-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 1
/
introduction-to-the-middle-way.html
2660 lines (2620 loc) · 156 KB
/
introduction-to-the-middle-way.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en" class="light sidebar-visible" dir="ltr">
<head>
<!-- Book generated using mdBook -->
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Ch. 12. Introduction to the Middle Way - Buddhadhamma</title>
<!-- Custom HTML head -->
<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff">
<link rel="icon" href="favicon.svg">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="favicon.png">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/variables.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/general.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/chrome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/print.css" media="print">
<!-- Fonts -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="FontAwesome/css/font-awesome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="fonts/fonts.css">
<!-- Highlight.js Stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="highlight.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="tomorrow-night.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="ayu-highlight.css">
<!-- Custom theme stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="assets/stylesheets/output-html.css">
<!-- Provide site root to javascript -->
<script>
var path_to_root = "";
var default_theme = window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "navy" : "light";
</script>
<!-- Start loading toc.js asap -->
<script src="toc.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<div id="body-container">
<!-- Work around some values being stored in localStorage wrapped in quotes -->
<script>
try {
var theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme');
var sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar');
if (theme.startsWith('"') && theme.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-theme', theme.slice(1, theme.length - 1));
}
if (sidebar.startsWith('"') && sidebar.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-sidebar', sidebar.slice(1, sidebar.length - 1));
}
} catch (e) { }
</script>
<!-- Set the theme before any content is loaded, prevents flash -->
<script>
var theme;
try { theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme'); } catch(e) { }
if (theme === null || theme === undefined) { theme = default_theme; }
const html = document.documentElement;
html.classList.remove('light')
html.classList.add(theme);
html.classList.add("js");
</script>
<input type="checkbox" id="sidebar-toggle-anchor" class="hidden">
<!-- Hide / unhide sidebar before it is displayed -->
<script>
var sidebar = null;
var sidebar_toggle = document.getElementById("sidebar-toggle-anchor");
if (document.body.clientWidth >= 1080) {
try { sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar'); } catch(e) { }
sidebar = sidebar || 'visible';
} else {
sidebar = 'hidden';
}
sidebar_toggle.checked = sidebar === 'visible';
html.classList.remove('sidebar-visible');
html.classList.add("sidebar-" + sidebar);
</script>
<nav id="sidebar" class="sidebar" aria-label="Table of contents">
<!-- populated by js -->
<mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox class="sidebar-scrollbox"></mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox>
<noscript>
<iframe class="sidebar-iframe-outer" src="toc.html"></iframe>
</noscript>
<div id="sidebar-resize-handle" class="sidebar-resize-handle">
<div class="sidebar-resize-indicator"></div>
</div>
</nav>
<div id="page-wrapper" class="page-wrapper">
<div class="page">
<div id="menu-bar-hover-placeholder"></div>
<div id="menu-bar" class="menu-bar sticky">
<div class="left-buttons">
<label id="sidebar-toggle" class="icon-button" for="sidebar-toggle-anchor" title="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-label="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-controls="sidebar">
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</label>
<button id="theme-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Change theme" aria-label="Change theme" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="theme-list">
<i class="fa fa-paint-brush"></i>
</button>
<ul id="theme-list" class="theme-popup" aria-label="Themes" role="menu">
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="light">Light</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="rust">Rust</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="coal">Coal</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="navy">Navy</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="ayu">Ayu</button></li>
</ul>
<button id="search-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Search. (Shortkey: s)" aria-label="Toggle Searchbar" aria-expanded="false" aria-keyshortcuts="S" aria-controls="searchbar">
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
<div class="right-buttons">
<a href="print.html" title="Print this book" aria-label="Print this book">
<i id="print-button" class="fa fa-print"></i>
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="search-wrapper" class="hidden">
<form id="searchbar-outer" class="searchbar-outer">
<input type="search" id="searchbar" name="searchbar" placeholder="Search this book ..." aria-controls="searchresults-outer" aria-describedby="searchresults-header">
</form>
<div id="searchresults-outer" class="searchresults-outer hidden">
<div id="searchresults-header" class="searchresults-header"></div>
<ul id="searchresults">
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- Apply ARIA attributes after the sidebar and the sidebar toggle button are added to the DOM -->
<script>
document.getElementById('sidebar-toggle').setAttribute('aria-expanded', sidebar === 'visible');
document.getElementById('sidebar').setAttribute('aria-hidden', sidebar !== 'visible');
Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('#sidebar a')).forEach(function(link) {
link.setAttribute('tabIndex', sidebar === 'visible' ? 0 : -1);
});
</script>
<div id="content" class="content">
<main>
<h1 id="introduction-to-the-middle-way"><a class="header" href="#introduction-to-the-middle-way">Introduction to the Middle Way</a></h1>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-12-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-12-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-12-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>The Middle Way (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>), also known as the Path (<em>magga</em>,
i.e. the fourth Noble Truth), embodies a set of principles for Buddhist
practice: it is a complete code of Buddhist conduct. It comprises the
practical teachings, based on an understanding of Buddhist theoretical
teachings, which guide people to the goal of Buddhism according to
natural processes. It is a way of actualizing the teachings in one’s own
life, a method of applying natural laws and benefitting from them to the
highest degree. To gain an initial understanding of the Middle Way, let
us consider this teaching by the Buddha from the first sermon, the
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta:</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-the-middle-way"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-the-middle-way">The Path as the Middle Way</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone
forth into homelessness. What two? The indulgence in sensual happiness
in sense pleasures, which is inferior, vulgar, low, ignoble, and
hollow; and the pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful,
ignoble, unbeneficial. The Tathāgata has awakened to the Middle Way,
which does not get caught up in either of these extremes, which gives
rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace,
to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.</p>
<p>And what is that Middle Way (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>)…? It is this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right thought, right speech,
right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right
concentration.</p>
<p><em>V. I. 10; S. V. 421.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This teaching provides a complete summary of the meaning, essence, and
purpose of the Middle Way. Note that it is a ’middle’ way, or ’middle’
path, because it does not get caught up in either of the two extremes
(note, however, that this should not be understood to mean that the path
lies between these two extremes):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Kāma-sukhallikānuyoga</em>: indulgence in sensual pleasures; the
