以王明為首的第三國際代表在黨內的影響，將毛澤東的理論與原先的馬克思列寧主義視為指導思想。自1943年開始，中國共產黨積極擴大自身的根據地。通过1945年通過事宜而決裂。儘管國民政府也應美國政府代表喬治·卡特萊特·馬歇爾的要求呼籲中國共產黨與之和談，但是中國共產黨南京市代表陸定一拒絕這建議，自此國共談判完全破裂而使得第二次國共內戰爆發。1947年7月至1948年8月期間中國共產黨開始發起有限的反攻行動，並將目標明確訂為從華中地區發展至華北地區，以及重新收復中國東北地區。而當時中國國民黨率領的國民革命軍本身則出現大量軍人逃兵，其中在1948年中華民國國軍從原先有的200萬人兵力減少至100萬人左右。1948年9月至1949年6月，中國共產黨憑藉三大戰役和渡江戰役基本上消滅中華民國國軍主力部隊，進而讓中國國民黨掌管的地區面積快速減少，中華民國政府在中國大陸的統治權則逐漸喪失。1949年10月1日中國共產黨中央委員會主席毛澤東在北京市宣布成立中華人民共和國自稱為新中國。此后中國共產黨逐渐占領中國大陸和絕大多數沿海島嶼迫使以中國國民黨為首的中華民國政府在同年12月撤往臺灣地區。而此時中國大陸由毛澤東以及其所領導的中國共產黨統轄主要依照馬克思列寧主義原則所建立。1950年10月中共中央决定派中國人民志願軍前往朝鮮半島參與韓戰直至1953年朝韩雙方簽署停火協議。中國共產黨在1951年時發起三反五反運動並且在隔年提出生產資料所有制的社會主義改造後宣布成為社會主義國家。1956年推出百花齊放百家爭鳴的方針不過到了1957年發起了整頓思想的反右運動並因為國內階級鬥爭形勢估計過於嚴重而被嚴重擴大大批知識分子因而被劃成右派成員。1958年至1960年中國共產黨發動主張「超英趕美」的大躍進反而造成國民經濟的倒退和大饑荒的發生。其中1959年廬山會議上毛澤東因為彭德懷等人的異議而下令發動反右傾運動進而造成社會經濟陷入困頓並且一直到1962年七千人大會召開後才得以制止。與此同時中國共產黨和蘇聯共產黨因為意識形態差異而宣告决裂。此時期毛澤東主張儘管社會主義革命似乎獲得成功但是社會內部的階級敵人仍然持續存在進而提出「無產階級專政下繼續革命」之觀點。1966年2月3日中國共產黨透過文化革命五人小組發表《二月提綱》文化大革命正式展開。在這之後引起長達10年激烈的一系列政治鬥爭並且對中國社會文化和古蹟造成嚴重破壞。這時期也因為文化革命造成經濟停滯不前人民生活陷入困苦最終文化大革命一直到1976年四人幫遭到瓦解而結束。1976年毛澤東逝世並且逮捕四人幫成員後，華國鋒和鄧小平為了取得中國共產黨的最高領導權而爆發權力鬥爭，最後由鄧小平贏得鬥爭而掌握中國共產黨的最高領導權。其中鄧小平聯合陳雲和李先念推動改革開放政策，並且提出了中國特色社會主義的思想觀念。為了扭轉毛澤東極左派政策所帶來的影響，鄧小平認為一個社會主義國家可以排除資本主義思想而採納其市場經濟政策，並且在中國共產黨仍維持其自身政治權力的情況下，透過政策的轉變帶來顯著的經濟增長。1978年中國共產黨第十一屆中央委員會第三次全體會議召開後，中國共產黨放棄階級鬥爭方式而轉向改革開放，並且逐步建立鄧小平在中國共產黨黨內之領導地位。1979年時，中華人民共和國因為邊境問題而與同樣是社會主義國家的越南爆發中越戰爭。1981年中國共產黨第十一屆中央委員會通過了，指責此次事件為並且表示應該採取堅硬措施以制止動亂，随后部分激进学生绝食抗议使局勢升級。5月19日晚間，中國共產黨高層決定在首都部分地區實行戒嚴，不過戒嚴部隊被許多北京市市民阻攔而未能入城。最终中國共產黨高層、國務院和中央軍事委員會決定採取強硬措施，并於6月3日晚间派遣中國人民解放軍進入天安門廣場實行武力清場。途中軍方與群眾和學生爆發流血衝突，军队开枪射杀了很多平民，反抗的平民也导致了十四位军人的死亡，六四清场行动引來西方社會的全面譴責。在六四事件結束後中國共產黨召開中國共產黨第十三屆中央委員會第四次全體會議。在會議中決定撤銷趙紫陽的中國共產黨中央委員會總書記等職務進而確立江澤民在中國共產黨黨內的領導地位並且建立包括李鵬朱鎔基等人的第三代中央領導集體。而儘管六四事件一度讓改革開放政策暫緩1990年代初期有關社會主義市場經濟之政策重新獲得施行這讓鄧小平的經濟學觀點重新獲得重視。1997年中國共產黨第十五次全國代表大會上鄧小平所提出的觀點正式加入中並且作為中國共產黨的指導方針。在三個代表思想中透過制定理論的方式讓民營企業家和入境資產階級分子得以合法加入中國共產黨。2002年11月中國共產黨第十六次全國代表大會和中國共產黨第十六屆中央委員會第一次全體會議召開胡錦濤當選中國共產黨中央委員會總書記而接替江澤民最高領導人位置並且和吳邦國溫家寶賈慶林等人組建第四代中央領導集體。胡錦濤把重點放在集體領導上而反對單一個人在政治體系中佔有主導地位。由於過去中華人民共和國政府主要注重經濟增長反而促成一系列嚴重的社會問題發生。為了解決這些問題胡錦濤提出在社會主義社會發展科學發展觀和和諧社會這兩個主要思想。其中科學發展觀在2007年10月21日召開的中國共產黨第十七次全國代表大會上列入的决议将习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想写入党章由此习近平成为继毛泽东邓小平之后第三位将自己的名字写进党章的中国共产领导核心。中國共產黨創建之初便以蘇聯共產黨為榜樣採取了蘇聯共產黨的組織模式後來也接納了列寧的理論和實踐經驗。在政治體制建設方面基本上則是採納了史達林主義也就是在每個非共產黨機關內部都設有嚴格服從共產黨的組織並且建立了共產黨中央對国家的一元化領導制度。1949年11月中华人民共和国各级人民政府均设置了党委会。1958年中共中央成立直屬中央政治局和中央书记处的中央財經政法外事科學與文教小組小組組長基本上由中央政治局常委擔任。今日中國共產黨在中央和地方国家機關人民團體經濟組織文化組織等机构中設有黨組作为中国共产党基层组织。中國共產黨同時也提出中國共產黨領導的多黨合作和政治協商制度也就是在中國共產黨領導下與8個民主黨派合作和協商進而組成統一戰線。這些政治協商必須接受中國共產黨領導主要參與成員還包括有群眾組織民主黨派以及各個行業的代表。而在其政治制度理論上透過正式協商制度能夠有助於中華人民共和國政治經濟文化和社會飾物等各個層面的基本政策成形。對此中國共產黨與其他政黨的互動關係則主要建立在基礎上。中國共產黨還將這一協商過程制度化而成立中國人民政治協商會議並且要求所有統一戰線成員支持中國的社會主義道路並持續支持接受中國共產黨的領導。這使得中國人民政治協商會議實際上並沒有任何權限而有關的討論內容也都是受到中國共產黨所監督。中國共產黨的組織原則採取民主集中制，並且基於民主和兩個原則而成，其中官方所指稱的民主主要是「社會主義民主」或者是「黨內民主」。而有關民主集中制的討論，自從1927年召開的中國共產黨第五次全國代表大會便一直視為中國共產黨的組織原則。其中在《中國共產黨章程》中提到：「黨是根據自己的綱領和章程，按照民主集中制組織起來的統一整體。」而毛澤東曾經表示民主集中制是「將民主和集中兩個似乎相衝突的東西，在一定形式上統一起來」，認為藉此結合能夠處理民主和集中之間的內部矛盾，同時民主集中制在自由和協調上更具優越性。當前中國共產黨理想上認為應當透過集體領導以盡可能削減個人權力，經由一致協商的方式而做出決定。這概念最早緣起則可以回到列寧和布爾什維克派系，主張共產黨的領導高層是由多人共同決策而成。其中中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會全體成員都處於平等地位，每位中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會委員往往作為一個部門的非正式權力代表，然而他們所擁有的決策權力皆相同。在毛澤東統治時期便是由他控制了中共中央政治局和中國人民解放軍，另外分別還有掌握情報調查機關的康生以及掌握國務院、外交部的周恩來與掌握中共中央書記處的鄧小平。不過儘管每個中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會委員在理論上的權力關係相同但實際上仍然會為中央政治局常務委員會委員排列其名次。同時雖然中國共產黨主張並沒有選出正式的領導人領導但是每個領導集體中仍然會有重要的領導人物帶領其他核心成員自1990年代開始同時掌握中國共產黨中央委員會總書記中國共產黨中央軍事委員會主席和中華人民共和國主席者往往便是該領導集體最為重要的領導人物其中黨總書記和軍委主席的職務掌握實權。在過去鄧小平擔任最高領導人時期中國共產黨內部核心成員和領導集體並沒有什麼區別而在實際情況下核心人物往往不參與集體領導制度。然而集體領導制度發展到江澤民之後中國共產黨開始大力推廣責任制度並且在中國共產黨的官方聲明中改稱作。在2016年中国共产党的十八届六中全会上明确确立了“以习近平同志为核心的党中央”。2017年10月中共十九大之後中共中央政治局全體委員和常委被規定要向總書記述職。2018年3月中共中央總書記習近平首次審閱各中央政治局委員提交的報告他又向各政治局委員提出重要要求。根據賦予全國代表大會6項职权：在實際召開全國代表大會時絕大部分時間與會代表很少討論重大問題而比較具影響力的討論則是在全國代表大會召開前的準備期将酝酿下届中央委员会委员候补委员人选并提交全国代表大会差额选举。而在全國代表大會閉會後則是由全國代表大會所產生的中國共產黨中央委員會擔任最高执行機構。中国共产党全国代表大会闭会时由中国共产党中央委员会领导党的全部工作对外代表中国共产党。由中国共产党中央紀律檢查委員會負責监督执纪问责维护党的章程和其他党内法规对党员履行职责进行监督而在全國代表大會閉會期間中央紀律檢查委員會在中央委员会的领导下进行工作。新當選的中國共產黨中央委員會委員除了之後會在不同党政机关、地方行政区和企事业单位工作外，在第一次全體會議上會分別從中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會委員中選出作為主要負責人的中國共產黨中央委員會總書記。中央委员会总书记负责召集中央政治局会议和中央政治局常务委员会会议，并主持中央书记处的工作，任期与中央委员会相同，连任不限。另外還會選出中央政治局和中央政治局常务委员会组成人员，决定中國共產黨中央軍事委員會组成人员，通过中國共產黨中央書記處成员，批准中央紀律檢查委員會组成人员。中國共產黨中央委員會全體会议一般每年舉行一次，為期2天至3天。在中央委員會全體會議閉會期間，由中央政治局和其常務委員會行使中央委員會的職權，负责党的经常工作。中國共產黨中央政治局及其常务委员会在中央委员会全体会议闭会期间行使中央委员会的职权作为最高决策机关和领导机关承担中共中央经常工作。所有重大的政治思想軍事政策和組織問題都必須在中央政治局會議上討論通過。中国共产党在組織上採取民主集中制作為基本原則各级党组织对同下级组织有关的重要问题作出决定时一般要征求下级组织的意见执行少数服从多数的原则。各级党组织和党员必须坚决执行上级党组织的决定。本级党组织和党员如有不同意见则必须在坚决执行的前提下声明保留或向上级党委反映。在中國共產黨全國代表大會中央委員會全體會議和中央政治局全體會議閉會期間由中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會行使中央政治局的职权成為党内最高決策機構。中央政治局常務委員會制度是在1956年中國共產黨第八次全國代表大會時建立用以取代原本擔任政策決定角色由五大書記組成的中國共產黨中央書記處。其中中央政治局常務委員會每周至少召開1次會議成为中国共产党的中华人民共和国的核心领导机构。藉由閉會制度使得中國共產黨的權力集中至中央政治局常務委員會。根據中國共產黨中央委員會總書記負責召集會議中央政治局和中央政治局常務委員會的會議同時還主持中國共產黨中央書記處工作。而自江澤民以後中國共產黨中央委員會總書記也兼任中共中央軍事委員會主席一職。中国共产党中央军事委员会主席领导全国武装力量。中國共產黨中央書記處是中央政治局及其常務委員會的辦事機構同時也是中央委員會的执行機構。中央書記處除了可以在中央政治局確定的政策框架下自行做出決定外同時也負責指导中央委員會部門工作经費工作出版物与報告起草等工作。中央軍事委員會是中國共產黨最高军事领导机构與中華人民共和國中央軍事委員會一个机构两块牌子主要負責领导中华人民共和国武装力量。中國共產黨历届中央委員會第一次全體會議上還會選舉中央政治局、中央政治局常务委员会、中央军事委员会、中央书记处的组成人员。中共中央辦公廳是中共中央的核心聯繫部門，負責包括日常通訊、協議、安排會議議程等党务行政工作。中共中央目前设置中央职能部门5个，這包括負責干部工作与人事任免的中共中央組織部、負責宣传思想、文化和公共传播工作的中共中央宣傳部、負責中國共產黨与各国政党和国际组织聯繫的中共中央對外聯絡部、負責开展统一战线工作的中共中央統一戰線工作部以及负责协调政法机关工作的中共中央政法委员会。中共中央设置办事机构8个，即中共中央政策研究室、中央国家安全委员会办公室、中央网络安全和信息化委员会办公室、中央军民融合发展委员会办公室、中共中央台湾工作办公室、中央财经委员会办公室、中央外事工作委员会办公室、中央机构编制委员会办公室。中國共產黨還設立有提供高級幹部培训与政治教育的中共中央黨校负责党史研究文献出版发行与外文编译的中共中央党史和文献研究院。而在新聞媒體對外傳播方面中國共產黨中央委員會直接管理《人民日報》社而中共中央黨校則發行有作為理論雜誌的《求是》和《學習時報》。另外中央委員會还设立多个中央议事协调机构包括中央全面深化改革委员会中央国家安全委员会中央精神文明建设指导委员会中央财经委员会等在全體會議期間將向中央委員會提交報告。中國共產黨在各省自治区直辖市设区的市自治州縣不设区的市和市轄區成立地方代表大會並且由這些代表大會自行選出本级行政区委員會。中國共產黨地方各級代表大會應該每5年舉行一次但是在特殊情況下可由上一级党委委員會決定提前或者延後進行。本级党委的人數和選舉程序由地方代表大會決定并报上级党委批准。地方各級代表大會行使下列职权省级行政区地级行政区县级行政区的代表大會每隔五年召开省级行政区地级行政区县级行政区党委委员候補委員由党代会選舉產生任期为5年县级党委委员候補委員必須擁有3年以上党龄。本级党委与本级党代会的任期相同。各級党委負責人必須向上級党委負責。上級地方党委可以決定下級地方代表大會委員會正式委員和候補委員人數。当党委委員出缺時則由候補委員按照得票數。各級地方委員會每年至少要召開2次全體會議且应当執行上級黨組織的指示以及同級代表大會的決議。地方各级党代会闭会时由本级党委领导本级党组织的工作对外代表本级党组织。其中地方党委常委的人選由地方委員會全體會議選舉產生并报上级党委批准。地方各级党委常委会领导本行政区党的经常工作。各级党委的干部管理权限下算一级。例如中共中央管理副省部级以上干部的任免省级党委管理副地厅级以上干部的任免。申請加入中國共產黨者年齡必須滿18周歲並且必須成為預備黨員為期1年。在民主革命时期任何国籍之人士都可以加入中国共产党。根据1956年通过的中共八大党章规定“任何从事劳动不剥削他人劳动的中国公民承认党的纲领和党的章程参加党的一个组织并在其中工作并且按照规定交纳党费的都可以成为本党党员”这是中共党章首次对入党申请者的国籍要求作出了规定一直保持至今。相較於過去中國共產黨將重點放在申請人的思想準則上目前中國共產黨則主要強調技術和學歷。申請人必須在中國共產黨黨旗前舉行入黨宣誓才能夠成為預備黨員之後則由中國共產黨相關組織負責觀察和教育預備黨員。預備黨員的職責實際上和正式黨員相差不大不同的是可能無法在中國共產黨黨內參與選舉投票同時也沒有被選舉權。許多中國共產黨黨員是透過加入中國共產黨旗下的中國共產主義青年團而江澤民以後民營企業家也被允許成為中國共產黨黨員。根據全體黨員必須服從命令遵守紀律堅持團結服務於中國共產黨和人民並且促進社會主義道路的發展。在加入中國共產黨將會獲得許多權限這包括有參加中國共產黨的有關會議閱讀中國共產黨有關文件接受中國共產黨提供的教育培訓在黨報黨刊上對中國共產黨政策提出討論針對中國共產黨的工作提出建議和方案在會議上有根據地批評中國共產黨任何組織和任何黨員行使投票權和被選舉權。而在堅決執行該項決議或政策作為的前提下中國共產黨黨員得以對對於決議和政策予以反對或者有不同意見的情況下並且可向中國共產黨上級機關乃至於中央委員會提交任何意見並且要求該組織提供答覆。同時包括中國共產黨中央委員會等組織都沒有權限得以剝奪中國共產黨黨員的這些權力。根據中共中央組織部於2019年6月30日的統計數據指出截至2018年12月31日中國共產黨黨員總數為9059.4万名基層組織則有461.0万个。就中國共產黨黨員職業予以分類農民牧民和漁民有2544.3万人工人有651.4万人企業單位和民办非企业单位专业技术人员1400.7万人企事業單位和社会组织管理人员980.0万人黨政機關工作人員756.4万人學生180.5万人離職或退休人員1814.8万人其他职业人员731.4万人。而就其他成員結構來看女性中國共產黨黨員有2466.5万人占黨員總數的27.2%少數民族黨員有664.5万人占黨員總數的7.3%具有大專及以上學歷的黨員4493.7万人占黨員總數的49.6%35歲及以下的黨員2211.6万人。而自2013年開始中國共產黨在保證發展黨員質量的前提下逐漸控制黨員人士增長速度在發展受調控下使得總人數增加速度放緩。截至2019年12月31日中國共產黨總共有9191.4萬名黨員是印度主要政黨印度人民黨之後全世界上第二大的政黨。中國共產主義青年團是中國共產黨的青年組織同時也是中華人民共和國最大的青年群眾組織。在中提到中國共產主義青年團是由中國共產黨領導的青年組成並且指出其功能為。中國共產主義青年團申請人的加入年另必須介於14歲至28歲間並且由其主導和監督以14歲以下兒童組成的少年組織中國少年先鋒隊。中國共產主義青年團的組織結構整體上都參考了中國共產黨的制度其中最高機構是中國共產主義青年團全國代表大會其下分別還有中央委員會中央委员会常务委员会和中央书记处。然而中國共產主義青年團中央委員會和所有中央機關都是接受中國共產黨中央委員會領導由其負責指導中國共產主義青年團的相關活動。因此實際上中國共產主義青年團為獨特的組織其所負責領導的上級機關包括有中國共產主義青年團自身以及中國共產黨。根據在2013年所舉辦的中國共產主義青年團第十七次全國代表大會提供的資料中國共產主義青年團總共有8900萬名成員加入。中國共產黨訂定數個指導自身全部活動的中國特色社會主義思想，並且將其視為中國共產黨思想建設、組織建設和作風建設的理論基礎。其中在提到中國共產黨會堅持社會主義、人民民主專政、中國共產黨領導、遵循馬克思列寧主義和毛澤東思想等四項基本原則，並且明確規定：馬克思列寧主義是中國共產黨的第一個官方意識形態，內容結合了卡爾·馬克思和弗里德里希·恩格斯在著作中提到的馬克思主義、以及由列寧所提出的列寧主義思想。對此中國共產黨認為馬克思列寧主義揭示了人類社會歷史發展的普遍規律，同時馬克思列寧主義提供解決資本主義矛盾社會的一個未來願景，也就是社會主義社會和共產主義社會必然會取代資本主義社會。而第二個加入的毛澤東思想則被視為是馬克思列寧主義在中國的發展和應用，其中毛澤東思想的內容除了由毛澤東主導外，還包括其他中國共產黨的領導人物共同發想而成。鄧小平理論則是在中國共產黨第十四次全國代表大會加入到。中國共產黨黨內的部分人士批評外並透過自己的勞動貢獻為中國共產黨打造中國特色社會主義。之後在胡錦濤所主導下在中國共產黨第十六屆中央委員會第三次全體會議上制定了同樣作為官方意識形態的科學發展觀思想同時為了因應中國國情而提出科學發展觀的發展與應用中國共產黨必須堅持建設社會主義和諧社會。2017年10月24日，第十九次全国代表大会宣布将习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想写入。习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想所要解决的核心问题是“新时代坚持和发展什么样的中国特色社会主义、怎样坚持和发展中国特色社会主义”，该思想“内涵十分丰富”，囊括“五位一体”、“四个全面”、“党领导一切”等政治方略，是“全党全国人民为实现中华民族伟大复兴而奋斗的行动指南。”而從中國共產黨的觀點來看，世界分成彼此對立的社會主義和資本主義兩個基礎陣營。中國共產黨認為堅持社會主義的基礎，基於歷史唯物主義的觀點最終會取代資本主義。不過近年來中國共產黨則重新回到卡爾·馬克思的著作，重新嘗試解釋資本主義的全球化發生現象。儘管承認全球化是透過資本主義制度發展而成，中國共產黨領導人和理論家認為全球化本質上並非資本主義。原因在於如果全球化純粹屬於資本主義，這將排除另一種具現代性的社會主義形式。因此無論是社會主義還是資本主義，中國共產黨不將全球化或者市場經濟視為特定階級的性質。而如同鄧小平認為中國可以憑藉資本主義的元素來追求社會主義的現代化建設，對於中國共產黨來說全球化本身性質亦不固定。因此在中國共產黨黨內對於全球化仍屬於樂觀態度，認為儘管當前的全球化是受到資本主義佔有統治地位，但也認為全球化可以推動社會主義的一系列進展。雖然非中國分析家普遍認為中國共產黨已經拒絕正統的馬克思列寧主義和毛澤東思想或者至少在正統思想的基本思路並沒有繼續沿用然而中國共產黨本身並不同意。儘管一些評論認為江澤民引進「三個代表」思想理論後結束中國共產黨長期所承諾的馬克思主義做法然而中國共產黨黨理論家冷溶則不同意此類看法認為江澤民透過各種不同的所有制擺脫原來中國共產黨的思想障礙這作法本身並沒有放棄馬克思主義或社會主義相對地反而藉由現代化理解馬克思主義和社會主義而強化中國共產黨自身進而成為具有中國特色的「社會主義市場經濟」的一部分。其中中國共產黨和中華人民共和國仍然將實現真正的「共產主義」作為其「終極目標」其中中國共產黨聲稱現時的中華人民共和國處於社會主義初級階段。而一部分中國共產黨理論家認為在目前的發展階段「看起來很像資本主義」另外某一部分理論家則認為「資本主義是共產主義的早期或第一階段」。不過有些人則反對社會主義初級階段的概念認為這實際上是受知識分子的犬儒主義影響。其中中國分析師羅伯特勞倫斯庫恩便表示「當我第一次聽到這個說法時我認為它滑稽多於精明是來自於不滿現實知識份子的黑客宣傳諷刺漫畫。但是初級階段100年的說法來自嚴肅的政治理論家。」近年來，以外國評論家為首的論點認為中國共產黨沒有主軸思想，中國共產黨的組織採取實用主義，並且僅有在工作層面上感興趣。不過這個從許多層面所得到的簡單觀點也遭到批評其錯誤處很多，因為中國共產黨官方聲明試圖讓其呈現出具有明顯連貫的世界觀。例如在2012年胡錦濤指出西方世界的威脅要分裂中國共產黨，並且指出，中國共產黨提供大量的資源投入到黨校和發展各具特色的思想論點。在獲得提出前，思想和決策之間是處於演繹的關係，這意味著決策本身是基於對於思想的認識而做出判斷。然而鄧小平認為這一關係必須被顛倒過來，應當透過決策來產生其意識形態，而不是透過周圍的其他方法成形。而中國的政策制定者認為蘇聯解體的原因之一在於其停滯不前的，認為蘇聯共產黨的思維過於僵化而缺乏想像力；對此中國共產黨則認為必須透過實踐行動破除僵化的思想，同時中國共產黨本身的思想必須是動態的，才能夠繼續維護中國共產黨的統治基礎。今日中國共產黨繼續與非執政的共產黨和工人黨保持聯繫並且派代表出席共產黨和工人黨國際會議国际共产主义研讨会等國際共產主義會議。同時許多國外的共產黨還會派遣代表前往中國訪問例如在2008年葡萄牙共產黨總書記熱羅尼莫德索薩便和中國共產黨中央政治局委員劉奇葆會面而法國共產黨全國書記皮埃爾洛朗也曾與中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會委員劉雲山會面。2014年時中國共產黨中央委員會總書記習近平則與俄羅斯聯邦共產黨主席根納季久加諾夫會面討論兩個政黨間的互動關係。1980年代至1990年代期間歐洲社會民主運動的一連串改革使得中國共產黨認為西歐的共產黨地位日益边缘化。中國共產黨中央委員會一方面和葡萄牙共產黨法國共產黨俄羅斯聯邦共產黨捷克和摩拉维亚共产党巴西共產黨尼泊爾共產黨西班牙共產黨等已經作為主要政黨的共產黨接觸外同時也和澳大利亞共產黨孟加拉國工人黨孟加拉国共产党斯里蘭卡共產黨比利時工人黨匈牙利工人黨多米尼加工人黨宏都拉斯改革黨等仍然在發展中的共產黨和工人黨保持交流。中國共產黨與其他仍然信奉共產主義的社會主義國家繼續保持密切的關係，這包括有古巴、寮國、越南和它們各自的執政黨。中國共產黨花費許多時間分析1989年東歐民主化和1991年蘇聯解體後的國際形勢，試圖解釋為何在東歐社會主義國家陸陸續續瓦解的同時，僅有部分社會主義國家仍然繼續維持其意識形態。中國共產黨積極分析這些社會主義國家的情況主要是作為自身後續發展的參考案例，不過中國共產黨亦認為社會主義運動將在未來某個時候獲得振興。中國共產黨在所有執政黨中最感興趣的政黨是越南共產黨，其中越南共產黨一般視為在後蘇聯時代的社會主義發展典範。中國分析師認為越南在越南共產黨第六次全國代表大會上決定採納革新開放的改革政策，成為越南後來獲得成功的關鍵因素。作为相隔一年分别建立的两个历史悠久的共产党中国共产党和日本共产党存在长期交流但关系总体好坏反复。1945年前日共由于受迫害处于地下活动状态日共骨干野坂参三等人到达延安与中共存在早期交流。第二次世界大战结束后日共骨干回到日本吸取中共革命经验重建日共。1950年代尽管存在日共遭到美军打压日共内部的革命派德田球一和改良派宫本显治互相分裂等情况但这一时期中共与日共的关系一直紧密。1964年中苏交恶时日共总体站在支持中共的立场直到1966年宫本显治带领日共代表团来到中国会谈中中方要求日共方面批判苏联为修正主义这一提议遭到了宫本显治的拒绝。随后中共开始全面批判日共且并未在当天向中国共产党发祝贺信标志着中共和日共自1967年以来再度交恶。中國共產黨在相當程度上也十分重視古巴的發展這包括有對古巴共產黨中央委員會第一書記菲德爾卡斯楚的大大欽佩以及出版許多書籍探討古巴革命的成功案例。中國共產黨和古巴共產黨之間的關係從過去並無密切關係而自1990年代開始彼此的交流大大增加。中國共產黨第十六屆中央委員會第四次全體會議討論中國共產黨學習其他執政政黨的可能性時對於古巴共產黨的作為便予以許多好評。2007年中國共產黨中央政治局常務委員會委員吳官正在和菲德爾卡斯楚會面時便將胡錦濤的親筆書信遞交給卡斯楚內容提到自從共產黨在東歐衰亡後中國共產黨開始與欧洲其他党派建立關係其中這些關係又以能夠讓中國共產黨學習者為主。例如中國共產黨一直渴望了解新加坡執政黨人民行動黨如何繼續維持完全控制並且在新加坡政治環境中得以採行低調的完全掌握社會。根據中國共產黨自己對於新加坡的分析其認為人民行動黨的統治地位是因為藉由發達的社交網絡來有效地控制選區其中新加坡政府和人民行動黨控制的分支機構深入且廣泛地掌握社會。儘管中國共產黨接受新加坡是自由民主制國家他們認為這是以人民行動黨為首的指導式民主。不過中國共產黨認為其與人民行動黨的差異則包括有後者並非工人階級的政黨而是屬於政治菁英組成的政黨同時人民行動黨是採行議會制的政黨本身並非作為革命黨存在。中國共產黨還有與對其他政黨展開研究並且發展密切交流這包括有自1957年以來長期統治馬來西亞的馬來民族統一機構以及日本政壇具主導地位的自由民主黨。另外中國共產黨也對於一黨制國家或者有某方政黨主導的國家特別關注並且透過發展政黨間的關係使得中國共產黨得以加以研究。例如中國共產黨認為阿拉伯復興社會黨之所以能夠長期統治敘利亞地區，源自於阿薩德家族塑造個人權力並透過嚴密統治，這使得哈菲茲·阿薩德得以將政權傳承給他的兒子巴沙爾·阿薩德，同時敘利亞武裝力量勢力也在其政治中扮演重要角色。近年來中國共產黨則對於拉丁美洲地區特別感到興趣，無論是派遣代表前往訪問或者招待這些國家的代表次數都不斷增加。中國共產黨特別關注曾經統治墨西哥長達71年之久的革命制度黨，雖然中國共產黨中央委員會將革命制度黨的長期統治權力源自於強硬的總統制，而其民族主義的態度使得革命制度黨獲得許多農村人口支持，並且得以進一步在經濟市場化的同時實行國有化政策。中國共產黨認為革命制度黨失敗處在於缺乏黨內民主，儘管其追求社會民主主義但是無法改革已經僵化的黨派結構，同時還受到政治腐敗、全球化壓力、以及美國政治干擾等影響。雖然中國共產黨中央委員會逐漸承認拉丁美洲的，數年來開始加強中國共產黨與數個社會主義和反美左派政黨之間的關係。中國共產黨偶爾會對烏戈·查維茲的反資本主義和反美言論表達不同意見，不過在2013年時中國共產黨則與查維茲所成立的委內瑞拉統一社會主義黨達成協議，由中國共產黨教育委內瑞拉統一社會主義黨幹部有關政治和社會領域。截至2008年為止，中國共產黨聲稱已經在29個拉丁美洲國家與99個政黨建立關係。早在1970年代期間，中國共產黨為了遏制，而實際上自身也可以從社會民主主義運動中學到部分經驗。中國共產黨在1980年代陸續派遣代表前往歐洲各地考察，同時期大多數歐洲社會民主黨派別都面臨選舉支持率的下滑，以及開始對於自身展開改革。中國共產黨對此感到極大興趣，這之中又以英國工黨和德國社會民主黨的內部改革為首。中國共產黨對於两者再次取得執政權的原因歸咎於採行現代化措施，藉由轉而支持私有化而取代傳統的國家社會主義原則，並且將原先的大政府思維轉型成為新的福利國家觀點。至此改變對於市場的負面看法，而支持群眾也從傳統工會轉型成企業家、年輕成員和學生。中國共產黨過去與北韓的緊密關係，這使得中國共產黨是經常派遣代表訪問北韓的組織之一。儘管中國的朝鮮分析家往往向社會大眾表態支持北韓，並且發表多份有關北韓經濟改革的報告。但是在中國共產黨官方討論中則很大程度上蔑視北韓的經濟體制，認為在整個社會中瀰漫著個人崇拜思想，而金日成家族更是在社會主義國家嘗試採納世襲繼承的做法。同時即便是在安全局勢時，由於朝鮮人民軍使用絕大多數資源，而讓北韓民眾生活普遍貧困，一些分析師還將北韓的現狀與中國過去的文化大革命對比。多年來中國共產黨一直嘗試透過中國重要經濟基礎設施經驗，說服朝鮮民主主義人民共和國的執政黨朝鮮勞動黨展開經濟改革政策。例如在2006年時，中國共產黨邀請朝鮮勞動黨總書記金正日前往廣東省以展示中國經濟改革的成功。不過在一般情況下，中國共產黨仍認為朝鮮勞動黨和朝鮮是共產主義執政黨和社會主義國家的負面例子。中國國民黨在1928年至1949年期間統治中國大陸地區但是最終被迫撤往臺灣地區。