-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 1
/
calm-and-insight.html
4202 lines (4162 loc) · 258 KB
/
calm-and-insight.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en" class="light sidebar-visible" dir="ltr">
<head>
<!-- Book generated using mdBook -->
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Ch. 8. Calm and Insight - Buddhadhamma</title>
<!-- Custom HTML head -->
<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff">
<link rel="icon" href="favicon.svg">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="favicon.png">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/variables.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/general.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/chrome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/print.css" media="print">
<!-- Fonts -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="FontAwesome/css/font-awesome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="fonts/fonts.css">
<!-- Highlight.js Stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="highlight.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="tomorrow-night.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="ayu-highlight.css">
<!-- Custom theme stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="assets/stylesheets/output-html.css">
<!-- Provide site root to javascript -->
<script>
var path_to_root = "";
var default_theme = window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "navy" : "light";
</script>
<!-- Start loading toc.js asap -->
<script src="toc.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<div id="body-container">
<!-- Work around some values being stored in localStorage wrapped in quotes -->
<script>
try {
var theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme');
var sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar');
if (theme.startsWith('"') && theme.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-theme', theme.slice(1, theme.length - 1));
}
if (sidebar.startsWith('"') && sidebar.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-sidebar', sidebar.slice(1, sidebar.length - 1));
}
} catch (e) { }
</script>
<!-- Set the theme before any content is loaded, prevents flash -->
<script>
var theme;
try { theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme'); } catch(e) { }
if (theme === null || theme === undefined) { theme = default_theme; }
const html = document.documentElement;
html.classList.remove('light')
html.classList.add(theme);
html.classList.add("js");
</script>
<input type="checkbox" id="sidebar-toggle-anchor" class="hidden">
<!-- Hide / unhide sidebar before it is displayed -->
<script>
var sidebar = null;
var sidebar_toggle = document.getElementById("sidebar-toggle-anchor");
if (document.body.clientWidth >= 1080) {
try { sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar'); } catch(e) { }
sidebar = sidebar || 'visible';
} else {
sidebar = 'hidden';
}
sidebar_toggle.checked = sidebar === 'visible';
html.classList.remove('sidebar-visible');
html.classList.add("sidebar-" + sidebar);
</script>
<nav id="sidebar" class="sidebar" aria-label="Table of contents">
<!-- populated by js -->
<mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox class="sidebar-scrollbox"></mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox>
<noscript>
<iframe class="sidebar-iframe-outer" src="toc.html"></iframe>
</noscript>
<div id="sidebar-resize-handle" class="sidebar-resize-handle">
<div class="sidebar-resize-indicator"></div>
</div>
</nav>
<div id="page-wrapper" class="page-wrapper">
<div class="page">
<div id="menu-bar-hover-placeholder"></div>
<div id="menu-bar" class="menu-bar sticky">
<div class="left-buttons">
<label id="sidebar-toggle" class="icon-button" for="sidebar-toggle-anchor" title="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-label="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-controls="sidebar">
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</label>
<button id="theme-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Change theme" aria-label="Change theme" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="theme-list">
<i class="fa fa-paint-brush"></i>
</button>
<ul id="theme-list" class="theme-popup" aria-label="Themes" role="menu">
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="light">Light</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="rust">Rust</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="coal">Coal</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="navy">Navy</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="ayu">Ayu</button></li>
</ul>
<button id="search-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Search. (Shortkey: s)" aria-label="Toggle Searchbar" aria-expanded="false" aria-keyshortcuts="S" aria-controls="searchbar">
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
<div class="right-buttons">
<a href="print.html" title="Print this book" aria-label="Print this book">
<i id="print-button" class="fa fa-print"></i>
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="search-wrapper" class="hidden">
<form id="searchbar-outer" class="searchbar-outer">
<input type="search" id="searchbar" name="searchbar" placeholder="Search this book ..." aria-controls="searchresults-outer" aria-describedby="searchresults-header">
</form>
<div id="searchresults-outer" class="searchresults-outer hidden">
<div id="searchresults-header" class="searchresults-header"></div>
<ul id="searchresults">
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- Apply ARIA attributes after the sidebar and the sidebar toggle button are added to the DOM -->
<script>
document.getElementById('sidebar-toggle').setAttribute('aria-expanded', sidebar === 'visible');
document.getElementById('sidebar').setAttribute('aria-hidden', sidebar !== 'visible');
Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('#sidebar a')).forEach(function(link) {
link.setAttribute('tabIndex', sidebar === 'visible' ? 0 : -1);
});
</script>
<div id="content" class="content">
<main>
<h1 id="calm-and-insight"><a class="header" href="#calm-and-insight">Calm and Insight</a></h1>
<p><em>The Buddhist Teachings on Liberation of Mind and Liberation by Wisdom</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-8-buddha-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-8-buddha-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-8-buddha-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>In Pali, the word <em>samatha</em> means ’calm’ or ’tranquil’, but the term
generally refers to the actual methods of generating tranquillity and of
developing a deeply concentrated mind. The purpose of <em>samatha</em> is to
attain the meditative absorptions (<em>jhāna</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> In <em>samatha</em> practice
one fixes one’s mind on an object (<em>ārammaṇa</em>) until the mind is
one-pointed, which is called <em>samādhi</em> (concentration). When
concentration is properly established the mind enters one of the jhānas.
