-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 1
/
four-noble-truths.html
2408 lines (2368 loc) · 135 KB
/
four-noble-truths.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en" class="light sidebar-visible" dir="ltr">
<head>
<!-- Book generated using mdBook -->
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Ch. 19. Four Noble Truths - Buddhadhamma</title>
<!-- Custom HTML head -->
<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff">
<link rel="icon" href="favicon.svg">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="favicon.png">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/variables.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/general.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/chrome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/print.css" media="print">
<!-- Fonts -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="FontAwesome/css/font-awesome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="fonts/fonts.css">
<!-- Highlight.js Stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="highlight.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="tomorrow-night.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="ayu-highlight.css">
<!-- Custom theme stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="assets/stylesheets/output-html.css">
<!-- Provide site root to javascript -->
<script>
var path_to_root = "";
var default_theme = window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "navy" : "light";
</script>
<!-- Start loading toc.js asap -->
<script src="toc.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<div id="body-container">
<!-- Work around some values being stored in localStorage wrapped in quotes -->
<script>
try {
var theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme');
var sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar');
if (theme.startsWith('"') && theme.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-theme', theme.slice(1, theme.length - 1));
}
if (sidebar.startsWith('"') && sidebar.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-sidebar', sidebar.slice(1, sidebar.length - 1));
}
} catch (e) { }
</script>
<!-- Set the theme before any content is loaded, prevents flash -->
<script>
var theme;
try { theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme'); } catch(e) { }
if (theme === null || theme === undefined) { theme = default_theme; }
const html = document.documentElement;
html.classList.remove('light')
html.classList.add(theme);
html.classList.add("js");
</script>
<input type="checkbox" id="sidebar-toggle-anchor" class="hidden">
<!-- Hide / unhide sidebar before it is displayed -->
<script>
var sidebar = null;
var sidebar_toggle = document.getElementById("sidebar-toggle-anchor");
if (document.body.clientWidth >= 1080) {
try { sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar'); } catch(e) { }
sidebar = sidebar || 'visible';
} else {
sidebar = 'hidden';
}
sidebar_toggle.checked = sidebar === 'visible';
html.classList.remove('sidebar-visible');
html.classList.add("sidebar-" + sidebar);
</script>
<nav id="sidebar" class="sidebar" aria-label="Table of contents">
<!-- populated by js -->
<mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox class="sidebar-scrollbox"></mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox>
<noscript>
<iframe class="sidebar-iframe-outer" src="toc.html"></iframe>
</noscript>
<div id="sidebar-resize-handle" class="sidebar-resize-handle">
<div class="sidebar-resize-indicator"></div>
</div>
</nav>
<div id="page-wrapper" class="page-wrapper">
<div class="page">
<div id="menu-bar-hover-placeholder"></div>
<div id="menu-bar" class="menu-bar sticky">
<div class="left-buttons">
<label id="sidebar-toggle" class="icon-button" for="sidebar-toggle-anchor" title="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-label="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-controls="sidebar">
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</label>
<button id="theme-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Change theme" aria-label="Change theme" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="theme-list">
<i class="fa fa-paint-brush"></i>
</button>
<ul id="theme-list" class="theme-popup" aria-label="Themes" role="menu">
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="light">Light</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="rust">Rust</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="coal">Coal</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="navy">Navy</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="ayu">Ayu</button></li>
</ul>
<button id="search-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Search. (Shortkey: s)" aria-label="Toggle Searchbar" aria-expanded="false" aria-keyshortcuts="S" aria-controls="searchbar">
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
<div class="right-buttons">
<a href="print.html" title="Print this book" aria-label="Print this book">
<i id="print-button" class="fa fa-print"></i>
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="search-wrapper" class="hidden">
<form id="searchbar-outer" class="searchbar-outer">
<input type="search" id="searchbar" name="searchbar" placeholder="Search this book ..." aria-controls="searchresults-outer" aria-describedby="searchresults-header">
</form>
<div id="searchresults-outer" class="searchresults-outer hidden">
<div id="searchresults-header" class="searchresults-header"></div>
<ul id="searchresults">
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- Apply ARIA attributes after the sidebar and the sidebar toggle button are added to the DOM -->
<script>
document.getElementById('sidebar-toggle').setAttribute('aria-expanded', sidebar === 'visible');
document.getElementById('sidebar').setAttribute('aria-hidden', sidebar !== 'visible');
Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('#sidebar a')).forEach(function(link) {
link.setAttribute('tabIndex', sidebar === 'visible' ? 0 : -1);
});
</script>
<div id="content" class="content">
<main>
<h1 id="four-noble-truths"><a class="header" href="#four-noble-truths">Four Noble Truths</a></h1>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-19-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-19-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-19-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>The teaching of the Four Noble Truths encompasses the Buddhist teachings
in their entirety. The entire subject matter discussed in <em>Buddhadhamma</em>
is encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths, and therefore this teaching
acts as the summary and conclusion to this book. There are some
important points to understand in reference to the Four Noble Truths:</p>
<h2 id="role-and-significance-of-the-four-noble-truths"><a class="header" href="#role-and-significance-of-the-four-noble-truths">Role and Significance of the Four Noble Truths</a></h2>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Friends, just as the footprint of any animal that walks can be placed
within an elephant’s footprint, and so the elephant’s footprint is