extreme of sensual indulgence; extreme hedonism.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Atta-kilamathānuyoga</em>: the extreme of self-mortification; extreme
asceticism.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Occasionally, Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike give the expression the
’middle way’ a very broad meaning, to denote an action or thought that
lies between two opposing actions or thoughts, or between actions and
thoughts performed and held by two separate people or parties.</p>
<p>This kind of midpoint or middle way does not have any solid basis; one
must wait until two opposing parties arise in order to determine the
halfway point, which hinges on the degree of belief or practice of these
two factions. The midway shifts according to the changing stances of the
two sides. Sometimes this kind of middle way appears to be the same as
the Middle Way in Buddhism (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>), but in fact it is
counterfeit. {526}</p>
<p>The true Middle Way has definite criteria. The validity of the Middle
Way rests with it having a clearly defined objective or goal. With the
goal clearly defined, the path leading to this goal, or conduct that is
apt, correct, and fruitful, is the Middle Way.</p>
<p>This is similar to shooting an arrow or a gun – it is necessary to have
a clear target. Accurate or correct shooting is any action expedient to
having the arrow or bullet reach the target. The ’middle way’ in this
context is shooting precisely and directly at the target.</p>
<p>All deviating shots, veering off to any number of directions, are flawed
and inaccurate. In contrast to these errant shots, one sees that there
is only one target, which is directly in the middle and clearly defined,
and the path leading to the target likewise is a middle path.</p>
<p>The correct path has its own true goal, which is not determined by
trajectories of the errant shots. The Middle Way has the definite goal
of liberation – the end of suffering.</p>
<p>The Path (<em>magga</em>) – the system of thought, action, and conduct that is
consistent with and effective in regard to this goal – is thus the
’Middle Way’ (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>).</p>
<p>Because the Middle Way has a clearly defined goal, or because the Middle
Way is dependent on having such a goal, a Dhamma practitioner must know
this goal in order to walk on the Path – one must know in which
direction one is going. For this reason the Middle Way is a path of
wisdom and begins with right view: it begins with an understanding of
one’s problems and of one’s destination. It is a path of understanding,
reason, and acceptance, and requires courage to face the truth.</p>
<p>When people possess this knowledge and courage, they are able to manage
their lives on their own, to live a correct and virtuous life
independently, without relying on external sacred, supernatural, or
divine powers. And when people have developed confidence based on their
own wisdom, they need not get caught up in and worried about things they
believe to exist outside of the normal human sphere. This confidence is
one attribute of the Middle Way.</p>
<p>When one understands one’s problems and the way to the goal, a traveller
on the Path gains the additional understanding that the Middle Way gives
value to one’s life. There is more to life than succumbing to worldly
currents, being enslaved by material enticements, or wishing solely for
delicious sensual pleasures, by allowing one’s happiness, virtue, and
value to be utterly dependent on material things and the fluctuations of
external factors. Instead, one cultivates freedom and self-assurance,
and one recognizes one’s own inherent value.</p>
<p>Besides not inclining towards the extreme of materialism, to the point
of enslavement and dependency on material things, the Middle Way also
does not incline towards spiritual extremes. It does not teach that all
things are exclusively dependent on effort and mental attainments, to
the point that one abandons material things and neglects one’s body,
resulting in a form of self-mortification. {527}</p>
<p>Conduct in accord with the Middle Way is characterized by
non-oppression, both towards others and oneself, and by an understanding
of phenomena, both material and mental. One then practises with accurate
knowledge, in tune with causes and conditions, and conducive to bearing
fruit in accord with the goal. One does not practise simply to
experience pleasurable sense impressions or out of some naive belief
that things must be done in a particular way.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup></p>
<p>If someone alludes to a middle way or to walking a middle path, one
should ask whether he or she understands the problems at hand and the
goal to which this path leads.</p>
<p>The principles of the Middle Way can be applied to all human work and
activity. Generally speaking, all human systems, traditions, academic
fields of study, institutions, and everyday activities, like formal
education, aim to solve problems, reduce suffering, and help people
realize higher forms of virtue. A proper relationship to these systems,
traditions, etc. requires an understanding of their objective, which is
to relate to them with wisdom and right view, in accord with the Middle
Way.</p>
<p>It is commonly apparent, however, that people often practise incorrectly
and do not understand the true objectives of these systems, procedures,
and activities.</p>
<p>Incorrect practice deviates in one of two ways: some people use these
systems and activities as an instrument or opportunity for
self-gratification, for instance in politics they use this system as a
way to seek material gain, fame, and power. They perform their function
and increase their formal knowledge in order to enrich themselves and to
achieve influential positions, to maximize their own comfort and
pleasure. They do not act in order to achieve the true objective of that
work or field of knowledge. Rather than having right view, they are
subject to wrong view (<em>micchā-diṭṭhi</em>).</p>
<p>Another group of people are resolutely dedicated to work or study. They
raise money, muster inner strength, and sacrifice time with great
devotion, but they do not understand the true purpose of the activity –
they do not know, for example, what problems should be solved by
performing it. They end up wasting their time, money, and energy,
causing themselves trouble and fatigue in vain. This is another way of
lacking right view. {528}</p>
<p>The first group of people set their own objectives in order to gratify
craving. They do not act in accord with the true objective of the
activity or work. The second group of people simply act without
understanding the real purpose of their actions. These two groups fall
into two extremes. They do not walk the Middle Way and they generate
more problems for themselves.</p>
<p>Only when they are able to follow the Middle Way, acting with knowledge
conforming to the true objective of that particular activity, are they
able to successfully solve problems and eliminate suffering.</p>
<p>In sum, if one does not begin with right view, one does not access the
Middle Way; if one does not follow the Middle Way, one is not able to
reach the end of suffering. (See
Note <a href="#note-middle-way">The Middle Way</a>)</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-a-practice-and-way-of-life-for-both-monks-and-laypeople"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-a-practice-and-way-of-life-for-both-monks-and-laypeople">The Path as a Practice and Way of Life for both Monks and Laypeople</a></h3>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">The Middle Way</span><a id="note-middle-way"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Occasionally, people may use the expression ’middle way’ to denote
effort that is neither overly rigid nor overly slack, or work or
training that is performed neither with laziness nor by forceful
straining. Although in these contexts the expression ’middle way’ may
share some attributes with the Middle Way, it is not absolutely
correct. Even those people who follow the Middle Way may apply an
overly forceful amount of effort, or not enough effort, and thus not
realize the fruit of practice. In these circumstances, the Buddha used
the expression <em>viriya-samatā</em> to refer to correct effort (this term
means correct, balanced, or consistent effort; <em>samatā</em> = <em>samabhāva</em> =
evenness, balance, suitability, moderation, consistency); see: Vin. I.