1950年代至1970年代中華民國政府在施行的重要基本國策和政治宣傳中均以中國共產黨作為主要假想敵。其中當時中國國民黨指稱中國共產黨憑藉著蘇聯幫助而奪取中國大陸政權除了批評中國共產黨為外並且以國家民族生存為訴求對臺灣民眾大力宣傳而將中國共產黨統治下的中國大陸形容為民生困苦的獨裁政權。一直到1980年代初期有關反對中國共產黨的宣傳逐漸減少。與此同時由江澤民領導的中國共產黨則開始向過去的敵人中國國民黨表達友好姿態期望藉由加強與中國國民黨間的關係以促進臺灣地區與中國大陸統一的可能性。然而在2000年後中國國民黨喪失從1945年以來統治臺灣地區的政權。而過去的宣傳仍很大程度影響臺灣人民對於中國共產黨以及中國大陸的觀感其中負責海峽兩岸事務的海峽交流基金會在2007年11月28日的調查中指出近70%的臺灣民眾對於中國共產黨政府有不好印象。有些觀點認為中國共產黨和其領導人應該對中國人數眾多的非正常死亡承擔責任這些非正常死亡案例主要集中於1960年代的三年困難時期和隨後的文化大革命。不過在中國共產黨執政時期中國大陸在1980年代經過改革開放之後的30年經濟高速發展很快發展成為世界第二大經濟體世界第一大工業國世界第一大農業國和世界第二大服務業國。儘管一些評論認為中國共產黨採取的政策對環境文化人口結構造成了破壞然而調查顯示目前中國公眾對於中央政府的滿意度很高。南非認為中國共產黨第十八屆中央委員會第三次全體會議所提出的全面深化改革方案將在之後決定中國未來的走向使得國家經濟更為穩健人民更加富有而相關的政治改革也將更為順利地推進。不過中國市場經濟學家吳敬璉認為自從2004年江澤民轉交軍權以後中國共產黨黨內保守的毛澤東主義派系勢力逐漸增強。該派系勢力主張計劃經濟並且把市場改革與政治改革不平衡帶來的社會問題全歸咎於市場改革派。另外裙帶資本家和腐敗政府官員也希望加大國家權力從而得以在政府干預的市場過程中獲利。對此吳敬璉認為中國經濟正朝向官僚壟斷資本主義因而對於未來中國共產黨保守派領導下的中國經濟發展表示擔憂。中國共產黨黨員幹部腐敗而違法與違紀事件時有發生對此中國共產黨對不合格黨員會予以開除黨籍處理其中在2004年被開除黨籍人數約49000名。到了2006年時人數則略有下降當年度一共開除了20000多名違紀黨員這佔中國共產黨黨員1.7％。不過許多人士認為這是中國共產黨本身的制度問題和中國長期以來從封建時代形成的官场風气只靠黨內紀律處分並不足夠。2007年9月13日擁有更多職能和權力的國家預防腐敗局正式成立主要的工作有反腐敗宣傳和教育進行制度的建設機制與體制的創新以及在反腐敗案件上取得源頭性解決的工作試圖能夠解決中國共產黨近年來黨員幹部腐敗案件之問題。2008年1月15日中共中央總書記胡錦濤在中國共產黨第十七屆中央紀律檢查委員會第二次全體會議上發表講話表示今後會把反腐敗工作的成效看作是獲得民眾信任的重要指標這是中國轉型發展近30年來首次明確提出的關於反腐敗目標的看法。中國共產黨召開十八次全國代表大會後很多政治觀察人士對於習近平的改革舉措表示出乎意料。其中2014年9月11日澳門大學社會科學學院助理教授陳定定在雜誌網站發表分析文章表示在不到2年時間裡中國政府在計劃生育勞動改造戶口制度反腐工作等領域都進行了改革。而在國際透明組織所發布的清廉印象指數中中國的清廉印象指數自從2011年開始已經連續3年分數有所上升不過2013年中國在清廉印象指數的得分爲40分在176個國家中位列80名而屬於之列。但到了2014年中国的清廉印象指數比上一年低了4分得分为36分排名更是从80名下滑到100名。外交部发言人回应并表示不承认国际透明组织的腐败指数标准。2008年以後中國共產黨在新聞自由和訊息公開上作出比較大的改善，例如相比2008年西藏騷亂的封閉作法，對於汶川大地震則給予外國記者較高的自由度報導新聞，這一做法也獲得許多國際新聞媒體的支持。之後發生的甕安騷亂事件也基本上得到及時的公開報導，而2008年喀什襲擊事件後也有相關的新聞採訪詢問，在前中共中央主席華國鋒逝世當天新華社也立即發布死訊。2008年6月20日，胡錦濤在考察時發表講話強調：對於這次重要談話，中國人民大學新聞學院教授喻國明認為過去中華人民共和國最高領導人鮮少如此強調尊重新聞規律。不過無國界記者發布的2011年至2012年年度新聞自由指數中認為，中國共產黨所領導的中華人民共和國在179個國家中排名174位。而在發布的2012年民主指數排名中，中華人民共和國排在167個國家中的142位，被歸於之列。另外中華人民共和國政府還建立了防火長城，對於網際網路進行審查而阻止民眾瀏覽部分網站，同時在中國國內還有出版物審查制度。而中國每年都會投入相當龐大的經費用於維穩，其中從2011年開始中國連續3年的維穩支出均高於軍費，2013年的預算中便高達7,690億元人民幣。 +晋十六国南北朝历史年表列出两晋南北朝]时期的历史年表。晋（265-420计156年）.北朝（386-581计196年）.东魏（534-550计17年）.亚洲历史描述一个由欧亚草原连接的几个不同海岸地区（东亚、南亚和西亚）的集合体的历史。这几个海岸地区是世界上最早诞生文明的地区。美索不达米亚、印度河流域文明和華夏文明具有相似的技术和想法，诸如车轮和算术。在公元前1万年，今土耳其东南部的哥贝克力山丘可以视为新石器文化的开端。在中国河北省的易县的北福地史前文化连同磁山文化、兴隆洼文化和太行山东部文化填补了中国史前文化的空缺。铜石并用时代开始于约公元前4500年青铜时代开始于约公元前3500年。印度河流域文明是一个存在青铜器时期的文明它处于印度次大陆的西部。通常认为早期的印度教在这个文明中进行。中国和越南同样也被认为是金属使用的中心。在亚洲的几大主要文明中，铁器时代伴随着使用铁制武器、盔甲的大量使用。在公元前6至4世纪期间，由居鲁士二世建立的波斯帝国阿契美尼德王朝统治从希腊土耳其至印度河流域和中亚地区。亚历山大大帝于公元前4世纪征服了波斯帝国。创建了短暂的希臘化時代。他并不能建立持久的稳定。在他死后，波斯分裂成弱小的王朝。其中包括塞琉古帝国，以及之后的安息帝國。至古典时期结束时，波斯地区重新融合成了萨珊王朝。有时也被认为第二波斯帝国。罗马帝国在塞琉古帝国之后控制了亚洲西部部分地区。孔雀王朝和笈多王朝是印度的黄金时期。在科学技术艺术和宗教上的大量发明和发现成为印度文化上一个重要部分。始于印度次大陆的印度教和佛教对南亚东亚和东南亚产生重要的影响。约公元前1029年起，周朝开始出现并一直持续至约公元前258年。周朝使用一种分封制。他将权力给予地区诸侯，并且通过他们的忠诚来控制广大的领土。结果，此时的中国往往是非中央集权化并且非常虚弱。周天子对于解决诸侯之间的纷争，能起的作用很少。秦始皇推翻了周朝最后的天子，统一了六国，建立秦王朝。秦王朝是第一个统一王朝。统治时期是公元前221年至前207年。新皇帝废除了分封制并且建立了一套在他直接统治下的官僚机构。汉朝是继秦朝之后又一个大的帝国。在4个世纪中汉朝被认为是中国历史上黄金时期。在这个时代东方世界随着贸易移民和征服不断扩张。在7世纪伊斯兰哈里发国家和其他伊斯兰国家控制中东高加索和中亚地区。南部印度的朱罗王朝在10世纪征服大部分东南亚地区。穆斯林侵入印度次大陆主要发生在12世纪。穆斯林征服印度次大陆大致发生在12世纪后，不过早期的穆斯林征服在该地区仅造成有限的侵袭。古典时代后的中国经历隋、唐、宋和元、明的兴起和衰落。在这段时间，佛教传至、儒家革新，官僚机构改善。一个新的王朝于580年开始形成。杨坚自称隋朝皇帝。不久他攻克了南方的陈朝统一了中国。文帝被其儿子杨广谋杀。他夺得帝位为隋炀帝。炀帝复兴了儒家和官僚制度因此得罪了贵族和游牧部落。之后隋炀帝成为一位极度奢侈的皇帝他因个人的奢迷生活以及征伐高句丽而过度消耗中国的资源。隋朝重要的大臣李渊开始崛起。他于618年建立唐朝。唐朝建立了一个具有广大疆域的帝国。自唐玄宗起唐朝开始衰落。至960年开始中国大部分地区重新统一在宋朝之下。尽管宋失去了北方的领土并且未能击败北方的辽朝。他们是高度汉化的契丹人。宋朝以宋明理學的形式恢复了儒家。13世纪蒙古帝国征服亚洲大部分地区从中国至欧洲。中世纪的亚洲是大汗的王国。从未有人像成吉思汗那样控制这么多的土地。17世纪，俄国开始扩张进入亚洲。他们最终控制整个西伯利亚以及于19世纪占领大部分中亚地区。自16世纪起，奥斯曼帝国控制安纳托利亚、中东、北非和巴尔干。16世纪，莫卧儿帝国控制印度大部分，开始印度第二个黄金时代。1368年朱元璋建立明朝。他和之后的皇帝将蒙古人和他们的文化赶出中原地区。1644年东北部的满洲人开始征服整个中国。满清皇帝其中尤其典型的康熙帝维持一个保守的国家其中含有强大的官僚机构和学者。19世纪俄国和英国在中亚地区互相争夺。1916年西伯利亞鐵路贯通。在20世纪初期欧洲殖民者占领部分亚洲地区其中包括英属印度英屬香港法屬印度支那和葡属澳门和果阿。尽管没有影响力但是部分亚洲地区保持独立。其中有波斯泰国和中国。20世纪亚洲重要人物光绪帝慈禧太后溥仪孙中山袁世凯蒋介石蒋经国李登辉毛泽东周恩来邓小平赵紫阳江泽民李鹏伊藤博文东条英机昭和天皇甘地穆罕默德阿里真纳金日成金正日李光耀东姑阿都拉曼马哈迪莫哈末苏加诺苏哈托保大帝胡志明李承晚朴正熙费迪南德马科斯科拉松阿基诺诺罗敦西哈努克波尔布特等等。 +千纪，又称千年纪、千年，是跨越一千年的时间跨度。在公元纪年中，如果一个年份可以被1000整除就被称为千年，如2000年或2001年都可被认为是新千年。在2000年全球庆祝新千纪到来时，就发生了有关到底2000年还是2001年才是新千纪开始的争论。一派观点认为，由于阳历历法从公元1年开始算起，因此公元1年至1000年是1千纪，而2千纪开始于1001年，这样推算下去，2001年才是新千纪的开始。公元 年号 皇帝 备注581 开皇 文帝称帝建国589 隋平陈，中国统一595 音乐家万宝常逝600 遣隋使(小野妹子)入隋Tang/T'ang 唐 900 800 700 600 500 400+-------+ 十国 +-唐朝-+ (Tang/T'ang， 618-907) +-南北朝->900 800 700 600 500 400公元 年号 皇帝 备注618 武德 高祖称帝建国626 太宗(李世民599-649)627 贞观 玄奘印度取经641 文成公主嫁吐蕃王松赞干布645 颜师古(581-645)逝647 王玄策出使天竺701 永泰公主被杀，陵墓于1960-1962出土712 太极 玄宗俗称唐明皇，唐武皇747 哥舒翰任陇右节度使747 高仙芝远征西域754 鉴真赴日开律宗759 王维(Wang Wei 699-759)逝762 宝应 代宗(李豫)804 日僧空海(Kukai，774-835)，最澄(Saicho，767-822)随遣唐使东来805 永贞 顺宗(李诵，-806)805 宪宗(李纯-820)808 牛僧孺李宗闵與李德裕党争起834 薛涛(768?-834?)逝839 日本最后遣唐使入唐圆仁随行.841 会昌废佛(841-845)842 刘禹锡(772-842)逝846 宣宗(李忱-859)865 柳公权(778-865)逝870 温庭筠(812-870)逝872（唐咸通十三年）耶律阿保机生于迭剌部霞濑益石烈（契丹语乡）耶律弥里（今内蒙古阿鲁科尔沁旗东）。母为宣简皇后萧氏(萧岩只斤)。在他出生时契丹的贵族阶层正在为争夺联盟首领之位而打得不可开交。阿保机的祖父匀德实在残酷的政治斗争中被杀父亲和叔叔伯伯们也逃离出去躲了起来。祖母对于这时出生的阿保机非常喜爱但又担心他被仇人加害。因此常将他藏在别处的帐内不让他见外人。《辽史》上说他!874 王仙芝(-878)乱起907 唐(618-907)结束 +Five Dynasties 五代 Later Liang 后梁 公元 年号 皇帝 备注Later Tang 后唐 (923-936，计13年)公元 年号 皇帝 备注923 同光 庄宗(李存勖-926)Later Jin/Chin 后晋 公元 年号 皇帝 备注936 天福 高祖(石敬瑭，892-942)Later Han 后汉 公元 年号 皇帝 备注Later Zhou 后周 公元 年号 皇帝 备注960 后周亡，五代结束Ten Kingdoms 十国 (902-979计78年)909 闽立(909-945)924 南平(荆南)立(924-960)934 孟知祥立后蜀(934-965)937 李璟立南唐，都金陵951 北汉立(951-979)961 南唐|后主即位978 吴越王钱俶降宋，吴越亡<hr align=>中国历史年表 | 中国历史事件列表 | 中国君主列表 | 中国朝代 | 隋朝 | 唐朝| 五代十国開放內容創立係指他人可以複製或修改的原創著作。該名詞源自於開放源碼與軟體相關的概念。威立第一次使用開放內容这个词時，指的是採用開放內容授權（一个非自由的相同方式共享许可，参见下面的）或其他類似授權的作品。内容的开放性可以根据“5R框架"，在不違反著作權法的前提下，基于内容的再利用、修改、混合及再散布的程度来评估。開放內容與開放源碼或自由內容的不同之處為，一件作品想要具有開放內容的资格没有明确的门槛。雖然開放內容被視為著作權的對立面開放內容许可证依赖著作權人许可他人使用其作品的权力。OpenContent网站曾经将开放内容定义为，但此权利是自由和开源软件许可证的要求。因此这个词改变了定义。开放内容协议。OpenContent网站上提出了5R，作为评估什么内容是开放的一个框架。这个更广泛的定义将开放内容和开源软件区分开来，因为后者必须可供公开商业使用。但它和一些开放教育资源的定义相似，开放教育资源包括非商业和逐字复制许可证下的资源。開放定義旨在定义开放内容和，大量借鉴开源定义；它保留开放内容狭义上作为自由内容。“开放获取”是指对内容的免费访问主要包括经过同行评审的学术期刊文章。一些开放获取作品也许可用于再利用和再分发这将使他们的开放内容。過去十年來，開放內容已經成為高等教育的另一條路。傳統大學的費用昂貴，且仍不斷在調漲之中。開放內容提供免費獲取高等教育的管道，且現在全世界有許多推廣開放內容學習的專案與組織，例如開放式課程導入計畫、謝勒基金會以及可汗學院。部分大學，例如麻省理工學院、耶魯大學以及塔夫茨大學正在規劃在網路上免費開放她們的學校課程。教科書產業是開放內容在教育產業中可以造成最大影響的一塊。在過去因為出版商習慣不斷推出更新版本教科書價格不但昂貴同時資訊內容也很容易過時或不便對照。因為其在網路上容易更新的特質可以協助解決這類問題。同時使用開放授權以及維持線上也對老師們的幫助很大因為這樣一來老師便可以依照自己的課程需求來編修教學資源。目前也有許多組織正在推廣開放授權教科書的產出例如開放教科書計畫 謝勒基金會開放教科書大挑戰以及維基教科書。想了解更多與教育或教科書的開放內容相關資訊，可參考以下條目：開放教育資源。根据OpenContent网站上开放内容目前的定义，任何一般的免版税的版权许可证将有资格作为一个开放许可证，因为它“为用户提供的权利种类比通常法律允许的更多。这些权限免费授予用户。”然而狭义定义有效地将开放内容限制到了自由内容的范畴任何自由内容许可证都有资格作为开放内容许可证。根据这个狭义标准以下仍在维护的许可证具有资格 +TEX编写的排版软件。TeX的MIME类型为codice_1是一款自由软件。它在学术界特别是数学物理学和计算机科学界十分流行。TEX被普遍认为是一个优秀的排版工具尤其是对于复杂数学公式的处理。利用LaTeX等终端软件TeX就能够排版出精美的文本以幫助人們辨認和尋找。高德纳最早开始自行编写TeX的原因，是因為当时的电脑排版技術十分粗糙，已经影响到他的巨著的印刷品質。他以典型的黑客思维模式，决定自行编写一个排版软件：TeX。他计划在1978年的学术休假时完成这项工作但事实上直到十多年之后的1989年TeX语言才被一种从同一源文件自动生成可编译的源代码和高质量的文档的编程方法。这种语言被称为WEB它所生成的源代码是使用Pascal编程语言。一个从头开始重写的新版TeX于1982年发布，它被称为TeX82。除了其他修改之外，原本的断字算法被编写的新算法所取代。TeX82还使用了定点而不是浮点，以确保结果在不同的计算机硬件上重现。并且在蓋伊·史提爾的大力游说下，TeX82包括一种真正的、图灵完全的编程语言。1989年，高德纳发布了新版本的TeX和Metafont。尽管高德纳希望保持程序的稳定性，但他意识到，只能输入128个不同的字符不足以容纳外语；因此TeX 3.0版本的主要变化是能使用8位元输入，即在文本中允许输入256个不同的字符。从TeX第三版开始，之后的升级是在小数点后加入一个新数位，使之越来越接近圆周率的值。TeX目前的版本是3.14159265。这显示了TeX已经十分稳定，任何的升级都十分细微。高德纳曾表示由于TeX的源代码基本上处于公共领域其他程序员可以（并明确被鼓励）改进系统但需要使用其他名称来分发修改后的TeX。例如Omega项目是在1991年之后开发的主要是为了提高TeX的多语种排版能力。高德纳创建了“非官方”修改版本例如TeX-XeT它允许用户在同一文档中混合写入从左到右和从右到左书写系统的文本。此乃一简易的TeX文本范例。首先建立一名为codice_2的纯文本，并载有以下内容：Hello World\bye % marks the end of the file not shown in the final output然后在命令行解释器中输入codice_3，之后TeX便会建立一名为codice_4的文件。此文件可用如之类的检视器检视。此档于阅读器可见的是“hello”一词。“\bye”是一个TeX指令，相等于档案结束标记，是不会显示出来的。此DVI文件可在阅读器中直接打印或转换成更普遍的格式，例如PostScript。另外，使用指令codice_5亦能输出PDF文件。当初创造pdfTeX是因为把DVI转成PostScript再转成PDF所产生的字体显示质量很差的显示质量好。所有方程式在TeX中都是以一对$符号围住。如果要使公式另起一行居中，那么就用$$取代$。例如：LaTeX是一套以TeX描述的巨集软件。LaTeX有很多预设的模版样式。它比TeX更为结构化如包含了供建立索引表格列表等的巨集和公用软件。例如%% Text goes here会建立一本为PostScript档的书。如要建立PDF档则可使用TeX软件在当时拥有其他排版软件没有或不成熟的功能。其中有一些功能得益于排版算法的创新其中很多成为了高德纳的学生的论文主题。尽管有些功能现在已经被其他排版系统所实现但仍有部分功能是TeX所特有的比如数学公式的自动间距调整。数学公式的自动间距调整.由于TeX的设计目标是实现高质量的书籍排版，高德纳在数学公式的排版上下了很大功夫。他研究了三种按照老方法排版排版质量高的书籍艾迪生韦斯利出版社数学期刊。高德纳通过研究其数学公式的排版总结出了一套数学公式内部间距的规则并将其用于TeX。 TeX排版数学公式时只是提供了一个间距调整引擎实际的间距大小由数学字体提供。比如TeX默认的Computer Modern字体提供了一套成熟的间距参数可以直接使用。TeX的数学排版功能并非十全十美，有时也招来部分批评。比如TeX诞生的时代的部分机器由于容量不够，不足以存储TeX的所有字体参数，在部分场合需要hack才能正常使用。在美学方面，TeX对根号的处理也招致批评。OpenType字体技术的数学字体参数基于TeX。与手动排版相比，计算机排版系统可以自动处理断行问题。大部分排版系统都采用首次拟合法处理断行，即一行一行处理，一行处理完就不管了，因此一旦遇到較長的專有名詞，前面排版正常，後面間距卻非常的寬。TeX的方法是一次处理一个自然段，尝试每一种断行方法，然后选出最优解。两种方法的差异如下：左边的例子是首次拟合法的结果。第4行单词间的空集中在一处不美观，TeX的方法由于考虑了所有的情况，所以一般情况下能找出较好的方法。TeX的断行算法里有一个叫做badness的参数空格伸缩量越大badness越大。每一种断行的方式都有一个总体的衡量标准包括badness断行以及行与行之间的疏密差异等。TeX其实并不考虑所有的2的最短路径算法加上不考虑空格伸缩量太大的情况断行所用的时间几乎和段落大小成正比。在分页问题上TeX并不采用一种考虑所有情况得出最优解的算法而是用一页一页处理的方法因为一是分页的灵活性没有断行那样高二是当时的计算机没有足够的速度。但是TeX仍然有避免寡行和孤行的功能。的一篇论文指出考虑到图表的放置位置的完美分页算法可能为NP完全。TeX的断行算法后来被Adobe InDesign等桌面出版软件所采用。在断行时如果一遍不成功TeX会尝试断字即把一个诸如“computer”的多音节单词断成“com-”和“puter”或“compu-”和“ter”分在两行。TeX82采用了一套Frank Liang于1983年发明的断字算法。这套算法采用“匹配项”的方法。“匹配项”的作用是找到单词中可能出现的一些字母组合然后在适当的位置插入数字来表示可能/不可能的断字点。这些“匹配项”对单词的字母与字母之间会给予是否为断字点提示。提示有相对的强弱。如果提示互相冲突则强的会覆盖弱的。最后留下来的提示决定一处是否为断行点。TeX自带4447条“匹配项”从.ach4开始到z4zy结束。所有“匹配项”使用1到5这5个数字其中奇数表示可能为可断字点偶数表示不为可断字点大的数字的话语权强于小的数字。例如h5elo的含义是单词中如果出现“helo”那么在“h”和“e”之间有很大把握为可断行点虽然把握没有数字5的那么大。例如对于单词“encyclopedia”对得上的匹配项有codice_6。插入完所有数字后留下来的数字中的最大值为codice_7最后奇数处为可断行点“en-cy-clo-pe-di-a”。这种方法可以找到约90%的正确断字点，几乎从不出错。而且，TeX有一个的功能，对于自带断字算法出错的单词可以手动处理。TUG。TeX是非常稳定的程序高德纳悬赏奖励任何能够在TeX中发现程序漏洞开始以后每发现一个bug都会翻倍直到目前的327.68美元封顶。然而高德纳从未因此而损失大笔金钱因为TeX中的漏洞极少而真正发现漏洞的人在获得支票后往往不愿将其兑现。到目前为止关于TeX的最后一个bug是被Oleg Bulatov发现的。有许多衍生出来的文档处理程序就是基于TeX的，主要的有：TeXmacs是一个所见即所得的科学文档编辑器，利用TeX字体作为显示字体，具有类似Emacs的编辑方式。它可以导出为TeX文本，PS，PDF文档，以及HTML，XML页面。LyX也是一个类似的工具。TeX这个词的标准发音为其中相当于中文裡字的声母或者苏格兰语“loch”一词中“ch”的发音的词源。书写时三个字母都是大写字母E应当低于其他两个字母。而不支援下标的系统则只能这样书写“TeX”。TeX的用户喜欢创造一些和TeX有关的词汇，例如“TeXnician”，但是高德納本人反對這一名稱，因為這裡TeX一詞的讀法是錯誤的。 +世界政區索引列出世界各个国家，不仅包括被国际普遍承认的国家，也包括未被国际普遍承认的国家和海外属地与其他特殊政区。本索引中的所有国家（或地区）将按照英文字母排序，并将提供中文简称、全称以及英文简称，有争议的未被普遍承认的国家被单独标识（绿色）。本列表来自于1933年《蒙特維多國家權利義務公約》对主权国家的定义。根据该公约一个主权国家有如下的标准最后一点是一个政治实体被其他国家承认为一个主权国家决定性的因素，因为这表示其为国际社会所接受。根据以上标准，本表收录了208个政治实体：!顺序!!存在主权争议的政治实体!!英文全称!!争执日期!!有关争议联合国成员国!!保护或支持其独立有关联合国成员国非洲的历史悠久是人類的發源地在公元前4000年的埃及有非洲最早的文字记载。以下几个阶段的发展中有一些是在尼罗河以外流域。但反過來說非洲很多地方一直缺乏文字記載和信史也可以算是歷史最短的一洲。歐洲人在維多利亞時期因為對非洲感到神秘和蠻荒而稱其為黑暗大陸。非洲的英文名字来自古罗马時期。罗马征服迦太基之后，称这个省份为。名字的意思一直有争议。非洲是人類發源地有最古老的人類化石。北非的古代歷史和古代西亞密不可分對古埃及等腓尼基城邦控制住地中海沿岸建立起迦太基帝國。漠南非洲在這段期間發生班圖人擴張的民族遷移事件。另外，考古挖掘顯示，西非尼日河河谷的傑內古城和北奈及利亞的諾克文化曾繁盛一時。埃及文明大約有六千年歷史。公元前3500年，這一地區出現很多小村落，後來它們形成上、下埃及王國。公元前3100年，上埃及國王米尼斯征服下埃及，成為埃及統治者。埃及國王稱為法老，他被認為是天神化身，有至高無上的權力。埃及被分為古王朝時期中王朝時期新王朝時期和後王朝時期。古王朝時期的埃及被米尼斯統一。中王朝時期是埃及最繁盛時期大部分金字塔都建在這王朝。新王朝時期的埃及被分為上下埃及發生內戰。自公元前12世紀起，埃及勢力逐漸衰弱，努比亞、波斯、迦南和利比亞人入侵埃及。公元前332年，埃及被馬其頓的亞歷山大大帝征服，後被羅馬人征服，埃及已經衰落，古埃及文明結束。埃及文字稱為象形文字。1822年，商博良破解了埃及文字，認出上面的象形文字是發音和字母的字形，不是一些實物。通常使用的象形文字多達700種，能從左往右，從右到左寫，或從上往下寫。木乃伊是古埃及人一項了不起的醫學成就。他們己懂得把屍體長期保存。當國王或貴族死後他的屍體就會被製成木乃伊把他的內臟液進特殊的藥物然後用布把屍體包好裝在棺材裡以求得到永生。班图人原来住在赤道以北喀麦隆高原公元初由于受到北方民族的压力开始向赤道及其以南地区迁徙。由于班图人的迁徙迫使原来住在这里的俾格米人退入森林布须曼人和霍屯督人则被迫徙居非洲西南端。班图人的迁徙大体分为三支。向东迁徙的班图人一部分在坦噶尼喀境内定居下来成为当地的主要民族。另一部分于11世纪到达东非沿海地区由于受阿拉伯文化的影响后来形成斯瓦希里人。向西迁徙的一支除一部分停留于西非并与当地居民融合外大部在西赤道非洲定居下来占据了北起刚果河以北和喀麦隆南部南至纳米比亚（西南非洲）北部的辽阔地区。中间的一支分布在南部非洲的大部分地区。班图人的大迁徙，一直持续到19世纪才最后结束。大迁徙导致民族大融合，加快了中、南非洲各民族的的社会发展进程，尤其居住在沿海的班图人与外部接触较多，便利吸收先进文化，先后形成了一些文明国家，重要的有刚果和津巴布韦。迦太基意為坐落於非洲北海岸，與羅馬隔海相望。在西元前8世紀~前146年迦太基帝國是腓尼基人在北非建立的城市國家。迦太基帝國强势时疆土遼闊勢力最大曾囊括今天北非沿岸今西班牙中部科西嘉島薩丁尼亞島西西里島和馬爾他島首都迦太基富極一時其基礎是農業与商業在外貿易居民善航海与貿易在國內居民又是出色的農民很早就出現了奴隸佔有制莊園因此在當時地中海地區成為最有活力的經濟強國。最後因為在三次布匿戰爭中均被羅馬共和國打敗而滅亡。在中世紀，伊斯蘭教從阿拉伯半島傳播至埃及，橫跨馬格里布，建立起強大的阿拉伯帝國。歐洲列強殖民時期之前，非洲大陸延續古代的非洲文明，建立起許多顯赫的國家和社會，例如：阿拉伯帝国。帝国存在了600多年主要有神权共和时期和伍麦叶王朝阿拔斯王朝两个世袭王朝。帝国最强盛的时候疆域东起印度河和中国边境西至大西洋沿岸北达里海南接阿拉伯海是继阿契美尼德王朝亚历山大帝国罗马帝国拜占庭帝国和萨珊王朝之后又一个地跨亚欧非三洲的大帝国。由于其独特的地理位置阿拉伯帝国的兴起改变了周边许多民族的发展进程在中世纪的历史上产生了非常重要的影响。19世纪80年代，欧洲力量将几乎整个非洲瓜分。他们一直统治非洲直至20世纪第二次世界大战之后。作为瓜分非洲的一部分法国以建立非洲东西线作为目标。与此对应的是英国的南北线。在多个节点战争都是随时爆发但是结果却并没有。其中最为严重的事件是1898年法绍达事件。第二次世界大战之后独立浪潮席卷非洲。20世纪50年代至60年代殖民地纷纷成为独立国家。独立的过程大多数都是和平进行但也有诸如阿尔及利亚和肯尼亚等例外。2010年，北非陸續發生反對領袖的革命，部分國家領袖被推翻，甚至殞命。 +阿爾巴尼亞共和国是一个位于欧洲东南部巴爾幹半島西南部的国家。阿爾巴尼亞西隔亞得里亞海和奥特朗托海峡與義大利相望南面則與希臘接壤東臨北馬其頓東北是科索沃北接蒙特內哥羅。首都是地拉那其國際代碼為AL。在冷戰時期阿爾巴尼亞是社會主義國家。阿爾巴尼亞為歐洲中最不發達和收入較低的發展中國家之一但在近年已有顯著的改進。在2009年，阿爾巴尼亞正式加入北約。在2014年6月，欧盟接纳阿爾巴尼亞为歐盟候選國，而在2018年6月，歐盟批准阿爾巴尼亞於2019年6月展開入盟談判。阿爾巴尼亞國旗上繪有一隻黑色的雙頭雄鷹，沿自15世紀抵抗鄂圖曼帝國入侵的領袖斯坎德培的印章，所以雄鷹是民族英雄斯坎德的象徵，故此阿爾巴尼亞也有“山鷹之國”之稱。阿尔巴尼亚人的祖先是伊利里亞人，公元前二千年或以前已在该地生活。伊利里亞人属于印欧民族，不过也有学者持不同见解。阿尔巴尼亚曾是希腊殖民地在公元前146年成为罗马共和国的一部分。4世纪末先后被东罗马帝国和斯拉夫人占领。1415年起受奥斯曼帝国统治近500年。獨立初期的阿爾巴尼亞.1912年第一次巴爾幹戰爭后，阿爾巴尼亞在奥匈帝國的扶植下，11月28日宣布獨立，其目的是阻止塞爾维亞取得進出亞德里亞海的出海口。在第一次世界大戰期間先後被奥匈、義、法軍占領。1920年8月義大利撤離阿爾巴尼亞。1924年12月艾哈迈德·佐格發動軍事政變奪取政權，四年後他自封為王，倚靠軍隊並開啟14年的個人獨裁。之後阿爾巴尼亞在二戰前夕先被義大利王國占領。1943年義大利投降后，纳粹德國佔領該國。恩維爾·霍查領導的阿爾巴尼亞共產黨参與了抵抗運動並成為阿爾巴尼亞人主要的抵抗軸心國力量。1944年底，阿爾巴尼亞全國獲得解放。社会主义時期的阿爾巴尼亞.1944年10月20日，成立阿尔巴尼亚民主政府。1946年1月10日，废除君主制，成立阿尔巴尼亚人民共和国。1976年12月28日，改称阿尔巴尼亚社会主义人民共和国。在霍查執政期間，陸續與東方集團和其它社会主义國家建立友好關係。阿尔巴尼亚曾经接受了以上各国大量的经济和物资援助，其後卻因恩維爾·霍查認為南斯拉夫、蘇聯、中華人民共和國這三個國家正在走修正主义道路，变成了“社会帝国主义”国家，而在后来分别在1960年代至1980年代初陸續斷絕与这三個国家的来往，再加上當時的阿爾巴尼亞政府一直進行封閉所有國境行動，因而導致這段時期的阿爾巴尼亞一度陷入被國際社會孤立的局面。1990年阿尔巴尼亚自劳动党十届四中全会召开之后拉米茲阿利雅的政府开始推行政治和经济的改革对自由經濟反对派宗教媒体的严厉管制逐渐放宽開放曾封閉已久的國境和旅遊業与苏联和美国的外交关系恢复正常化並先后于1990年7月和1991年3月15日与苏联和美国复交。