declared the chief of them because of its great size; so too, all
wholesome states can be included in the Four Noble Truths.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 184-5.</em></p>
<p>So long, monks, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths
as they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was not
thoroughly purified in this way, I did not claim to have awakened to
the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment….</p>
<p><em>Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Vin. I. 11; S. V. 422-3.</em></p>
<p>Monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating the Four Noble
Truths that I as well as you have for a long time run on and wandered
round [the cycle of birthand-death].</p>
<p><em>D. II. 90.</em></p>
<p>Then the Blessed One gave the householder Upāli a gradual instruction,
that is, talk on giving, talk on virtue, talk on the heavens; he
explained the danger, degradation, and defilement in sensual pleasures
and the blessing of renunciation. When he knew that the householder
Upāli’s mind was ready, receptive, free from hindrances, delighted,
and confident, he expounded to him the teaching special to the
Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup></p>
<p><em>M. I. 379-80.</em></p>
<p>A person lives the holy life under the Blessed One in order to know,
to see, to realize, to experience for himself, to attain that which is
not yet known, seen, realized, experienced, and attained, [that is]:
this is suffering, this is the origin of suffering, this is the end of
suffering, this is the path leading to the end of suffering. {847}</p>
<p><em>A. IV. 384-5.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>One of the unique characteristics of Buddhism is that it only teaches
those truths which can be applied to benefit one’s life. The Four Noble
Truths are of direct benefit to people’s lives. Buddhism does not
concern itself with abstract truths that have no practical value. For
this reason, the Buddha did not concern himself and waste time with
metaphysical debates:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>If anyone should say thus: ’I will not lead the holy life under the
Blessed One until the Blessed One declares to me “the world is eternal
or not eternal, the world is finite or the world is infinite, the life
principle and the body are the same or the life principle is one thing
and the body another, a being exists after death or does not exist, a
being both exists and does not exist after death, or a being neither
exists nor does not exist after death” ’ that would still remain
undeclared by the Tathāgata and meanwhile that person would die.</p>
<p>Suppose, a man were wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison,
and his friends and companions, his kinsmen and relatives brought a
skilled surgeon to treat him. The man would say: ’I will not let the
surgeon pull out this arrow until I know whether the man who wounded
me was a noble or a brahmin or a merchant or a labourer; until I know
the name and clan of the man who wounded me, whether he was tall or
short or of middling height; whether he was dark, fair-skinned, or
swarthy; and whether he lives in such a village or town or city. I
will not let the surgeon pull out this arrow until I know whether the
bow that wounded me was a long bow or a crossbow; whether the
bowstring that wounded me was made with fibre or bamboo or sinew or
hemp or bark; whether the shaft that wounded me was wild or
cultivated; until I know with what kind of feathers the shaft that
wounded me was fitted – whether those of a vulture or an adjutant
stork or a hawk or a peacock or a sithilahanu bird; until I know with
what kind of sinew the shaft that wounded me was bound – whether that
of an ox or a buffalo or a langur or a monkey; and until I know what
kind of arrowhead it was that wounded me.’ Before being able to know
all of this that man would surely die. So too, if anyone should say
thus: ’I will not lead the holy life’ … meanwhile that person would
die.</p>
<p>Māluṅkyaputta, if there is the view ’the world is eternal’, the holy
life cannot be lived; and if there is the view ’the world is not
eternal’, the holy life cannot be lived. Whether there is the view
’the world is eternal’ or the view ’the world is not eternal’, there
is still birth, there is still aging, there is still death, there are
still sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair; it is the
destruction of these [forms of suffering] I prescribe here and
now….</p>
<p>Therefore, remember what I have left undeclared as undeclared, and
remember what I have declared as declared. And what have I left
undeclared? ’The world is eternal’, ’the world is not eternal’…. Why
have I left that undeclared? Because it is unbeneficial, it does not
belong to the fundamentals of the holy life, it does not lead to
disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct
knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna. That is why I have left it
undeclared.</p>
<p>And what have I declared? I have declared: ’This is suffering’, ’this
is the origin of suffering’, ’this is the cessation of suffering’,
’this is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ And why have
I declared that? Because it is beneficial, it belongs to the
fundamentals of the holy life, it leads to disenchantment, to
dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to
enlightenment, to Nibbāna. That is why I have declared it. {848}</p>
<p><em>M. I. 428-31.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>On another occasion the Buddha said that the things he has realized are
numerous, but the things he has taught are few. This is because he only
teaches those things that are of benefit and can be used to solve
problems. Specifically, these beneficial things are the Four Noble
Truths:</p>
<p>The Buddha was once staying in the Siṁsapā grove near the city of
Kosambī. At that time he picked up a small handful of Narra tree leaves
and said to the monks:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>’What do you estimate, monks, which is more numerous: these few narra
leaves that I hold in my hand or those in the Siṁsapā grove overhead?’</p>
<p>’Venerable sir, the few narra leaves that the Blessed One holds in his
hand are of a small amount, while those in the Siṁsapā grove overhead
are much more numerous.’</p>
<p>’So too, monks, the things I have directly known but have not taught
you are numerous, while the things I have taught you are few. And why,
monks, have I not taught those many things? Because they are
unbeneficial, irrelevant to the fundamentals of the holy life, and do
not lead to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to
direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna.</p>
<p>’And what, monks, have I taught? I have taught: “This is suffering”; I
have taught: “This is the origin of suffering”; I have taught: “This
is the cessation of suffering”; I have taught: “This is the way
leading to the cessation of suffering.” And why have I taught this?