In the four fine-material jhānas (<em>rūpa-jhāna</em> or simply <em>jhāna</em>) one
uses aspects of materiality as the object of attention. More refined
than these are the four formless jhānas (<em>arūpa-jhāna</em>), in which one
uses immaterial objects as the object of attention. Together these
jhānas are called the eight ’attainments’ (<em>samāpatti</em>).</p>
<p>In jhāna the mind is happy, peaceful and bright; there is no dullness or
disturbance; the mind is free from the hindrances (<em>nīvaraṇa</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> For
the duration of jhāna, one is said to be free from the mental
defilements (<em>kilesa</em>). The defilements return, however, when one exits
jhāna. The terms ’cessation as suppression’ (<em>vikkhambhana-nirodha</em>) and
’liberation as suppression’ (<em>vikkhambhana-vimutti</em>) are used for this
suppression of defilement by concentration. Possible fruits of jhāna are
the five special powers (<em>abhiññā</em>): psychic power, telepathy,
recollection of past lives, divine ear, and divine eye. (See
Note <a href="#note-higher-knowledge">Higher Knowledge</a>)</p>
<p>The word <em>samatha</em> often refers specifically to concentration
(<em>samādhi</em>). Equating <em>samatha</em> with <em>samādhi</em> is in accord with both
the Abhidhamma and the suttas, for no matter which special powers or
attainments a person reaches, the essence of tranquillity meditation is
concentration.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> {427}</p>
<p><em>Vipassanā</em> means ’clear insight’. The term also refers to methods of
cultivating wisdom in order to see the truth, to see things clearly as
they are, not as one imagines them to be with a vision distorted by
desire and aversion. This insight deepens until ignorance and attachment
are uprooted, at which point one’s impressions, perceptions and
attitudes are transformed.</p>
<p>The knowledge that gradually increases during this practice of insight
is called <em>ñāṇa</em>, of which there are many levels. The final and highest
knowledge is called <em>vijjā</em>, which completely eradicates ignorance. A
mind endowed with such knowledge is joyous, peaceful and free. It
escapes the clutches of defilements, which corrupt people’s thoughts and
actions. An awakened person is not afflicted by defilements and need not
struggle against them. This knowledge is the aim of insight meditation
(<em>vipassanā</em>) and it leads to true and lasting liberation. This absolute
liberation is called ’cessation as severance’ (<em>samuccheda-nirodha</em>) or
’liberation as severance’ (<em>samuccheda-vimutti</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup></p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Higher Knowledge</span><a id="note-higher-knowledge"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Trans.: the term <em>abhiññā</em> is used in different contexts. In general
it means ’higher knowledge’, ’supreme knowledge’. There are six kinds
of supreme knowledge. The first five (listed above) are mundane forms
of knowledge; the sixth kind – knowledge of the destruction of the
taints (<em>āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa</em>) – is transcendent. In this chapter, when
referring to the first five kinds I use the terms ’special power’,
’supernormal power’, ’supreme power’, or ’higher psychic attainments’;
in reference to all six kinds I use the terms ’supreme knowledge’,
’supreme attainment’, or ’direct knowledge’.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The goal of tranquillity meditation is jhāna; the goal of insight
meditation is <em>ñāṇa</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> People can practise solely <em>samatha</em>
meditation, wishing to enjoy the fruits of such practice: the jhānas and
the supreme powers (<em>abhiññā</em>). They may stop here, not concerning
themselves with insight meditation and the development of wisdom. But a
person practising insight meditation must rely on some level of
concentration. They may attain jhāna first and use jhāna as a basis for
insight, they may practise insight first and then practise tranquillity,
or they may practise both forms of meditation simultaneously. Those who
are called ’practitioners of pure insight’ (<em>suddhavipassanā-yānika</em>) do
not practise tranquillity in a ’direct’ or ’exclusive’ way – they do
not attain jhāna before developing insight – but they still depend on
tranquillity in a broad sense: they still depend on concentration. The
initial concentration of someone practising insight may be ’temporary’
(<em>khaṇika-samādhi</em>). But at the point of attaining path and fruit
(<em>magga-phala</em>), concentration is firmly established (’attainment