181; A. III. 374-5.</p>
<p>Sometimes, when people are sure of walking the correct path, fully
confident and prepared, they are encouraged to muster all of their
strength and energy, even if they must surrender their life in the
process. For example, the Buddha himself was fearlessly determined on
the night of his awakening (A. I. 50). One should not confuse this
subject with the Middle Way.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, I do not praise the wrong path, whether for a layperson or for
one gone forth. Whether it is a layperson or one gone forth who is
practising wrongly, because of undertaking the wrong way of practice
he does not attain the right path which is wholesome. And what is the
wrong path? It is: wrong view … wrong concentration.</p>
<p>I praise the right path, both for a layperson and for one gone forth.
Whether it is a layperson or one gone forth who is practising
correctly, because of undertaking the right way of practice he attains
the right path which is wholesome. And what is the right path? It is:
right view … right concentration.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup></p>
<p><em>S. V. 18-19.</em></p>
<p>Monks, just as the river Ganges flows, slopes and inclines towards the
ocean, so too a monk who develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold
Path aspires, slopes and inclines towards Nibbāna.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 41.</em></p>
<p>Master Gotama, just as the river Ganges flows, slopes, inclines
towards, and merges with the ocean, so too Master Gotama’s assembly
with its homeless ones and its householders aspires, slopes, inclines
towards, and merges with Nibbāna.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 493-4.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>These passages on right and wrong practice reveal how the Buddha
intended the Middle Way to be applicable to all people, both renunciants
and laity; it is a teaching to be realized and brought to completion by
everyone – monks and householders alike. {529}</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-a-spiritual-practice-connected-to-society"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-a-spiritual-practice-connected-to-society">The Path as a Spiritual Practice Connected to Society</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Ānanda, having good friends, having good companions, and a delight in
associating with virtuous people is equivalent to the entire holy
life. When a monk has a good friend<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> … it is to be expected that
he will develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 2-3.</em></p>
<p>Monks, just as the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the rising
of the sun, so too, having a virtuous friend is the forerunner and
precursor for the arising of the Noble Eightfold Path for a monk.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 29-30.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>These passages show the importance of the relationship between people
and their social environment, which is a vital factor influencing and
supporting Buddhist practice. They show that in Buddhism one’s way of
life and spiritual practice is intimately connected to society.</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, just as the dawn is the forerunner and precursor of the rising
of the sun, so too, the fulfilment of wise reflection
(yoniso-manasikāra) is the forerunner and precursor for the arising of
the Noble Eightfold Path for a monk. It is to be expected of a monk
who has brought wise reflection to completion that he will develop and
cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 31.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This passage introduces the notion that, although social factors are
vital, one should not overlook the importance of spiritual factors
inherent in an individual. Both internal and external factors can be the
impetus for spiritual practice and conducting one’s life correctly. In
fact, these two factors are mutually supportive.</p>
<p>This passage emphasizes that correct spiritual practice, or a virtuous
life, results from the integration of these two factors. And progress on
the Path towards the highest goal of life is most successful when these
two factors serve and aid one another.</p>
<p>Note, however, that the teachings often give more emphasis to the social
factor of having virtuous companionship than to the internal factor of
wise reflection. There are passages, as the one above, which equate the
value of having good friends as equivalent to the entire practice of the
Buddhist teachings, referred to here as the ’holy life’
(<em>brahmacariya</em>). This is because most people must rely on social
factors in order to initiate right practice and a virtuous life, or to
begin on the noble path.</p>
<p>Moreover, wholesome social factors act as both the trigger for enabling
wise reflection and for the support for augmenting and advancing wise
reflection. {530}</p>
<p>There are very few exceptions to this rule, namely, those extraordinary
persons who can progress safely on the Path relying solely on their own
inherent spiritual endowment. They are able to commence with wise
reflection without outside influence and to constantly summon wise
reflection without relying on social factors.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> These passages are
thus intended for the majority of people, who possess an average degree
of spiritual faculties.</p>
<p>This subject of social factors in relation to internal factors is very
important and will be addressed at more length in subsequent chapters.</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-a-way-to-end-kamma"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-a-way-to-end-kamma">The Path as a Way to End Kamma</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>This Noble Eightfold Path is the way leading to the cessation of
kamma, that is, right view … right concentration.</p>
<p><em>A. III. 414-5; S. IV. 133.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Middle Way here is the way leading to the cessation of kamma. It is
very important, however, not to interpret this to mean the following:
that it simply refers to the passing away of the body, to dying;<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> or
that it refers to ending kamma by not producing kamma or not doing
anything at all, which is the doctrine of the Jains, as described in the
chapter on kamma; or that it refers to abandoning activity and living in
a state of passivity.</p>
<p>The ending of kamma requires activity and earnest endeavour, but it is
action in accord with the Middle Way, in accord with a proper method of
action, as opposed to errant behaviour.</p>
<p>And the expression ’cessation of kamma’ does not mean inactivity and
complacency, but rather an end to the actions of unawakened persons and
the start to actions of noble beings.</p>
<p>Ordinary people act with craving and grasping; they attach to personal
ideas of what is good and bad and to things providing some form of
personal advantage. The actions of such people are technically referred
to as ’kamma’, which is classified as either good or bad.</p>
<p>The end of kamma refers to ceasing to act with an attachment to personal
views of right and wrong and with a hunger for personal gain. When
personal attachments to right and wrong are absent, the subsequent
actions are not referred to as ’kamma’, because kamma requires taking
sides, requires for things to be either good or evil.</p>
<p>The actions of awakened beings, on the other hand, are in harmony with
the pure reason and objective of that particular activity; they are not
tied up with any craving or grasping.</p>
<p>Awakened persons do no wrong, because no more causes or conditions exist
which would compel them to misbehave; no greed, hatred, or delusion
remains in their minds which would drive them to seek personal gain.