Because it is beneficial, relevant to the fundamentals of the holy
life, and leads to disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to
peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbāna. Therefore I
have taught this.</p>
<p>’Therefore, monks, you should make effort in order to understand
according to the truth: “This is suffering, this is the origin of
suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, this is the way leading
to the cessation of suffering.” ’<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup></p>
<p><em>S. V. 437-8.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Four Noble Truths are a vital teaching for both renunciants and
laypeople. The Buddha therefore urged the monks to give teachings to the
laypeople so that they understand these truths:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, those to whom you ought to give assistance or those who are
receptive to the teachings – whether friends or colleagues, relatives
or kinsmen – these you should encourage and exhort to be settled and
established in a realization of the Four Noble Truths as they really
are.</p>
<p><em>S. V. 434-5.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="the-meaning-of-the-four-noble-truths"><a class="header" href="#the-meaning-of-the-four-noble-truths">The Meaning of the Four Noble Truths</a></h2>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>These Four Noble Truths, monks, are actual, unerring, and constant.
Therefore they are called noble truths….</p>
<p><em>S. V. 435.</em></p>
<p>Monks, the Tathāgata is the Noble One in this world with its devas,
Māra, and Brahma, in this generation with its ascetics and brahmins,
its devas and humans. Therefore they are called noble truths (because
they are realized and revealed by the Buddha, the Noble One).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup>
{849}</p>
<p><em>S. V. 435.</em></p>
<p>Monks, it is because he has fully awakened to these Four Noble Truths
as they really are that the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly
Enlightened One, is called the Noble One.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup></p>
<p><em>S. V. 433.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Referring to passages in the Pali Canon, the Visuddhimagga presents four
definitions for the Four Noble Truths (See
Note <a href="#note-noble-truths">Noble Truths</a>):</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Noble Truths</span><a id="note-noble-truths"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Vism. 495. For the first definition the Visuddhimagga quotes the
following passage: ’Monks, because the “noble ones” (i.e. the
enlightened ones) penetrate these truths, they are called noble
truths’, but I am unable to find this passage in the Tipiṭaka as it
remains today. As for the fourth definition, the term <em>ariya</em> is
normally translated as ’noble’ or ’excellent’, and thus <em>ariya-sacca</em>
is translated as ’noble truth’, but the commentators here interpret
<em>ariya</em> according to the passage quoted above, as ’actual’ or ’sure’.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Truths realized by the ’noble ones’ (see preceding footnote).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Truths belonging to the Noble One (Pali definition B, above).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Truths leading to the state of being a Noble One (Pali definition C,
above).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Truths that are actual and certain (Pali definition A, above).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The canonical explanations for the four truths are as follows:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Now this, monks, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering,
aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering;
encounters with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what
is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in
brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.</p>
<p>Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is
craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and
lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual
pleasures, craving for existence, craving for annihilation.</p>
<p>Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it
is the remainderless elimination and cessation of that same craving,
the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonattachment
to it.</p>
<p>Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the way leading to the
cessation of suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Further explanations are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em>: suffering; conditions that are difficult to endure; human
predicaments. On a more profound level, this truth refers to the
state of all conditioned things, which are subject to the natural
laws of impermanence, <em>dukkha</em>, and nonself. Conditioned phenomena
are accompanied by pressure, stress, conflict, and obstruction. They
are inherently flawed and imperfect; they lack true substance and
stability; they are unable to provide lasting satisfaction and
contentment; they are constantly prone to cause problems and to
create suffering for someone who attaches to them with clinging
(<em>upādāna</em>). {850}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha-samudaya</em> (abbreviated as <em>samudaya</em>): the origin or source
of suffering; i.e. craving (<em>taṇhā</em>), which seizes onto a belief in
’self’, establishing an ’I’, which is presumed to experience and
acquire, exist and cease to exist in different circumstances.