实行多党制初期的阿爾巴尼亞.1991年阿尔巴尼亚劳动党宣布放弃一党制实行多党制。同年4月26日改国名为阿尔巴尼亚共和国是东欧所有社会主義国家中最后一个结束共产党一党执政的国家并意味着阿尔巴尼亚结束了持续46年的极左斯大林主义-霍查主义统治。1992年阿爾巴尼亞當局删除了阿尔巴尼亚国旗上象征共产主义的金边红色五角星。但是在阿爾巴尼亞政府推行民主化之初国家的经济问题依然严峻而有组织犯罪加上与塞爾維亞的紧张关系科索沃战爭及难民等也曾經是阿國社會所面對的严重问题。阿爾巴尼亞政府正積極地处理过高的失业率普遍的贪污荒废的基础设施强大的与高层政府官员有关联的有组织犯罪网络以及政敌的分裂現在已取得一定的成效。1997年，阿尔巴尼亚因多個金字塔騙局組織破產，造成嚴峻的經濟問題，發生大规模骚乱。民眾认为政府無力解決問題，官員們更有可能是為了利益而成為騙局背後的推手。問題愈演愈烈，後來更演变成内战。动乱最终被由法国、西班牙、希腊、土耳其、罗马尼亚、奥地利、丹麦等8国组成的北大西洋公約組織（北約）维和部队平息。2009年4月，阿尔巴尼亚加入北约。加入北約標誌阿尔巴尼亚完全成为西方阵營的一部分。2014年6月，欧盟已接纳阿尔巴尼亚为欧盟候选国。阿爾巴尼亞總共有，分為12個州。這12個州份於2000年7月31日成立，以取代36個地區。阿爾巴尼亞政府自2015年起開始實施新的行政區劃，符合城市規模的城市數目減少至61個，而農村地區。城市是阿爾巴尼亞地方治理的第一級行政區，以便於地方政府管埋和負責當地的事務。阿爾巴尼亞政府實施新的行政區劃法是作為改革城市和農村行政管理的一部分，近年該國的主要的城鎮中心地段經過地方政府的重新設計和改良，並把昔日共產時期所興建的過時失修建築物拆卸和重建；以及殘破不堪的灰色外牆塗上彩色油漆，藉此反映當地獨特的地中海建築風格和提升城市活力。阿爾巴尼亞位於巴爾幹半島的西南部，阿爾巴尼亞也會被當作為東南歐和南歐地區，北與黑山接壤、東北與科索沃接壤、東與北馬其頓共和國接壤及南與希臘接壤，西與意大利隔海相望。亞得里亞海和愛奧尼亞海組成了阿爾巴尼亞整個西部邊界。它主要位於北緯42度和北緯39度之間，東經19度和東經21度之間。領土覆蓋，使阿爾巴尼亞成為世界上全球第144名面積大的國家。阿爾巴尼亞的海岸線長度是，並沿地中海在內的亞得里亞海和愛奧尼亞海延伸。阿爾巴尼亞最北端是北緯42°35處的Vrnik。最高點是科拉比山海跋為海平面以上海拔高度第二高點是阿爾巴尼亞阿爾卑斯山的湖泊峰海跋為海平面以上海拔高度而最低點是地中海海跋為海平面以上海拔高度。從國土最東到最西的距離為從國土最北到最南的距離為。儘管阿爾巴尼亞國土面積很小，但是國土內有很多由高山或高原、山谷、平原、峽谷和洞穴等各種自然特色。從地形上看，山脈從北向南延伸，分別有阿爾巴尼亞阿爾卑斯山，沙拉山脈，斯坎德培山脈，科拉比山脈在東部的Pindus Mountains和位於里維埃拉沿西南部延伸的Ceraunian Mountains。阿爾巴尼亞的水文網絡和水資源包括南歐最大和最古老的數個淡水湖並有兩個跨國湖泊。斯庫台湖是阿爾巴尼亞面積最大的湖泊位於阿爾巴尼亞西北部面積為和斯庫台湖其中三分之一部分屬於阿爾巴尼亞其餘部分則屬於黑山阿爾巴尼亞的斯庫台湖與黑山共同管轄。斯庫台湖是東南歐之中最大的湖泊。而阿爾巴尼亞東南部的奧赫裡德湖與馬其頓共和國共同管轄奧赫裡德湖是世界上最古老的湖泊之一。位於馬其頓和希臘邊界三角洲的Prespa湖是巴爾幹半島海跋最高的湖泊其海跋為。阿爾巴尼亞有一個密集的河流網絡大約有152條河流和溪流形成了從東向西流向亞得里亞海的至少8條大型河流當中包括了DrinVjosShkumbinOsumMatErzenFan and Seman這8條河流。根據柯本氣候分類法阿爾巴尼亞全國一共分為五大氣候類型。包括地中海氣候亞熱帶濕潤氣候海洋性氣候溫帶大陸性氣候以及副極地氣候。由於阿爾巴尼亞西岸地區受亞得里亞海和愛奧尼亞海的海風調節冬季相對和暖而夏季也相對涼爽另外因為阿爾巴尼亞的高地阻擋海風深入內陸地區內陸地區的冬季十分寒冷而夏季又非常炎熱。整個國家都處於中緯度上四季分明。沿岸地區的氣候通常是地中海氣候而在高地是溫帶大陸性氣候。在西部低地和內陸高原氣溫從北向南和東向西遞增。中北部平地冬季平均最低氣溫約為左右夏季平均最高氣溫約為左右而在南部平地冬季的平均最低氣溫約為左右夏季平均最高氣溫約為左右。在夏季全國溫差普遍大於而冬季則略少。阿爾巴尼亞每年平均降水量從到以下，南部的低地降水平均值較少，北部則較多。在冬季時降下阿爾巴尼亞全年約95％的雨或雪，北部和東部高山地帶的降雨和雪日數相對較多，南部平地和西部沿岸地區降雨和雪日數相對較少，有時北部和東部山區或城鎮會出現暴風雪天氣，而西部沿岸地區則常受到寒潮所產生的猛烈西北風吹襲；在夏季時除北部山區以外的地區大多處於炎熱和乾燥狀態，很少會出現降雨，且大多降雨為午後熱對流活動所產生的短暫雷陣雨。雖然沒有阿爾巴尼亞氣象局官方完整的降水量資料和記錄，但估計不同地區的降水量差異很大，年平均值可能約為，並且可能高達。然而，阿爾巴尼亞的阿爾卑斯山脈的西部是歐洲最潮濕的地區之一，每年降水量可以高達。沿岸地區降水量的季節性變化也可以很大，中部高地的降水量少於北部高地。地形差異造成不同地方降水量廣泛的變化，但降水量季節性的變化是任何地區最一致的，呈冬季多雨雪夏季乾燥少雨型態。2009年，科羅拉多大學的考察團隊在阿爾巴尼亞阿爾卑斯山內發現了四個小冰川。這些小冰川在的相對較低的海跋形成，對於這樣的中緯度地區來說在此海跋出現冰川幾乎是獨一無二的。阿尔巴尼亚实行议会民主制和多党制。总统是国家元首，总理是政府首脑，由议会选举产生。议会的140名主要成员由阿尔巴尼亚人民选举产生，任期4年。总统经当选总理推荐任命部长。1946年3月，阿尔巴尼亚制宪会议通过共和国第一部宪法。1976年12月改名为之后，议会通过正式通过。目前阿尔巴尼亚全国注册的政党有60余个正式参与竞选活动的有37个政党和1个政党联盟。主要政党有阿爾巴尼亞主要依靠水電，是世界上主要的水電生產國之一，按水電來源計算。而且全國約95％的能源生產皆由水電站提供。當中有Fierza、Koman、Skavica及Vau iDejs位於Drin河。由於地理位置優越，河流在全國電力生產中發揮著重要的作用。阿爾巴尼亞和克羅地亞兩地政府已經討論了在靠近黑山邊界的一帶地區共同建造一座核電廠的可能性雖然這個計劃收集了不少資料但因為鄰近黑山一帶地震頻仍而造成批評。2009年2月意大利公司Enel宣布計劃在阿爾巴尼亞建設一座800兆瓦的燃煤電廠以實現電力來源多元化。阿爾巴尼亞Devoll水電公司，由挪威Statkraft擁有和經營，目前在Devoll River附近建造兩座水力發電廠Banj和Moglic。預計完成後，Moglic水電站將成為世界上海跋最高的水電站。“德沃爾水電項目”是巴爾幹半島最大的水電投資之一。預計這兩座發電廠將於2016年和2018年竣工。建成後，年產量將達到729吉瓦時，阿爾巴尼亞的水力發電量將增長近17％。自從東歐民主化浪潮在1990年代初直捲阿爾巴尼亞，阿爾巴尼亞政府亦打破霍查時期的鎖國和封閉局面，並開拓全面開放的外交方針。由1991年以來至今的阿爾巴尼亞政府一直奉行务实的外交政策，主張优先发展和西方国家的关系，谋求加入欧盟，寻求欧美国家对阿经济改革和政治上的支持，促進加快阿爾巴尼亞和欧洲各国实现一体化进程，並致力保障鄰國科索沃的主權取得國際承認。同时阿爾巴尼亞政府亦积极参加东南欧区域合作，并努力发展和改善同周边国家的睦邻关系，发展與其他地区国家的友好合作关系，并积极开展在国际组织中的外交活动。與世界上许多国家进行了总统、政府、议会等多级别的访问和接触，簽訂多項經貿和旅遊業合作議案，外交活跃。截至目前阿尔巴尼亚与150多个国家建立了外交关系并加入了48个国际组织1955年12月14日阿尔巴尼亚加入联合国。1992年阿尔巴尼亚加入伊斯兰合作组织。2009年阿尔巴尼亚加入北约。2014年6月阿爾巴尼亞已成為歐盟候選國。冷战期间阿尔巴尼亚先后与南斯拉夫苏联中华人民共和国等社会主义国家建立友好关系与美国等西方国家处于敌对状态。但因为阿尔巴尼亚实行“不与修正主义和帝国主义接触”的外交政策先后断绝与南斯拉夫苏联和中国的来往导致阿尔巴尼亚一度陷入被国际社会孤立的局面。直到1985年以后才有所好转。1949年11月23日阿尔巴尼亚和中华人民共和国建交。1958年至1978年间中华人民共和国对阿尔巴尼亚进行了长期的经济援助。1976年毛泽东逝世和“四人帮”垮台后霍查公开批判华国锋政府实行“修正主义和资本主义”阿中关系开始恶化中华人民共和国取消了对阿尔巴尼亚的援助。1983年两国开始改善关系。1991年1月阿尔巴尼亚外交部长马利列访问北京这是阿中交恶后第1位访华的阿尔巴尼亚官员這意味着阿中关系正式恢复正常化在90年代初至2000年代末两國關係一直保持友好狀態。但近年阿爾巴尼亞政府把外交政策著重於發展西歐各國和美國關係加上在科索沃外交承認問題上與中國政府有很大的分歧以及阿爾巴尼亞先後在2009年加入北約和在2014年獲接納成為歐盟候選國使阿中兩國關係再次趨於冷淡。1990年，阿尔巴尼亚劳动党十届四中全会之后，阿尔巴尼亚与美国和苏联才有接触，7月与苏联复交。并于共产黨倒台前的1991年3月15日与美国复交，意味着阿尔巴尼亚打破了40多年之久的仇外政策，为阿苏和阿美关系翻开新的一页。苏联解体之后，阿尔巴尼亚和俄罗斯继承关系。不過，阿爾巴尼亞政府與俄羅斯關係較差，例如在2018年阿爾巴尼亞政府響應以美國為首的驅逐俄羅斯外交官行動，而阿爾巴尼亞人對俄羅斯的觀感也較為負面。自從1990年阿爾巴尼亞民主化以來，阿爾巴尼亞政府與美國的關係大幅改善。現在雙方經貿旅遊教育往來頻繁，美國各種文化也在阿爾巴尼亞大受歡迎。而大部分的阿爾巴尼亞人基於美國總統克林頓出兵支持科索沃戰爭的阿族游擊隊一事之後，對美國帶有更強烈好感，值得一提是阿爾巴尼亞和科索沃更是整個世界上最親美的兩個國家，分別有80%(阿爾巴尼亞)和87%(科索沃)全國受訪人口對美國政府和文化有好感或正面評價。阿爾巴尼亞與其他巴爾幹半島國家關係.阿爾巴尼亞和塞爾維亞關係惡劣，雖然近年兩國關係有所改善，但兩國政府和人民也就科索沃主權各持己見，並不時發生政治衝突。阿爾巴尼亞和科索沃的關係相當友好，由於科索沃有95%的人口為阿爾巴尼亞人和科索沃的阿爾巴尼亞人歷史起源。因此幾乎所有阿爾巴尼亞政府和人民都會視科索沃為祖國，即使非阿爾巴尼亞民族主義者和主張與塞爾維亞和睦共處的阿爾巴尼亞人一般也會視科索沃為獨立國家。阿爾巴尼亞和克羅地亞的關係良好，雖然兩國人民信奉的宗教信仰不盡相同。不過兩國民間在文化交流方面極為積極，兩國政府不時會在政治、經濟、旅遊以至科索沃主權方面的立場達成一致的共識。阿爾巴尼亞和希臘關係一般，希臘政府堅決支持阿爾巴尼亞加入歐盟的進程，但希臘政府也特別關注在阿爾巴尼亞南部居住的希臘族群權益，在阿爾巴尼亞管治的北伊庇魯斯地區有數萬左右希臘人社區分佈，這些希臘人社區當中有部分激進希臘人團體強調伊庇魯斯脫離阿爾巴尼亞管治的立場，不時令兩國民間關係緊張。不過到了2010年代阿爾巴尼亞和希臘的關係是兩國於1971年建交以來最好。阿爾巴尼亞和羅馬尼亞關係良好兩國在北約歐盟等議題上合作無間。阿爾巴尼亞和土耳其關係良好兩國在民間事務合作無間尤其是教育經濟交通等議題。從劳动党执政時期政府推行社會主義的計劃經濟到現在資本主義政府推行的混合經濟的過渡在很大程度上是成功的。阿爾巴尼亞有一個發展中國家和混合經濟，它被世界銀行歸類為中高收入經濟體。阿爾巴尼亞2016年失業率為14.7％，是所有巴爾幹半島國家中失業率排名第四位。阿爾巴尼亞最大的貿易夥伴是意大利、希臘、中國、西班牙、科索沃和美國。阿爾巴尼亞列克是阿爾巴尼亞的法定貨幣，國際匯率大約是每1歐元兑132,51列克。地拉那和都拉斯都是阿爾巴尼亞的經濟中心。此外，地拉那是貿易、銀行和金融、交通、廣告、法律服務、會計和保險的重心。主要的公路和鐵路均貫穿地拉那和都拉斯兩大城市，並連接北部和南部，西部與東部。在阿爾巴尼亞最大規模的公司名單中，有石油TaiOil、Albpetrol、ARMO及Kastrati，礦產AlbChrome，水泥Antea水泥，投資BALFIN集團和技術Albtelecom、沃達豐及Telekom阿爾巴尼亞等。2012年，阿爾巴尼亞的人均國內生產總值為歐盟所有成員國平均值的30％，而人均國民生產總值為35％。阿爾巴尼亞是歐洲在全球金融危機之後於2010年第一季度錄得經濟增長的三个國家之一。國際貨幣基金組織預測2010年阿爾巴尼亞增長2.6％，2011年增長3.2％。根據福布斯截至2016年12月，國內生產總值增長2.8％。該國的貿易平衡為-9.7％，失業率為14.7％。近年來，隨著政府通過財政和立法改革，開始實施一項雄心勃勃的改善商業環境的計劃，外商直接投資大幅增加。隨著國民消費回升和投資強勁，預計經濟短期內將顯著擴張。預計2016年經濟增長率為3.2％，2017年為3.5％，2018年為3.8％。阿尔巴尼亚曾經是欧洲最贫穷的国家之一當時全国約一半的人口依然从事农业种植但近年比例已明顯減少大約只有15%左右而且著重於旅遊業和其他第三產業發展。全國大約五分之一的人口在国外工作。国家面临的经济问题主要是較高的失业率而國內整體失業率約10%至15%左右。雖然過去的阿爾巴尼亞一直依賴農業和重工業但從事農業的人大多是在用過時的設備及方法來耕作這阻礙了阿爾巴尼亞的經濟發展。因為共產政權倒台後起初阿爾巴尼亞國內的貧窮、貪腐、內亂問題十分嚴重，所以阿尔巴尼亚政府在上世紀90年代曾接受了不少外国的经济援助，而主要援助国包括中華人民共和國、希腊、意大利及土耳其。隨著國家經濟持續改善、旅遊業發展蓬勃、治安日益穩定，現時阿爾巴尼亞政府基本上已不再需要歐盟以外的外國經濟援助。阿爾巴尼亞全國出口產品较少，主要出口肉類、工業原材料、天然資源等，而進口主要来自鄰國希臘和意大利。進口货物的资金主要来自于经济援助和在国外工作的阿爾巴尼亞移民所带回来的收入。希臘政府也通过非正式地向阿尔巴尼亚公民贩卖希腊签证。隨着國家在1990年代民主化後，阿尔巴尼亚公民亦開始有自由出入境和出國旅遊或經商等的权利，但為阿爾巴尼亞公民提供免簽證的國家仍不多。正因如此，两国在阿尔巴尼亚的主要城市都设有签证机构，一度在阿尔巴尼亚公民自由出入欧盟國家的问题上经常发生非正面冲突，現時情況已逐步改善。阿爾巴尼亞擁有衛生部運行的普遍保健制度。據世界衛生組織的統計，在2000年阿爾巴尼亞已經名列世界前55位最佳醫療服務表現。雖然阿爾巴尼亞共產主義政權的垮台後的數年醫療服務和制度曾一度陷入崩潰狀態，但是自2000年以來至今醫療服務和制度一直在改革和完善化。在2000年阿爾巴尼亞共有51家醫院，其中包括軍醫和專科設施。最常見的死因是循環系統疾病，其次是癌性疾病。人口和健康調查於2009年4月完成了一項調查，詳細介紹了阿爾巴尼亞的各種衛生統計資料，包括男性變性手術、墮胎和其他方面。死亡的主要原因是心血管疾病、創傷、癌症和呼吸道疾病。目前阿爾巴尼亞已經成功地剷除了瘧疾等疾病。現時阿爾巴尼亞預期壽命估計為77.8歲，排名第37名，超過一些歐盟國家，包括斯洛文尼亞、愛沙尼亞、波蘭、匈牙利和斯洛伐克等國家。阿爾巴尼亞的嬰兒死亡率估計在2015年每千活產死亡12人。與其他歐洲國家相比，阿爾巴尼亞的肥胖率相對較低，可能由於地中海飲食的健康飲食習慣有關，不過近年阿爾巴尼亞肥胖率正在加速上升。阿尔巴尼亚军事部门是阿尔巴尼亚自1912年独立之后组织的的正规军事部门，其最高指挥为阿尔巴尼亚总参谋部，总参谋部之下则是陆军司令部、海军司令部、防空司令部、后勤部以及训练和教学部。而在2009年加入北約後，阿爾巴尼亞的軍事部門會參加北約定期舉辦的軍演和常規訓練。阿爾巴尼亞2011年總人口約為2,821,977，其中出生率處於低水平，每1.49名嬰兒女生。上次人口普查是在1989年進行的。阿爾巴尼亞劳动党政權在1990年代初瓦解伴隨著大規模的阿爾巴尼亞人移民出境。外來移民在阿爾巴尼亞劳动黨执政时期被徹底禁止而國內移民相當有限因此這是一個新現象。從1991年到2004年約有90萬人從阿爾巴尼亞遷出其中約60萬人在希臘定居。移民極大地影響了阿爾巴尼亞的國內人口分佈。人口主要在該國的北部和南部減少而在地拉那和都拉斯中部地區增加。根據統計局截至2015年1月1日阿爾巴尼亞人口為2893005。種族問題是一個棘手的話題，有待討論。官方統計顯示，該國主要民族為阿爾巴尼亞人，佔97％以上，而少數民族。關於具體人口普查的數據，保護少數民族框架公約諮詢委員會指出，應當極為謹慎地看待人口普查結果，並呼籲當局不要完全依靠普查期間收集的關於確定其保護少數民族政策的國籍數據。阿爾巴尼亞承認三個國內少數民族包括希臘人馬其頓人及黑山人以及兩個文化少數民族阿羅馬人和羅姆人。其他阿爾巴尼亞少數民族是保加利亞人戈蘭人塞爾維亞人巴爾幹埃及人波斯尼亞人及猶太人。對於希臘人團體來說很難知道阿爾巴尼亞有多少希臘人希臘政府一般認為阿爾巴尼亞大約有30萬希臘人居住但是大多數西方國家估計大約在20萬。<ref name="RFE/RL Research Report Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute"></ref>阿爾巴尼亞政府推算只有24243人。"CIA世界概況估計希臘少數民族比例佔0.9％美國國務院對希臘人的推算比例為1.17％其他少數民族比例則為0.23％。然而由於衡量受到希臘人抵制的影響後者質疑希臘少數民族數據的有效性。阿爾巴尼亞語是阿爾巴尼亞共和國的官方語言。它的標準口語和書面形式是從兩種主要方言-盖格方言。希臘語是該國第二大口語，有0.5％至3％的人口將其稱為第一語言，三分之二的阿爾巴尼亞家庭至少有一名會員講希臘語，其中大多數是在後共產主義時代（1992年至今）因私立學校或移民到希臘而學習的。在南方小的指定“少數民族地區”之外，希臘語的教學在阿爾巴尼亞共產主義時期被禁止。截至2003年，希臘在阿爾巴尼亞和地拉那的一所私立學校提供100多所私人補習中心，這是希臘境外的第一所私立補習中心。近年來，學生人數不斷減少。致力於希臘少數民族的學校給教師帶來了麻煩。由於與鄰國希臘的文化和經濟聯繫，希臘語在該國南部佔很大比例。在阿爾巴尼亞政府統計機構Instat進行的2017年研究中，25-64歲的39.9％的阿爾巴尼亞人能夠使用至少一種外語，其中能說英語的阿爾巴尼亞人為40.0％；其次是意大利語，佔27.8％；希臘語為22.9％。在年齡25歲或以下的阿爾巴尼亞年輕人中，英語，德語和土耳其語在2000年之後的興趣不斷增加。意大利語和法國語的興趣穩定，而希臘語失去了大部分興趣。 趨勢與文化和經濟因素有關。近年來年輕人對德語的興趣越來越濃厚。他們中的一些人去德國學習或參加各種經歷。阿爾巴尼亞和德國簽署了合作協議幫助兩國青年更好地了解這兩種文化。由於與土耳其的經濟關係急劇增加人們對土耳其語學習的興趣特別是年輕人對土耳其語的學習興趣每年都在增長。受到土耳其投資的經濟重要性和兩國共同價值觀所吸引的年輕人可以從大學的文化和學術合作中獲益。2011年土耳其人擁有的Epoka大學授以土耳其語英語及法語被選為阿爾巴尼亞最好的外語和外國大學。在1991年阿爾巴尼亞共產主義政權的垮台之後，宣布將義務教育計劃從8年擴展到10年的重組計劃。1992年，阿爾巴尼亞的1997年阿爾巴尼亞危機戰爭以及隨之而來的公共秩序崩潰，使教育和學校管理制度陷入混亂。教科書和用品的廣泛破壞和極度短缺對學校運作造成破壞性的影響，這促使意大利和其他國家提供物質援助。1990年代末，許多學校開始重建，以改善學生學習的條件。大部分改善發生在該國較大的城市，特別是在地拉那，都拉斯和斯庫台。在阿爾巴尼亞推行民主化改革政策之後，新的阿爾巴尼亞政府完全廢除共產主義的教育模式，並逐漸採用歐盟和美國教育模式，使阿爾巴尼亞新一代能夠接受21世紀的西方教育。經過30年的教育改革，阿爾巴尼亞的幼稚園和小學入學率較其他中東歐國家更高，但相比西歐國家來說仍有進步空間。阿爾巴尼亞的所有教育計劃由教育部及市政當局負責管理。教育系統資金主要由政府公帑提供一共分為三個階級包括小學教育。學年年期的長度與美國相似一般從9月或10月開學到6月或7月結束其餘的2至3個月為暑假。阿爾巴尼亞語是所有公立學校的主要教學語言。小學教育一年級至九年級為義務教育小學九年級學生必須通過畢業考試合格的學生方能繼續升學。中學提供普通教育普通教育為學生應付Matura高級程度考試做好準備讓他們提供取得他們的文憑畢業證書的機會取得文憑畢業證書的學生可以入讀高等教育和大學課程。雖然阿爾巴尼亞政府實行2007年的博洛尼亞模式但這些機構可以是公立或私立的可以根據高等教育法提供一二三級的高等教育。阿爾巴尼亞的預計畢業年齡為16歲，在世界排名第25位。阿爾巴尼亞全國識字率，男性為99％，女性為98.3％，男女平均為98.7％。阿爾巴尼亞是一個文化共融的國家，融合了中東和西方的文化，包括了古希臘、古羅馬、拜占庭帝國、鄂圖曼帝國文化，同時也包括了阿爾巴尼亞傳統文化。在2000年代之前的阿爾巴尼亞的是一個保守、封閉及文化單一的國家，當時的阿爾巴尼亞是一個盛行霍查主義和男尊女卑的國家。不過至從2000年代中後期起阿爾巴尼亞的社會開始走向性別平等和西化。2017年的全球性別差距報告中阿爾巴尼亞得分為0.728分，全球排名第38名，反映現時阿爾巴尼亞社會已變成男女平等的局面。另外近年阿爾巴尼亞的社會支持同性戀的比率也如支持性別平等般逐年增加，在2018年同性戀平權網站發布的全球報告中，有56%的阿爾巴尼亞人支持同性戀行為，且有33%的阿爾巴尼亞人支持同性婚姻合法化。而現任阿爾巴尼亞總理埃迪·拉馬亦表態支持保障同性戀權利。阿爾巴尼亞音樂是阿爾巴尼亞民族特徵的重要組成部分，並繼續在阿爾巴尼亞音樂中發揮重要作用。雖然它可以分為北部Gheg、南部Lab及Tosk進行的兩個文化體系組別。北部和南部的傳統音樂以及北部複雜的音調和南部的鬆弛的旋律形成鮮明對比。許多歌曲是關於阿爾巴尼亞歷史的事件，包括民族英雄斯坎德培和有關榮譽、招待、背叛和復仇的傳統主題。阿爾巴尼亞民間音樂的第一個彙編是由巴黎兩位Himariot音樂家NeoMuka和Kooakali在他們對這首歌曲Diva Tefta TashkoKoo。這三位藝術家記錄了這幾年來錄製的幾首歌曲，這最終導致了阿爾巴尼亞傳統音樂曲目Himariot Isopoly作為聯合國教科文組織音樂記錄當中的世界文化遺產。現代阿爾巴尼亞的流行音樂和藝術家如芮塔歐拉杜娃黎波碧碧蕾克莎埃爾莫利拉亞霍英瓦穆拉及艾拉斯特菲他們的音樂已經獲得國際認可。斯波拉諾埃爾莫利拉亞霍被經濟學家描述為世界上最受好評的女高音。阿爾巴尼亞國際歌劇演唱家薩里爾皮爾古是一位得到廣泛認可的音樂家他來自艾巴申。他被提名為2017年格萊美獎得獎者。阿爾巴尼亞的每個文化和地理區域都有各自不同的風格材料顏色形狀細節及形式的服裝。目前民族服飾經常與特殊活動和慶典有關主要集中在民族節日宗教節日婚禮舞蹈團體等。一些保守的男女長者主要來自北部和南部一些郊區在日常生活中會穿著傳統阿爾巴尼亞民族服裝。服裝主要由當地農畜產品如皮革羊毛亞麻大麻纖維絲綢製成。如今傳統的紡織品仍然以非常協調的古代圖案繡製而成。阿爾巴尼亞語由印歐語系系列組成。該語言被認為是印歐語系中的語言隔離。唯一倖存的印歐語分支的其他語言是亞美尼亞語和希臘語。它在1854年由德國語言學家弗兰茨博普證明是印歐語。阿爾巴尼亞語經常被認為與伊利里亞語有關伊利里亞語於古典時期在巴爾幹地區使用的語言。學者們爭辯說阿爾巴尼亞人來自伊利里亞人而另一些人聲稱它來自Daco-色雷斯人。文化復興首先表現在教會文本和出版物領域阿爾巴尼亞語的發展，主要是阿爾巴尼亞北部的天主教地區，而且東正教。阿爾巴尼亞在南部，當神職人員Gjon Buzuku將阿爾巴尼亞語天主教禮儀納入阿爾巴尼亞語時，新教改革激發了對當地語言和文學傳統發展的希望，試圖為阿爾巴尼亞語作出改革的馬丁·路德為德語和阿爾巴尼亞語翻譯。由Gjon Buzuku撰寫的Meshari於1555年出版，被認為是中世紀第一部阿爾巴尼亞文學作品之一。語言的精確程度和穩定的拼寫法必須是早期傳統的阿爾巴尼亞語寫作的結果，這一傳統尚未得到很好的理解。然而，在Buzuku之前存在一些支離破碎的證據，這表明阿爾巴尼亞語至少是在14世紀寫成的。最早的證據可以追溯到公元1332年來自Antivari的法國多米尼加Guillelmus AdaeArchbishop的拉丁文報告他寫道阿爾巴尼亞人在他們的書中使用了拉丁字母儘管他們的語言與拉丁語完全不同。其他重要的例子包括洗禮公式自1462年起由阿爾巴尼亞人在都拉斯主教的拉丁文中寫成PalEngjlli阿爾巴尼亞語的阿爾巴尼亞語單詞1497由阿爾巴尼亞人經過的阿爾巴尼亞語以及馬太福音的15世紀聖經片段使用阿爾巴尼亞語但以希臘字母書寫。這幾個世紀以來的阿爾巴尼亞著作不應僅僅是宗教文本，而是歷史編年史。人道主義者Marin Barleti提到了他們，他們在1504年的書寫的這些編年史以及他著名的斯坎德培的傳記。仍然是斯坎德培研究的基礎，被認為是阿爾巴尼亞文化寶藏，對阿爾巴尼亞民族自我意識的形成至關重要。在16和17世紀，由LekMatrnga創作的1592年的教義（基督教徒教誨）（（The Prop of Prophets）（1685），阿爾巴尼亞人中世紀最普遍的人格，以阿爾巴尼亞語出版。20世紀和21世紀最著名的阿爾巴尼亞作家可能是伊斯梅爾·卡達莱，他的許多作品都在諷刺和批判專制社會，其中一些出版之後在霍查統治阿爾巴尼亞期間曾一度遭封禁，他多次被提及為文學諾貝爾獎的可能得獎者。阿爾巴尼亞電影在20世紀開始流行當時斯庫台和科爾察的城市展出了外國電影和紀錄片。第一個在阿爾巴尼亞舉行的公開演出是一個鮮為人知的標題Paddy the Reliable是一個滑稽的故事。最初的阿爾巴尼亞電影主要是紀錄片第一個是關於莫納斯提爾大會在1908年批准阿爾巴尼亞語字母。在共產政權時期後來被稱為Kinostudio Shqipria e Re的阿爾巴尼亞電影學院在蘇聯援助下成立專注於主要是對戰時鬥爭的宣傳。共產黨政府於1952年創立Kinostudio Shqipria e Re。隨後是第一部阿爾巴尼亞史詩電影與蘇聯藝術家合作記錄了阿爾巴尼亞民族英雄斯坎德培的生活和戰鬥。該片獲得1954年戛納電影節國際獎。到了1990年阿爾巴尼亞已經製作了大約200部電影阿爾巴尼亞有超過450部電影院。隨著20世紀90年代共產主義政權崩潰後的經濟轉型Kinostudio被打破並私有化。一個新的國家電影攝影中心成立而城市建立了現代電影院主要是美國電影。地拉那國際電影節成立於2003年已成為該國和巴爾幹地區首屈一指的最大電影節。都拉斯舉辦國際電影都拉斯電影節這是該國第二大國際電影節每年8月底或9月初在杜勒斯露天競技場舉行。值得注意的阿爾巴尼亞電影導演包括Andamion Murataj、BesimSahatiu、Xhanfize Keko、DhimitrAnagnosti、Kujtimashku、Luljeta Hoxha、Saim Kokona、Saimir Kumbaro、Kristaq Mitro、Leon Qafzezi以及Gjergj Xhuvani。阿爾巴尼亞的著名演員包括Nik Xhelilaj、Klement Tinaj、Masiela Lusha、Blerim Destani、AleksandrMoisiu、Tinka Kurti、Pjetr Malota、SandrProsi以及Margarita Xhepa。阿爾巴尼亞僑民有國際知名演員，例如阿爾巴尼亞裔美國人的Eliza Dushku、Jim及John Belushi；科索沃阿爾巴尼亞人的Bekim Fehmiu和Arta Dobroshi；土耳其阿爾巴尼亞人的Barish Ardu。阿爾巴尼亞人以友善、禮貌、好客見稱，一般都會十分主動向別人打招呼、問好和握手，有需要時會協助對方解決問題，即使是面對外國遊客時做法也是一樣。另外阿爾巴尼亞人也講究家庭和友誼觀念，男女地位相對平等。值得一提是阿爾巴尼亞日常人與人之間的非語言溝通中的點頭是代表不是的意思。社會主義時期的流行文化.阿尔巴尼亚革命电影曾经在中国产生一定影响。著名电影如等影响了整整一代中国人。在霍查统治期间由于担心苏联美国希腊意大利南斯拉夫入侵阿尔巴尼亚在全国各地修建70多万个碉堡。時至今日阿尔巴尼亚各地都有碉堡分佈故阿尔巴尼亚被称为“碉堡王国”。由於現今的阿爾巴尼亞政府和人民不喜歡象徵着霍查和勞動黨政權的碉堡加上拆除碉堡過程十分困難和成本高因此近年部分阿爾巴尼亞碉堡已改變了用途例如青年旅舎博物館餐廳咖啡館等。阿尔巴尼亚最著名的作家是凡·诺利（）和伊斯梅尔·卡达莱（）。由於歷史悠久阿爾巴尼亞擁有許多重要的文化和歷史地標。從古代古典到現代國內主要城市已經從城堡內部發展到包括住宅宗教和商業結構不斷地重新設計城市廣場建築技術的進化。現時阿爾巴尼亞著名的建築風格包括科爾察中的歷史主義和新藝術，而且現代意大利風格也存在於斯庫台、夫羅勒、薩蘭達及都拉斯。其他城市通過各種文化或經濟影響獲得了當今阿爾巴尼亞獨特的外觀。由於拜占庭帝國的長期統治，阿爾巴尼亞擁有許多拜占庭式建築的教堂、城堡和修道院。阿爾巴尼亞還擁有五百年來鄂圖曼統治的許多倖存的紀念碑。在十九世紀，阿爾巴尼亞的城鎮經歷了由匈牙利和意大利建築師的城市轉型，讓他們看起來像歐洲城市。在阿爾巴尼亞共產主義時期，修建了許多社會主義風格的建築群，寬闊的道路和工廠，重新設計了城市廣場，並拆除了一些歷史悠久的建築物。阿爾巴尼亞擁有兩個文化聯合國教科文組織世界遺產，包括薩蘭達南部布特林特的古代遺跡，以及中世紀的培拉特和吉羅卡斯特歷史中心。以及喀爾巴阡山脈原始山毛櫸森林和歐洲其他地區古山毛櫸森林和奧赫里德地區的自然和文化遺產。此外，下塞爾塞皇家陵墓、阿波羅尼亞、巴什托維堡壘、杜勒斯露天競技場已列入暫定名單。阿爾巴尼亞的視覺藝術傳統是由在其領土上蓬勃發展的許多文化所塑造的。拜占廷和奧斯曼帝國分別在阿爾巴尼亞統治接近五個世紀極大地影響了該國的藝術和藝術形式。在阿爾巴尼亞於1478年成為奧斯曼帝國一部分之後奧斯曼文化影響了鑲嵌和濕壁畫等藝術形式的流行直到1912年11月28日的阿爾巴尼亞獨立宣言以後才出現真正的藝術變化。從古代到中世紀的馬賽克和濕壁畫之後，第一批畫作是出自於拜占庭的傳統。阿爾巴尼亞最早的畫作可追溯到13世紀後期，並普遍估計他們的藝術高峰在18世紀達到了。阿爾巴尼亞的肖像藝術最突出的代表是Onufri和David Selenica。 培拉特，科爾察和地拉那的博物館收藏著很多收藏品。