concentration’ – <em>appanā-samādhi</em>), reaching at least the first jhāna.</p>
<p>However extraordinary the jhānas or psychic powers may be, if they
result exclusively from tranquillity meditation they are still
’mundane’: they lie within the domain of unawakened beings.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> Examples
of such accomplishments are the psychic powers of Ven. Devadatta,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup>
the temporary emancipation of Ven. Godhika,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> and the stories in the
texts of monks, rishis and laypeople who attained jhāna.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> {428}</p>
<p>Concentrative attainments and supernormal powers resulting from
tranquillity meditation were accessible before the Buddha’s time.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup>
Those individuals who achieved these attainments came from other
religious traditions and preceded the Buddha, for example Āḷāra Kālāma
who reached the third formless jhāna and Uddaka Rāmaputta who attained
the fourth formless jhāna.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup> These attainments are not the goal of
Buddhism since they do not bring about true deliverance from suffering
and defilement. There were monks of other traditions who having attained
the four jhānas maintained wrong view and claimed that abiding in these
jhānas is equivalent to Nibbāna, a claim the Buddha repudiated.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup></p>
<p>The true purpose of tranquillity meditation in Buddhism is to generate
concentration to use as a basis for insight. (See
Note <a href="#note-tranquillity-for-insight">Tranquillity for Insight</a>) A cultivation of this
insight supported by concentration leads to the final goal of Buddhism.
Someone with the special quality of reaching this highest goal and being
endowed with the exceptional fruits of tranquillity meditation will be
admired and revered. But someone who has attained only the fruits of
insight is still superior to someone who has attained jhānas and psychic
powers yet remains unawakened. The concentration of non-returners who
have not achieved the eight jhānas or the five supreme powers
(<em>abhiññā</em>) is still considered ’complete’. It is secure and steadfast
since no defilements exist to erode or disturb it. This is not true of
those who attain jhāna or psychic powers but do not cultivate insight or
attain path and fruit (<em>magga-phala</em>). Although their level of
concentration may be exceptional, there is no guarantee of its
stability. They are still susceptible to being overwhelmed by
defilement. Even the concentration of stream-enterers and once-returners
can be disturbed and weakened by sensual lust. Their <em>samādhi</em> is
therefore still considered ’incomplete’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<p>This subject of calm and insight is connected to the deliverance by
wisdom and deliverance of mind discussed below. {429}</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Tranquillity for Insight</span><a id="note-tranquillity-for-insight"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>The supreme concentration is that which aids wisdom in dispelling the
defilements and facilitates awakening. Technically speaking it is a
factor in the Path (<em>magga-samādhi</em>). This concentration has a special
name: <em>ānantarika-samādhi</em> (also spelled <em>anantarika</em>, <em>anantariya</em> or
<em>ānantariya</em>), translated as ’following immediately’ – it produces
immediate <em>ariya-phala</em>, without interference. The Buddha said this
concentration is peerless (Kh. 4; Sn. 40). Even if this concentration
is of a lower level, it is still superior to other forms of
fine-material and immaterial jhānas. (KhA. 182; SnA. I. 277).
<em>Ānantarika-samādhi</em> is mentioned in other contexts, both in the Canon
and the commentaries; see: D. III. 273; A. II. 150; Ps1. 2, 94;
DA. III. 1056; AA. III. 139; PsA. I. 37; VismṬ.:
Ñāṇadassanavisuddhiniddesavaṇṇanā, Sotāpannapuggalakathāvaṇṇanā;
ThīgA. 99.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<h2 id="liberation-of-mind-and-liberation-by-wisdom"><a class="header" href="#liberation-of-mind-and-liberation-by-wisdom">Liberation of Mind and Liberation by Wisdom</a></h2>
<p><em>(Note the difference between <em>cetovimutti</em> and <em>paññāvimutti</em>, which
are states of mind, and <em>ubhatobhāga-vimutta</em> and <em>paññā-vimutta</em>, who
are individuals.)</em></p>
<p>Earlier, liberation (<em>vimutti</em>) was mentioned as a synonym for Nibbāna
and also discussed in the section on the attributes of awakened beings.