Attaching to this sense of self subjects a person to continual
agitation, anxiety, yearning, possessiveness, hatred, fear,
suspicion, boredom, and other forms of mental affliction. One is
thus unable to truly feel at ease, free, and joyous; one does not
know happiness that is immaculate and secure.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha-nirodha</em> (abbreviated as <em>nirodha</em>): the cessation of
suffering; the state reached when one completely eliminates
ignorance and craving, when one is not influenced or compelled by
craving, and when one is not oppressed by anxiety, boredom, or any
other form of mental affliction. One is liberated, peaceful, bright
and at ease; one experiences pure happiness. In short, <em>nirodha</em> is
equivalent to Nibbāna.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkhanirodhagāminī-paṭipadā</em> (abbreviated as <em>magga</em>: the Path):
the path leading to the cessation of suffering or the mode of
practice for reaching the end of suffering, i.e. the Noble Eightfold
Path (<em>ariya-aṭṭhaṅgikamagga</em>; the supreme path consisting of eight
factors), i.e. right view … right concentration. This path is
known as the Middle Way (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>) because it proceeds in
a balanced way to the end of suffering, without getting stuck at or
veering towards either of the two extremes: indulgence in sensual
pleasures (<em>kāmasukhallikānuyoga</em>) or self-mortification
(<em>attakilamathānuyoga</em>; practices of self-torment).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 id="the-four-noble-truths-and-dependent-origination"><a class="header" href="#the-four-noble-truths-and-dependent-origination">The Four Noble Truths and Dependent Origination</a></h2>
<p>Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths are both central
Buddhist teachings.</p>
<p>In answer to the question, ’What did the Buddha realize at his
enlightenment?’ it is equally accurate to say that he realized Dependent
Origination and that he realized the Four Noble Truths. There are
passages in the Pali Canon to substantiate both of these claims.</p>
<p>This is because these two teachings are essentially the same and point
to the same truths: Dependent Origination is an essential element of the
Four Noble Truths, and the Four Noble Truths incorporates Dependent
Origination. Let us look at the scriptural evidence for this assertion:</p>
<p>The Vinaya Piṭaka describes the story of the Buddha’s enlightenment,
beginning with the time immediately after his enlightenment, when for an
entire week he experienced the bliss of liberation and contemplated
Dependent Origination, both the forward sequence (the arising of
suffering) and the reverse sequence (the cessation of suffering).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup>
After seven weeks of experiencing the bliss of liberation, the Buddha
considered proclaiming the Dhamma to others and he had this thought:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>’This Dhamma that I have attained is profound, difficult to see,
difficult to realize…. [It is difficult] for such a generation
delighting in attachment to see this truth, namely, specific
conditionality, Dependent Origination. And it is hard to see this
truth, namely … Nibbāna. {851}</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 1-5.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Sutta Piṭaka presents a similar description of the Buddha’s life
story, beginning with the thoughts that led him to go forth and leave
the palace, followed by accounts of his going forth as a renunciant,
studying with the ascetics Āḷāra and Uddaka, undertaking and
relinquishing the practices of extreme asceticism, resuming eating food,
and then attaining the jhānas and realizing the three forms of knowledge
at the time of his awakening:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength, then quite
secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states, I
entered upon and abided in the first jhāna … the second jhāna …
the third jhāna … the fourth jhāna, which has neither pleasure nor
pain and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity….</p>
<p>When my mind was concentrated, purified, bright, unblemished, rid of
defilement, malleable, wieldy, steady, and imperturbable, I directed
it to knowledge of the recollection of past lives
(pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa; the first knowledge – vijjā). I recollected
my manifold past lives…. I directed it to knowledge of the passing
away and reappearance of beings … I saw beings passing away and
reappearing (cutūpapāta-ñāṇa; the second knowledge)…. I directed it
to knowledge of the destruction of the taints (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa; the
third knowledge). I directly knew as it actually is: ’This is
suffering’, ’this is the origin of suffering’, ’this is the cessation
of suffering’, ’this is the way leading to the cessation of
suffering’; I directly knew as it actually is: ’These are the taints’,
’this is the origin of the taints’, ’this is the cessation of the
taints’, ’this is the way leading to the cessation of the taints.’