奧斯曼帝國統治結束時阿爾巴尼亞人的畫作大多局限於民間藝術和華麗的清真寺。20世紀上半葉阿爾巴尼亞的繪畫和雕塑文化藝術興起在20世紀的30年代和40年代達到了一個溫和的高峰當時第一次舉辦國家級的藝術展覽。現代的阿爾巴尼亞藝術品捕捉到阿爾巴尼亞人的日常奮鬥細節然而新藝術家正在利用不同的藝術風格傳達這一信息。阿爾巴尼亞藝術家繼續推動阿爾巴尼亞藝術發展而他們的藝術內容仍然是阿爾巴尼亞獨特的。雖然在阿爾巴尼亞藝術家後現代主義最近被介紹有一些藝術家和作品在國際知名。其中最著名的阿爾巴尼亞後現代主義者被認為是阿里薩拉西斯萊傑哈法及赫利頓吉傑吉。近年隨著阿爾巴尼亞政局趨於穩定及國家對外完全開放，加上阿爾巴尼亞一直融合了不少古希臘、古羅馬、保加利亞文明，驅使到訪阿爾巴尼亞的外國遊客數目也逐漸增加。現在的阿爾巴尼亞政府也積極開拓阿爾巴尼亞本地的歷史古蹟、宗教、文化導賞團，以及沿亞得利亞海、愛奧尼亞海一帶海灘城市景點度假團，而當中阿爾巴尼亞眾多旅遊景點之中最為著名的旅遊景點分別有獲得千窗之城美譽的培拉特白色小屋和位於首都地拉那南部近郊的彼德雷拉城堡。阿爾巴尼亞國家旅遊局網址：从公元1世纪开始阿尔巴尼亚人主要为基督徒。后来自從土耳其奥斯曼帝国入侵起大多数阿尔巴尼亚人開始改信伊斯兰教穆斯林人口开始在整个阿尔巴尼亚占多数但基督徒在阿尔巴尼亚部分地区则仍然占多数。到了近现代所有宗教信仰於阿尔巴尼亚劳动党統治中后期遭到官方查禁當時阿爾巴尼亞宣稱其為世界第一個也是唯一的無神論國家。1990年11月虽然还没有修改宪法但开始允许个人举行宗教仪式。現今，阿爾巴尼亞境內重新容許宗教自由。根据2011年的人口普查，阿尔巴尼亚有58%的伊斯兰教逊尼派穆斯林，2%的伊斯兰教苏菲派拜克塔什教团信徒，10%的罗马天主教徒，7%的东正教徒，0.2%其他派系基督宗教，5.5%其他宗教，14%不确定，无神论仅占2.5%，是欧洲伊斯兰教占多数的世俗国家之一，另一個為鄰國科索沃。然而，根据2018年聯合國開發計劃署做的调查，62.7%的阿尔巴尼亚人不信仰宗教。37.3%的阿尔巴尼亚人信仰一种宗教。这37.3%阿尔巴尼亚人中的52.06%为穆斯林，13.82%为天主教徒，13.08为东正教徒，7.5%为拜克塔什教团成员，4.03%为无神论者，1.74%为新教基督徒。其余的拒绝回答或有其他信仰。2011年宗教普查漏洞.2011年的宗教普查引起了有关阿尔巴尼亚宗教成分的争议。其原因是普查人员未能够与南部大量东正教社群取得联系。只有34%的阿尔巴尼亚正教基督徒被普查人员联系过。此外，普查人员有时在没有受调查人见证的情况下径自随意填写了其宗教信仰并在调查问卷上违规地使用铅笔填写。有时，整个社群声称完全没有被联系过。有计70%的被调查者拒绝在列出的宗教列表上选择自己的信仰。阿尔巴尼亚正教会与苏菲派拜克塔什教团对调查结果提出了质疑与抗议。阿尔巴尼亚全国各种报刊约160种其中主要有《当代报》发行量约2万份社会党党报《人民之声报》发行量约1万份民主党党报《民主复兴报》发行量约1万份其它报刊还有《世纪报》《共和报》《阿尔巴尼亚报》《经济报》《克兰杂志》等。阿尔巴尼亚广播电视台是阿尔巴尼亚的官方广播电视台于1938年在首都地拉那建立。目前拥有至少三个电视频道和三个广播频道。国际电视频道从1993年起播出。其下属的广播电台使用的呼号地拉那广播电台第三台采用阿尔巴尼亚語和其他七种语言通过中波和短波向世界各地播放。另外自從阿爾巴尼亞社會主義人民共和國政府倒台後阿爾巴尼亞國內亦容許民間和私營的電視台營運為人民提供更多元化選擇。中華人民共和国于1950年在阿尔巴尼亚境内设立短波发射台，为中国国际广播电台的中继站，昔日冷戰共產時期该发射台除了转播地拉那广播电台之外，还转播中国国际广播电台阿尔巴尼亚语广播，主要是宣傳霍查和毛澤東的階級鬥爭路線革命。目前该发射台为中国国家广播电视总局所有，负责转播中国国际广播电台节目。阿爾巴尼亞多個大城市設有長途巴士服務，服務範圍一般涵蓋全國各地和鄰國的科索沃、黑山、希臘及北馬其頓。因為小巴載客量少和便捷，普遍應用於阿爾巴尼亞大城市到近郊地區的接駁交通工具。阿爾巴尼亞火車服務一般用作貨物運輸亦有提供載客服務。但阿爾巴尼亞並沒有連結鄰國馬其頓或者希臘的鐵路。因為缺乏現代化火車運行火車行駛速度相較巴士小巴等交通工具來說非常緩慢列車的行駛速度一般只有每小時30至50公里。阿爾巴尼亞的渡輪服務以跨境渡輪為主較少提供國內渡輪服務。阿爾巴尼亞第一次参加夏季奥运會是1972年西德的慕尼黑奥运会。因為冷战政治格局的因素之后阿爾巴尼亞曾經缺席4届奧運會曾与以蘇聯為首的東方集團共產主義国家一起抵制美国的1984年夏季奥林匹克运动会1988年因为极左政策与朝鲜一起抵制南韓的汉城奥运会。1992年冷战结束和阿爾巴尼亞社會主義人民共和國垮台后第一次参与西班牙的巴塞罗那奥运会此后阿尔巴尼亚无一缺席。阿尔巴尼亚直至2016年的里約奧運會为止都没有获得过任何奥运奖牌也没有能与他国竞争獎牌的优势体育项目。阿爾巴尼亞國家足球隊昔日一直是歐洲的魚腩球隊之一。不過在2015年歐洲國家盃外圍資格賽上，阿爾巴尼亞先後击敗同組的球隊塞爾維亞以及來自高加索國家的亞美尼亞，以外圍資格賽第2名的成绩歷史性成功打入欧洲足球锦标赛分組賽第1轮。随后，儘管先後敗給世界足球勁旅瑞士和歐國盃東道主的法國，但阿爾巴尼亞最終仍成功擊敗同組的羅馬尼亞直取3分。球員和教練结束所有賽事回國後，受到國民的英雄式歡迎，他們也獲得了巨額獎金，同時球員的名字也永遠刻在阿爾巴尼亞最大規模的足球場上。 +黑客是指对设计、編程和计算机科学方面具高度理解的人，包含了下列人物：除了Hacker之外Cracker也常被翻译成。这一群人试图破解某个程序系统或网络依目的大致可分為3個類型白帽黑客。「Cracker」（溃客）之相異其他黑客是在於但是这两个英文词常被翻譯成同一個中文詞，於香港，故中文裡的一词既指对编程语言有足够了解并喜欢编程的人，也有可能指恶意破坏者。然而在英文裡，Hacker和Cracker这两个词的意思是有所差異的。公众通常不知和黑帽黑客的区分。脚本小子是利用他人所撰寫的程序发起攻击的网络闹事者。他们通常不懂得攻击目標的设计和攻击程序的原理，不能自己對系统進行调试、找出漏洞，实际專業知识远远不如他们通常冒充的黑帽黑客。然而，有不少青少年藉由网络入侵传播病毒、木马，進行癱瘓、破坏、偷窃，因此犯上计算机犯罪。在黑客世界裡各组织的精神与文化都是不盡相同的但有一个共同点就是对技术的崇拜与对创新的不断追求。於是黑客们最为热爱推动开源软件运动找出漏洞并通知协助管理员進行修补从而缔造完美无暇的软硬件。福建省，簡稱閩，為中華人民共和國東南沿海省份，省会福州。东西最寬為480公里，南北最長為530公里，陆域面积12.4万平方公里。東北與浙江省毗邻，西、西北與江西省接界，西南與廣東省相連，东隔臺灣海峽與臺灣相望。福建省下辖1个副省级城市和8个普通地级市及平潭综合实验区。福建地理特点是“依山傍海”。福建多山全省山地丘陵面积约占全省土地总面积的90%这些山地多为森林所覆盖使得福建的森林覆盖率达62.96%居全国第一。福建的大陆海岸线长度居全国第二位海岸曲折岛屿众多。而且由于福建位于东海与南海的交通要冲是历史上海上丝绸之路郑和下西洋的起点也是海上商贸集散地和中国其他地方不同福建沿海的文明是海洋文明而内地客家地区是农业文明。福建经济总量位居全国第8位，是中國经济发展最快的省份之一。2014年12月12日，国务院决定设立中国，继上海自由贸易试验区后，中国第二批三个自由贸易试验区之一。福建旅游资源丰富，有武夷山、太姥山、鼓浪屿、清源山等自然风光和三坊七巷、万福寺、土楼、安平桥等人文景观。福建的民族组成相对单一，畲族为该省最主要的少数民族，其它少数民族多为近现代改革开放以后迁居而来。唐开元二十一年（733年）设福建经略使才開始出现但此解释并未得到史学界的证实。福建有过“七閩”、“八閩”之別稱，现习惯稱“八閩”。“七闽”最早见于，书中说：“职方氏掌天下之图，以掌天下之地，辨其邦、国、都、郫、四夷、八蛮、七闽、九貉、五戎、六狄之人民……”。关于七闽,何光岳的中说：，後來演變成泛指福建。所謂是因為宋朝時稱為福建路下辖福州建州泉州漳州汀州南劍州六個州及邵武興化二個軍共計有八個同級行政的機構因而得名。出土文物證實福建一如中國大陸其他省區存在過舊石器時期文化目前已知年代最早的舊石器時代文化遺址在晉江市深滬灣海濱發現年代距今五十萬年至八十萬年.福建在上古时代原為越族人的屬地。越人善於駕舟行筏有的習俗。秦在福建設置閩中郡是第一個在福建設立行政機構的中國政權但福建政權近於藩屬國。漢高帝五年派大軍攻打閩越國在佔領閩越國都城後焚燬城池宮殿令遷往遙遠的長江淮河一帶。部分越人北遷淮南。於建安元年在今福州市設侯官縣。魏晉南北朝梁時期建安郡先後分設為晉安建安南安三個郡。漢人移民有8個姓氏陳林黃鄭詹邱何胡。隋廢三郡置泉州（今福州），後又改為建安郡。唐玄宗開元二十一年（733年），設福建經略使（軍區長官職稱），始出現「福建」之名。五代十國時期，福建獨立，王审知兄弟建立閩國，後來為南唐所滅，福建為南唐、吳越、清源軍三分。宋朝置福建路統轄六個州（福州建州泉州南劍州漳州汀州）與兩個軍（邵武軍興化軍）。元世祖至元十五年（1278年）設福建行中書省於泉州三年後省會遷福州。南宋时泉州發展成國際著名的港口市內形成大批外國僑民（主要是阿拉伯人和波斯人）定居的居留地「蕃坊」當年留下的清净寺一直保留至今。明朝置福建布政使司後又改路為府。宋代的六州兩軍以及後來改稱為八個路或八個府的區劃建制單獨設省。1842年的將廈門和福州闢為通商口岸，向外國商人開放。1902年在廈門還開闢鼓浪嶼公共租界。在洋務運動中，左宗棠開辦福州船政局及船政學堂，成為近代中國海軍的搖籃，一度湧現出薩鎮冰、魏瀚、李鼎新、林泰曾、劉步蟾、藍建樞、林永昇、方伯謙、林建章、杜錫珪、黃鍾瑛、陳紹寬、薩師俊等大批海軍將官。1883年，中法戰爭期間，法國襲擊了馬尾軍港。福建還是近代西欧傳教士人數最多也最活躍的省份。辛亥革命後，歷屆政權均設置福建省。1933年，十九路軍兵變，福州成為中華共和國臨時首都。多山的福建在近代一直未能修建鐵路，因而阻礙該地区經濟的發展以及與中国其他地区的聯繫，直到1956年建成鷹廈鐵路。1949年之後，福建省分由中華人民共和國與中華民國政府進行實質管轄，雙方的行政區劃中也都設有福建省，中華民國福建省已虛級化。福建位于中国东南部，土地总面积为12.40万平方公里，占全国的1.3％，居全国第23位。地势西北高，东南低，境内山地丘陵面积约占全省土地总面积的90%，所谓。省内有闽西与闽中两大山带大体平行，闽西山带以武夷山脉为主，斜貫闽、赣两省，长约530千米，平均海拔1千米。最高峰黄岗山海拔2158米，位于武夷山市西北部，是中国东南地区最高峰。闽中山带从北至南分为鹫峰山脉、戴云山脉、博平岭。福建海岸地貌格局以多海湾多半岛的曲折海岸线为主体。闽江口由于山地逼近海岸平原窄小闽江口以南有较大的沿海平原如福州平原兴化平原泉州平原漳州平原。且广泛分布海蚀红土台地。闽东南沿海地带是省内耕地集中区亦是福建省经济文化最为发达地区。省内城市间往來在过去往往要经水路來达成。有闽江晋江九龙江下游冲积而成的四大平原福州平原兴化平原漳州平原泉州平原。该省东南面对台湾海峡（东海和南海之间，平均宽180公里），海岸线曲折，虽然海岸线直线长度为535公里，但曲线长度却达3324公里，约占全国海岸线总长度的18.3%。曲折的海岸线也形成了众多的海湾，如福宁湾、三沙湾、罗源湾、湄洲湾、东山湾等，而重要的海港有福州港、厦门港、泉州港等。沿海的岛屿共1404个，总面积约为1200多平方公里。福建省现辖9个地级市其中厦门市的行政级别为副省级全省合共有31个市辖区11个县级市42个县。福建是经济发展最快的省份之一2019年经济总量位居全国第八位。1979-2007年29年按绝对数比较2007年GDP总量为1978年的138.02倍按不变价格推算GDP年平均增长率12.4％增长速度次于广东浙江等二省份居全国第三位2010年GDP增长13.8%仅次于天津市重庆市四川省增幅居全国第四位。1978-2008年有21年GDP年增长率高于10％GDP增幅最高的年份为1993年年增长率达到22.6％。福建省GDP总量在全国的位次从1978年的第22位至2007年上升至第10位福建省1981年GDP总量首次突破100亿元1993年GDP突破1千亿元2008年突破1万亿元。据初步核算2010年福建省地区生产总值为14357.12亿元比上年增长13.8%人均地区生产总值39432元比上年增长13.0%三次产业比例为9.5∶51.3∶39.2。福建交通的主管部门是福建省交通运输厅。据统计，截至2016年末，福建省的公路总里程106756.53公里，公路密度為87.94公里每百平方公里。等级公路里程分别为：国道10404.27公里、乡道41134.08公里、专用公路118.01公里、村道34908.56公里。2016年末福建省全省内河航道通航里程3245.28公里。其中：等级航道1268.65公里，占总里程的39.1%，与上年持平。其中，四级及以上高等级航道443.8公里，占总里程的13.7%，与上年持平。各等级内河航道通航里程分别为：一级航道107.84公里，二级航道20.25公里，三级航道52.05公里，四级航道263.66公里，五级航道204.57公里，六级航道46.18公里，七级航道574.1公里。各水系内河航道通航里程分别为：闽江水系1972.8公里，九龙江水系454.43公里，其他水系818.05公里。全省港口拥有生产用码头泊位578个，万吨级及以上泊位168个。截至2016年末，全省有营运汽车26.69万辆，其中大型客车6924辆，载货汽车25.03万辆；水上运输船舶1940艘。城市及县城拥有公共汽电车18324辆，巡游出租汽车运营车辆24961辆，城市客运轮渡29艘。福州市开通了全省首条地铁，拥有地铁车站6个；运营车辆144辆。2016年全年全省营业性客运车辆完成公路客运量3.91亿人旅客周转量251.95亿人公里。全省营业性货运车辆完成货运量8.58亿吨货物周转量1094.70亿吨公里2016年全省水路客运量2016.40万人旅客周转量2.72亿人公里。全省完成水路货运量3.17亿吨货物周转量4846.44亿吨公里。福建的人口比较稠密。但分布不均沿海平原地区人口多内地山区人口少。福建民族构成较单一人口以汉族为主体但语言及文化多元性极高主要由闽民系和客家民系两大汉族民系构成。福建地区外族方面以畲族为主另有回族蒙古族等。福州地区有元代遗留的色目裔等塞北民族残留福州长乐区琴江有保存完好的满族村落一个。余下还有28个少数民族大多是近现代迁徙而来人口极少。畲族主要集中在北部山区约占全国畲族人口的60％。2009年，福建省共有19个民族乡，其中18个畲族乡和1个回族乡，562个民族村。香港各界領袖以及富豪爭相爭取的全國政協委員福建籍亦佔超過1/4。与闽南系华人不同的是闽东人在南洋分布较少而偏好移居东洋跟西洋国家。1970年代以来福州市等地有大批人移民日本及英美澳等国紐約華人中存在有大量福州裔。福建的主要宗教是中國民間信仰道教和佛教。根據2007年和2009年進行的調查福建有31.31％的人口有祖先崇拜3.5％的人口是基督徒。報告沒有提供其他宗教的統計數字 65.19％的人口無宗教或信奉中國民間宗教佛教儒教道教和伊斯蘭教。福建文化历史悠久由5000年前的曇石山文化結合中原文化發展出了閩都文化船政文化臺灣文化閩南文化閩西文化等地域文化对中国文化世界文化贡献良多主要表现在两个方面一是程朱理學二是以林则徐的“林学”和严复的“侯官新学”为代表的近代闽都文化。自從南宋以來，福建一直有堅實的學術傳統。福建擁有廈門大學1所985和211工程院校，福州大學1所211工程院校，以及福建師範大學、福建農林大學、華僑大學、福建醫科大學、福建中醫藥大學、集美大學、閩南師範大學、福建工程學院、廈門理工學院等9所省重點建設高校。2008年的統計表明，中國科學院和中國工程院的院士中，有96名為福建省出生，在全國排名第5。福建体育从20世纪50年代起发展迅速，建立了各级体育组织机构，在修复兴建各类体育场馆设施的同时，陆续创办了各类体育学校、体育训练班和国防体育俱乐部。按戶籍人口數量排名福建五大姓氏是陳。截至2019年12月31日福建省已与世界上41个国家的省市建立了109对友城关系其中省级28对福州市17对厦门市19对泉州市9对漳州市6对莆田市5对南平市3对三明市2对龙岩市3对宁德市4对石狮市2对武夷山市2对南安市1对福鼎市1对晋江市2对福清市1对上杭县1对泰宁县1对厦门市思明区1对福州市长乐区1对。 +安徽省简称“皖”为中华人民共和国一级行政区省会为合肥市。安徽省大致位于东经114°54′至119°37′与北纬29°41′至34°38′之间全省东西宽约450公里南北长约570公里总面积14.01万平方公里约占全国总面积的1.45%居华东第3位全国第22位。安徽省在地理上属于华东地区地跨淮河和长江同时在地域文化上呈现出明显差异从而孕育出了省内的四大文化圈即江淮文化庐州文化皖江文化和徽文化在经济上属于长江三角洲地区和中国中部经济区北部和南部分属中原经济区和长江经济区。其南部原徽州府的徽商与粤商晋商浙商苏商一道在历史上被合称为“五大商帮”。自21世纪以来安徽省与上海市浙江省江苏省共同构成的长江三角洲城市群已成为世界六大城市群之一。明代安徽属南直隶。清初属于江南省。康熙元年江南分省江南左布政使司改设江南安徽等处承宣布政使司。由于当时省并非清政府的法定行政单位所以安徽省的建置是在此后逐步成型。除源于安徽巡抚的“安徽”一名外在乾隆时源于安徽巡抚驻地——安庆府的安庆省亦是官方文件中使用的省名之一。当时的省会安庆府境内有皖山、皖水，即现今的天柱山和皖河，春秋时曾被封为伯国，称为“皖国”，故安徽简称“皖”。旧石器时代原始人类已经在安徽生活。位于繁昌县孙村镇癞痢山的人字洞遗址是一处有争议的古遗址。有学者认为人字洞遗址内的遗存年代为200万至260万年前是亚洲最古老的人类遗址之一。另有学者认为人字洞遗存并不比元谋人更早而且洞内的动物石块骨头可能与人类活动毫无关系。在和县陶店乡龙潭洞发现的和县猿人化石年代约为30万至40万年前属直立人化石。有学者认为和县人与北京猿人和欧洲的远古人类化石不同而是更接近于匠人和爪哇猿人可能是一种残存的更为原始的古人类。东至县尧渡镇华龙洞遗址出土了大约30万年前的人骨化石石器动物化石这一古人类被命名为东至人同样属于直立人。巢湖市银屏镇银山智人遗址发现的古人类化石时代大约为16万至20万年前大致属于早期智人。银山智人又称巢县人银山人部分性状接近尼安德特人可能与之有基因交流。此外出土石器的旧石器时代遗址有陈山遗址毛竹山官山遗址西尤遗址金盆洞遗址等。有学者认为古代安徽是阿舍利石器技术自亚欧大陆东侧向朝鲜半岛扩散的中转站。上世纪70年代末至80年代初，在本省潜山县的薛家岗又发现了距今约五六千年的新石器时代人类活动的痕迹，后来又在本省多处发现了其他新石器时代文化遗址。商朝的开国君主汤曾经短期定都在安徽北部的亳州当时安徽大部分居民并非华夏族而是后来逐步同化入汉族的东夷山越人等。西周和春秋时期安徽省北部为华夏族诸侯国中南部则多为主体民族为淮夷和山越的方国境内的各国大多较为孱弱曾多次被周天子或周边大诸侯国侵略占领。战国末期，前278年，楚国的郢都。刘邦建立汉朝。汉武帝时东瓯国大规模迁到庐江郡。五胡十六国期间从4世纪开始的之后三百年间几支塞北游牧民族入侵华北地区并相继建立军阀政权长江以南则在汉人的南朝控制之下。安徽中北部成为南北方对峙的前线战火不断。383年在北方的前秦和南方的东晋之间展开的淝水之戰就是其中比较重要的一次战役。隋文帝在位时代的开皇之治促使这一地区经济得到很大程度的恢复。隋炀帝大业六年到唐高祖武德七年经过短暂的混战唐朝统一天下并保持了一个多世纪的和平和统一。安史之乱中安徽北部淮河地区遭受战火蹂躏。晚唐时875年王仙芝黄巢起义从河南经安徽和县渡长江入皖南到福建广东后经安徽攻长安天下大乱藩镇割据不久唐朝灭亡。北宋后期北方的金朝崛起。1127年以后安徽北部的淮河再次成为南北对峙的前沿北方的金和南方的南宋。1161年金朝海陵王完颜亮出兵伐宋在今安徽马鞍山采石大战失败。1234年金亡于蒙古帝国。1276年元军攻占南宋京城杭州淮西制置使夏贵投降安徽全境归大元。1368年，明太祖朱元璋建立明朝。由于定都於金陵應天府（今日南京），現今的江苏省和安徽省直屬中央六部管理，称为。该区域跨长江和淮河南北，首次将经济和文化差异很大的广阔地区，包括今安徽北部朱元璋的家乡凤阳，今安徽南部多山的徽州，和今江苏南部以富裕著称的太湖流域，都划归同一个行政区管辖。明太祖定凤阳为中都一度考虑迁都于此后来放弃这个计划只建成陵墓和一部分城墙。明代在安徽境内共设有7个府其中4个位于长江以南徽州府宁国府太平府池州府2个位于长江北岸安庆府庐州府而整个淮河流域只有凤阳府一府。长江南岸的芜湖縣在明朝发展成新兴的經濟中心。明成祖發動靖難之變入主金陵後永樂遷都定都北京原直隶地区改称南直隶。1635年明末流寇李自成部攻陷凤阳掘明朝皇室的祖坟焚毁朱元璋曾经出家的。1645年清軍攻占南京将南直隶改为江南省乾隆二十九年大清会典正式说明江南省已经分为江苏省和安徽省江苏省和安徽省分别为全国十又八省之一。省界与今天比较变化不大。晚清时期太平天国定都南京安徽南部是其主要粮食和军事基地在曾国藩的湘军和陈玉成的太平军反复拉锯战中安徽南部流失大部分人口经济遭到嚴重打击战后从河南湖北居民移居皖南文化习俗发生巨大改变。宣城地区尤为重灾区该地的方言从吴语变成多种官话与西部吴语混居的状态。同时期捻军也发源于贫困而土匪横行的安徽北部。李鸿章在合肥附近招募淮军赴江浙作战。太平天国之后淮军成了清朝的一支重要力量。中华民国成立之后，1912年津浦铁路通车，蚌埠兴起。1912年柏文蔚督皖。1913年倪嗣冲督皖。1920年张文生督皖。1922年马联甲督皖。1923年吕调元督皖。1924年姜登选督皖。1925年陈调元督皖。1926年底陈调元归顺北伐国民革命军。1937年全面抗战爆发。安徽成了日本人、汪精卫政权、国军和中国共产党的新四军势力交错的地方。1941年在安徽发生国共冲突的皖南事变。1945年日本投降后，民国政府把安徽省会从安庆迁往合肥。1948年到1949年，安徽是第二次国共内战期间徐蚌會戰的主战场。1949年4月渡江战役后，安徽一度以长江为界分为皖北行署區和皖南行署區。这两个省级行署区皆隶属于华东军政委员会。1952年，两个行政署区重新合併。省界有小幅的调整：原属徽州地区的婺源县划归江西，盱眙县和泗洪县划归江苏，作为交换，江苏徐州的萧县和砀山县划给了安徽。但这又使得原本就伸入江苏境内的 天长市的地理位置更加突兀，类似于飞地。在1959－1961年的三年大饥荒时期，安徽省的非正常死亡人口达到633万人，占灾前人口3446万人的18.37%，其比例居中国各省的第一位。经历了后安徽的农村生产力遭到很大破坏延续20多年的使农民的生产积极性受到严重挫伤也极大地束缚了农业生产力的发展。1978年11月24日安徽凤阳小岗村农民秘密将土地公开创造性地实行分田包产到户自负盈亏使得农民有了生产自主权生产积极性大大提高。结果是1979年粮食比上年增长6倍相当于1966年到1970年的5年粮食总和农业获得大丰收。与此同时安徽省肥西县来安县也开始试验包产到户。1982年1月中共中央总结经验发出了肯定了安徽的做法家庭联产承包责任制在全国迅速推开。安徽农民为中国的改革开放作出了历史性贡献。1978年中国开始改革开放安徽的农村和城市改革也逐步开始。在农村流通体制改革进行农村市场逐步放开农村产业结构得到调整“科技兴农”方针被提出乡镇企业也得到迅速发展。在城市经济体制改革兴起。1980年全省开始推行企业经营责任制并改革工资制度和奖金制度以按劳分配为主企业“吃大锅饭”的状况得到初步改善。中共十四大提出建立社会主义市场经济体制后安徽经济开始迅速发展人民生活水平逐年提高。 +安徽省与江苏省、浙江省、江西省、湖北省、河南省和山东省相接，地貌以平原、丘陵和低山为主。平原与丘陵、低山相间排列。地形地貌呈现多样性，长江和淮河自西向东横贯全境，全省大致可分为五个自然区域：淮北平原、江淮丘陵、皖西大别山区、沿江平原和皖南山区。平原面积占全省总面积的31.3％，丘陵占29.5％，山区占31.2％，湖沼洼地占8.0％。境内有大别山、黄山、九华山和天柱山等山脉，最高峰黄山莲花峰海拔1860米。华北平原半旱生落叶阔叶林区省境淮河以北及淮河南岸河漫滩地带的皖北平原属此区的淮北平原亚区地势坦荡辽阔为华北平原的南部。海拔多在20～50 米自西北向东南微倾。淮河北侧的支流向东南流入淮河和洪泽湖。平原北部深受黄河泛滥影响近代沉积物覆盖深厚。在排水不畅的低洼和微凹地区有盐碱土和砂姜土分布。农垦历史悠久自然植被多已无存现为人工栽培的侧柏杨柳泡桐刺槐榆等。北亚热带长江中下游平原混交林区省境淮河南岸河漫滩地带以南的皖中丘陵及长江沿江平原属此区的长江下游平原丘陵亚区。由河谷平原、湖盆平原以及与这些平原相毗连的低山、丘陵、岗地等多种地貌类型组成。平原地区农业发达。丘陵地势起伏，大部已垦为农田，其中西部的淠史杭灌溉区水源较丰，东部则水源缺乏，旱灾突出。安徽气候温暖湿润四季分明季风显著。气温一般南高于北全省年平均气温在14-17℃之间一月平均温度为0～4℃七月为27～29℃10℃以上活动积温为4620～5300℃。当强大寒潮过境时往往气温骤降甚至冻害越冬作物。无霜期约为200～250 天。年降水量750～1700 毫米地区分布一般南部多于北部山地多于平原。皖北约750～800 毫米皖中约800～1000毫米沿江一带约1100～1400毫米皖南约1600毫米黄山光明顶为2373毫米是全省降水量最多之地。由于季风和梅雨的不稳定性各地历年最大和最小降水量可相差1～3倍以上夏季各月降水量的逐年变化更大往往引起旱涝灾害。旱灾在皖北以春旱或春夏连旱居多淮河以南多为夏旱或秋旱。涝灾则以淮河流域较多主要出现在7～8月其次为长江流域多出现在6～7月。安徽地处暖温带与亚热带过渡地区，淮河以北为暖温带半湿润季风气候；淮河以南、黄山山脉以北为北亚热带湿润季风气候；黄山山脉以南为中亚热带湿润季风气候。自然植被和土壤亦因此自北而南更迭，即落叶阔叶林-棕壤；落叶阔叶、常绿阔叶混交林-黄棕壤和常绿阔叶林-黄、红壤。在主要栽培作物方面，也依次有小麦、杂粮、麦稻过渡和水稻的差异。省境地跨三大构造单元，淮北和沿淮两侧属于中朝准地台南部，地层中富含前震旦纪的沉积变质铁矿；沿江和皖南属于扬子准地台的东北部分，古生代和三叠纪为海水淹没，广泛沉积了层厚、质纯的白云岩和灰岩，燕山运动期间沿江一带岩浆活动普遍、频繁，形成了具有工业意义的铁、铜、硫、钒、铅、锌、明矾石等矿藏和石油资源。在淮北地区近年又发现了金矿。安徽全省水资源总量约680亿立方米。20世纪50年代以来，因为治淮所需，兴建了多项综合利用水利工程，并开辟了新汴河、茨淮新河等，在防洪、灌溉、航运等方面发挥了显著作用。长江流经安徽南部，境内全长416公里，淮河流经安徽北部，境内全长430公里。长江水系湖泊众多，较大的有巢湖、龙感湖、南漪湖。其中巢湖面积约为825平方公里，为中国五大淡水湖之一。安徽省现辖16个地级市，下设45个市辖区、9个县级市、50个县。2010年第六次人口普查全省常住人口为5950.1万人，同2000年第五次人口普查相比，十年减少35.9万人，下降0.6%，年平均下降0.06 %。普查登记时全省户籍人口为6862.0万人，同2000年第五次全国人口普查相比，十年增加616.7万人，增长9.9%，年平均增长0.95%。全省常住人口中，男性人口为3024.6万人，占50.83%；女性人口为2925.5万人，占49.17%。总人口性别比由2000年第五次人口普查的106.61下降为103.39。2017年，安徽省全年生产总值27518.70亿元，人均44206元，折合6918美元。按可比价格计算，生产总值比上年增长8.5%。分产业看，第一产业增加值2611.7亿元，增长4%；第二产业增加值13486.6亿元，增长8.6%；第三产业增加值11420.4亿元，增长9.7%。三次产业结构由上年的10.5：48.4：41.1调整为9.5:49:41.5，其中工业增加值占GDP比重为41.8%。。与其他省份的经济发展相比安徽属于中等发展速度的省份同时农业经济所占比重较大属于农业大省安徽的经济总量属于中等偏上。和中国其他地区一样安徽经济的发展很大程度上是以牺牲环境为代价的。2007年全省监测的234个河流中20.1%的水质优为～类25.6%的水质良好为类但有31.2%的水质轻度或中度污染为-类更有23.1%的水质重度污染为劣类2007年安徽省会合肥和重要城市铜陵的空气质量仅为三级2007年合肥蚌埠淮南马鞍山芜湖宣城铜陵池州安庆和黄山市10个城市均出现不同程度的酸雨。安徽省大部分地区光热充足降水丰沛雨热同期都有利于农作物的生长加上本省中北部有大片平原土壤也较为肥沃使得本省发展农业的自然条件比较优越。2017年全年粮食种植面积6642.5千公顷比上年减少2.1千公顷。油料种植面积698.3千公顷减少32.8千公顷。棉花种植面积147千公顷减少36.4千公顷。蔬菜种植面积945.1千公顷扩大24.9千公顷。全年粮食产量3476万吨比上年增产58.6万吨增长1.7%。其中夏粮1395.3万吨增产7.6万吨增长0.55%秋粮1984.1万吨增产52万吨增长2.69%。油料产量208.4万吨下降3%。棉花产量14.3万吨下降22.7%。自中华人民共和国成立以来，特别是改革开放以来，安徽省的工业得到长足发展，已经形成了门类比较齐全的工业体系，其中能源、冶金以及重工业占举足轻重之地位。先进制造业和高新技术产业自改革开放以来发展较快，也是近年来本省工业发展的重点。奇瑞汽车是本省汽车工业的标志。近年来，股份制、外商及港澳台商纷纷在安徽投资创办企业。2017年末全省规模以上工业企业20449户比上年净增1067户。全年规模以上工业企业实现利润2285.3亿元增长19.7%。全年规模以上工业增加值比上年增长9%其中国有及国有控股企业增长9.1%股份制企业增长9.1%外商及港澳台商投资企业增长8.5%。分门类看采矿业增长0.5%制造业增长9.5%电力热力燃气及水生产和供应业增长9.2%。2017年全年社会消费品零售总额11192.6亿元比上年增长11.9%扣除价格因素实际增长10%。按经营地统计城镇消费品零售额9009.4亿元增长11.7%乡村消费品零售额2183.2亿元增长13%。按消费类型统计商品零售额9967.4亿元增长11.8%餐饮收入1225.2亿元增长12.6%。