They only perform good actions, acting solely with wisdom and
compassion. The term ’good’ here, however, is used according to the
understanding of general people. Awakened beings do not attach to the
ideas of personal goodness, or to goodness as some mark of personal
identity.</p>
<p>Generally speaking, when ordinary people perform good deeds, they do not
act purely in accord with the true objective of such deeds, but tend to
expect some kind of personal reward as a result. On a subtle level this
may be a wish for personal prestige, or even a sense of internal
wellbeing that ’I’ have done good. {531}</p>
<p>Awakened persons, however, perform good acts purely in accord with the
purpose, objective, and necessity of such an action. Their actions are
thus technically not referred to as ’kamma’.</p>
<p>The Path is a way of practice for bringing an end to volitionally
produced actions (<em>kamma</em>); when kamma ceases only pure actions
(referred to as ’doing’ – <em>kiriyā</em>), following the guidance of wisdom,
remain.</p>
<p>This is the distinction between the mundane and the transcendent courses
of action. The Buddha and the arahants teach and act for the welfare of
all people without their actions constituting kamma. In the vernacular,
their actions are referred to simply as ’acts of goodness’.</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-a-practical-tool"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-a-practical-tool">The Path as a Practical Tool</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, suppose a man in the course of a long journey saw a great
expanse of water, whose near shore was frightening and dangerous and
whose far shore was safe and free from danger, but there was no
ferryboat or bridge crossing to the other shore. Then he thought:
’There is this great expanse of water, whose near shore is frightening
and dangerous…. Suppose I collect grass, pieces of wood, branches,
and leaves and bind them together into a raft, and supported by the
raft and making an effort with my hands and feet, I got safely across
to the far shore.’</p>
<p>And then the man collected grass … and leaves and bound them
together into a raft … and got safely across to the far shore. Then,
when he had got across and had arrived at the far shore, he might
think thus: ’This raft has been very helpful to me, since supported by
it … I got safely across to the far shore. Suppose I were to hoist
it on my head or load it on my shoulders, and then go wherever I
want.’ Now, monks, what do you think? By doing so, would that man be
doing what should be done with that raft?’</p>
<p>[The monks replied, ’No, venerable sir’, and the Buddha continued:]</p>
<p>By doing what would that man be doing what should be done with that
raft? Here, monks, when that man got across and had arrived at the far
shore, he might think thus: ’This raft has been very helpful to me….
Suppose I were to haul it onto the dry land or tie it up at the
water’s edge, and then go wherever I want.’ Now, monks, it is by so
doing that that man would be doing what should be done with that raft.</p>
<p>The Dhamma is similar to a raft, which I have revealed to you for the
purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of grasping. When you
thoroughly understand the Dhamma, which is similar to a raft as I have
illustrated, you should abandon even good states, not to mention bad
states.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 134-5.</em></p>
<p>Monks, purified and bright as this view is, if you adhere to it, are
enthralled by it, cherish it, and treat it as a possession, would you
then understand the Dhamma that has been taught as similar to a raft,
being for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of
grasping?<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup></p>
<p><em>M. I. 260-61.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>These two passages caution against grasping at virtuous qualities
(including grasping at the truth or at what is right), by which a person
fails to benefit from their true value and objective. Moreover, they
emphasize viewing all virtuous qualities and all Dhamma teachings as
means or methods leading to a specific goal; they are neither arbitrary
nor are they ends in themselves. {532}</p>
<p>When practising a particular Dhamma teaching, it is important to realize
its objective, along with its relationship to other teachings. The term
’objective’ here does not only refer to the final goal, but also to the
vital function of that particular teaching or spiritual quality: to
know, for example, how cultivating a specific quality supports or
generates other qualities, what its limits are, and once its function is
complete, to know what other qualities take over responsibility.</p>
<p>This is similar to being on a journey, in which one must use different
vehicles at various stages to pass over land, water, and air. It is
insufficient to simply have a general idea of one’s destination. One
needs to know how far each vehicle can travel, and having reached a
location one knows which is the next vehicle to use.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup></p>
<p>Spiritual practice lacking insight into these objectives, requirements,
and interrelationships is limited and obstructed. Even worse it leads
people off the right track, it misses the target, and it is stagnant,
futile and fruitless. Aimless spiritual practice causes
misunderstandings and harmful consequences. It undermines such important
spiritual qualities as contentment and equanimity.</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-the-holy-life"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-the-holy-life">The Path as the Holy Life</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Bhikkhus, you should wander forth for the welfare and happiness of the
manyfolk, for the compassionate assistance of the world, and for the
wellbeing, support and happiness of gods and human beings…. You
should proclaim the Dhamma … you should make known the holy life.</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 20-21.</em></p>
<p>’The holy life, the holy life. What now, friend, is the holy life, and
who is a follower of the holy life, and what is the final goal of the
holy life?’</p>
<p>’This Noble Eightfold Path is the holy life; that is, right view …
right concentration. One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path is
called a liver of the holy life. The end of lust, the end of hatred,
the end of delusion; this is the final goal of the holy life.’</p>
<p><em>S. V. 7-8, 16-17, 26-7.</em></p>
<p>What is the fruit of the holy life? The fruit of stream-entry, the
fruit of once-returning, the fruit of non-returning, the fruit of
arahantship; this is the fruit of the holy life.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 26.</em></p>
<p>So this holy life, monks, does not have gain, honour, and renown as
its blessing, or the perfection of virtue as its blessing, or the
attainment of concentration as its blessing, or knowledge and vision
as its blessing. But it is this unshakeable deliverance of mind that
is the goal of this holy life, its heartwood, and its end.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> {533}</p>
<p><em>M. I. 197; 204-205.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The term <em>brahmacariya</em> is generally understood in a very narrow sense,
as living a renunciant life and the abstention from sexual intercourse,
which is only one meaning of this term. (See
Note <a href="#note-brahmacariya">Definitions of Brahmacariya</a>)</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Definitions of Brahmacariya</span><a id="note-brahmacariya"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>The commentaries give twelve definitions for the term <em>brahmacariya</em>.