Here, we will examine the term <em>vimutti</em> more closely. In the
commentaries, the term <em>vimutti</em> in its highest sense has three distinct
definitions:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as the Path (<em>magga</em>): the act of liberation; the existing
conditions at the moment of liberation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as fruition (<em>phala</em>): the freedom resulting from
liberation; the result of being a liberated person.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as equivalent to Nibbāna: the state of a liberated person;
the nature of freedom reached and experienced by a liberated person,
providing such blessings as happiness, ease, contentment and peace;
the liberation unawakened people determine as an object of
contemplation and set as a goal.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Of these three definitions, the second one of <em>vimutti</em> as fruition is
the most specific and pertains to the essential meaning of liberation.
It refers here most often to the fruition of arahantship, when one
abandons all ten fetters (<em>saṁyojana</em>) and is released from all mental
taints (<em>āsava</em>). In the definition of <em>vimutti</em> as the Path, there are
additional agents, especially true knowledge (<em>vijjā</em>) and dispassion
(<em>virāga</em>), which are often paired with liberation. In such cases
<em>vijjā</em> or <em>virāga</em> are defined as the Path, while <em>vimutti</em> constitutes
the fruit. In the third definition <em>vimutti</em> is a synonym for Nibbāna.
(See Note <a href="#note-vimutti">Vimutti</a>)</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Vimutti</span><a id="note-vimutti"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>These explanations accord with the commentarial definitions.</p>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as path and fruit, e.g.: DA. I. 220; MA. II. 281; AA. II.
263; AA. III. 378.</p>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as fruition and Nibbāna, e.g.: Ps2. 143-4; MA. I. 43; UdA.
69; ItA. I. 166.</p>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as <em>arahatta-phala</em>, e.g.: VinA. VII. 1366; DA. III. 1062;
SA. I. 62, 171; AA. III. 227; VinṬ.: Paṭhamo Bhāgo,
Vinayānisaṁsakathāvaṇṇanā; VismṬ.: Sīlaniddesavaṇṇanā,
Sīlappabhedakathāvaṇṇanā.</p>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> paired with <em>vijjā</em>, quoted earlier in the section on the
attributes of enlightened beings, e.g.: DA. III. 1057; VismṬ.:
Anussatikammaṭṭhānaniddesavaṇṇanā, Ānāpānassatikathāvaṇṇanā.</p>
<p>In the Pali Canon: D. III. 274; M. III. 290; A. I. 83; A. II. 247.</p>
<p>There are many occurrences of <em>vimutti</em> paired with <em>virāga</em> in the
phrase <em>virāgā vimuccati</em>, e.g.: S. III. 189; S. IV. 2.</p>
<p>For additional explanations, see e.g.: Ps2. 140; SA. II. 268.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> as fruition, especially as the fruit of arahantship, is
divided into two kinds: <em>cetovimutti</em> and <em>paññāvimutti</em>. <em>Cetovimutti</em>
is translated as ’liberation of the mind’. It is the liberation made
possible through the strength of concentration. It is the state of a
concentrated mind, which quells passion and is free from the bonds of
defilement.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup> {430} <em>Paññāvimutti</em> is translated as ’liberation
through wisdom’, but can equally be translated as ’liberation of wisdom’
since it refers to the wisdom of an arahant that is purified and
perfected. This wisdom dispels ignorance and frees a person from
defilement.</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Liberation of the mind is achieved by abandoning lust; liberation by
wisdom is achieved by abandoning ignorance.</p>
<p><em>A. I. 61; Ps. II. 99.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The commentaries define <em>cetovimutti</em> as the concentration (<em>samādhi</em>)
which is the fruit of arahantship, and they define <em>paññāvimutti</em> as the
wisdom and knowledge which is the fruit of arahantship.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> All persons
who have attained arahantship have completed these two kinds of
liberation. In passages referring to the attainment of arahantship these
two terms therefore always exist as a pair, for example:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>With the destruction of the taints, one realizes for oneself with
direct knowledge here and now the deliverance of mind and deliverance
by wisdom that are taintless.</p>
<p><em>E.g.: D. I. 156, 167; D. II. 71, 251; D. III. 107, 132; M. I. 284,
367; S. IV. 267, 289; A. I. 220; A. III. 29, 425-6.</em> M. I. 284, 367;
S. IV. 267, 289; A. I. 220; A. III. 29, 425-6.></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p><em>Cetovimutti</em> is the fruit of tranquillity; <em>paññāvimutti</em> is the fruit
of insight.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup> The commentaries assert that the appearance of these
two terms as a pair indicates that tranquillity and insight must be
combined, both at the level of ’fruit’ (<em>phala</em>) and ’path’
(<em>magga</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> Tranquillity (<em>samatha</em>) here can be taken in a broad
sense as a required level of concentration; it need not refer to the
deeper levels of concentration resulting in the higher psychic
attainments.</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Two things pertain to supreme knowledge.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup> What two? Serenity and
insight.</p>
<p>When serenity is developed, what benefit does it bring? The mind is
developed. When the mind is developed, what benefit does it bring?