限额以上企业商品零售额中，吃、穿、用类商品零售额分别比上年增长14.4%、9.6%和11.7%，粮油类增长10.7%，肉禽蛋类增长12.9%，服装类增长10.9%，日用品类增长12.5%，中西药品类增长8.8%，家用电器和音像器材类增长13.6%，家具类增长23.1%，通讯器材类增长7.9%，建筑及装潢材料类增长9.9%，汽车类增长7.8%，石油及制品类增长17.1%。2017年全年进出口总额536.4亿美元比上年增长20.8%。其中出口304.8亿美元增长7.2%进口231.6亿美元增长45%。从出口经营主体看生产型企业出口增长8.8%贸易型企业出口下降8.5%。从出口商品看机电产品高新技术产品出口分别增长10.1%和27.1%。2020年9月21日安徽自贸区方案正式发布。目前安徽省内主要的铁路线有京沪线、陇海线、京九线、青阜线、阜淮线、淮南线、宣杭线、皖赣线、宁西线、沪蓉线等。高速铁路方面有京沪高速铁路宁安城际铁路合蚌客运专线杭黄客运专线等。安徽省有阜阳站蚌埠站蚌埠南站合肥站合肥南站芜湖站等多个一等客运站和阜阳北站蚌埠东站 芜湖东站淮南西站四个货运一等站。二等客运站有淮南站宿州站滁州站淮北站馬鞍山站铜陵站亳州站黄山站砀山站水家湖站合肥西站绩溪站淮南东站等。目前安徽省有多个城市有城市轨道交通规划在建或运营。合肥轨道交通1号线、2号线、3号线和5号线南段已运营，1号线北延伸、4号线和5号线北段在建，2号线东延伸、3号线南延伸、4号线西延伸、6号线、7号线、8号线和S2线待国务院批准，其中2号线东延伸、3号线南延伸、4号线西延伸、6号线、S2线等已开始前期准备工作，9号线、10号线、11号线、12号线、13号线、14号线、15号线、S1线、S3线、S4线、S5线和S6线等仍在规划中。芜湖轨道交通1号线和2号线在建另有3条城区轨道交通线路和三条市域轨道交通线路在规划中。此外、淮南市、马鞍山市、铜陵市、黄山市、滁州市和阜阳市、安庆市、池州市等均有城市轨道交通规划。安徽省的公路密度位于中国的前列。地市级汽车客运站共14个，县级汽车客运站65个，货运站20个。主要的高速公路有京台高速公路的合徐高速合宁高速合安高速庐铜高速铜汤高速汤屯高速长深高速公路的宁淮高速安徽段济广高速公路的亳阜高速安景高速连霍高速公路安徽段宁洛高速公路的蚌明高速界阜蚌高速沪陕高速公路的合宁高速合六叶高速沪蓉高速公路的合宁高速合徐高速合六叶高速沪渝高速公路的广祠高速宣广高速芜宣高速沿江高速高界高速杭瑞高速公路的徽杭高速宁芜高速公路的宁马高速马芜高速合安高速公路芜合高速公路的芜宣高速合巢芜高速以及合肥绕城高速公路。安徽省大部分地处淮河流域和长江流域，水运条件优越。截至2016年底，安徽省全省内河航道总里程6613公里，通航里程5729公里，航道枢纽97处，其中具备通航功能的49处。根据《安徽省水运建设规划及多条三四五级航道。包括安庆港五个主要港口；宿州港、淮北港、宣城港、黄山港四个一般港口。合肥新桥国际机场、黄山屯溪國際机场、芜湖宣州机场、安庆天柱山机场、阜阳西关机场、池州九华山机场等为安徽省的主要民用机场。同时建设与规划中还有蚌埠滕湖机场宿州机场亳州机场。安徽自古以来是文化发达之地，并经历文化重心从汉唐以前的皖北地区到唐宋以后的皖中南地区的转移。安徽在地域文化上有“吴头楚尾”之说。安徽文化上的较大差异是安徽省内人口对“安徽人”认同感低的一个重要原因。安徽省主要的方言分别是江淮官话、吴语、徽语、中原官话和胶辽官话。安徽地跨淮河、长江、新安江三大流域，文化南北差异巨大。省内的汉语方言分部与使用状况与江苏、浙江、江西等周边省份内部多元的方言状况类似，因此，并不存在某种单一体系的安徽方言或所谓“安徽话”。尤其是位于长江以南的皖南地区，由于自身复杂的地理因素以及历史上多层次的移民冲击，是中国东南地区方言状况最为多元、最为复杂的地区之一。<br>除了皖南山区遍布的客籍方言岛之外，在安徽省内自北向南主要并存着中原官话、江淮官话、赣语、吴语、徽语等五大汉语方言体系，亦因方言与文化习俗之别而对应着中原、江淮、赣府、吴越四大汉族民系族群。根据安徽省有I型大城市1座II型大城市1座。安徽省的城市布局大致为为沿江城市组群和阜阳都市区的发展。规划2030年城镇人口规模500万以上的城市1个（合肥），300-500万的城市1个（芜湖），200-300万的城市4个（蚌埠、淮南、阜阳、马鞍山），100-200万的城市6个（安庆、淮北、滁州、六安、亳州、铜陵、宣城），50-100万的城市3个（黄山、池州、巢湖），20-50万的城市5个（界首、天长、明光、桐城、 宁国）；城镇人口规模20-50万的县城50个，10-20万的县城7个，5-10万的县城6个；城镇人口规模大于5万的镇25个。规划有2座区域性特大城市域性中心13个中心镇200个。由于地域文化的差别安徽菜系众多各地风味差别很大。安徽风味包括皖南沿江沿淮之地的菜点特色。安徽戏曲艺术传统深厚戏曲剧种现存20余个主要的传统戏剧有徽剧黄梅戏庐剧凤阳花鼓戏泗州戏亳州梆剧阜南嗨子戏贵池傩戏青阳腔岳西高腔安徽目连戏安徽戏安徽端公戏沙河调泗洲戏坠子戏含弓戏芜湖梨簧戏文南词皖南花鼓戏淮北花鼓戏世界名曲茉莉花起源于安徽省境内的天长市。根據2007年和2009年進行的調查，安徽有4.64％的人口有祖先崇拜，5.3％的人口是基督徒。根據2010年的一項調查，穆斯林占安徽人口的0.58％。報告沒有提供其他宗教的統計數字；89.48％的人口無宗教或信奉中國民間宗教，佛教，儒教和道教。位于休宁县的齐云山是中国道教四大名山之一。位于青阳县的九华山是中国佛教四大名山之一山上寺庙林立为地藏菩萨道场。1950年代安徽省新教有20多个教派信徒共5万人。其中中华内地会17000多人集中在阜阳一带长老会信徒15000人中心在怀远宿縣神学班招收2届学生之后停办。之后有一年制义工培训班开设若干年。安徽省的公教基督徒变化不大人数仍然保持在6万人的规模。主要分布在北部原来的蚌埠教区。信徒为本省的回族主要分布在北部淮河流域。全省共有2处世界遗产、10处国家重点风景名胜区、5座国家历史文化名城、9座省级历史文化名城、4座中国历史文化名村、56处全国重点文物保护单位、451处省级文物保护单位。2010年末全省共有研究生培养单位18个，在学研究生38991人。普通高校100所，在校生93.9万人，高等教育毛入学率24.3%，比上年上升2个百分点。各类中等职业教育在校生87.3万人。普通高中743所，在校生127.6万人，高中阶段毛入学率80%，比上年上升5.8个百分点。普通初中2995所，在校生279万人，初中阶段适龄人口入学率99.22%。小学13997所，在校生460.4万人，小学学龄儿童入学率99.93%。各级各类成人学校毕业生39.8万人。全面实施免费义务教育，受益学生739.5万人。安徽教育发达，省会合肥市是全国四大科教城市之一，安徽还是国家科技创新试点省，拥有中国科学技术大学、安徽大学、合肥工业大学、安徽师范大学等国家重点大学以及诸多科研机构。安徽省目前共有21个友好省州、友好省区、友好省县、友好省际，分布情形为亚洲5个，非洲2个，美洲3个，欧洲10个和大洋洲1个： +甘肃省，甘肃，简称甘或陇，是中华人民共和国省份，位於中国西北地区、黄河上游，省会为兰州市，面积45万平方公里，排名第7。“甘肃”因甘州（今张掖）与肃州（今酒泉）而得名。甘肃为华夏文明的发祥地天水的伏羲文化历史久远被称为伏羲故里。在甘肃秦安县发现的就在礼县一带。甘肃在春秋时代东南部属于秦国西部属于西戎公元前688年在现在天水一带秦国设置了邽县前280年设置陇西北地二郡。汉代由于张骞通西域河西走廊成为的必经要道以及许多新的城镇兴起汉武帝在现在甘肃一带将黄河以西分置四郡黄河以东置五郡统归凉州管辖。十六国时代有5个国家在甘肃境内建都。南北朝时代属北魏当时佛教从西域传入在甘肃境内大兴石窟目前最重要的有敦煌石窟麦积山石窟炳灵寺石窟等。唐代重视通向西域的交通要道甘肃一带的作用，将其分置关内道、陇右道和山南道，共辖22州，其中在河西走廊最大的是甘州。安史之乱之后，甘肃倍受战乱，异族侵入，宋代时归属西夏。西夏將唐代的甘、肅兩州的首字合併，设置“甘肃军”，从此正式称为甘肃。成吉思汗大军进攻西夏时，死于甘肃，遗体虽然运回蒙古，现在甘肃兴隆山上有成吉思汗衣冠冢。1261年，忽必烈在甘肅立西夏中興行省，治中興府。直至1286年，該省遷治甘州路，並正式改名為甘肃行中书省。延至明代，甘肅行省被劃入陕西布政使司。至清康熙二年，分陕西省西部為鞏昌省，五年改稱甘肅省，管辖整个西域。1884年慈禧太后主政时将新疆单独划出。1929年，中华民国政府将青海、宁夏单独置省。甘肃维持目前的省境。1963年西北各省最后划定省界。甘肃处于中国地理的中心轮廓是细长形的位于青藏蒙新、黄土三大高原交汇处，其西北一端与蒙古国接壤。东部是起伏较大的黄土高原海拔1500－2000米黄河及其支流渭河洮河等流贯水力资源丰富秦岭以南为白龙江流域气候温湿植物茂密年降水量500毫米左右西部乌鞘岭以西分別為南北兩山對峙所形成的河西走廊南山以祁连山為主山勢高大多在三四千公尺以上北山則較為低矮主要有龙首山合黎山等區域內的河川是內陸水系多半是由南往北流有疏勒河及弱水等其中以弱水流域面積最大气候干燥年降水量150毫米左右以半荒漠和荒漠为主由于祁连山融雪灌溉在山麓形成沖積扇走廊中有河流的地方形成相连的绿洲是甘肃的粮仓外面则是山地和沙漠。六盘山以西植被稀少，以东降水丰富，植被繁茂。西南角和青藏高原接壤，是高山草原，水草丰美的天然牧场。甘肃省现辖12个地级市2个自治州下设17个市辖区5个县级市57个县7个自治县。根据第七次全国人口普查数据甘肃省有人口25019831人与2010年相比年平均增长率为-0.22%居住在城镇的人口为13067332人占52.23%居住在乡村的人口为11952499人占47.77%。甘肃历史上就是以漢族為主多民族混合的地方。自古甘肅就有眾多民族雜居。少数民族总数为223万人占总人口的8.69％。人数较多的少数民族依次是回族118万东乡族45万藏族44万土族3万满族1.7万蒙古族1.6万保安族1.5万裕固族1.3万撒拉族1.2万。甘肃现有2个自治州临夏回族自治州和甘南藏族自治州7个自治县阿克塞哈萨克族自治县肃北蒙古族自治县肃南裕固族自治县天祝藏族自治县张家川回族自治县东乡族自治县积石山保安族东乡族撒拉族自治县。甘肃省河西地区属于农业发达地区，国家商品粮基地，模式以绿洲农业为主，甘肃粮食主要出口地区。相对日照丰富，水果质量非常高，著名的兰州白兰瓜、秦安蜜桃远销全国多个城市以及静宁苹果在全国享有盛誉。东郭梨在成熟时须用木杆撑起枝条以防止压断树枝，此外尚有醉瓜（有酒香）、铁蛋瓜等多种瓜果。河西走廊的张掖武威酒泉因位于丝绸之路的要道之上又有雪水浇灌之利历史上农牧业及商贸发达被称作。地方小吃有闻名全国的兰州牛肉面天水呱呱静宁烧鸡静宁锅盔靖远酸烂肉武威面皮子张掖牛肉小饭山丹炒拨拉东乡手抓等。地方特产有闻名全国的苦水玫瑰、静宁苹果、兰州百合、天梯山人参果、临泽小枣、兰州白兰瓜、民乐大蒜、唐汪杏等。甘肃是新兴的工业基地，是石油工业、有色金属、钢铁工业和化工工业的重要基地。是新疆石油的主要加工地点，是中国石化工业的奠基和摇篮。甘肃也是中国镍、铝的主要产区和加工基地。酒泉航天中心是中国四个航天基地中最早建设的。风能资源总储量为2.37亿千瓦居中国第五位其中可开发利用的风能资源总量为2000万千瓦。甘肃畜牧业发达著名品种有“河曲马”和“欧拉羊”。山地牧草稀少仅能供耐受艰苦环境的驴生长形成了独特的驴类畜牧。甘肃的旅游资源丰富，但旅游业亟待建设，独特的自然风景有丹霞地貌，雅丹地貌，沙漠地形；人文旅游资源有古城敦煌、夏河拉卜楞寺、天水麦积山石窟等。武威出土的汉代铜奔马更是中国旅游的标志。不仅如此，还有被称为“亚洲第一天然草场”的玛曲，怪石屹立的大峪沟，阿角沟。更有美味的蕨菜，蘑菇，狼肚，虫草等。甘肃省内的全国重点文物保护单位可参考甘肃全国重点文物保护单位列表。甘肃的地域文化为古老的秦陇文化的一部分以黄河中上游的干支流河谷平原地带形成的典型旱作农耕文化为代表曾在中国历史上产生深刻影响。根據2012年的一項調查，只有約12％的甘肅人口屬於有組織的宗教，最大的群體是佛教徒，佔8.2％，其次是穆斯林占3.4％，新教基督徒佔0.4％，公教基督徒佔0.1％，甘肅基督徒總數0.5％。大約88％的人口無宗教或信仰佛教，儒教，道教和中國民間信仰。甘肃省拥有以兰州大学为首的众多高等教育机构。其中兰州大学位列上海合作组织大学成员设有研究生院是一所综合性全国重点大学和中国西北地区重点教育枢纽。据美国《科学引文索引》（SCI）统计兰州大学是中国在国际学术刊物上发表论文最多引用率较高的大学之一。1945年抗日战争结束前夕陇海铁路通车至天水。1952年天兰铁路建成通车，1956年兰新铁路建成通车，1980年代从乌鲁木齐至哈萨克斯坦的铁路通车，现在甘肃已经成为连接连云港到伦敦的欧亚大陆桥的重要组成部分。目前，甘肃省主要的铁道路线有：陇海线、兰新线、包兰线、兰青线、干武线、敦煌线、寶蘭客運專線、兰新第二双线、兰渝线、天平铁路、兰成线（建设中）。高速公路纵贯甘肃全境。甘肃省共有五座机场。位于兰州市永登县中川镇的兰州中川机场，每周有飞往香港和新加坡的旅游包机。省内有109、212、213、215、227、309、310、312、316国道过境，西气东输管道过境，因甘肃的地理特征（狭长的一字型走廊），构成了交通、通讯、能源大通道。 +廣東省，簡稱粵，為中华人民共和国南部沿海省份，省會為廣州。之意，后称广信以东区域为广东，宋至道三年。广东是中国大陸最早进行改革開放的省份之一，经济总量自1989年起常年居于中国大陆首位，是中国大陆经济第一大省，其中包括中国两大一线城市广州、深圳在内的珠江三角洲地区。廣東省內亦有9座围绕伶仃洋的城市， 與周邊的特別行政區香港、澳門共同組成粵港澳大灣區，区域内人口總數達7,000萬，是中國經濟實力最強的地區。 在经济起飞的同时，广东亦吸引大量外來人口移居，人口总量由1950年代的中国第六位跃升为中国之首，截至2020年，全省常住人口为1.26亿。广东的汉族居民，主要可分爲廣府、客家、閩海三大族群，此外還有不同的少數民族，其中人數最多的爲壯族，語言、傳統風俗等方面都有著自身的獨特性。舊石器時代中期 廣東省內的韶關曲江区有馬壩人生活 雲浮和肇慶市的封開縣都有居民。 而從香港大埔區黄地峒遗址文化中可得知早在四萬年前珠三角一帶已進入中石器時代其時華東還在冰蓋的覆蓋之下。秦朝以前廣東是嶺南百越人聚居之地稱為。前887年建立的楚庭建都於番禺即今廣州。廣東成為南越國政權的中心地帶。前111年漢武帝滅南越復置南海郡。前106年划入交州包含今越南北纬13度以北全境。三國時代吳226年分交州合浦以北地段即今廣東地區及廣西中部置為廣州。晉及南北朝因之。隋文帝在位時廢南海郡置廣州總管府。601年因避太子楊廣之諱而改為番州。607年復置南海郡屬番州。唐621年復置廣州初為總管府後改都督府。627年置嶺南道。758年罷嶺南道採訪使改設嶺南節度使僅轄今廣東地區。862年嶺南分東西二道今廣東屬嶺南東道。唐末諸藩崛起南漢國在嶺南立國廢嶺南道而廣東成為南漢政權的中心地區直轄於南漢朝廷。宋太祖971年滅南漢廢其建制復置嶺南道。997年設廣南東路獲認為是今日一名出處。元朝1278年廣東屬江西等處行中書省並設廣東道宣慰使。明朝1369年5月改廣東道為廣東行省。1376年7月廣東行省改為廣東承宣佈政使司通稱廣東省。清朝時廣東省受兩廣總督管轄。1840年，鸦片战争在广东广州爆发。其后土客冲突、广东洪兵起义、英法联军之役相继爆发，战火甚至席卷全中国。不少广东人也开始移民，有为淘金，有的则为战俘而被卖猪仔而至西方、英属印度、等地。19世纪末辛亥革命黨人丘逢甲等引进西学创办和推广新式学校。康有为梁启超等人在广东发起维新运动使清政府于1905年末颁布新学制废除科举制并在全国范围内推广新式学堂西学逐渐成为学校教育的主要形式。至维新失败孙中山等又在广东开展反清革命事业如发动黄花岗起义等。至1922年孙中山又于广州筹措建立军政府酿起广州商团事变致使多间商铺毁于一旦不少商铺开始有人迁往香港澳门。1924年孙中山获得苏联资助于广州建立黄埔军校由蒋中正担任校长周恩来作政治部主任为中国的两大党派国民党以及共产党培养大量人才。1911年11月9日廣東省宣佈獨立成立軍政府成為中華民國轄地。1916年7月6日改為文人政府。其後多次成為孫中山先生反北洋政府運動的大本營。1918年2月13日发生震级为7.5级的汕头大地震是广东省有历史记载以来最严重的一次地震华人城镇房屋几乎全部倒塌驻汕各国领事和洋商耶同罹巨劫其中法国荷兰领事馆倒塌而英国日本和美国领事馆也受损严重最终造成1000人死亡。震后汕头民众和海外华侨开始城市重建。1922年8月2日，台风登陆汕头，并给汕头地区带来严重破坏，这也是20世纪中国最严重的一次台风灾害，造成约6万到10万人死亡，史称1922年汕头台风。1926年11月10日軍政府改稱省政府。陳濟棠主政期間廣東經濟文化交通和城市建設有顯著發展。1938年10月21日至1945年8月15日部份地區先后淪陷在日本手中。早在1927年中共在广州起义首次建立红色政权。至1978年习仲勋担任广东省省委书记时期主政广东广东成为中国改革开放的试验田促使中国进入改革开放时期。1950年6月27日中國人民解放軍攻佔珠海萬山群島廣東省政府初年沿用中華民國政府制度但改省政府為省人民政府。1968年2月21日改稱廣東省革命委員會。1979年復為省人民政府。中華人民共和國建國以後廣東行政區域有所調整包括將懷集由廣西劃入廣東將欽州防城港北海由廣東劃入廣西1988年將海南獨立建省等。1943年广东饥荒饿死300万人在广东大量广东人逃难到其他部分。文化大革命期间最为严重所有已知发生屠杀的县平均非正常死亡人数为278人。 此外在广东的部分城市当中亦发生了屠杀事件比如广州吊劳改犯事件造成至少187-197人死亡。广东接邻省区有福建、江西、湖南、广西、海南、香港及澳门特別行政區。地处中国南部，北依南岭山脉、东北为武夷山脉，南临南海，海岸线长3368公里，海洋面积419,000平方公里，海岛1963个，总面积1513.17平方千米，是中国海域面积第二大的省份。北回归线从省内横跨经过。广东地貌类型复杂多样山地丘陵分别占全省土地总面积的33.7%24.9%台地和平原佔14.2%和21.7%河流和湖泊等占5.5%总体地勢北高南低北部多为山地和高丘陵最高峰石坑崆位于阳山县乳源县与湖南省的交界处海拔1902米山脉以北东―南西走向居多如斜贯粤西粤中和粤东北的罗平山脉和粤东的莲花山脉粤北的山脉则多为向南拱出的弧形山脉粤东和粤西有少量北西―南东走向的山脉。中部和南部沿海地區多為低丘陵台地或平原。平原以珠江三角洲面积最大其次为潮汕平原此外还有高要清远杨村和惠阳等冲积平原。台地以雷州半岛―电白―阳江一带和海丰―潮阳一带分布较多。基岩岩石以花岗岩最为普遍砂岩和变质岩也较多粤西粤北还有较大片的石灰岩分布丹霞山湖光岩先后被评为世界地质公园。广东省雖地處南方，絕大部份地區都屬於副熱帶季風氣候，因此仍有明顯四季，夏季炎熱多雨，冬季溫和乾燥。境内多年平均降水量1774毫米，是最受颱風侵襲的中國省份。其中粵北地區氣溫平均最低，若有寒氣南下，冬季甚至有下雪；廣東南部雷州半岛地区屬於熱帶季風氣候，全年平均氣溫都相比其他城市為高。明朝至中華人民共和國成立初期，廣東政區範圍包括現廣東省內區域、廣西沿海一帶及海南島。1952年，欽廉專區劃歸廣西，原屬廣西梧州的懷集劃入廣東。1955年，欽州專區重歸廣東。1965年，欽州專區再度劃入廣西。1987年撤销广東省唯一的自治州海南黎族苗族自治州 , 1988年海南行政區劃出，另設海南省，形成現時的廣東版圖。廣東省現轄21個地級市，其中廣州、深圳兩市行政級別為副省級。全省合共有122個縣級行政區，包括65個市轄區、20個縣級市、34個縣、3個自治縣。香港和澳門歷史上成為英國和葡萄牙殖民地之前分別屬於廣東省的寶安縣和香山縣但回歸中華人民共和國後卻是設為特別行政區而非併入廣東省根據香港特別行政區基本法和澳門特別行政區基本法明確禁止省級政府干預特別行政區地方政治。因此特區政府與廣東省政府之間的溝通解決許多與香港和澳門有關的問題如邊境政策和水權的問題有关。秦汉时期之前，广东因地理位置与中原隔绝，地势低湿，环境恶劣，经济发展缓慢，长期落后于中原地区。秦汉时期，随着农业、手工业、商业以及陆海交通的发展，番禺城海上贸易非常发达，是当时中国重要的商业中心。唐开元年间，宰相张九龄召集民夫，开凿大庾岭新道以沟通南北，广东与中原的经济、文化交流日益增多。在唐代，广东开始中国最早的商品性鱼苗育养，荔枝等经济作物种植业发达，纺织陶瓷制品在中国市场占重要地位，广州成为当时国内最大的对外贸易港口，市舶贸易十分繁荣。宋元时期，珠江三角洲地区的荒丘沙坦得到進一步垦辟開發，粮食产量大大提高，市镇经济得到进一步发展，佛山成为除广州外的岭南第二大商贸中心。明清时期，珠江三角洲淤积加速推动沙田围垦，乾隆年间放宽政策后，海坦围垦面积迅速增加，果基鱼塘、桑基鱼塘的耕作形式兴起，逐渐形成大小不等的农业商品生产的专业区域，社会经济跃居中国先进行列。清中期实行一口通商政策后粤海关成为中国对外通商的唯一口岸中国的海上进出口商品集中在广州一地交易由十三行所垄断。鸦片战争之后广州由中国总集散中心的地位转变为东南沿海地区的集散中心广东的对外贸易急剧衰退。与此同时侨商兴办的中国第一家机器缫丝厂广东经济达到中华人民共和国建国前的最高水平。抗日战争前期广东作为主要的战时物资通道对外贸易和省际贸易空前繁荣广东沦陷后近代工业基础幾近完全摧毁商业萧条经济遭到严重破坏。抗战胜利后广东经济曾一度得以恢复但又因国共内战而陷入停滞。中华人民共和国成立后，广东经济进入新发展时期，在土地改革和“三大改造”完成后实行高度集中的计划经济管理体制。由于地处国防前线，广东缺乏国家重点项目的大规模投资，连续的政治运动亦严重冲击广东社会经济的发展。1953~1978年，广东国内生产总值年均增长5.2%，人均国内生产总值年均增长3%，低于中国平均增长水平。1979年7月15日，中共中央、国务院决定下放更多經濟自主权予广东、福建两省对外经济活动。1980年8月26日，五届全国人大常委会第十五次会议批准在广东省内的深圳、珠海、汕头设置经济特区。广东充分利用国家赋予的先行政策和毗邻港澳的地缘优势，逐步推行经济体制改革，通过“三来一补”、“三资企业”等经营模式，引进外资及先进的技术、管理经验，承接港澳台加工制造业转移，大力发展纺织、食品、小家电为代表的轻工业，与港澳地区形成“前店后厂”的分工合作格局，由原来经济实力在中国处于中等水平，一跃成为经济最发达的省份。1989年，广东GDP以1381.39亿元超过江苏的1321.85亿元，经济总量首次跃居全国第一。20世纪90年代中后期以来，广东重点发展电子信息、医药技术等高新技术产业及石化、能源、汽车等装备制造工业，先后提出發展珠江三角洲高新技术产业带和珠江东岸高端电子信息制造产业带、珠江西岸先进装备制造产业带。目前，电子信息、汽车制造和电气机械已成为广东工业的三大支柱产业，并涌现出华为、中兴、OPPO、VIVO、广汽、比亚迪、美的、TCL、格力、创维、康佳等一批国内外知名品牌。1978年至今，广东地区生产总值年均增长12.6%，高過同期中国平均增速3.1个百分点，高過世界平均增速9.7个百分点，远高于20世纪新加坡、韩国、日本经济起飞时期的平均增速，GDP先后在1998年超越新加坡、2003年超越香港、2007年超越台湾，是亚洲经济总量最大的一级行政区。广东省以中国第一经济大省的地位在许多经济指标上都列各省第一位。如地区生产总值社会消费品零售总额居民储蓄存款专利申请量税收进出口总额旅游总收入移动电话拥有量互联网用户货物运输周转总量等。其中进出口总额年均占中国约1/4从1985年至2008年连续23年居中国第一年财政总收入占中国约1/7累计吸引外商投资占中国约1/4GDP从1989年至2013年连续24年居中国第一。但人均生活水准有待提高珠三角与粤东粤西两翼以及粤北山区的社会经济发展长期存在明显差异。2015年广东地区生产总值为72812.55亿元人民币人均GDP达10838美元。在省会广州举办的每年两届的广交会是中国出口贸易的晴雨表，支撑广东省内外贸易和出口加工业多年的持续发展。广东是中国国内区域发展非常不平衡的省份主要经济活动高度集中于重点发展区域珠江三角洲地区珠三角以外的地区基础设施建设及社会发展水平均相对滞后各市经济发展水平参差不齐全省人均GDP低于全國平均水平的地级市由2000年的8个上升至2020年的16个。截至2020年全省21个地级市中除经济实力较强的廣州深圳珠海佛山東莞五市以外超过三分之二的地级市人均GDP未达全國平均水平其中廣州深圳人均GDP已达到高收入經濟體水平而全省人均GDP最低的梅州仍低于全国最低省份甘肃省的平均水平经济落差程度为全国之首省內人均生产总值落后于江苏浙江福建等经济大省。时任中共广东省委书记汪洋曾指出“全国最富的地方在广东最穷的地方也在广东”央视新闻频道亦曾以《穷广东调查》作专题报道。而珠三角内部也存在发展不平衡的问题珠江两岸呈现“东强西弱”的发展格局珠江西岸的发展显著落后于东岸地区。根据地理位置及发展程度广东省内的经济区域可大致划分珠三角地区和粤东西北地区两者经济总量差距悬殊且呈现不断扩大的趋势。珠三角地区的GDP总量占全省的比重由1995年珠江三角洲经济区成立初期的68.6%升至2020年的80.8％在省内占据绝对优势而剩余的粤东西北地区十二市合计在各项指标的占比不足两成。2020年粤东西北地区无一地级市居民可支配收入达到全国平均线全体居民人均可支配收入為24716.7元僅為珠三角地區的45％全省的60％全國的77％與廣西青海河南水平相當。在官方层面上，1993年，广东省第七次党代会就提出“中部地区领先，东西两翼齐飞，广大山区崛起”的区域经济发展战略，1994年10月，广东省委提出建立珠江三角洲经济区，让这一地区在广东率先实现现代化。1998年，广东省将广州、深圳两市确定为中心城市，并根据经济发展水平和地理区位将全省划分为珠三角、东翼、西翼和北部山区四个经济区域，并细分成中心城市-经济特区及珠三角地区-东西两翼-山区-贫困地区五个发展层次。2018年7月，广东省委十二届四次全会提出“一核一带一区”区域发展格局，将省内经济区域划分为以广州、深圳为主的珠三角核心区、以粤东、粤西地区为主的沿海经济带（又称东西两翼地区，包括汕头、汕尾、阳江、湛江、茂名、潮州、揭阳7个地级市）、以粤北山区为主的北部生态发展区（包括韶关、河源、梅州、清远、云浮5个地级市）。广东第一产占经济的比重相对较小，2010年第一产业增加值为2,286.86亿元，占经济总量的5.02%。农业以水稻种植为主，经济作物为甘蔗、热带水果和茶叶，广东为中国主要反季节蔬菜出产省份。肉类以牲猪和家禽为主，水产品生产以近海养殖和海洋捕捞为主。广东为中国第二大水产品出产省份和第三大海产品出产省份。2009年广东省第二产业增加值19419.70亿元（合2842.88亿美元）占中国的10.79%居省级行政区的第1位占广东省GDP比重为49.19%高于三产业47.52%的比重。其中工业（制造业）18091.56亿元（合2648.45亿美元）占中国的比重达到11.49%占广东二产的比重达到93.16%占广东GDP比重达到45.82%建筑业1328.14亿元（合194.43亿美元）占中国的比重仅为5.93%占广东二产的比重为6.84%占广东GDP比重仅为3.36%。上古时期，广东境内未得到大规模的开发，地旷人稀。先秦时期，广东境内原住有百越中的南越（聚居于现珠江三角洲地区）、西瓯（聚居于现粤西北地区）、骆越（聚居于现粤西地区）、闽越（聚居于现粤东地区）等族群居民。自秦进兵统一岭南后，留戍军队，谪徙罪徒，中原人陆续南迁入粤，其后又有两晋南北朝、两宋末年、明朝末年大量北方人口为避战乱的几次南迁移民高潮，人口总量由西汉初年的37万余人增至清朝中期的近1500万人。清嘉庆十七年（1812年）广东人口数为1890万，同治元年（1862年）为2882万，一跃成为中国人口較多的省份之一。清末至民国时期，社会动荡，广东人口增长缓慢，还出现大批粤人移居海外谋生的“下南洋”浪潮， 而當中五邑地區有不少人更遠渡重洋到美國，美洲，大洋洲等地區謀生。中华人民共和国建国后，尤其是改革开放之后，来广东务工经商的外来人口迅速增加，常住人口向珠三角超大城市集聚。2007年，广东常住人口达9449万人，首次成为中国第一人口大省。目前，广东常住人口已突破一亿，是中国国内首个常住人口超过一亿的省份。珠江三角洲地区占广东全省常住人口比重超过六成是全国人口增长速度最快的地区广州深圳东莞三市常住人口超过1000万深圳更是中国内地人口密度最大的城市。经济欠发达的粤东西北地区为人口净流出地区户籍人口长期低于常住人口粤东粤西粤北占全省常住人口比重均在12％-13％之间茂名湛江梅州揭阳净流出人口均在百万以上其中揭阳汕尾河源潮州湛江六市常住人口规模已经出现缩减状态。据中國2010年第六次全国人口普查2010年11月1日全省常住人口为10430.31万人居中國各省之首。2020年第七次全国人口普查显示2020年11月1日广东省常住人口12601.25万人在中国各省市自治区中保持首位。在人口组成中汉族人口为10223.97万人占98.02%各少数民族人口为206.34万人占1.98%。城镇人口为6902.78万人占66.18%。乡村的人口为3527.53万人占33.82%。全省常住人口中共有家庭户2774.74万户家庭户人口为8868.17万人平均每个家庭户的人口为3.20人。全省常住人口中，男性人口为5439.74万人，占52.15%；女性人口为4990.57万人，占47.85%。0-14岁人口为1761.82万人，占16.89%。15-64岁人口为7964.56万人，占76.36%。65岁及以上人口为703.93万人，占6.75%。大学（指大专以上）程度的人口为856.73万人。高中（含中专）程度的人口为1780.68万人。初中程度的人口为4475.99万人。小学程度的人口为2394.43万人。文盲人口（15岁及以上不识字的人）为204.17万人。全省常住人口中户口登记地在其他县且离开户口登记地半年以上的人口为人3128.17万人佔常住人口的30.00%其中属于省外的为2149.88万人省内的为978.29万人。廣東古爲百越之地民族成分複雜多樣。隨著歷史上漢人南遷民族間不斷融合現在廣東以漢族人佔絕大多數少數民族有瑤族壯族苗族黎族畲族等。廣東的漢族居民，主要可分為广府三大族群。上述族群都是混合同化岭南地区最早的原住民百越诸族而形成的南方汉族，在語言、習俗上各有自己的特色。