The common definitions include: the entire Buddhist religion; practice
according to the Eightfold Path; the four divine abidings
(<em>brahmavihāra</em>); generosity (<em>dāna</em>); contentment with one’s own
wife; celibacy; and exposition of the Dhamma (<em>dhamma-desanā</em>):
MA. II. 204. DA. I. 177 provides ten definitions; ItA. I. 109 provides
five definitions; KhA. 152 and SnA. I. 299 provide four definitions. The
Cūḷaniddesa defines <em>brahmacariya</em> as the abstention from sexual
intercourse (’unwholesome practice’ – <em>asaddhamma</em>) and adds: <em>Apica
nippariyāyena brahmacariyaṁ vuccati ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo</em> –
’moreover, generally speaking, the Eightfold Path is called the holy
life’ (Nd. II. 10, 48).</p>
<p>The Mahāniddesa defines <em>cara</em> as: <em>vihara</em> (’abide’, ’exist’);
<em>iriya</em> (’movement’); <em>vatta</em> (’go’, ’revolve’); <em>pāla</em> (’protect’);
<em>yapa</em> (’proceed’); <em>yāpa</em> (’nourish’, ’sustain life’). See, e.g.:
Nd. I. 51, 159, 314.</p>
<p>Here are the substantiated meanings of these words (<em>rūpa-siddhi</em>):
<em>cariya</em> (nt.) and <em>cariyā</em> (f.) stem from <em>cara</em> (root – <em>dhātu</em>) +
<em>ṇya</em> (affix – <em>paccaya</em>) + <em>i</em> (added syllable – <em>āgama</em>). <em>Cariya</em>
here is the same word used in the Thai compounds <em>cariya-sikkhā</em>
(จริยศึกษา – moral education) and <em>cariya-dhamma</em> (จริยธรรม –
virtuous conduct).</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>In fact, the Buddha used this term to refer to the entire system of
living life according to Buddhist principles or to Buddhism itself. This
is evident from the passages in which the Buddha sends forth his
disciples in order to ’proclaim the holy life’, and also in the passage
in which he states that the holy life will truly flourish when members
of the four assemblies – the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, laymen, and laywomen
– both renunciants (<em>brahmacārī</em>) and householders (<em>kāmabhogī</em> –
’those who enjoy sense pleasures’; those who have families) –
understand and practise the Dhamma well.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
<p><em>Brahmacariya</em> is made up of the terms <em>brahma</em> and <em>cariya</em>. <em>Brahma</em>
means ’excellent’, ’superior’, ’supreme’, ’pure’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> <em>Cariya</em> is
derived from the root <em>cara</em>, which in a concrete sense means ’to
travel’, ’to proceed’, ’to wander’, and in an abstract sense it means
’behaviour’, ’to lead one’s life’, ’to conduct one’s life’, ’to exist’.
Here, we are interested in the figurative or abstract sense. (Note that
occasionally <em>brahmacariya</em> is written as <em>brahmacariyā</em>.) (See
Note <a href="#note-brahmacariya">Definitions of Brahmacariya</a> for further analysis.)</p>
<p>As a compound word <em>brahmacariya</em> thus means: excellent conduct;
excellent behaviour; pure, divine conduct (conduct resembling that of
the Brahma gods); leading one’s life in an excellent way; living in an
excellent way; or an excellent life.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p>The term <em>cariya-dhamma</em> (จริยธรรม) is a newly established word in the
Thai language. Although in Pali the word <em>cariya</em> occurs on its own,
there is no contradiction to add the word <em>dhamma</em>. <em>Cariya-dhamma</em> here
means ’upright conduct’, ’virtuous conduct’, or ’basis of conduct’. It
refers to principles of behaviour or principles of conducting one’s
life. Here, I will not discuss the wider academic notions of the term
<em>cariya-dhamma</em>, but focus simply on its Buddhist connotations. {534}</p>
<p>Adopting this new term, one can define <em>brahmacariya</em> as excellent
virtuous conduct – excellent <em>cariya-dhamma</em>. This excellent conduct,
or ’supreme’ (<em>brahma</em>) conduct, refers specifically to the system of
conduct revealed and proclaimed by the Buddha.</p>
<p>According to the Buddha’s words quoted above, the holy life – excellent
conduct or Buddhist conduct – is equivalent to the Path (<em>magga</em>) or to
the Middle Way (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>). Likewise, one who practises the
holy life (<em>brahmacārī</em>) – one whose conduct conforms to Buddhist
principles – lives according to the Path or practises in line with the
Middle Way.</p>
<p>The Buddhist teachings state that the Path – the Middle Way – is a
system of conduct, a system of practical application, a guideline for
living a virtuous life, or a way for people to lead their lives
correctly, which leads to the goal of freedom from suffering.</p>
<p>The following points provide a summary of <em>brahmacariya</em>: the holy life,
excellent conduct, or conduct conforming to the middle way of practice:</p>
<h4 id="virtuous-conduct"><a class="header" href="#virtuous-conduct">Virtuous conduct</a></h4>
<p>Virtuous conduct is connected to truth inherent in nature; it is based
on natural laws. It is a matter of applying knowledge about natural,
causal processes in order to benefit human beings, by establishing a
system of practice or a code of conduct, which is effective and in
harmony with these laws.</p>
<p>This harmony with nature can be viewed from two perspectives. First is
to focus on the source, that is, to see that virtuous conduct is
determined by natural truths. Second is to focus on the goal, to
recognize the purpose and objective for such conduct. One practises the
holy life in order to benefit oneself and all of humanity, to lead a
virtuous life, to foster goodness in society, to lead to the welfare and
happiness of all people.</p>
<p>In relation to society, for example, by wishing for people to live
together peacefully, one advocates and establishes principles of
behaviour, say on how to interact with others or how to act in relation
to one’s natural environment. These principles are established according
to the truth of human nature, which has certain requirements and
attributes dependent on other people and on the environment.</p>
<p>In terms of individuals, by wishing for people to be peaceful, bright,