Lust is abandoned.</p>
<p>When insight is developed, what benefit does it bring? Wisdom is
developed. When wisdom is developed, what benefit does it bring?
Ignorance is abandoned.</p>
<p>A mind defiled by lust is not liberated, and wisdom defiled by
ignorance is not developed. Thus, monks, through the removal of lust
there is liberation of mind, and through the removal of ignorance
there is liberation by wisdom. (See
Note <a href="#note-cetovimutti">Cetovimutti and Paññāvimutti</a>) {431}</p>
<p><em>A. I. 61.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Cetovimutti and Paññāvimutti</span><a id="note-cetovimutti"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the Pali Canon the attainment of <em>cetovimutti</em> and <em>paññāvimutti</em>
is used as a definition for arahantship (e.g.: S. V. 406). This is
evidence that all arahants attain both of these kinds of liberation.
When these terms are used as a pair to refer to arahants, they are
always preceded by the term <em>anāsava</em> (’free from the taints’). The
passage at A. II. 87 mentions arahants who have attained <em>cetovimutti</em>
and <em>paññāvimutti</em> but have not attained the eight <em>vimokkha</em>
(<em>jhāna-samāpatti</em> and <em>nirodha-samāpatti</em>). This passage confirms
that the <em>cetovimutti</em> of an arahant refers to a necessary degree of
concentration in supporting wisdom in the eradication of the taints.
It is not the <em>cetovimutti</em> discussed below that refers to the eight
concentrative attainments (<em>jhāna-samāpatti</em>).</p>
<p>The commentaries define <em>samatha</em> as <em>cittekaggatā</em> (’one
pointedness’; <em>samādhi</em>), and define <em>vipassanā</em> as the knowledge that
reflects on conditioned phenomena (AA. II. 119).</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Liberation is complete with the attainment of both <em>cetovimutti</em> and
<em>paññāvimutti</em>. It is possible to only practise tranquillity and this
practice can lead to the higher concentrative attainments in which the
defilements are suppressed. This is one kind of liberation albeit a
temporary one. In order to reach true liberation, however, a person
practising tranquillity must also integrate insight meditation. The term
<em>cetovimutti</em> can be used in contexts apart from the realization of path
and fruit, although in these contexts the liberation of the mind is not
absolute. The decisive factor is therefore <em>paññāvimutti</em>, which
gradually eliminates ignorance and eradicates the defilements. True
lasting liberation comes with <em>paññāvimutti</em>. The term <em>anāsava</em>
(’taintless’) is used in conjunction with these two terms to emphasize
perfect liberation. The term <em>cetovimutti</em> is used as a pair with
<em>paññāvimutti</em> simply to show that a high level of concentration is
required to prepare the mind for liberation by wisdom.</p>
<p><em>Paññāvimutti</em> is only used in the context of complete liberation and is
always accompanied by the term <em>cetovimutti</em>. <em>Cetovimutti</em> can be used
in other contexts. If it refers to the decisive liberation of path and
fruit, from stream-entry upwards, then it is paired with <em>paññāvimutti</em>.
Otherwise it must be accompanied by a qualifying adjective clearly
indicating a stage of definite awakening, for example: <em>akuppā</em>
(’unshakeable’) or <em>asamaya</em> (’lasting’). When found alone or
accompanied by other terms then it does not refer to complete
liberation.</p>
<p>Because of the similarity of the terms, the division of arahants into
’one liberated by wisdom’ (<em>paññāvimutta</em>) and ’one liberated both ways’
(<em>ubhatobhāgavimutta</em>) gives the impression that the former refers to
someone who has solely attained liberation by wisdom (<em>paññāvimutti</em>).