区别三大族群的重要特征是不同的地方語言即以广州方音为标准音的白话称为粤語以梅州市区方言为标准音的客家话称为客語以汕頭方言為標準音的潮州話屬於閩語。其中广府人在广东三大民系中分布范围最广是广东风俗文化的主要代表广府文化在各个领域中常作为粤文化的代称如粤语粤剧等。廣東本地的漢語包括粤语軍話正話等少數民族的語言包括連山壯語勉語畲語等。廣東的主流語言分別屬漢語族中的粵語客家话閩語。尤值一提的是廣東的廣州話和梅县話分別是粵語和客家話的代表音可見廣東汉语分支在所有汉语分支中佔有重要地位。改革开放以后大量外省籍人口涌入广东居住普通话漸於廣東通行并从根本上改变广东語言的使用版圖在外来人口较多的地区普通话已取代当地居民常用的語言成为主要通用语言。因推广普通话政策本土語言在本地行政机构学校傳媒等公共服务场合的生存空间大大缩减普通话成为主导语言更有地方出现使用本地語言的“惩罚措施”例如在学校内禁止学生使用粤语等“方言”交谈否则会受罚。在普通话强势的语言环境下粤语潮汕话客家话在年轻一代中使用频率降低并淡出日常生活使用本土语言的日渐式微弱化流失也引起相关社会人的担忧不少相关人员希望政府社会学校等方面重视行政部门在语言传承方面有所作为学校有意识营造有利于本土語言传承的氛围社会上能增加本土语言在公共领域中的使用范围和频率。又称广东话省内又通称广府话广州话白话是广东省内影响力最大使用人口最多的地方语言省内使用的人口近4000万人。广东省内以珠江三角洲及粵西地區为分布中心下属有粵海片勾漏片四邑片莞宝片高雷片等分区各片小有差别四邑片与粤海片差异最大。广东省内以粤语使用者为主的城市包括广州佛山东莞中山珠海江门肇庆阳江云浮茂名清远此外粤语还通行于广东省的深圳湛江韶关惠州和汕尾的部分地区。粤海片中的廣州話是粵語約定俗成的標準口音。海外華人多稱粵語爲，是一門獨立的語言。通称客话或客语又名“麻介话”“棚民话”“新民话”是省内分布最广的一种地方語言因客家人南迁广东后往各地分散迁徙全省除汕头外均有客家話区或客家話島。广东省是客家话最重要的流行地省内使用的人口约1500万人。廣東的客家话主要分布在粵東和粵北一帶語言學界以老梅县音爲客家話的代表口音。广东省内以客家话使用者为主的城市包括河源梅州惠州此外客家话还通行于深圳东莞汕尾韶关的部分地区全省其他地区亦有零星分布。广东的闽語分布也非常广泛包括粤东的潮州话海陆丰话和粤西雷州半岛的雷州话。潮州话亦称潮汕话为广东省的潮汕地区的主要語言。海陆丰话又称学佬话其口音接近泉漳闽南语主要流行于广东省的汕尾市的城区陆丰市海丰县及惠州市的惠东县博罗县部分地区。雷州话又叫黎话主要流行于湛江市原属旧雷州府的三县海康徐闻和遂溪。广东省内以闽南語使用者为主的城市包括潮州汕头揭阳汕尾此外闽語还通行于惠州梅州湛江茂名的部分地区另在中山市和珠海市等地还有不少闽语岛其口音接近福建闽南语统称为中山闽语又称村话。潮州话、海陆丰话、中山闽语均為閩南語的方言。而雷州话原先被视為閩南語的一种方言，如今改為歸属閩語瓊雷話。全省使用閩語的人口约1700万人。廣東歷史悠久，具有獨特文化，主要有廣府文化、潮汕文化、客家文化、雷州文化、海陸豐文化等分支。開平碉樓是廣東首個世界文化遺産項目，潮汕善堂是中國民間慈善的典範，客家圍屋獲認爲是東南亞土著文化代表建築。粵菜屬於中國八大菜系之一，譽滿中國，在中國國外華人聚居區也廣受歡迎。粵劇是中國著名劇種，舞獅與潮汕英歌舞都是非常有特色。广东的饮食天下闻名。广东地处亚热带雨量充沛四季常青物产富饶故食材得天独厚。一般而言广州菜以原汁原味潮州菜以精致典雅著称客家菜则偏重咸。广东人亦普遍喜欢飲茶常見包括普洱鐵觀音壽眉馬騮搣其中以潮州工夫茶最为有名。著名的有广州菜潮州菜客家菜飲茶（廣東點心）潮州工夫茶客家擂茶。根據2012年的一項調查，廣東只有約7％的人口屬於有組織的宗教，最大的信仰群體是佛教徒，佔6.2％，其次是新教基督徒佔0.8％，天主教基督徒佔0.2％。大約93％的人口無宗教信仰或為信奉中國民間信仰、祖先崇拜、道教、佛教、儒家思想和自然神靈崇拜。根據一項2007年的調查，廣東有43.71％的人口崇拜祖先。2005年底廣東有道教信徒13萬人博羅縣羅浮山衝虛古觀列爲全國重點道觀。廣東佛教信徒有約32萬人教徒人数居广东第一大多分布于珠三角和潮汕地区。列爲漢族地區佛教全國重點寺院的有韶關南華禅寺廣州六榕寺光孝寺乳源縣雲門寺肇慶慶雲寺潮陽靈山寺潮州開元寺。南華禅寺是禅宗祖庭。目前僅廣州、肇慶有約2萬名穆斯林。建于廣州的懷聖寺光塔可以追溯到唐宋時期。現代主要來自新疆的穆斯林小群落近年也开始迁入深圳市经营標榜清真風味的面館。在梅林附近有一所清真寺文錦渡的一間清真餐館是穆斯林教徒在深圳比較重要的聚會點而还有穆斯林小規模聚居在龍崗區布吉街道。廣東天主教信徒計有20万人，大部分属于汕头教区。肇庆是明代传教士利玛窦首先进入的中国城市。广州教区的石室聖心大教堂是一座著名的哥德式建筑，建在潮州市的圣母进教之佑大堂规模在省内是仅次于圣心主教座堂的。廣東是基督新教最早傳入中國的地區。1949年廣東有9萬基督新教信徒，屬于基督新徒較多的省份；現在可統計新教徒約30萬人，信徒中多數分布于东部地區、廣州市和深圳市。近代以来广东因其特殊的地理位置和人文环境成为西学东渐的首播之地是中西文化交汇的津梁。从十九世纪六十年代开始一批具有早期维新思想的知识分子便在粤著书立说主张效法西方的先进技术和制度提倡通过改良和变法实现国家富强并促成学习西方知识的风气。西学教育在广东逐渐形成规模对促进晚清教育改革和开启民智发挥非常重要的作用同时也推动维新思想在广东的产生和发展。而何子渊丘逢甲等教育先驱正是此段历史的参与者和见证者。广东重视教育但与经济发展失衡一样存在教育资源不平衡的现象。粤北山区粤西粤东与珠三角的教育资源存在差距。广州是中国高校分布極為密集的城市之一。广东省内著名的大学有位於廣州的中山大学华南理工大学华南农业大学华南师范大学暨南大学位於深圳的深圳大学南方科技大学位於汕頭的汕頭大學等。广东省现拥有5支职业足球队5支职业籃球队3支职业羽毛球队1支女子乒乓球俱乐部1支职业排球球队1支半職業棒球隊。深圳队曾夺得2004年中超联赛冠军。广州队则是2013年亚冠联赛2015年亚冠联赛冠军 2011年中超联赛-2016年中超联赛冠军2012年中国足协杯冠军以及2007年中甲联赛2010年中甲联赛冠军。在职业联赛开始前广东足球队也曾夺得两次顶级联赛冠军。广东海印曾夺得1997年女足超级联赛冠军。广州队也是2004年室内足球联赛杯赛双冠军和2007年沙滩足球锦标赛冠军。除职业球队之外广东足球队曾夺得20次省港盃和在全運会足球比赛中两次夺得金牌广州市代表队也曾在1991年夺得全国城市运动会足球赛金牌。广东宏远篮球队从2003-2004赛季开始至今获得最近10个赛季的CBA联赛的8次冠军。广东凤铝广州六穗都曾夺得过NBL冠军。广东代表团在第3569届全运会金牌榜排名第一。在奥运会上广东运动员共获得26枚金牌。廣東曾举办中华人民共和国第六届和第九届全运会。1991年举办第一届女子世界杯足球赛。广州于2010年11月12日至12月27日举行第16届夏季亚洲运动会。深圳在2011年8月12日至8月23日举办2011年世界大学生运动会。广东省运动会是广东省内规模最大的综合性运动会，每四年举行一次。 +贵州省简称贵别称黔是中華人民共和国西南地区的一个省份位于云贵高原东部。省会是贵阳市。貴州介于东经103°36′-109°35′北纬24°37′-29°13′之间东毗湖南南邻广西西连云南北接四川和重庆。全省东西长约595千米南北相距约509千米面积约17.6万平方千米占中国国土面积的1.8%共有9个地级行政区划单位88个县级行政区划单位。贵州是一个多民族共居的省份汉族占全省总人口的63.89%少数民族人口占全省人口的36.11%。素有多彩贵州之称。贵州作为经济欠发达省份，自2010年来经济发展逐渐增速，2019年GDP增速領跑中國，地区生产总值为16769亿人民币，2020年为17826.56亿人民币，位列31个省级单位第26名。近些年由于高速公路、高速铁路等交通基础设施的建设，使得省内交通逐渐便利。因山川众多，贵州拥有丰富的旅游资源。近年来开始注重发展旅游业，以“山地公园省”对外宣传。貴州虽然是明初永樂年間才建省，只有約600年歷史，但是貴州境內的人文历史可以追溯得更远。贵州是古人类发祥地之一，远古人类化石和远古文化遗存发现颇多。根据考古發掘，中国南方主要的旧石器时代文化遗址，多是在貴州境内发现的。春秋时期在今贵州境内有牂牁古国并与中原有交往。战国时属于楚国的黔中郡地域面积在今贵州沿河到榕江以东包括铜仁地区和黔东南部分县。秦始皇统一中国后贵州分属巴郡蜀郡黔中郡和象郡管辖。西汉初年贵州分属益州刺史部犍为郡和牂牁郡。犍为郡管辖今贵州北部四川南部重庆南部的大部分地区。牂牁郡管辖今贵州南部及周边地区。西汉中晚期贵州北部大部分地区划入牂牁郡管辖。牂牁郡领14县。三国时蜀漢牂牁郡治且兰。领7县且兰毋敛广谈鄨县平邑夜郎谈指。 唐朝曾在此设黔中道建黔州郡设黔州都督府。唐代贵州境内出现了几个对后来产生深远影响的地方土司政权。。宋末貴州中部有羅氏鬼國或稱為羅施鬼國依附於宋南部則有羅殿國依附於大理。元朝至元十六年（1279年）置八番羅甸宣慰司。至元十九年（1282年）設順元等路軍民宣慰司。至元二十九年（1292年）順元八番兩宣慰司合併設八番順元宣慰司都元帥府於貴陽。後來又以烏江上游的鴨池河為界分為水東水西。水西由安姓土司統治。水東由宋姓土司統治。至明初彝族土司管轄今貴州省除遵義銅仁黔東南之外的大部分地區。明朝永乐十一年设置贵州承宣布政使司，貴州正式建制為省級名稱。废思州宣慰司与思南宣慰司，保留水东土司与水西土司，同属贵州布政司管辖。清順治十五年(1658年)，設貴州省。雍正六年（公元1728年），将四川属遵义府，广西属荔波及红水河、南盘江以北地区，湖广属平溪、天柱，划归贵州管理辖。将贵州属永宁州划为四川管理辖。到了民国时期，1935年红军在溃逃途中，在遵义召开遵义会议，中共确立了以毛泽东为领导的核心。1949年中华人民共和国成立贵州延续以贵州省为名省会贵阳。贵州的历史总离不开一个“黔”字，代代相同。战国时代，今天的乌江下游和沅江上游一带被称为黔中，楚国曾在此设立过黔中郡。楚国黔中郡的郡治在辰州。载：“楚黔中郡，其故城在辰州西二十里，皆盘瓠之后也”。战国后期，秦国占领了楚国的黔中郡和巫郡，并将两郡合并为新的黔中郡，郡治在今沅陵。考古学家曾在沅陵出土过大量的黔中郡文物。西汉初年，将黔中郡改为武陵郡，从此此地又称为武陵，而武陵山就是如此得名。武陵之名出现后，便沿袭到魏晋南北朝。东晋时期的陶渊明在中写道“武陵人捕鱼为业……”，从此，武陵开始成为桃源、故乡的代称。武陵郡的管辖范围，也就相当于今天的武陵山区。隋朝时期，废除了武陵郡，设立了黔州，置彭水县。当时田宗显成为黔州刺史，开始了田氏在黔东北的世袭统治。唐朝时期，在州之上设置道，黔州最初隶属于江南道。开元年间，分江南道为江南西道、江南东道和黔中道。黔中道管辖云贵高原东部地区，包括今天贵州省的大部分地区，以及原黔中郡。黔中道德中心在黔州，而黔州的中心在彭水。从黔中郡到黔州、在到黔中道，宋朝时期，黔州隶属于夔州路。由于播州杨氏、水西罗氏、水东宋氏的崛起，黔州不在管辖播州，该时期黔州能直接控制的为原黔中郡地区，还有代理管辖乌江以南的羁縻府。该时期，黔作为武陵山地区的地名已经深入人心，黄庭坚有词云“黔中桃李可寻芳”、“万里黔中一漏天”。贵州省简称“黔”或“贵”位于中国西南的东南部介于东经103°36′—109°35′北纬24°37′—29°13′之间东毗湖南南邻广西西连云南北接四川和重庆。贵州地貌属于中国西南部高原山地，境内地势西高东低，自中部向北、东、南三面倾斜，平均海拔在1100米左右。高原山地居多，素有之说。全省地貌可概括分为：高原、山地、丘陵和盆地四种基本类型，其中92.5%的面积为山地和丘陵。境内山脉众多，重峦叠峰，绵延纵横，山高谷深。北部有大娄山，自西向东北斜贯北境，川黔要隘娄山关高1444米；中南部苗岭横亘，主峰雷公山高2178米；东北境有武陵山，由湘蜿蜒入黔，主峰梵净山高2572米；西部高耸乌蒙山，属此山脉的赫章县珠市乡韭菜坪海拔2900.6米，为贵州境内最高点。而黔东南州的黎平县地坪乡水口河出省界处，海拔为147.8米，为境内最低点。贵州岩溶地貌发育非常典型。喀斯特地貌面积109084平方千米，占全省国土总面积的61.9%，境内岩溶分布范围广泛，形态类型齐全，地域分布明显，构成一种特殊的岩溶生态系统。贵州气候温暖湿润属亚热带季风气候区。冬暖夏凉气候宜人。其中最冷月平均气温在17.7℃-27.9℃之间为典型夏凉地区 省会贵阳拥有“中国避暑之都”美誉。年均降水量1181mm雨季明显年均日照时数1185小时年均无雨日数190天阴天多辐射小常年相对湿度在80.1%以上。贵州立体气候明显“一山分四季十里不同天”。贵州境内河网密度大河流坡度陡天然落差大水能资源丰富。水能资源蕴藏量为1874.5万千瓦居全国第六位其中可开发量达1683万千瓦占全国总量的4.4%特别是水位落差集中的河段多开发条件优越。乌江南盘江北盘江都柳江等水力资源丰富。贵州素有之称，具有成矿地质条件较好、总量大、类型多、优势矿种分布较集中等优点。截止2011年底，全省已发现各类矿产137种，占全国172种的79.65%；查明有资源储量的矿产86种，占全国160种的53.75%；列入储量表78种，其中，50种位居全国总量的前十位，22种排前三位，12种排第四至第五位。截止2012年，全省查明矿产地3311处，按规模分：大型矿床220处，中型矿床383处，小型矿床2708处；按矿类分：能源矿产780处，金属矿产998处，非金属矿产1533处。煤、磷、铝、金、锰、锑、铅、锌、重晶石、钼镍矾及其它非金属矿产等是贵州省优势矿产。贵州是中国西电东送重要省区，也是国家确定的南方重要能源、原材料基地。煤炭资源丰富，煤种齐全、煤质优良，全省含煤面积约7万平方千米，埋深2000米以浅的煤炭资源总量2588亿吨，全省已探获煤炭资源量707.61亿吨，保有资源量683.42亿吨，居全国第五位。贵州煤层气、页岩气等新兴能源资源蕴藏丰富，前景广阔，2000米以浅的煤层气储量31511亿立方米，居全国第二位。贵州省是中国野生动植物物种资源比较丰富的省份。全省有野生动物资源1000余种，其中黔金丝猴、黑叶猴、黑颈鹤等16种为国家一级保护动物。国家二级保护动物有71种，主要有穿山甲、黑熊、水獭、大灵猫、小灵猫、林麝、红腹雨雉、白冠长尾雉、红腹锦鸡等。共建立国家级自然保护区9个。植物资源有森林、草地、农作物品种、药用植物、野生经济植物和珍稀植物等六类。银杉、珙桐、梵净山冷杉、贵州苏铁等15种为国家一级保护植物，植物物种丰富程度居全国第四位。“夜郎无闲草，黔地多良药”，贵州省是全国四大中药材产区之一，有药用植物资源4419种，占全国中草药品种的80%，居全国第二位。贵州农作物品种丰富，栽培的粮食作物、油料作物、纤维植物和其他经济作物近600个品种，粮食作物以水稻、玉米、小麦、马铃薯、甘薯、大豆为主，其他经济作物主要有蔬菜、茶叶、烤烟、水果、甘蔗等品种。经济林木主要有油桐、油茶、乌桕、漆树、核桃等，大方生漆、六马桐油为贵州名优土特产品代表。贵州省现辖6个地级市3个自治州下设16个市辖区10个县级市50个县11个自治县1个特区。截至2019年末贵州省常住人口3622.95万人比上年末增加22.95万人。其中城镇常住人口1775.97万人占年末常住人口的比重为49.02%比上年末提高1.5个百分点。全年出生人口49.30万人出生率为13.65‰死亡人口25.10万人死亡率为6.95‰自然增长率为6.7‰。贵州是一个多民族共居的省份，全省共有民族成分56个，其中世居民族有汉族、苗族、布依族、侗族、土家族、彝族、仡佬族、水族、回族、白族、瑶族、壮族、畲族、毛南族、满族、蒙古族、仫佬族、羌族等18个民族。在贵州黔西北地区还分布有穿青族，由于多次考察所遗留的疑问，穿青族暂不在我国56个民族中，其身份证上所注民族为。据全国第五次人口普查，全省人口超过10万的有汉族。2009年末，贵州少数民族人口占全省总人口的39%。全省有3个民族自治州、11个民族自治县，地级行政区划单位占全省的30%，县级行政区划单位46个，占全省的52.3%；少数民族自治地区国土面积9.78万平方公里，占全省国土面积的55.5%。还有253个民族乡。千百年来，各民族和睦相处，共同创造了多姿多彩的贵州文化。貴州主要的宗教是中國民間信仰道教和佛教。根據2007年和2009年進行的調查貴州有31.18％的人口有祖先崇拜0.99％的人口是基督徒。報告沒有提供其他宗教的統計數字 65.83％的人口無宗教或信奉中國民間宗教佛教儒教道教和伊斯蘭教。少數民族（苗族和布依族）信仰泛靈論。2020年贵州省生产总值GDP为17826.56亿人民币2019年，贵州省地区生产总值16769.34亿元，比上年增长8.3%。其中，第一产业增加值2280.56亿元，增长5.7%；第二产业增加值6058.45亿元，增长9.8%；第三产业增加值8430.33亿元，增长7.8%。第一产业增加值占地区生产总值的比重为13.6%，所占比重比上年下降0.4个百分点；第二产业增加值占地区生产总值的比重为36.1%，所占比重比上年提高0.2个百分点；第三产业增加值占地区生产总值的比重为50.3%，所占比重比上年提高0.2个百分点。人均地区生产总值46433元。2019年，贵州省财政总收入3047.81亿元，比上年增长2.5%。一般公共预算收入1767.36亿元，比上年增长2.3%。其中，税收收入1203.93亿元，下降4.9%；非税收入563.42亿元，增长22.3%。截至2019年末，贵州省就业人员2049.40万人。全年城镇新增就业78.49万人，比上年增长1.0%。其中，失业人员再就业14.66万人，就业困难人员实现就业7.93万人。年末城镇登记失业率为3.11%。2019年，贵州省居民人均可支配收入20397元，比上年增长10.7%。按常住地分，城镇居民人均可支配收入34404元，增长8.9%；农村居民人均可支配收入10756元，增长10.7%。全年居民人均消费支出14780元，比上年增长7.1%。按常住地分，城镇居民人均消费支出21402元，增长3.0%；农村居民人均消费支出10222元，增长11.5%。年末每百户城镇居民家庭拥有家用汽车43.19辆，比上年末增长8.3%；拥有空调37.23台，增长7.9%。每百户农村居民家庭拥有家用汽车22.84辆，比上年末增长16.7%；拥有摩托车54.31辆，增长2.3%；拥有热水器61.93台，增长17.4%。年末城镇常住居民人均现住房面积38.19平方米，比上年末增长0.7%；农村常住居民人均现住房面积35.31平方米，增长0.9%。贵州省在高新技术尤其是互联网大数据领域不断探索。有人认为贵州省发展大数据具有氣溫低生态环境好能源价格低地质稳定等得天独厚的先天优势是中国南方最适合建设大型数据中心的省份。有人指出该省把发展大数据作为工程来抓在系统平台建设大数据立法大数据交易大数据创业创新等方面率先起步在该领域已经积累了一些先行优势。近年来贵州实施了高速公路铁路水运水利信息等基础设施建设推进了。2013年全年粮食作物种植面积311.84万公顷(4,677.60万亩)，比上年增长2.1%。油料作物种植面积56.08万公顷(841.20万亩)，比上年增长2.4%。烤烟种植面积25.49万公顷(382.35万亩)，比上年增长7.5%。蔬菜种植面积84.77万公顷(1,271.55万亩)，比上年增长9.5%。中药材种植面积11.75万公顷(176.25万亩)，比上年增长57.4%。贵州历来是酿酒大省强省主要以酱香型酒和浓香型酒为代表。其中茅台酒更是被称为国酒其酒绵醇浓香风味独特。茅台酒的酿制技艺更是获得国家级非物质文化遗产。贵州旅游资源丰富，自2014年底高铁开通后，吸引了大量游客前往贵州旅游，特别是广东广西，湖南湖北等周边旅客，2015年，全省共接待游客3.76亿人次，比上年增长17.1%，时期年均增长27.0%。2013年接待旅游总人数26,761.28万人次，比上年增长25.1%。其中，接待国内旅游人数26,683.58万人次，增长25.1%；接待入境旅游人数77.70万人次，增长10.2%。全年旅游总收入2,370.65亿元，比上年增长27.4%。其中，国内旅游收入2,358.18亿元，增长27.5%；国际旅游外汇收入2.01亿美元，增长19.2%。辣香是贵州菜的主要特点，著名菜点大多与辣椒密切相关，如宫保鸡丁、各类火锅、肠旺面等，都需要用辣椒来调味，黔菜带辣味的菜肴更是口感各异，又分为油辣、糊辣、青辣、酸辣、麻辣、蒜辣等几大系列，有的辣而酸、有的辣而香、有的辣得令人张口咋舌、大汗淋漓。再加上贵州人对辣椒要求比较高，在一家好的饭馆，就会发现有十几种辣椒供你选择。一般牛肉粉吃素的糊辣椒、羊肉粉吃油辣椒每个地方的味道都不一样。贵州菜主要属于川菜系列，但贵州菜又有自己独特的风味。四川主要是麻辣型，云南为酸辣型，而贵州主要是鲜辣、酸辣为主要特色。辣、麻、酸混合是黔菜很突出的风味。贵州的干锅系列再加上农家自酿的米酒，农家风味地道醇厚。贵州菜的酸不像山西靠醋来调味，而是酸汤。酸汤是苗族饮食的一大特色，为火锅系列，尤其以酸汤鱼最为好吃。贵州蜡染是以家庭为中心的手工副业，由于贵州地域和民族多样性的特点，使贵州民间传统印染工艺形成较强的区域性，即不同的民族或不同的地区有不同的工艺特征。贵州蜡染主要流行于苗族、布依族、水族等少数民族地区，它是一种历史悠久的民间艺术，为劳动人民所创造，也为他们所使用和欣赏。有的具有较为原始的工艺形态，如用动物血液、杨梅汁等直接填红，或用稻草灰混合锅烟煮染等；而有的工艺却比较精湛，如黄平、安顺等地区的苗族彩色蜡染，黔南、黔西南地区布依族的扎染等，其色调之调和，图案之精美、令人惊羡不已。贵州蜡染艺术形成了独特的民族艺术风格，是中国极富特色的民族艺术之花。2019年10月15日交通运输部确定贵州省为第一批交通强国建设试点地区。截至2019年末，贵州省公路通车里程20.47万公里，比上年末增长4.0%，其中，高速公路通车里程7004.47公里，增长8.6%；内河航道里程3755.09公里，增长0.3%。全年铁路、公路、水运货物运输总量106802.26万吨，比上年增长3.7%；货物周转量1953.89亿吨公里，增长8.7%。民航货邮吞吐量12.74万吨，增长8.0%。全年铁路、公路、水运旅客运输总量93756.10万人，比上年增长0.8%；旅客周转量832.94亿人公里，增长4.3%。民航旅客吞吐量3030.88万人次，增长8.3%。贵州是西南地区交通枢纽省份，是西北，西南省区通往沿海的重要中转过境地区。贵州基本形成以贵阳为中心沟通贵州各市县的公路网。西南第一条高等级公路——贵阳至黄果树公路已建成通车并有贵阳至遵义贵阳至广西新寨的高等级公路。截止到2013年12月，贵州省境内高速公路里程已达3200公里，含兰海、杭瑞、厦蓉、蓉遵、沪昆、汕昆、都香，贵阳绕城8条国家级高速公路。铜大、思剑、贵兴二线、水盘、遵绥、黎洛等省级高速。2015年12月31日，贵州省提前三年实现88个县形成两个以上高速公路通道。期间贵州交通预计投入建设资金5000亿元到2020年全省公路网总里程达到20万公里其中力争建成和在建高速公路里程达到7400公里以上建成环贵州高速公路形成23个省际通道使网络结构更加完善高速公路密度进一步提高基本建成以高速公路为骨架国省干线为支撑县乡公路为脉络通村公路为基础的公路网络体系适应贵州与全国同步全面建成小康社会的需要。贵州省会贵阳是中国西南铁路枢纽，以贵阳为中心，黔桂铁路、川黔铁路、贵昆铁路、湘黔铁路四条铁路干线贯穿贵州，营运里程达2093.00公里已建成通车；地方与中央合资兴建的水城至柏果铁路、黄桶至织金铁路也将陆续开通。境内铁路主要由中国铁路昆明局集团有限公司、中国铁路南宁局集团有限公司、中国铁路成都局集团有限公司、中国铁路广州局集团有限公司管辖。2014年12月26日，贵广高铁正式通车，贵州跨入。沿线设有22个车站，其中贵州省境内设8个车站。2015年6月18日，沪昆高铁贵州东段正式开通，贵州全面融入高铁网。沪昆高铁新晃西至贵阳北段全长286公里，全线设铜仁南站、三穗站、凯里南站、贵定北站、贵阳东站、贵阳北站6个车站，初期运营时速300公里。2015年沪昆高铁贵阳至长沙贵阳枢纽龙里至白云联络线林织铁路5条铁路建成通车。2017年12月23日，贵南高铁开工建设，贵南高铁是贵州省第一条时速350km的高铁。2012年底贵州省航道里程达3563公里其中四级航道270公里五级航道336公里六级航道1025公里七级航道670公里等外航道1262公里。机动船舶总数2404艘/141850千瓦驳船96艘/15105吨位。全年水路运输完成客运量2453万人次旅客周转量59520万人公里分别比去年增长12.21%15.53%完成货运量1100万吨货物周转量165000亿吨公里比上年分别增长11.45%15.94%。贵州省有民航机场11个，其中，干线机场1个，为贵阳龙洞堡国际机场；支线机场10个，分别为遵义茅台机场、銅仁機場、興義万峰林機場、安顺黃果樹機場、遵义新舟機場、凯里黄平机场、黎平机场、毕节飞雄机场、六盘水月照机场和荔波机场。此外，黔东南等地的机场正在建设中。2015年全省机场旅客吞吐量接近1600万，贵阳机场三期扩建正在进行中，目前贵州全省已经建成10个机场，还有6个在建。贵阳龙洞堡国际机场2018年旅客吞吐量已突破2000多万目前贵阳机场航线共计81条其中国内始发航线60条经停航线15条地区航线2条国际航线4条。与贵阳机场大规模扩建相呼应的是贵州多个支线机场已建成或正在建设还有的即将开工或正在选址。貴州旅游資源豐富，自然旅游风光尤其著名，亞洲第一大瀑布黄果树瀑布就坐落在安順境內。地處云貴高原山川河流溶洞瀑布眾多北部有国家历史名城遵义以遵义会议会址四渡赤水娄山关等遗址形成了独特的黔北的红色之旅省会贵阳打造避暑之都毕节市的草海以及百里杜鹃铜仁市的梵净山黔西南地区的马岭河峡谷安顺的黄果树瀑布和龙宫黔东南和黔南地区的侗族和苗族等少数民族风情和自然风光都独具特色近年来贵州的旅游产业正在蓬勃发展中贵州是迷人的“天然公园”。境内自然风光神奇秀美山水景色千姿百态溶洞景观绚丽多彩野生动物奇妙无穷文化和革命遗迹闻名遐迩山水洞林石交相辉映浑然一体。闻名世界的黄果树瀑布龙宫赤水织金洞马岭河峡谷等国家级风景名胜区和铜仁梵净山茂兰喀斯特森林赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区威宁草海等国家级自然保护区犹如一串串璀璨的宝石五光十色令人目不暇接流连忘返。以遵义会议会址和红军四渡赤水遗迹为代表的举世闻名的红军长征文化更让人驻足凭吊追思缅怀。多民族悠久灿烂的历史文化浓郁神秘的民族风情以及冬无严寒夏无酷暑的宜人气候使贵州成为理想的旅游观光和避暑胜地荔波喀斯特水上森林和赤水丹霞地貌梵净山被列入。中国最大的瀑布国家5A级风景名胜区1999年被大世界吉尼斯总部评为世界上最大的瀑布群列入世界吉尼斯记录。国家5A级风景名胜区之一。有着全国最长、最美丽的水溶洞，还有着多类型的喀斯特景观，被游客赞誉为,全世界电磁辐射最小地方。国家级4A级风景名胜区之一，世界自然遗产之一，有至今保存着的世界上面积最大的喀斯特原始森林。分布着峡谷、伏流、地下湖等，充满了神秘、奇特的色彩。因整个天然杜鹃林带宽1～3千米，绵延50余千米，总面积125.8平方公里而得名。“世界上最大的天然花园”，有“地球的彩带、世界的花园”的美称。天星桥是国家4A级风景名胜区，主要观赏石、树、水的美妙结合，是水上石林变化而成的天然盆景区。得名于“梵天净土”中国十大避暑名山著名的弥勒菩萨道场是国家级自然保护区世界自然遗产联合国“人与生物圈保护区网”成员。最宏伟最奇特的溶洞被称为“岩溶博物馆”。洞内空间开阔岩质复杂拥有40多种岩溶堆积形态包括世界溶洞中主要的形态类别。舞阳河风景名胜区包括舞阳河三峡、云台山、铁溪、历史文化名城镇远等景点,融自然山水,名胜古迹。由十余个依山而建的自然村寨相连成片全世界最大的苗族聚居村寨。西江有远近闻明的银匠村苗族银饰全为手工制作其工艺具有极高水平。世界自然遗产。保持了最完整具有代表性的中亚热带森林生态系统和物种多样性形成有机结合的丹霞景观。千万座奇峰组成气势宏大壮阔山峰密集奇特整体造型完美。喀斯特的峰林绝品，是鬼斧神工的自然造化。这里的布依族群众一直把它当作来崇拜。两座兀立的石峰形同女性丰满的双乳，是当地居民生殖崇拜的自然景观。黔东南州的苗寨侗乡以其南部地区最为集中且最具代表性沿线可体味最富特色的苗寨侗乡风情。国内距离城市最近的原始林区，原始森林覆盖率近90%，其中海拔1800米的高山台地上，有原始古林近百公顷，林木根部全部长在岩石缝隙之中。剑江景区资源丰富，是一个集自然山水、园林、桥梁、文物古迹、民族风情为一体的独具特色的风景区。位于贵州省盘州市的国家AAAA级景区，流水潺潺，小桥流水，风景秀丽，古树绵绵，小桥映虹，奇峰傍寺。全妥乐村拥有古银杏1200余株，胸径一般在50一150cm，最大220cm。一般树龄在300年以上，最长者为1200余年，树干高达几十米。是世界上古银杏生长密度最高、保存最完好的地方。被称为“世界古银杏之乡”。西南地区海拔最高，面积最大的高原草场之一。位于贵州省盘州市。这里有一望无际的独特高原草场，有万亩高原矮杜鹃林，有充满神奇色彩美丽动人的高山湖泊，有民族文化浓郁的彝族风情，有世界罕见的自然奇观——佛光，并融雄、奇、险、峻、幽于一身的牛棚梁子大山、八担山等。截至2019年末贵州省拥有普通小学6943所在校生388.30万人初中学校2008所在校生179.28万人普通高中468所在校生99.21万人中等职业教育185所在校生43.81万人普通高等学校72所在校生76.57万人研究生培养单位10个在学研究生2.37万人。全省九年义务教育巩固率93.0%高中阶段毛入学率89.0%高等教育毛入学率38.0%。贵州省各县市区均匀至少3所以上高中，10所以上初中。从2001年开始，贵州省组建了评估专家组，在全省各县市区范围内评估省级示范性普通高中，截止2012年9月，全省共88所省级示范性高中，2013年贵州省教育厅颁布意见表示“贵州省未来三年拟建百所省级示范性高中。贵州省主要高校都集中在贵阳市，贵阳市有贵州大学、贵州师范大学、贵州民族大学、贵州财经大学、贵州医科大学、贵阳中医学院、贵州师范学院、贵阳学院等。此外各地州市都建立了本科教学体系。