happy, and mentally healthy, one teaches them how to control and direct
their thoughts and how to purify their minds. These methods of
generating wellbeing are established according to the universal nature
of the human mind, which is subject to causal, immaterial laws inherent
in nature. Wishing for people to experience the refined happiness of
jhāna and the highest levels of insight, one teaches them to train the
mind, to reflect, to relate to things properly, and to develop various
stages of wisdom. These methods of higher spiritual practice are
established according to the laws governing the functioning of the mind
and the laws of conditioned phenomena. {535}</p>
<p>The term <em>cariya-dhamma</em>, which is a synonym for <em>brahmacariya</em>,
encompasses all of these kinds of spiritual practice, which can be
divided into many different levels or stages. <em>Cariya-dhamma</em> can be
defined as applying an understanding of reality to establish wholesome
ways of living, so that people can realize the highest forms of
wellbeing.</p>
<h4 id="brahmacariya"><a class="header" href="#brahmacariya">Brahmacariya</a></h4>
<p><em>Brahmacariya</em> – excellent conduct, the Path, or the Middle Way – is
equivalent to the entire practical teachings of Buddhism. This term has
a much broader definition than the Thai term <em>sīla-dhamma</em> (ศีลธรรม –
’morality’, ’ethical behaviour’).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> In regard to its general
characteristics, subject matter, and objective, <em>sīla-dhamma</em> has a
narrower meaning. Generally speaking, <em>sīla-dhamma</em> refers to external
behaviour by way of body and speech, to non-harming, to abstaining from
bad actions, and to mutual assistance in society.</p>
<p>In terms of its content or subject matter, this latter term tends to be
limited to moral conduct (<em>sīla</em>): to restraint of body and speech, and
to expressions of the divine abidings, for instance lovingkindness and
compassion. Although it is connected to the mind, it does not include
the development of concentration or the cultivation of wisdom in order
to realize the truth of conditioned phenomena.</p>
<p>As to its objective, it emphasizes social wellbeing, peaceful
coexistence, worldly progress – say in terms of material gain,
reputation, and prestige – and being reborn in a happy realm. In short,
it is linked to human and divine prosperity (<em>sampatti</em>), to ’mundane
welfare’ (<em>diṭṭhadhammikattha</em>), and to the beginning stages of
’spiritual welfare’ (<em>samparāyikattha</em>).</p>
<p>Here, we see that <em>sīla-dhamma</em> is equivalent to <em>sīla</em> – the term
<em>dhamma</em> is added simply for the sake of euphony.</p>
<h4 id="cariya-dhamma"><a class="header" href="#cariya-dhamma">Cariya-dhamma</a></h4>
<p>In Thailand, the term <em>cariya-dhamma</em> still causes confusion for people.
Some people understand this term as equivalent to <em>sīla-dhamma</em> – to
general morality, while others bestow on it an academic or philosophical
connotation. I will not go into these various definitions here.</p>
<p>Suffice it to say that similar to the term <em>sīla-dhamma</em>, which is
equivalent to <em>sīla</em>, <em>cariya-dhamma</em> is equivalent to <em>cariya</em>
(’conduct’, ’behaviour’) – the suffix <em>dhamma</em> does not alter its
meaning.</p>
<p>The term <em>cariya-dhamma</em> encompasses the entirety of Dhamma practice,
beginning with basic moral conduct. The following factors are included
in the principle of <em>cariya-dhamma</em>: moral conduct, developing good
family relationships, social harmony, observing precepts in a monastery
as a layperson, keeping the duties of a renunciant (<em>samaṇa-dhamma</em>) in
the forest, gladdening the mind, fostering mental health, mental
training, meditation, insight practice, etc.</p>
<p>As stated above, the term <em>brahmacariya</em>, which contains the term
<em>cariya</em>, refers to the Path or to the Middle Way, but it emphasizes
behaviour or the way in which one leads one’s life. In essence, the term
<em>brahmacariya</em> refers to a system of conducting one’s life with virtue,
or to the entire system of Dhamma practice in Buddhism, and it thus
incorporates the term <em>sīla-dhamma</em> as used in the Thai language. It
also includes the training of the mind, the instilling of virtue, and
the development of knowledge and vision (<em>ñāṇa-dassana</em>), which is an
aspect of higher wisdom. {536}</p>
<p>In sum, <em>brahmacariya</em> refers to a means of cultivating virtue by way of
body, speech and mind, or from the perspective of the threefold
training, it is the complete training in moral conduct (<em>sīla</em>),
concentration (<em>samādhi</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā</em>).</p>
<p>The goal of this excellent conduct is to realize every stage of Buddhist
spiritual practice, until one has reached the highest goal of the holy
life (<em>brahmacariya-pariyosāna</em>): the end of greed, hatred, and
delusion, the realization of true knowledge (<em>vijjā</em>), liberation
(<em>vimutti</em>), purity (<em>visuddhi</em>), and peace (<em>santi</em>). In sum, one
realizes Nibbāna.</p>
<p>For brevity’s sake, <em>brahmacariya</em> is translated here as the ’holy life’
or as ’living an excellent life’. Excellent conduct is not something
that can be formulated simply by the whims of influential people or by
the consensus of a group or community, and it is not something that
should be followed blindly. Establishing true excellent conduct, and
having such conduct bear fruit, is dependent on knowledge of reality.</p>
<h3 id="the-path-as-a-way-of-achieving-life-objectives"><a class="header" href="#the-path-as-a-way-of-achieving-life-objectives">The Path as a Way of Achieving Life Objectives</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Your Majesty, I told the bhikkhu Ānanda: ’Ānanda … having good
friends, having good companions, and a delight in associating with
virtuous people is equivalent to the entire holy life. When a monk has
a good friend it is to be expected that he will develop and cultivate
the Noble Eightfold Path….’ Therefore, great king, you should train
yourself thus: ’I will be one who has good friends, who has good