In fact, the attainment of <em>paññāvimutti</em> necessarily includes the
attainment of <em>cetovimutti</em> in the sense that a person relies on a
refined degree of concentration to attain liberation by wisdom. In this
case, concentration does not need to be highlighted. Even someone who
solely practises insight (<em>sukkha-vipassaka</em>) depends on tranquillity
meditation to develop a required degree of concentration. In the case of
’one liberated in both ways’ (<em>ubhatobhāgavimutta</em>), liberation of the
mind (<em>cetovimutti</em>) is emphasized. The reason for this emphasis is
because the kind of <em>cetovimutti</em> referred to here is exceptional, of
the eight <em>vimokkha</em> or the higher attainments of jhāna.</p>
<p>As mentioned above, the term <em>vimutti</em> is used in many different
contexts. The term <em>cetovimutti</em>, when referring to levels of liberation
that are not yet transcendent, is most often used on its own; in this
case it suggests a liberation that is not absolute. Inferior kinds of
liberation generally occur through the power of concentration. {432}
Later texts also use the term <em>vimokkha</em> when referring to
non-transcendent liberation.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup> The original texts reserved a unique
definition for <em>vimokkha</em> as explained in the chapter on awakened
beings. Whichever term is used – <em>vimutti</em>, <em>cetovimutti</em> or <em>vimokkha</em>
– it is usually accompanied by a qualifying adjective to clarify the
context, for example: <em>sāmāyika-vimutti</em>, <em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>,
<em>sāmāyika-vimokkha</em> (all meaning ’temporary liberation’),
<em>appamaññā-cetovimutti</em> (’boundless liberation’), or <em>santa-cetovimutti</em>
(’peaceful liberation’). Replacing the qualifying adjectives of inferior
levels of liberation with adjectives of an opposite meaning denotes a
supreme form of liberation (for example, by replacing <em>sāmāyika</em> with
<em>asamaya</em>).</p>
<p><em>Vimutti</em> in a general sense can thus be divided into two kinds: as
absolute and not-absolute. When referring to its highest meaning, the
word <em>vimutti</em> is preceded by one of the following qualifying adjectives
to make it clear that the reference is to absolute, transcendent
liberation: <em>akuppā</em> (<em>akuppā-vimutti</em> and <em>akuppā-cetovimutti</em>:
’unshakeable liberation’; ’non-degenerative liberation’);<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup> or
<em>asamaya</em> (<em>asamaya-vimutti</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> and <em>asāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup>
’lasting liberation’; ’timeless liberation’). All these terms refer to
’noble fruition’ (<em>ariya-phala</em>), especially to the fruit of
arahantship.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup> And since the term <em>cetovimutti</em> on its own never
refers to absolute liberation, the terms <em>akuppā</em> and <em>asāmāyika</em> are
added to indicate a liberation of mind that is absolute, not subject to
decay, and necessarily accompanied by liberation by wisdom. {433}</p>
<p>Another transcendent form of <em>cetovimutti</em> accessible to awakened beings
is the ’signless liberation of mind’ (<em>animittā-cetovimutti</em>), which is
known as a ’fruition attainment’ (<em>phala-samāpatti</em>). This is reached
when stream-enterers, once-returners, non-returners and arahants wish to
abide at ease and enter a state of concentration, experiencing the
<em>rasa</em> (’flavour’; ’quality’) of their realization. This state of
liberation is an ’abiding at ease in the present’
(<em>diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra</em>) and a ’noble, transcendent bliss’
(<em>ariyalokuttara-sukha</em>). It is called ’signless liberation of mind’
because it is a freedom of mind wherein the person takes no notice of
signs and features belonging to conditioned phenomena (i.e. to form,
feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness), and only
focuses on Nibbāna (has Nibbāna as the object of awareness).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup></p>
<p>The many lesser, mundane levels of liberation are included in the term
<em>cetovimutti</em> when this term occurs on its own. Alternatively, the term
<em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em> (equivalent to <em>sāmāyika-vimutti</em> and
<em>samaya-vimutti</em>, all meaning ’temporary liberation’) is used.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup> The
word <em>adhimutti</em> (’intent upon’; ’absorbed in’) is often used to
describe these lesser levels of liberation, or else <em>adhimutti</em> is used
as a synonym for the above terms (see
Note <a href="#note-reflecting-nibbana">Reflecting on Nibbāna</a>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup> <em>Adhimutti</em> refers to being
absorbed in an object to the extent that one is freed from disturbances
and defilements for as long as one abides in that state, for example one
is freed from the hindrances (<em>nīvaraṇa</em>) when absorbed in jhāna.</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Reflecting on Nibbāna</span><a id="note-reflecting-nibbana"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>This definition of <em>vimutti</em> as equivalent to <em>adhimutti</em> can be used
in regard to Nibbāna, in the sense of ’intent upon’ or ’reflecting
upon’ Nibbāna, and can be used in reference to both unenlightened and