When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taint of
sensual desire, from the taint of becoming, and from the taint of
ignorance.</p>
<p><em>M. I. 163-73, 240-49; M. II. 93, 211-12.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Following these passages is a description of the Buddha’s considerations
on proclaiming the Dhamma, identical to the passage in the Vinaya Piṭaka
quoted above.</p>
<p>The Vinaya Piṭaka describes the period immediately following the
Buddha’s awakening, when the Buddha experienced the bliss of liberation
(which the commentaries say lasted for seven weeks). The description
begins with the Buddha’s review of Dependent Origination and ends with
the Buddha’s thoughts on refraining from teaching the Dhamma due to the
complexity and profundity of Dependent Origination and of Nibbāna. The
Sutta Piṭaka describes the circumstances leading up to the Buddha’s
awakening until he realizes the three forms of knowledge (<em>vijjā</em>). It
passes over the period of experiencing the bliss of liberation and goes
directly to the Buddha’s inclination to refrain from teaching.</p>
<p>Those people who focus on the passages in the Vinaya in which the Buddha
contemplates Dependent Origination, and the passages in both the Vinaya
and the suttas in which the Buddha considers teaching the Dhamma, will
claim that the Buddha realized Dependent Origination. Those people, on
the other hand, who focus on the sutta passages, especially those
describing the realization of the three forms of knowledge, and who
consider primarily the third knowledge, which is the true essence of
awakening (the first two forms of knowledge cannot be considered
equivalent to awakening and are not essential for realizing Nibbāna),
will claim that the Buddha realized the Four Noble Truths, resulting in
liberation from the taints.</p>
<p>Although these two answers are both correct, the two teachings have
different features and a varying scope of application, and thus should
be recognized as distinct from one another.</p>
<p>In regard to the similarity between these two teachings, let us review
the two distinct cycles of Dependent Origination and then compare these
to the Four Noble Truths:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Cycle of origination (<em>samudaya-vāra</em>): ignorance arises →
volitional formations arise → … birth arises → aging and death,
sorrow, lamentation … despair arise.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Cycle of cessation (<em>nirodha-vāra</em>): ignorance ceases → volitional
formations cease → … birth ceases → aging and death, sorrow,
lamentation … despair cease. {852}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>A.</em> The origination cycle of Dependent Origination is equivalent to
the first and the second noble truths: suffering (<em>dukkha</em>) and
suffering’s origin (<em>samudaya</em>). In the Four Noble Truths, the final
section of Dependent Origination (birth, aging, death, sorrow,
lamentation, etc.), which is the result of craving and clinging, is
designated as the first noble truth: it refers to the problems that
people encounter and that must be rectified. The teaching then
returns to the preceding factors (ignorance to becoming) and
designate them as the second noble truth: the source of human
problems.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>B.</em> The cessation cycle of Dependent Origination is equivalent to
the third noble truth (<em>nirodha</em>). It reveals how problems, when
they are properly solved at their root, cease according to the law
of cause and effect. Although the cessation cycle is directly
associated with the third noble truth, it also includes the fourth
noble truth, because the eradication of problems refers indirectly
to the conduct or practice involved in solving these problems; it
points to the particular actions required to resolve problems.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>It is thus possible to condense the Four Noble Truths, resulting in two
truths: the existence of suffering (truths 1 and 2) and the end of
suffering (truths 3 and 4).</p>
<p>In some suttas, these two cycles of Dependent Origination are used as
definitions for the second and third noble truths: the origination cycle
is a definition for the second truth, and the cessation cycle is a
definition for the third.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup></p>
<p>In these definitions, however, only craving (<em>taṇhā</em>) is revealed as the
cause for suffering (<em>samudaya</em>); and similarly, the end of craving is
the definition for cessation (<em>nirodha</em>). This is because craving is the
most obvious defilement; it plays a dominant role and is thus
highlighted for investigation. Despite this abbreviated presentation,
the entire process of Dependent Origination is implied.</p>
<p>The teachings on Dependent Origination and on the Four Noble Truths are
distinct from each other in the following ways:</p>
<p>These two teachings reveal the same truth, but in different ways and
with different objectives. Dependent Origination describes an automatic,
natural process. The Four Noble Truths, on the other hand, presents a
model for wise inquiry and investigation, leading to practical results.</p>
<p>The Four Noble Truths corresponds to the Buddha’s own search for truth,
beginning with his encounters with suffering and his consequent search
for its cause. He discovered that this search is not in vain; there is
indeed a solution. He thus determined the specific points which need to
be attended to and set himself a clear goal. Finally, he carried out the
necessary measures to solve the problem until he reached his desired
goal. The Four Noble Truths is thus used as a systematized teaching for
generating understanding, profiting both the person who presents the
teaching and the person who receives it. {853}</p>
<p>Dependent Origination is the essential dynamic inherent in the Four
Noble Truths which the Buddha contemplated immediately after his
awakening. It is the key teaching which a person must study in order to
understand the gist of the Four Noble Truths.</p>
<p>The main distinction between these teachings is found in relation to the
cessation cycle of Dependent Origination which corresponds to the third
and fourth noble truth. When one compares the cessation cycle with the
third noble truth (<em>nirodha</em>), one sees that it focuses primarily on the
process leading to cessation rather than on the state of cessation –
Nibbāna – itself. For this reason, following the Buddha’s awakening,
while he was considering whether to teach the Dhamma, he distinguished
the two truths that he had realized. His first consideration was:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>This Dhamma that I have attained is profound, difficult to see,
difficult to realize…. [It is difficult] for such a generation
delighting in attachment to see this truth, namely, specific
conditionality, Dependent Origination.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This was followed by a second consideration:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>And it is hard to see this truth, namely, the stilling of all
formations, the abandonment of all foundations for suffering, the end
of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The third noble truth, on the other hand, refers principally to the
state of cessation, although the process leading to cessation is
inherent in it.</p>
<p>The cessation cycle of Dependent Origination incorporates the fourth
noble truth (<em>magga</em>), but it does not clearly mark out a path of
practice. It does not clearly specify the details or methods of
practical application: what needs to be done for the process to reach
completion. This is similar to a doctor who knows how to treat an
illness but neither prescribes medicine nor sets down a treatment plan.</p>
<p>In the Four Noble Truths, however, the Buddha specifically distinguished
the fourth truth for the purpose of practical application: it is a way
of practice that has been tested and proved, and leads with certainty to
the goal of complete and utter freedom.</p>
<p>The fourth noble truth (<em>magga</em>) describes spiritual practice in a
detailed, balanced, and comprehensive way; it comprises the entire
Buddhist system of practice. It is called the ’middle way of practice’
or the ’Middle Way’, which is to be undertaken by people in order to
generate results within themselves. Dependent Origination, on the other
hand, is referred to as an ’impartial teaching of truth’ (<em>majjhena
dhammaṁ deseti</em>), or a ’middle teaching’, which accords with the
inherent laws of nature. It encompasses the first three noble truths.