companions, and who delights in associating with virtuous people….’</p>
<p>When, great king, you have good friends, you should dwell by applying
this vital principle: heedfulness in respect to wholesome states. When
you are heedful and dwelling diligently, your retinue of harem women
… your nobles and royal entourage … your soldiers … and even the
townspeople and villagers will think thus: ’The king is heedful and
dwells diligently. Come now, let us also be heedful and dwell
diligently.’</p>
<p>When, great king, you are heedful and dwelling diligently, you
yourself will be guarded and protected, your retinue of harem women
will be guarded and protected, your treasury and storehouse will be
guarded and protected.</p>
<p>One who desires great, burgeoning riches should take great care;</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>The wise praise diligence performing meritorious deeds.<br />
The wise are heedful<br />
and thus secure both kinds of good (<em>attha</em>):<br />
The good visible in this very life<br />
And the good of the future.<br />
A wise person, by attaining the good,<br />
Is called a sage.</em></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>Appamāda Sutta: S. I. 87-9; cf.: A. III. 364.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The term <em>attha</em> (’good’) can also be translated as ’substance’,
’meaning’, ’objective’, ’benefit’, ’target’, or ’goal’. In this context
it means the true purpose or goal of life, referring to the goal of the
holy life or the goal of Buddhism. {537}</p>
<p>Most people know that the highest goal of Buddhism is Nibbāna, for which
there exists the epithet <em>paramattha</em>, meaning ’supreme good’ or
’supreme goal’. It is normal that when teaching Dhamma there is great
emphasis on practising in order to reach the highest goal.</p>
<p>Buddhism, however, does not overlook the secondary benefits or goals
which people may realize according to their individual level of
spiritual maturity, and these benefits are often clearly defined, as is
evident in the passage above.</p>
<p>As far as I can ascertain, the older texts divide spiritual good
(<em>attha</em>) into two categories, as seen in the passage above:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Diṭṭhadhammikattha</em>: initial benefits; present good; good in this
lifetime.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samparāyikattha</em>: profound benefits; future good; higher good.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>In this case, the supreme good (<em>paramattha</em>) is included in the second
factor of higher good (<em>samparāyikattha</em>): it is the apex of this second
form of spiritual benefit.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup> The authors of later texts, however,
wished to give special emphasis to the supreme good and thus
distinguished it as a separate factor, resulting in three levels of
spiritual benefit or spiritual goals:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Diṭṭhadhammikattha</em>: present good; good in this lifetime; visible
benefits. This refers to basic or immediate goals, to obvious,
everyday benefits. It pertains to external or ordinary, mundane aims
and aspirations, like material gain, wealth, prestige, pleasure,
praise, social status, friendship, and a happy married life. It also
includes the righteous search for these things, a correct
relationship to them, the use of these things in a way that brings
happiness to oneself and others, communal harmony, and the
fulfilment of one’s social responsibilities which leads to communal
wellbeing.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samparāyikattha</em>: future good; inconspicuous benefits; profound
benefits, which are not immediately visible. It pertains to a
person’s spiritual life or to the true value of human life; it
refers to higher goals, which act as a surety when one passes away
from this world, or are a guarantee for obtaining superior blessings
– superior gains – greater than one normally realizes in the
world. These benefits include: spiritual development and the
increase of virtuous qualities; an interest in moral conduct,
meritorious deeds, the cultivation of goodness, and actions based on
faith and relinquishment; a confidence in the power of virtue;
tranquillity and mental ease; the experience of refined happiness;
and the exceptional attributes of jhāna. (Originally, the supreme
benefit of awakening was also included in this term.)</p>
<p>A person who realizes these benefits is released from an attachment
to material things. One does not overvalue these things to the point
of grasping onto them, succumbing to them, or allowing them to be a
cause for doing evil. Instead, one gives value to virtue, acts with
a love of truth, cherishes a good quality of life, and delights in
spiritual development. Reaching this stage produces results that can
be used in conjunction with mundane benefits (<em>diṭṭhadhammikattha</em>),
and which support oneself and others. For example, instead of using
money for seeking sensual pleasures, one uses it to assist others
and to enhance the quality of one’s life. {538}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Paramattha</em>: supreme benefit; the true, essential good. This refers
to the highest goal, the final destination: realization of the
truth; a thorough knowledge of the nature of conditioned phenomena;
non-enslavement by the world; a free, joyous, and spacious mind; an
absence of oppression by personal attachments and fears; an absence
of defilements, which burn and corrupt the mind; a freedom from
suffering; a realization of internal happiness, which is completely
pure and accompanied by perfect peace, illumination, and joy. In
other words, this refers to liberation (<em>vimutti</em>): to Nibbāna.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The Buddha acknowledged the importance of all the aforementioned
benefits or goals, recognizing that they are connected to an
individual’s level of lifestyle, profession, surroundings, and
proficiency, readiness, and maturity of spiritual faculties.</p>
<p>From the passage cited above, however, it is evident that according to
Buddhism all people should reach the second stage of benefits or goals.