enlightened beings, even to arahants (e.g.: S. I. 154; D. III. 239-40;
A. III. 245; MA. I. 43; SA. I. 220; ItA. I. 166).</p>
<p>The Abhidhamma gives two definitions for <em>vimutti</em>: ’concentrative
absorption’ (<em>cittassa adhimutti</em>) and Nibbāna (Dhs. 234). The
commentaries explain that concentrative absorption refers to the eight
<em>samāpatti</em>, since one is absorbed in the object of meditation and
free from harmful mental states (DhsA. 409).</p>
<p>At Nd. II. 41, the definition is broadened to include being intent
upon forms, sounds, smells, tastes, fame, happiness, robes, almsfood,
the Discipline, the suttas, the Abhidhamma, etc. (e.g.:
<em>rūpādhimutta</em>, <em>cīvarādhimutta</em>, <em>vinayādhimutta</em>). Compare the dual
description of <em>vimutti</em> at Ps. II. 145-6.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The standard definition for ’temporary liberation’
(<em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>) equates this liberation with the eight mundane
attainments (<em>samāpatti</em>): the four fine-material and the four
immaterial jhānas.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn28-1"><a href="#fn-fn28">28</a></sup> The concentrative attainments of unawakened
persons are confined to these eight. In order to specify that the
deliverance of mind here refers to the eight attainments, the word
<em>santa</em> (’peaceful’; ’refined’) is occasionally added, as
<em>santa-cetovimutti</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn29-1"><a href="#fn-fn29">29</a></sup></p>
<p>’Temporary liberation’ (<em>cetovimutti</em>, <em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>,
<em>vimutti</em>, or <em>sāmāyika-vimutti</em>) can also have a very broad definition,
referring to absorption into any object of faith, inspiration, or
delight. This kind of liberation accompanies a mind that is intensely
focused on an object. This focus generates strength, courage and
perseverance. It is the incipient stage in a natural process
(<em>idappaccayatā</em> or <em>paṭiccasamuppāda</em>) that leads on to joy,
tranquillity and concentration. {434} It is called liberation because it
is an escape from conflicting and bothersome mental qualities
(<em>paccanīka-dhamma</em> – ’mental adversaries’), such as doubt,
discouragement, mental sluggishness, and fear. These mental qualities
are suppressed as long as the conditions supporting liberation are
maintained, as long as the mental strength generated by inspiration
remains. The texts even classify the aspiration to live in the
forest,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn30-1"><a href="#fn-fn30">30</a></sup> or the joy that arises when listening to a Dhamma
talk,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn31-1"><a href="#fn-fn31">31</a></sup> as this kind of liberation of mind. Aspects of this kind of
liberation, however, can also give rise to unwholesome mental
states.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn32-1"><a href="#fn-fn32">32</a></sup></p>
<p>There are names for specific kinds of temporary liberation
(<em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>), depending on the object on which the mind is
focused. The temporary liberation of mind that is most often mentioned
and encouraged is called ’boundless liberation’ (<em>appamāṇā-cetovimutti</em>
or <em>appamaññā-cetovimutti</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn33-1"><a href="#fn-fn33">33</a></sup> Here, one develops concentration by
radiating the qualities of lovingkindness (<em>mettā</em>), compassion
(<em>karuṇā</em>), appreciative joy (<em>muditā</em>), and equanimity (<em>upekkhā</em>) in
all directions with a mind that is unbounded and immeasurable, until the
mind is absorbed in these wholesome states and enters jhāna. The mind is
then freed from the five hindrances and from the unwholesome qualities
that are antagonistic to the four qualities listed above: the liberation
of lovingkindness (<em>mettā-cetovimutti</em>) is free from ill-will, the
liberation of compassion (<em>karuṇā-cetovimutti</em>) is free from hostility,
the liberation of appreciative joy (<em>muditā-cetovimutti</em>) is free from
jealousy, and the liberation of equanimity (<em>upekkhā-cetovimutti</em>) is
free from lust.</p>
<p>Other kinds of temporary liberation of mind, which occur in the
scriptures only rarely, include: <em>suññatā-cetovimutti</em> (liberation of
mind stemming from the insight that all conditioned phenomena are empty
of self and empty of anything related to self – <em>attaniya</em>);<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn34-1"><a href="#fn-fn34">34</a></sup>
<em>ākiñcaññā-cetovimutti</em> (the immaterial jhāna directed upon the sphere
of nothingness);<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn35-1"><a href="#fn-fn35">35</a></sup> and <em>mahaggatā-cetovimutti</em> (while in jhāna,
radiating the mind engaged with a <em>kasiṇa</em> meditation object over
however large an area or domain as one chooses).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn36-1"><a href="#fn-fn36">36</a></sup></p>
<p>Drawing upon the above material, it is fair to say that any devotion to
an ideal or object of faith, for example to a supreme deity, is a kind
of absorption and can be included in the broad definition of
<em>cetovimutti</em>.</p>
<p>Some people claim that abiding in jhāna is Nibbāna, or claim that
’extinction of perception and feeling’ (<em>saññāvedayita-nirodha</em> or
<em>nirodha-samāpatti</em>), the highest concentrative attainment, is Nibbāna.