Because the Middle Way (<em>magga</em>) has distinctive features it is
important to distinguish it as a unique teaching. {854}</p>
<p>In sum, the Buddha made a distinction between the truths that he
realized at the time of his awakening: on the one hand there is
Dependent Origination and Nibbāna, and on the other hand the Four Noble
Truths. All of these truths are essentially the same, but viewed from
different perspectives.</p>
<p>The Buddha referred to Dependent Origination and Nibbāna when he was
considering whether to teach the Dhamma, acknowledging how profound
these things are and how difficult it is for beings to understand them.
Nibbāna and Dependent Origination are the essential qualities realized
by the Buddha at the time of his enlightenment; they are the true and
pure essence of the Dhamma, extremely difficult to realize. And they lie
at the heart of the teaching on the Four Noble Truths.</p>
<p>The Buddha referred to the Four Noble Truths when he described his own
practice culminating in his awakening and when he gave teachings to
others, beginning with the First Sermon, on setting the wheel of Dhamma
in motion. The Four Noble Truths comprise the entire range of truths
realized by the Buddha. They are organized into a gradual system of
coherent and effective teachings, which take into account people’s
ability to understand these truths and apply them to their lives.</p>
<p>Nibbāna and Dependent Origination are pure, natural phenomena. The Four
Noble Truths are those matters directly pertaining to human beings; they
are presented in a way that is conducive to understanding and to
practical application. The Four Noble Truths embody the entirety of the
truth (Dhamma), whereas the essential (and the most difficult to
realize) qualities of the truth are Nibbāna and Dependent Origination. A
person who truly understands Nibbāna and Dependent Origination
understands Buddha-Dhamma in its entirety, including the Four Noble
Truths.</p>
<h2 id="actions-to-be-performed-in-relation-to-the-four-noble-truths"><a class="header" href="#actions-to-be-performed-in-relation-to-the-four-noble-truths">Actions to Be Performed in Relation to the Four Noble Truths</a></h2>
<p>It is crucial that one understands and performs the necessary duties in
relation to each of the Four Noble Truths. A correct presentation and
correct practice of the Four Noble Truths relies on an accurate linking
up between each distinct truth and its corresponding responsibility or
action. A failure to do this results in misunderstandings and incorrect
practice. A lack of understanding about the duties connected to each of
the Four Noble Truths also leads to misunderstanding about Buddhism in
general, for example the belief that Buddhism is a pessimistic teaching.</p>
<p>The four duties in respect to the Four Noble Truths are as follows:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Suffering should be fully understood<br />
(<em>dukkhaṁ ariyasaccaṁ pariññeyyaṁ</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The cause of suffering should be abandoned<br />
(<em>dukkhasamudayo ariyasaccaṁ pahātabbaṁ</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The cessation of suffering should be realized<br />
(<em>dukkhanirodho ariyasaccaṁ sacchikātabbaṁ</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The way leading to the cessation of suffering should be developed<br />
(<em>dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā ariyasaccaṁ bhāvetabbaṁ</em>). {855}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>A.</em> Thorough knowledge (<em>pariññā</em>): the duty in respect to
suffering is thorough understanding: one should investigate and
understanding suffering as it truly is; one should clearly
understand relevant problems and determine the extent of these
problems. This is a fundamental stage of spiritual practice enabling
one to progress to subsequent stages and to understand the heart of
the human predicament.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>B.</em> Abandonment (<em>pahāna</em>): the duty in respect to the causes for
suffering is to eliminate them – to bring the causes for suffering
to an end; one should remove the source of suffering.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>C.</em> Realization (<em>sacchikiriyā</em>): the duty in respect to the
cessation of suffering is to realize or attain such cessation: to
reach a state in which the essential problems have been solved,
where one is completely free from these problems and has reached the
goal of spiritual practice.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>D.</em> Cultivation (<em>bhāvanā</em>): the duty in respect to the Path is to
literally ’bring into existence’ – to generate and to increase –
i.e.: to train oneself according to the factors of the Path; to
undertake the practice of the Path, which eliminates the source of
suffering; to follow the methods which lead to the goal; to set down
the details of spiritual practice and to apply these in order to
solve problems.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>It is necessary to attend to and accomplish these duties correctly,
matching each duty with its appropriate truth. To perform these duties
correctly requires knowledge (<em>ñāṇa</em>); the knowledge of these duties in
Pali is referred to as <em>kicca-ñāṇa</em>. Applying this knowledge to link
each noble truth with its matching duty corresponds to different stages
of spiritual practice, and it can be used for solving every kind of
human problem:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of the duty in relation to <em>dukkha</em>: to know that
suffering needs to be thoroughly understood; to understand the
nature of suffering, the basis of suffering, and the locus of
suffering. This understanding accords with reality, which differs
from understanding things according to how we want them to be or
according to aversion, for instance. As a particular stage of
practice, this refers to the stage of describing or assessing