遵义市有遵义医学院、遵义师范学院、贵州航天学院，六盘水市有六盘水师范学院，安顺市有安顺学院，铜仁市有铜仁学院，毕节市有毕节学院，黔东南自治州有凯里学院，黔西南自治州有兴义民族师范学院，黔南自治州有黔南民族师范学院。此外还有十几所高职，大专。贵州省科技呈现出创新能力快速提升创新体系不断完善支撑引领作用日渐凸显的良好态势。2011年全省科技活动人员达到6万人。研究和发展经费支出36.3亿元相当于当年生产总值的0.64%财政科技拨款21.68亿元比上年增长30%财政科技拨款占财政支出的比重为0.96%。2012年末 全年技术市场合同登记510份合同金额9.7亿元签订技术引进合同1814项合同金额35亿元。2012年1月份至11月份申请专利9373件专利受理9827件同比增长49%和41%。2012有县级以上的独立研究开发机构70家省级以上重点实验室工程技术研究中心122家其中国家级重点实验室2家省部共建国家级重点实验室培育基地3家有生产力促进中心95家省级以上科技型企业孵化器7家其中国家级企业孵化器2家省级以上高新技术产业基地19家其中国家级高新技术产业基地7家高新技术企业172家可持续发展实验区4个。。 +中华人民共和国分为34个省级行政区，包括23个省、5个自治区、4个直辖市和2个特别行政区。中华人民共和国在其行政区划中设置了台湾省，但現屬法定設置而未实际统治。第二次国共内战以来，台湾地区一直由中華民國政府实际控制。中华民国政府在其行政区划中也划设臺灣省，但辖境有所不同。据2009年中华人民共和国第二次全国土地调查，中国31个省、市和自治区土地面积为9,478,057平方公里。香港澳門的計算基準異於中国大陆故另列表统计。因中華人民共和國从未實際統治故採用中華民國內政部公布之數據。中华人民-{}-共和国是世界上人口最多的国家。根据2010年中华人民共和国第6次人口普查的统计结果，中华人民共和国大陆地区的人口有13亿3972万人。以下是中国大陆地区于2010年底省级行政区总人口的排名表港澳不列入。大陆各省数据不包括现役军人大陆数据依照2010第6次人口普查2005 1%抽样人口普查及户籍资料推算。以下中華人民共和國各个一级行政区根据人口密度的排名-{表}-。资料是利用中国省级行政区面积列表及中国省级行政区人口列表的资料所计算出的。单位是。海南省，简称琼，是中华人民共和国唯一完全位于热带的省份，也是一个海洋省份和岛屿省份，亦是中华人民共和国海洋面积最大、陆地面积最小的省，省会位于海口市。总人口1008.12万，每年冬季会有大量候鸟型流动人口居住。海南省在地理上可分为海南本岛和南海诸岛，其中本岛位于海南省的西北部，大致等于海南岛及其领海附属岛屿，与周边国家没有领土争议；离岛位于海南省中北部至南部，大致等于三沙市法定管辖的中沙群岛、西沙群岛和南沙群岛，与周边国家尚存领土争议，中华人民共和国实际控制西沙和中沙全部岛礁，而没有实际控制南沙全部岛礁。海南全省陸地總面積约3.54萬平方公里其中本岛陸地面積3.39萬平方公里约占海南省陆地面积的95%全省海洋总面积约220万平方公里南海诸岛领海面积210万平方公里约占海南省海洋面积的95%。1988年，全国七届人大一次会议通过决议，撤销广东省海南行政区，设立海南省和海南经济特区，海南省成为中华人民共和国第30个省级行政区，也是至今为止中华人民共和国最年轻的省份。2008年，中华人民共和国国务院同意海南建设国际旅游岛，2018年后又批准海南建設自由貿易港。西汉時期汉武帝元封元年（公元前110年）在海南岛设置珠崖郡（治今海南琼山）儋耳郡。汉昭帝始元五年（前82年）儋耳郡併入珠崖郡。西汉末年罢弃珠崖郡对海南实行遥领统治。東漢建武十九年（公元43年），漢光武帝派遣伏波將軍馬援平定交阯，撫定珠崖，設珠崖縣。三国时期，吴赤乌年间（238年－251年）设珠崖郡（治今广东徐闻）。西晋武帝太康元年，省珠崖郡，并入合浦郡。南朝时宋文帝元嘉八年中在废儋耳郡的地方设置崖州统于广州这也是西汉末年罢弃珠崖郡580年后中央对海南岛的首次直接统治。隋文帝仁寿初年隋朝正式將海南岛納入版圖。唐太宗贞观五年增设琼州，海南简称即源于此。宋朝，海南岛与今广西壮族自治区的大部分一起属于广南西路。元朝原广南西路划归湖广行省管辖海南岛亦随同划到湖广行省之下。明朝琼州府隶属于广东省治所在琼山县管辖全岛。西沙南沙群岛正式划归琼州府管辖。清朝基本沿袭明制至清末海南岛上有1府2州11县。府即琼州府领儋州和琼山澄迈定安文昌会同4县。海南在明清时期以及民国初期北洋政府治理下一直歸广东省管轄。直至中国国民党北伐战争以后的南京国民政府時期开始考虑单独建省的问题。先是胡漢民孫科提議設立瓊崖特別區並於民國20年（1931年）12月7日國民政府國務會議決議劃廣東省環崖全屬爲特別行政區直隸國民政府設行政長官並任命伍朝樞爲行政長官。伍朝樞於民國21年（1932年）3月1日就任瓊崖特別區行政長官4月16日在海口設立瓊崖特別區長官公署臨時辦事處以瓊崖原有13縣及西沙群島爲管轄範圍5月27日西南政務委員会修正公布的《修正琼崖特别区政府组织条例》惟後因陳濟棠暗中阻撓改建事宜未能實施。1930年代，作為南海地區戰略要地的海南島成為日本與英國的角力場。隨著南進政策演變為日本的國策，南洋的英國勢力開始成為日本海軍的主要假想敵。盡管日本陸軍與外務省方面持有不同觀點，但是在日本海軍的多次積極地推動之下，英日會談的機會受到破壞，海军拒绝了陆军和外务省的对英协调论，坚持实现了对海南岛的占领，并做好了和英国开战的准备，海南岛进入为时6年的日占时期。占领期间，致力于缅甸从英属印度独立的志士昂山等人在海南岛上进行了军事训练。。中國抗日戰爭结束後的1947年8月行政院院務會議通過以瓊崖改爲海南特別行政區隸屬行政院民國37年5月13日廢止這兩份法律同年5月28日公布。1949年10月1日，中华人民共和国政府宣布建立时，海南岛仍未实际控制，当时中共控制的广播电台宣传词有“中国人民解放军一定要解放包括外蒙、西藏、内蒙、海南、臺灣在内的中国领土”的口号。1950年3月至5月間中共发动海南島戰役将海南岛纳入版图。4月23日中國人民解放军占领海南岛行政中心海口市。随后后续部队陆续渡海与先遣部队会合向国军餘部进攻相继占领了三亚市和榆林军港。5月1日解放军宣布海南岛全面解放原中共广东省琼崖专区改置为海南行政区并成立海南军政委员会实行军事管制。1951年解除军事管制设海南行政公署隶属于广东省人民政府公署驻琼山府城。1955年，广东省人民政府海南行政公署改称广东省海南行政公署。此外在島的中南部建立了海南黎族苗族自治州，州府驻保亭县冲山镇。1959年3月24日中华人民共和国中央政府設立了西沙群島南沙群島中沙群島辦事處負責行使西沙群島南沙群島和中沙群島及其周边海域的主權與管轄權。1980年1月广东省海南行政公署改称海南行政区公署。1983年中國地名委員會公佈包括南沙群島在內的南海諸島標準地名。1984年5月31日第六届全国人民代表大会第二次会议审议了国务院关于成立海南行政区人民政府的议案决定设立广东省海南行政区。1984年10月1日撤销海南行政区公署海南行政区人民政府正式成立。1987年海南黎族苗族自治州正式撤銷由海南行政區管轄。1988年4月13日七届人大通过了。1988年4月26日省委省政府正式挂牌。2012年6月21日，国务院撤销西沙群島、南沙群島、中沙群島辦事處，在西南中沙办事处的基础上设立地级三沙市，市政府驻西沙永兴岛，为海南第三个地级市。2015年2月19日国务院同意撤销县级儋州市设立地级儋州市以原县级儋州市的行政区域为地级儋州市的行政区域市政府驻那大镇中兴大街中1号为海南第四个地级市。海南省是中国最南端的省份地处3°30′～20°17′N108°15′～120°15′E之间。曾母暗沙是海南省也是中国宣稱疆域的最南端。海南全省都位于南海海域。这里纬度较低热带面积大光热充足降水丰沛是中国发展热带作物的重要基地。海南岛是海南省陆地的主体西起108°37′E的鱼鳞角东至111°03′E的铜鼓角北自20°10′的海南角南到18°10′的锦母角总面积3.32万平方公里占全省陆地面积的99.7％。海南岛为中华人民共和国所主张的领土中的離島。北隔琼州海峡与广东的雷州半岛相望西面是北部湾。海南省宣稱的管辖范围，除了海南岛外，还有周围300个岛屿，以及南海诸岛中的西沙群岛、中沙群岛和南沙群岛的岛屿、沙洲、暗沙、暗礁、暗滩及其海域。海南島為一大陸島，四周低平，中间高耸，呈一倒扣碗狀。以五指山、鹦哥岭为中心，向外围逐级下降，由山地、丘陵、臺地、平原构成环形层状地貌，梯级结构明显。海拔超过1500米的山峰有五指山、鹦哥岭、俄鬃岭、猴猕岭、雅加大岭、吊罗山等。其中最高峰是五指山，海拔1840米。海南山脈大体上可分為三大山脉:五指山山脉：位于岛中部，主峰五指山海拔1840米，是海南岛最高的山峰。鹦哥岭山脉：位于五指山西北，主峰鸚嘴峰海拔1811.6米，為海南第二高峰。雅加大岭山脉：位于岛西部，主峰海拔1519.1米。海南是海洋性热带季风气候每年温差小于15摄氏度。海南省的氣候幾乎四季如春冬季有不少人到琼避寒。最冷月为一二月的冬季气温略降至16~21摄氏度最热月为七八月均温25~29摄氏度。除了岛屿中部的山区年每日平均气温均超过10摄氏度相當溫暖也是少數全境不下雪的省份。不過海南島並非沒下過雪明清时期曾遭遇小冰期襲擊當時曾出現過下雪氣候在此期间共出现过至少17次的降雪纪录主要出现明朝万历清朝康熙和光绪年间。海南島四面環海鄰近北部灣及越南夏季常受熱帶氣旋吹襲南沙群島及西沙群島偶然亦會有熱帶氣旋在此生成或會影響華南沿岸。海南岛东部是台风经过处每年70%以上的雨水来自夏天雨季和台风。全岛年降水主要集中在5～10月份年均雨量最多在中部和东部沿海地区其中琼中最高（2438.9mm/a）最少在西部沿海地区在環島高速公路行駛會發現東部多雨地區和西南部少雨區的自然植被景觀有所不同。由於海南島地勢中間高四周低海南島河流大多發源於中部山地呈放射狀分佈。海南島上河流共有214條全島獨流入海的河流154條其中流域面積100平方公里以上的河流89條流域面積100平方公里以上且獨流入海的河流39條海南岛的河流大多发源于中部北部的南渡江长311公里西部的昌化江长230公里东部的万泉河长163公里。海南岛上真正的湖泊很少人工水庫居多著名的有松濤水庫牛路嶺水庫大廣壩水庫和南麗湖等。海南省现辖4个地级市，以及15个由海南省直辖的县级行政区，包括5个县级市、4个县、6个自治县。海口市、三亚市、三沙市共下设10个市辖区。从1980年代开始，海南岛是中国大陸的五个经济特区之一，也是面积最大的经济特区。海南省GDP在改革開放後增長迅速，2009人均GDP为2806美元，處於中下等水平。中国海南自由贸易试验区总面积达3.5万平方公里倘若海南自由贸易港建成将超过迪拜新加坡及香港成为世界最大的自由贸易港。2018年4月13日中国共产党中央委员会总书记习近平在庆祝海南建省办经济特区30周年大会上代表党中央宣布中共中央决定支持海南逐步探索稳步推进中国特色自由贸易港建设分步骤分阶段建立自由贸易港政策和制度体系。自1988年海南省成立经济特区2006年宣布建立国际旅游岛以来第三次中央发表对海南省的直接经济建设指导意见。2018年4月14日，中共中央及国务院发布文件，正式准许海南省政府展开海南自由贸易区试验区及海南自由贸易港。2018年5月13日召开的中共海南省委七届四次全会决定海南全岛实施现行自由贸易试验区所有试点政策。中所提及的实质性政策：海口江东新区位于-{}-海口市东海岸区域，东起东寨港，西至南渡江，北临东海岸线，南至绕城高速二期和212省道，总面积约298平方公里，分为东部生态功能区和西部产城融合区。海口江东新区东部生态功能区约106平方公里，包含33平方公里的国际重要湿地东寨港国家级自然保护区;西部产城融合区约192平方公里，包含临空产业园片区、桂林洋国家热带农业公园片区、桂林洋高校片区及沿江生活片区等。江东新区的选址，主要基于区位较为独立于-{}-海口城区、生态环境保留较好、后发优势明显三方面的优势。2018年6月3日，中国(海南)自贸区海口江东新区新闻发布会在海口召开。经国海南省委、省政府调研及统筹规划，决定在海口市设立海口江东新区，将其作为建设中国(海南)自由贸易试验区的重点先行区域。海南岛周边海域分布3个气田群和一个油气田群，目前已探明石油储量为1.45亿吨，天然气为5.4万亿立方米。南海中南部拥有多个油气田群，目前已探明储量为350亿吨石油，天然气4万亿立方米。陆上油气资源分布在澄迈、临高及海口市西部的福山油田，为小型油气田。年产油气量约为40万吨。自1996年崖州气田投产以来至目前已形成东方化工园区洋浦开发区老城油气储备基地及一批燃气电厂为主的石油化工基地并形成了一条油气加工仓储产业链。含珊瑚造地工程等。近期在中指出在海南岛及西沙建立珊瑚礁科研与产业园区从事原创性研究和技术攻关南海水产及珍稀资源的现代增养殖业智能化海洋装备产业珊瑚礁生物活性物质的开发。培养高端人才孵化科技成果建立珊瑚礁科研与产业园区争取5到6年时间内形成100亿元年产值的经济规模。海南岛由于未充分工业化，以其无边的绿色，美丽的沙滩和清洁的空气，實實在在吸引众多游客。通过渡轮连接广东省，航空通达国内外多个城市。海南目前是热点旅游地区旅游业是支柱产业。标志性的山脉和河流分别是五指山万泉河。根据世界旅游组织和海南省政府制定的到2020年海南将建设成为世界著名亚洲一流的国际性热带海岛度假旅游胜地。海南号称天之涯海之角。由于海峡相隔海南曾是游人难到之地。1988年4月13日海南建省办特区海南旅游业得到空前发展。当年接待国内外游客人数一跃而达118.5万人次比上年增长了57.9%其中接待国际游客19.8万人次旅游创汇4094万美元。建省办特区第一年海南旅游接待出现了有史以来的第一个高峰。2001年12月，由世界旅游组织专家编制的初稿，通过由国家旅游局和海南省政府组织的专家评审。该规划阐发了一系列发展海南旅游的理念、新办法等，为海南旅游发展前景勾画了一幅崭新的蓝图。1995年海南省人大通过并颁布实施中国大陆第一部地方旅游法规《海南省旅游管理条例》使海南旅游走上法制化规范化的轨道。2003年海南新旅游条例正式实施海南旅游市场全面对外开放允许省外境外旅行社在琼设立地接社。随着海口美兰机场三亚凤凰国际机场通航和海南环线高速公路的通车琼州海峡实现跨海火车轮渡海南旅游的交通状况得到根本性的改观。值得一提的是，海南島環境質量全球前列，空氣汙染指數非常小，百歲以上的人口比例居於世界前列。联合国环保组织一项最新监测结果显示：在全球52个国家的环境综合污染指数排名中，海口和三亚被列入全球空气质量最好的10个城市之一，其中海口第五，三亞第二，僅次於古巴首都哈瓦那。在建設國際旅遊島上政府已經作出了大量努力吸引了眾多遊客前來海南其中國際遊客增長速度最顯著海南島接待的國際旅客尤其是中國北方國家最多的三個國家分別是韓國俄羅斯和日本。其中俄羅斯遊客增長迅猛不久將超過韓國遊客成為海南的第一大旅遊入境國。2004年12月，广州到海南铁路线竣工，全程12个小時。整个工程耗资5.8亿美金，预计可以大力督促海南的旅游和经济发展。雖然海南在建設國際旅遊島方面與東南亞著名的巴厘島普吉島相比還存在差距但目前的成果增長速度預示著海南不久將踏入國際旅遊島的行列。国际旅游岛，是指在特定的岛屿区域内，以扩大旅游业开放为重点，对外实行以“免签证、零关税、放航权”为主要特点的旅游开放政策，推进旅游服务的自由化、国际化进程，以成为具有特色和极具影响的国际旅游度假胜地。打造國際旅遊島的內涵是：国际旅游岛的主要特点有2008年海南省政府确定了三亚海棠灣陵水清水湾万宁神州半岛文昌铜鼓岭乐东龙沐湾五个省级重点滨海旅游休闲度假区建设项目。目前在海南东部海岸总投资近千亿目前已投入107亿元的高端度假区正按照国际一流标准高起点规划高水平成片开发的一批旅游度假区正在建设之中这些度假区有海口美丽沙文昌铜鼓岭万宁神州半岛和石梅湾陵水香水湾和清水湾三亚海棠湾等参加开发企业有香港的新世界發展雅居乐中信泰富富力华润嘉里集团等以及国际著名的投资公司摩根士丹利等。除此之外随着海南打造国际旅游岛的招牌越打越大海南岛的酒店业规模也不断扩大自从1995年海南首家五星级酒店——海口寰岛泰得大酒店营业以来目前海南的星级酒店已经达到259家其中五星级20家希尔顿喜来登万豪等13家国外顶级管理公司已进入海南提升了海南酒店管理水平。海口的西海岸桂林洋琼海的博鳌官塘儋州的蓝洋万宁的兴隆石梅湾三亚的亚龙湾大东海三亚湾陵水的香水湾清水湾五指山的山区和保亭的七仙岭每个旅游度假区均形成了度假酒店群落。从北到南从东到西从滨海到山区五星级度假酒店几乎遍及海南的主要旅游区域。根据2010年人口普查，总人口為867.15万人，比2000年增加了80.4万人，增长10.22%。到2017年末，海南省的人口总数达到926万。家庭戶口222.49万户平均每个家庭户的人口为3.63人。性别构成方面，男性455.99万人，占52.59%；女性411.16万人，占47.41%。男女性别比为110.90：100。民族构成方面，汉族人口为722.58万人，占83.33%，少数民族人口144.57万人，占16.67%。其中，汉族人口增加了72.55万人，增长11.6%，少数民族人口增加7.84万人，增长5.74%。另外，文盲人口为35.42万人，文盲人口减少20.06万人，文盲率下降至4.08%。少数民族方面黎族。黎苗回族大多数聚居在中部南部的琼中保亭白沙陵水乐东昌江等县和三亚市五指山市汉族人口主要聚集在东北部北部和沿海地区。根据2001年户籍人口数汉族占总人口的82.6%黎族占15.84%苗族占0.82%壮族0.67%回族主要集中在三亚市的回輝村等地方使用回輝話。海南省內人口約80萬的臨高人原本屬於壯族的支系使用與壯語相近的臨高語但被官方劃分為漢族。宗教方面海南省統計有35000名基督新教徒10000名佛教徒6500名穆斯林和4100名天主教徒。海南居民语言种类多，主要使用的本土方言和民族語言至少有11种。在内地文化还未深入海南岛之前海南岛的黎苗地区盛行原始崇拜尤以祖先崇拜与自然崇拜为主崇拜对象繁多生产生活中处处伴随着原始崇拜影响很深处于原始宗教信仰阶段。748年，汉传佛教传入海南，道教紧随其后传入海南。鉴真第五次东渡失败而来到海南，他的努力促成了海南唐宋时期佛教的兴旺，现有佛教徒10000人。而道教现在已经被本土化，民间化。宋元时期，妈祖信仰随着更多内地移民的到来而登陆，在各地都留下了遗迹。作为海上丝绸之路的中转站，海南盛产香料，来自印度古吉拉特邦的商人首先把伊斯兰教传入了海南，中亚细亚与印度支那的穆斯林也推动了传教。现在，在三亚回新乡和回辉乡约有6500名回族穆斯林，他们属于逊尼派中较为保守的伊赫瓦尼派。1630年葡萄牙耶稣会派遣神甫比尼来琼传教天主教传入海南。自传入起法意西葡四国共派遣超过20名神甫传教到了清朝全岛天主教信徒已发展到5000余人。清末民初时期天主教会在海南多地购置房产设置堂口。1950年后外籍神甫相继以各种理由被驱逐逐渐由华裔神甫代替信众仅剩4100人。基督新教则于1881年传入海南美籍丹麦牧师冶基善设立中华基督教琼海区会由美国基督教长老会领导。冶基善将海南第一个福音堂设立在了儋州。随着基督教的逐渐发展现在信众已有35000人。中华人民共和国成立后随着土地改革与文化大革命各宗教场所的收入与处境日益不容乐观到文化大革命的高潮全岛的所有宗教活动几乎都已经停止。文化大革命结束后海南的宗教组织开始重建现有上百座宗教活动场所与三十多个宗教团体。琼山于1994年1月4日被国务院批准第三批国家历史文化名城。在建设部国家文物局的附件中对琼山县作了简介琼山位于海南省北部。秦始设县唐至清为琼州府治。有五公祠琼州文庙大成殿瓊臺書院丘浚故居等文物古迹。有冯白驹故居等近代革命历史遗址。2003年琼山市并入海口市后由海口市继承的称号。海南省省级非物质文化遗产86项。2020年，为海南加快构建现代综合交通运输体系，国家发改委编制了海南现代综合交通运输体系规划。公路是海南的主要交通方式全省通车公路-{里}-程达1.76万公里海南环岛高速公路已于1999年全线贯通。此外各级公路直通各港口市县。現時海南省正籌備興建瓊州海峽跨海通道。大橋分為上下兩層可同時讓汽車及鐵路使用將會連接海南省澄邁縣至廣東省湛江市徐聞縣。大橋落成後來往海南省至廣東省的時間只需二十分鐘。。海南环岛高速铁路已于2015年全线通车此外还有运营轮渡粤海铁路和普速的海南西环铁路。目前正谋划建设贯穿海南中部的海南中线高速铁路和横向的海南横线高速铁路与海南环岛高速铁路共同组成“田”字形高速铁路网全省共有68个天然港湾已开辟港口24个其中以秀英三亚八所洋浦四个港口为最大。總部設於海口的海南航空是海南省唯一一家基地航空公司，通航航線覆蓋五大洲。海南省共有4个民用机场 diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSans-Regular.ttf b/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSans-Regular.ttf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..10589e27 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSans-Regular.ttf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSerif-Regular.ttf b/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSerif-Regular.ttf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..e5587fc7 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/en/NotoSerif-Regular.ttf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSansJP-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSansJP-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..57912987 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSansJP-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSerifJP-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSerifJP-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..3da1c044 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/ja/NotoSerifJP-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSansKR-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSansKR-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..e26c1cd3 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSansKR-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSerifKR-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSerifKR-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..b373eff3 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/ko/NotoSerifKR-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSansSC-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSansSC-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..fdb05060 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSansSC-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSerifSC-Regular.otf b/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSerifSC-Regular.otf new file mode 100755 index 00000000..3d2453e6 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/font/zh/NotoSerifSC-Regular.otf differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_1.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_1.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..cf060ad3 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_1.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_2.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_2.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..14a01b5c Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_2.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_3.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_3.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..e865aea5 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_3.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_4.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_4.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..8b6b7632 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_4.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_5.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_5.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..88bedf4c Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_5.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_6.jpg b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_6.jpg new file mode 100755 index 00000000..35aeff29 Binary files /dev/null and b/synthdog/resources/paper/paper_6.jpg differ diff --git a/synthdog/template.py b/synthdog/template.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..08f3e1fe --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/template.py @@ -0,0 +1,138 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import json +import os +import re +from typing import Any, List + +import numpy as np +from elements import Background, Document +from PIL import Image +from synthtiger import components, layers, templates + + +class SynthDoG(templates.Template): + def __init__(self, config=None, split_ratio: List[float] = [0.8, 0.1, 0.1]): + super().