It is good to have attained present, immediate benefits, but this is
insufficient – one should not rest here. One should progress and
realize at least some aspects of profound, spiritual benefits. A person
who has obtained the first two levels of benefits, or has reached the
first two goals, is praised as a <em>paṇḍita</em> – a person who lives wisely,
whose life is not meaningless and void.</p>
<p>The Buddha gave comprehensive practical teachings on how to reach all of
these benefits. On some occasions he gave a teaching on how to obtain
four kinds of immediate, visible benefits:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Uṭṭhāna-sampadā</em>: perseverance; to know how to apply wisdom to
manage one’s affairs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Ārakkha-sampadā</em>: to know how to protect one’s wealth and
possessions, so that they are safe and do not come to harm.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Kalyāṇamittatā</em>: to associate with virtuous people, who support
one’s spiritual practice and development.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samajīvitā</em>: to lead a balanced livelihood; to be happy without
needing to live lavishly; to keep one’s income greater than one’s
expenditures; to maintain savings; to economize.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Similarly, he gave a teaching on how to obtain four kinds of profound,
spiritual benefits:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Saddhā-sampadā</em>: to possess faith based on reason and in line with
the Buddhist teachings; to be deeply inspired by the Triple Gem; to
believe in the law of kamma; to be anchored in something virtuous.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sīla-sampadā</em>: to be endowed with moral conduct; to live virtuously
and to make a living honestly; to maintain a moral discipline that
is suitable for one’s way of life.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Cāga-sampadā</em>: the accomplishment of relinquishment; to be generous
and charitable; to be ready to help those in need.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Paññā-sampadā</em>: to live wisely; to know how to reflect on things;
to apply discriminative knowledge; to fully understand the world; to
be able to detach the mind from unwholesome states according to the
circumstances.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>In regard to the supreme benefit or goal (<em>paramattha</em>), because it is
so difficult to understand and to realize, and also because it is the
unique factor distinguishing Buddhism from all previous religious
doctrines, it is natural that the Buddha gave it great emphasis. There
are teachings by the Buddha on the supreme goal spread throughout the
Tipiṭaka, and similarly in this text <em>Buddhadhamma</em> this theme has been
touched upon frequently. {539}</p>
<p>As for the first two levels of benefits, they have been adequately
taught by Buddhist scholars and teachers throughout the ages. The first
level – of mundane, immediate benefits – has been taught to lay
Buddhists as is suitable to their particular time period and location.
Buddhists have readily adopted any teaching in this context that is
effective and does not lead to a deviation from the Middle Way. Lay
Buddhists themselves are able to elaborate on and adapt these practices
as is appropriate to their circumstances.</p>
<p>In the above sutta passage the Buddha emphasizes the quality of
heedfulness (<em>appamāda</em>) as a factor which helps to realize all of the
aforementioned benefits. <em>Appamāda</em> can be defined as: an absence of
indifference, passivity, or neglect; attentiveness, diligence, and
ambition; being well-prepared and vigilant; hastening to do that which
should be done, adjust that which should be adjusted, and do that which
is good. A heedful person knows that diligence is a fundamental
spiritual quality, which leads to both immediate and future benefits.</p>
<p>There is the added stipulation here that heedfulness must be firmly
established on an association with virtuous people, on having good
friends, and on involving such people in one’s activities. Moreover, the
Buddha explains heedfulness here to mean ’diligence in regard to
wholesome states’ – to engaging in virtuous activities and ’performing
meritorious deeds’ (<em>puñña-kiriyā</em>).</p>
<p>The term <em>puñña-kiriyā</em> provides an interesting link to a related
subject. When the Buddha on certain occasions spoke about secondary
benefits or goals, he reduced his emphasis in relation to the supreme
goal. When the focus of the teaching was lowered to one of the secondary
goals, the level of practice that he recommended was also lowered or
relaxed.</p>
<p>This is the case not only in specific, isolated circumstances; it is
true also when he presented general, wide-ranging systems of practice.</p>
<p>We see this in a teaching the Buddha gave in reference to these three
stages of benefits. Here, instead of the practice being formulated
according to the gradual teaching of the threefold training – of
<em>sīla</em>, <em>samādhi</em>, and <em>paññā</em> – as is usual in those teachings
focusing primarily on the supreme goal, the system of practice is
restructured as the general teaching referred to as ’meritorious action’
(<em>puñña-kiriyā</em>) or the ’bases of meritorious action’
(<em>puññakiriyā-vatthu</em>).</p>
<p>In this teaching, there are likewise three factors, but with different
names.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> They are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Dāna</em>: giving, relinquishment, generosity. The reasons for giving
are various: to help others who are poor, destitute, or in need; to
show goodwill in order to create trust, establish friendship, and
develop communal harmony; and to honour virtue, by praising,
encouraging and supporting good people. The things given are also
various: personal possessions, material objects, and requisites for
sustaining life; technical knowledge, advice, guidance on how to
live one’s life, or the gift of Dhamma; the opportunity to
participate in wholesome activities; and the gift of forgiveness
(<em>abhaya-dāna</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sīla</em>: virtuous conduct and earning one’s living honestly; moral
discipline and good manners. {540} The main emphasis here is on not
harming others and living together peacefully, by maintaining the
five precepts: not killing or injuring other beings; not violating
other people’s property or possessions; not violating those who are
cherished by others – not offending others by dishonouring them or
destroying their families; not harming or undermining others by
wrong or offensive speech; and not causing trouble for oneself by
taking addictive drugs which impair mindfulness and clear
comprehension – spiritual qualities that act as restraints,
preventing harm and preserving virtue.</p>
<p>In addition to the five precepts one may undertake a training in
abstaining from certain luxuries and pleasing sense objects, in
living simply and being less dependent on material things, by
keeping the eight or ten precepts at suitable times. Alternatively,
one may undertake various forms of public service and assistance
(<em>veyyāvacca-kamma</em>).</p>
</li>