problems, which must be defined and understood.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of the duty in relation to <em>samudaya</em>: to know that the
cause of suffering needs to be abandoned; to understand the causes
of suffering, which should be eliminated. This is the stage of
inquiry and analysis, of diagnosing the source of suffering, which
must be completely eradicated.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of the duty in relation to <em>nirodha</em>: to know that the
cessation of suffering needs to be realized; to understand the
cessation of suffering, which should be realized. This is the stage
of focusing on the end of suffering – the goal of spiritual
practice – by recognizing that solving the human predicament is
possible, worthy, and something that should be accomplished.
Moreover, one knows how to reach this goal.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of the duty in relation to <em>magga</em>: to know that the Path
needs to be cultivated; to understand the Path or the way of
practice leading to the end of suffering, which should be developed
and brought to completion. This is the stage of setting down or
acknowledging the methods, stages, and details of practice used for
eliminating the source of suffering which need to be applied and
undertaken.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>In sum, we know what our problems are – we know the nature of our
suffering, we know the source of that suffering, we know what to aspire
to (or what achievement is truly desirable), and we know what must be
done – we know how to proceed.</p>
<p>The knowledge of duties (<em>kicca-ñāṇa</em>) is one of three kinds of
knowledge connected to the Four Noble Truths, which are used as criteria
for determining enlightenment: when a person truly knows the Four Noble
Truths with these three kinds of knowledge (comprising twelve factors),
he or she is said to be awakened. {856}</p>
<p>These three kinds of knowledge are referred to collectively as
’knowledge and vision’ (<em>ñāṇa-dassana</em>). This knowledge and vision consists of three cycles or rounds (<em>parivaṭṭa</em>), constituting the
three kinds of knowledge:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of the truths (<em>sacca-ñāṇa</em>): knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths as they really are: ’this is suffering’, ’this is the source
of suffering’, ’this is the end of suffering’, ’this is the way
leading to the end of suffering’; ’suffering is like this’, ’the
source of suffering is like this’, ’the end of suffering is like
this’, ’the way leading to the end of suffering is like this’. This
knowledge completes the first round (<em>parivaṭṭa</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of duties (<em>kicca-ñāṇa</em>): knowledge of the required duties
apropos of each of the Four Noble Truths: <em>dukkha</em> should be fully
understood, the cause of suffering should be abandoned, etc., as
described above. This knowledge completes the second ’round’.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Knowledge of what has been done (<em>kata-ñāṇa</em>): knowledge of having
accomplished the duties in respect to the Four Noble Truths. One
knows: ’Suffering, which should be fully understood, has been fully
understood’; ’The cause, which should be abandoned, has been
abandoned’; ’Cessation, which should be realized, has been
realized’; ’The Path, which should be developed, has been
developed.’ This knowledge completes the third ’round’.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These three rounds occur in relation to each of the four truths,
resulting in twelve factors (<em>ākāra</em>) of knowledge and vision. Knowledge
and vision (<em>ñāṇa-dassana</em>) thus has three cycles (<em>parivaṭṭa</em>),
containing twelve factors.</p>
<p>The Buddha possessed knowledge and vision of the Four Noble Truths in
their three rounds – he realized the twelve factors – and therefore he
declared that he had achieved the unsurpassed supreme enlightenment.</p>
<p>Knowledge and vision containing these twelve factors is used as a
criterion for verifying all forms of spiritual accomplishment. This
knowledge with its rounds and factors can outlined as seen below, and on
Table <a href="#tbl-three-kinds-of-knowledge">Three Kinds of Knowledge</a>.</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Suffering is like this – it should be fully understood – it has
been fully understood.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The cause is like this – it should be abandoned – it has been
abandoned.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Cessation is like this – it should be realized – it has been
realized.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Path is like this – it should be developed – it has been
developed. {857}</p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Three Kinds of Knowledge</span><a id="tbl-three-kinds-of-knowledge"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/three-kinds-of-knowledge.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<p>Note also the following points: {858}</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em> is paired with the duty of clear understanding (<em>pariññā</em>)
in the sense that suffering should be clearly understood. Therefore,
suffering and all things that are classified as problems are
collectively referred to as ’things which should be clearly
understood’ (<em>pariññeyya-dhamma</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em> is paired with the duty of relinquishment (<em>pahāna</em>) in
the sense that the causes for suffering should be abandoned or
eliminated. Therefore, craving and all things classified as causes
for suffering, e.g.: ignorance, greed, hatred, and grasping, are
collectively referred to as things to be relinquished
(<em>pahātabba-dhamma</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em> is paired with the duty of realization (<em>sacchikiriyā</em>) in
the sense that the cessation of suffering should be realized.