__init__(config) + if config is None: + config = {} + + self.quality = config.get("quality", [50, 95]) + self.landscape = config.get("landscape", 0.5) + self.short_size = config.get("short_size", [720, 1024]) + self.aspect_ratio = config.get("aspect_ratio", [1, 2]) + self.background = Background(config.get("background", {})) + self.document = Document(config.get("document", {})) + self.effect = components.Iterator( + [ + components.Switch(components.RGB()), + components.Switch(components.Shadow()), + components.Switch(components.Contrast()), + components.Switch(components.Brightness()), + components.Switch(components.MotionBlur()), + components.Switch(components.GaussianBlur()), + ], + **config.get("effect", {}), + ) + + # config for splits (output_filename, split_ratio etc) + self.splits = ["train", "validation", "test"] + self.split_indexes = [0, 0, 0] + self.split_ratio = [sum(split_ratio[: i + 1]) for i in range(0, len(split_ratio))] + + def generate(self): + landscape = np.random.rand() < self.landscape + short_size = np.random.randint(self.short_size[0], self.short_size[1] + 1) + aspect_ratio = np.random.uniform(self.aspect_ratio[0], self.aspect_ratio[1]) + long_size = int(short_size * aspect_ratio) + size = (long_size, short_size) if landscape else (short_size, long_size) + + bg_layer = self.background.generate(size) + paper_layer, text_layers, texts = self.document.generate(size) + + document_group = layers.Group([*text_layers, paper_layer]) + document_space = np.clip(size - document_group.size, 0, None) + document_group.left = np.random.randint(document_space[0] + 1) + document_group.top = np.random.randint(document_space[1] + 1) + roi = np.array(paper_layer.quad, dtype=int) + + layer = layers.Group([*document_group.layers, bg_layer]).merge() + self.effect.apply([layer]) + + image = layer.output(bbox=[0, 0, *size]) + label = " ".join(texts) + label = label.strip() + label = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", label) + quality = np.random.randint(self.quality[0], self.quality[1] + 1) + + data = { + "image": image, + "label": label, + "quality": quality, + "roi": roi, + } + + return data + + def init_save(self, root): + if not os.path.exists(root): + os.makedirs(root, exist_ok=True) + + def save(self, root, data, idx): + image = data["image"] + label = data["label"] + quality = data["quality"] + roi = data["roi"] + + # split + output_dirpath = os.path.join(root, "train") + file_idx = idx + + split_prob = np.random.rand() + for _idx, (split, ratio) in enumerate(zip(self.splits, self.split_ratio)): + if split_prob < ratio: + output_dirpath = os.path.join(root, split) + file_idx = self.split_indexes[_idx] + self.split_indexes[_idx] += 1 + break + + # save image + image_filename = f"image_{file_idx}.jpg" + image_filepath = os.path.join(output_dirpath, image_filename) + os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(image_filepath), exist_ok=True) + image = Image.fromarray(image[..., :3].astype(np.uint8)) + image.save(image_filepath, quality=quality) + + # save metadata (gt_json) + metadata_filename = "metadata.jsonl" + metadata_filepath = os.path.join(output_dirpath, metadata_filename) + os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(metadata_filepath), exist_ok=True) + + metadata = self.format_metadata(image_filename=image_filename, keys=["text_sequence"], values=[label]) + with open(metadata_filepath, "a") as fp: + json.dump(metadata, fp, ensure_ascii=False) + fp.write("\n") + + def end_save(self, root): + pass + + def format_metadata(self, image_filename: str, keys: List[str], values: List[Any]): + """ + Fit gt_parse contents to huggingface dataset's format + keys and values, whose lengths are equal, are used to constrcut 'gt_parse' field in 'ground_truth' field + Args: + keys: List of task_name + values: List of actual gt data corresponding to each task_name + """ + assert len(keys) == len(values), "Length does not match: keys({}), values({})".format(len(keys), len(values)) + + _gt_parse_v = dict() + for k, v in zip(keys, values): + _gt_parse_v[k] = v + gt_parse = {"gt_parse": _gt_parse_v} + gt_parse_str = json.dumps(gt_parse, ensure_ascii=False) + metadata = {"file_name": image_filename, "ground_truth": gt_parse_str} + return metadata diff --git a/synthdog/utils/__init__.py b/synthdog/utils/__init__.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..54151482 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/utils/__init__.py @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from utils.text_reader import TextReader + +__all__ = ["TextReader"] diff --git a/synthdog/utils/text_reader.py b/synthdog/utils/text_reader.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..395164c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/synthdog/utils/text_reader.py @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +from collections import OrderedDict + + +class TextReader: + def __init__(self, path, cache_size=2 ** 28, block_size=2 ** 20): + self.fp = open(path, "r", encoding="utf-8") + self.length = 0 + self.offsets = [0] + self.cache = OrderedDict() + self.cache_size = cache_size + self.block_size = block_size + self.bucket_size = cache_size // block_size + self.idx = 0 + + while True: + text = self.fp.read(self.block_size) + if not text: + break + self.length += len(text) + self.offsets.append(self.fp.tell()) + + def __len__(self): + return self.length + + def __iter__(self): + return self + + def __next__(self): + char = self.get() + self.next() + return char + + def move(self, idx): + self.idx = idx + + def next(self): + self.idx = (self.idx + 1) % self.length + + def prev(self): + self.idx = (self.idx - 1) % self.length + + def get(self): + key = self.idx // self.block_size + + if key in self.cache: + text = self.cache[key] + else: + if len(self.cache) >= self.bucket_size: + self.cache.popitem(last=False) + + offset = self.offsets[key] + self.fp.seek(offset, 0) + text = self.fp.read(self.block_size) + self.cache[key] = text + + self.cache.move_to_end(key) + char = text[self.idx % self.block_size] + return char diff --git a/test.py b/test.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..88e97ec0 --- /dev/null +++ b/test.py @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import argparse +import json +import os +import re +from pathlib import Path + +import numpy as np +import torch +from datasets import load_dataset +from PIL import Image +from tqdm import tqdm + +from donut import DonutModel, JSONParseEvaluator, load_json, save_json + + +def test(args): + pretrained_model = DonutModel.from_pretrained(args.pretrained_path) + + if torch.cuda.is_available(): + pretrained_model.half() + pretrained_model.to("cuda") + else: + pretrained_model.encoder.to(torch.bfloat16) + + pretrained_model.eval() + + if args.save_path: + os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(args.save_path), exist_ok=True) + + output_list = [] + accs = [] + + dataset = load_dataset(args.dataset_name_or_path, split=args.split) + + for idx, sample in tqdm(enumerate(dataset), total=len(dataset)): + ground_truth = json.loads(sample["ground_truth"]) + + if args.task_name == "docvqa": + output = pretrained_model.inference( + image=sample["image"], + prompt=f"{ground_truth["gt_parses"][0]['question'].lower()}", + )["predictions"][0] + else: + output = pretrained_model.inference(image=sample["image"], prompt=f"")["predictions"][0] + + if args.task_name == "rvlcdip": + gt = ground_truth["gt_parse"] + score = float(output["class"] == gt["class"]) + elif args.task_name == "docvqa": + score = 0.0 # note: docvqa is evaluated on the official website + else: + gt = ground_truth["gt_parse"] + evaluator = JSONParseEvaluator() + score = evaluator.cal_acc(output, gt) + + accs.append(score) + + output_list.append(output) + + scores = {"accuracies": accs, "mean_accuracy": np.mean(accs)} + print(scores, f"length : {len(accs)}") + + if args.save_path: + scores["predictions"] = output_list + save_json(args.save_path, scores) + + return output_list + + +if __name__ == "__main__": + parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() + parser.add_argument("--pretrained_path", type=str) + parser.add_argument("--dataset_name_or_path", type=str) + parser.add_argument("--split", type=str, default="test") + parser.add_argument("--task_name", type=str, default=None) + parser.add_argument("--save_path", type=str, default=None) + args, left_argv = parser.parse_known_args() + + if args.task_name is None: + args.task_name = os.path.basename(args.dataset_name_or_path) + + predicts = test(args) diff --git a/train.py b/train.py new file mode 100755 index 00000000..ef36686d --- /dev/null +++ b/train.py @@ -0,0 +1,137 @@ +""" +Donut +Copyright (c) 2022-present NAVER Corp. +MIT License +""" +import argparse +import datetime +import json +import os +import random +from io import BytesIO +from os.path import basename +from pathlib import Path + +import numpy as np +import pytorch_lightning as pl +import torch +from pytorch_lightning.callbacks import LearningRateMonitor, ModelCheckpoint +from pytorch_lightning.loggers.tensorboard import TensorBoardLogger +from pytorch_lightning.plugins import CheckpointIO +from pytorch_lightning.utilities import rank_zero_only +from sconf import Config + +from donut import DonutDataset +from lightning_module import DonutDataPLModule, DonutModelPLModule + + +class CustomCheckpointIO(CheckpointIO): + def save_checkpoint(self, checkpoint, path, storage_options=None): + del checkpoint["state_dict"] + torch.save(checkpoint, path) + + def load_checkpoint(self, path, storage_options=None): + checkpoint = torch.load(path + "artifacts.ckpt") + state_dict = torch.load(path + "pytorch_model.bin") + checkpoint["state_dict"] = {"model." + key: value for key, value in state_dict.items()} + return checkpoint + + def remove_checkpoint(self, path) -> None: + return super().remove_checkpoint(path) + + +@rank_zero_only +def save_config_file(config, path): + if not Path(path).exists(): + os.makedirs(path) + save_path = Path(path) / "config.yaml" + print(config.dumps()) + with open(save_path, "w") as f: + f.write(config.dumps(modified_color=None, quote_str=True)) + print(f"Config is saved at {save_path}") + + +def train(config): + pl.utilities.seed.seed_everything(config.get("seed", 42), workers=True) + + model_module = DonutModelPLModule(config) + data_module = DonutDataPLModule(config) + + # add datasets to data_module + datasets = {"train": [], "validation": []} + for i, dataset_name_or_path in enumerate(config.dataset_name_or_paths): + task_name = os.path.basename(dataset_name_or_path) # e.g., cord-v2, docvqa, rvlcdip, ... + for split in ["train", "validation"]: + datasets[split].append( + DonutDataset( + dataset_name_or_path=dataset_name_or_path, + donut_model=model_module.model, + max_length=config.max_length, + split=split, + task_start_token=config.task_start_tokens[i] + if config.get("task_start_tokens", None) + else f"", + prompt_end_token="" if "docvqa" in dataset_name_or_path else f"", + sort_json_key=config.sort_json_key, + ) + ) + # prompt_end_token is used for ignoring a given prompt in a loss function + # for docvqa task, i.e., {"question": {used as a prompt}, "answer": {prediction target}}, + # set prompt_end_token to "" + data_module.train_datasets = datasets["train"] + data_module.val_datasets = datasets["validation"] + + logger = TensorBoardLogger( + save_dir=config.result_path, + name=config.exp_name, + version=config.exp_version, + default_hp_metric=False, + ) + + lr_callback = LearningRateMonitor(logging_interval="step") + + checkpoint_callback = ModelCheckpoint( + monitor="val_metric", + dirpath=Path(config.result_path) / config.exp_name / config.exp_version, + filename="artifacts", + save_top_k=1, + save_last=False, + mode="min", + ) + + custom_ckpt = CustomCheckpointIO() + trainer = pl.Trainer( + resume_from_checkpoint=config.get("resume_from_checkpoint_path", None), + num_nodes=config.get("num_nodes", 1), + gpus=torch.cuda.device_count(), + strategy="ddp", + accelerator="gpu", + plugins=custom_ckpt, + max_epochs=config.max_epochs, + max_steps=config.max_steps, + val_check_interval=config.val_check_interval, + check_val_every_n_epoch=config.check_val_every_n_epoch, + gradient_clip_val=config.gradient_clip_val, + precision=16, + num_sanity_val_steps=0, + logger=logger, + callbacks=[lr_callback, checkpoint_callback], + ) + + trainer.fit(model_module, data_module) + + +if __name__ == "__main__": + parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() + parser.add_argument("--config", type=str, required=True) + parser.add_argument("--exp_version", type=str, required=False) + args, left_argv = parser.parse_known_args() + + config = Config(args.config) + config.argv_update(left_argv) + + config.exp_name = basename(args.config).split(".")[0] + config.exp_version = datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%Y%m%d_%H%M%S") if not args.exp_version else args.exp_version + + save_config_file(config, Path(config.result_path) / config.exp_name / config.exp_version) + train(config)