Therefore, Nibbāna and things related to the goal are called ’things
to be realized’ (<em>sacchikātabba-dhamma</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em> is paired with the duty of cultivation (<em>bhāvanā</em>) in the
sense that the Path should be developed. The Eightfold Path and all
practices and methods for reaching the goal are called ’things to be
cultivated’ (<em>bhāvetabba-dhamma</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Everything that exists, without exception, can be classified as and
incorporated into one of these four groups.</p>
<p>On the Path leading to the end of suffering – from rudimentary stages
to the refined, and from relating to external things to realizing
profound phenomena in the mind – it is always possible to associate the
things which one experiences with one of these four groups. For example,
at the highest level of practice, of contemplating the essence of truth,
the Buddha described these four qualities as follows:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em>: things to be understood (<em>pariññeyya-dhamma</em>) = the five
aggregates of clinging.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em>: things to be abandoned (<em>pahātabba-dhamma</em>) = ignorance
(<em>avijjā</em>) and craving for existence (<em>bhava-taṇhā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em>: things to be realized (<em>sacchikātabba-dhamma</em>) = true
knowledge (<em>vijjā</em>) and liberation (<em>vimutti</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em>: things to be developed (<em>bhāvetabba-dhamma</em>) = tranquility
(<em>samatha</em>) and insight (<em>vipassanā</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<h2 id="summary-of-the-four-noble-truths"><a class="header" href="#summary-of-the-four-noble-truths">Summary of the Four Noble Truths</a></h2>
<p>The commentaries offer some interesting analogies for the Four Noble
Truths:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>An illness:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em> is similar to an illness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em> is similar to the cause of illness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em> is similar to the freedom from illness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em> is similar to the medicine for curing the illness.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Famine:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em> is similar to a famine.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em> is similar to an absence of rain.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em> is similar to abundance and plenitude.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em> is similar to a good rainfall.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Danger:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em> is similar to danger.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em> is similar to the cause of the danger.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em> is similar to an escape from the danger.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em> is similar to the means for escaping the danger.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Burden, a heavy load:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Dukkha</em> is similar to a heavy load.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samudaya</em> is similar to carrying the heavy load.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nirodha</em> is similar to putting down the heavy load.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Magga</em> is similar to the procedures for putting down the heavy
load. {859}</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The Visuddhimagga, the Sammohavinodanī, and the Saddhammapakāsinī offer
brief and cogent explanations for why the Buddha arranged the Four Noble
Truths in the order that he did:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup></p>
<h3 id="dukkha"><a class="header" href="#dukkha">Dukkha</a></h3>
<p><em>The Focus Commences on Suffering in order to Apply Wisdom</em></p>
<p>Suffering is oppressive and affects all human beings. Whenever suffering
arises, it is arresting and kindles concern. Even if one looks beyond
one’s own personal experience, one sees the various afflictions and
difficulties that continually beset human beings as the normal state of
affairs. Suffering is apparent to all people – it manifests clearly. It
impels interest and is thus suitable as a regular subject for
contemplation, in particular as the starting point for teaching the
Dhamma.</p>
<p>Moreover, suffering is considered displeasing and frightening for most
people; although it is unavoidable, they do not want to think about it.
If one makes people aware of how they are currently experiencing
suffering or generating problems, they may be shaken from their state of
complacency. The Buddha taught people about suffering in order for them
to begin to contemplate and solve their problems.</p>
<p>By teaching the Four Noble Truths beginning with suffering, one
commences with the problems at hand, with things that are clearly
evident, with things that are arresting, and most importantly, with
things that have a direct relevance to people. One does not begin with
abstract ideas, fanciful notions, or mere rhetoric. When teaching an
individual, one speaks on a subject pertinent to him or her; and when
teaching objectively, one speaks on a subject relevant to all people.</p>
<p>The Buddha taught about suffering not to promote suffering, but to act