{435} In fact, these concentrative attainments are used as instruments
to attain arahantship. They prepare the mind and make it suitable for
awakening. These attainments, along with their material and immaterial
properties, are conditioned phenomena, which are reflected upon by
Dhamma practitioners with insight and wisdom to give rise to true
knowledge (<em>vijjā</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn37-1"><a href="#fn-fn37">37</a></sup></p>
<p>Arahants use these concentrative attainments for rest and to experience
happiness, and these attainments are thus called ’abiding at ease in the
present’ (<em>diṭṭhadhamma-sukhavihāra</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn38-1"><a href="#fn-fn38">38</a></sup> ’divine abidings’
(<em>dibba-vihāra</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn39-1"><a href="#fn-fn39">39</a></sup> and ’gradually ascending abidings’
(<em>anupubba-vihāra</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn40-1"><a href="#fn-fn40">40</a></sup> These states, however, are not Nibbāna. They
are means by which Nibbāna can be realized and they are easeful abidings
for those who have already realized Nibbāna. Indeed, the realization of
Nibbāna facilitates the attainment of these concentrative states and
allows a person to benefit greatly from them. For example, a person who
has attained the eight jhānas will have the necessary concentration and
wisdom to reach the attainment of cessation (<em>nirodha-samāpatti</em>) when
they realize the state of non-returner or arahantship.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn41-1"><a href="#fn-fn41">41</a></sup></p>
<p>A person who has not yet realized arahantship still has a degree of
attachment to fine-material and immaterial existence, and they may still
be fascinated or attached to concentrative attainments. {436} Although
jhānas are excellent, Buddhism considers attachment to jhāna a weakness.
Indeed, such attachment can be an obstacle for realizing Nibbāna. The
Buddha said that if a monk attains the highest immaterial jhāna
(<em>nevasaññānāsaññāyatana</em>) but indulges in the feeling of this state he
will not be able to realize Nibbāna, because there is still clinging
(<em>upādāna</em>). Clinging to such a refined state the Buddha called
’superior clinging’ (<em>upādāna-seṭṭha</em>, see
Note <a href="#note-excellent-state">A State Considered Excellent</a>). Arahants make use of jhāna to dwell
at ease, but without any attachment.</p>
<p>Proof that jhānas, all the way up to attainment of cessation, are not
Nibbāna is the fact that arahants who are ’those liberated by wisdom’
(<em>paññāvimutta</em>) have not attained the immaterial jhānas and are unable
to enter the attainment of cessation. From the Pali Canon we can deduce
that at the time of the Buddha there were more <em>paññāvimutta</em> than
<em>ubhatobhāga-vimutta</em>. For example, at a large gathering of monks the
Buddha told Ven. Sāriputta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Of these five hundred bhikkhus, Sāriputta, sixty bhikkhus are
triple-knowledge bearers (tevijja),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn42-1"><a href="#fn-fn42">42</a></sup> sixty bhikkhus are bearers of
the six direct knowledges (chaḷabhiñña), sixty bhikkhus are liberated
in both ways, while the rest [three hundred and twenty] are
liberated by wisdom.</p>
<p><em>S. I. 191.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">A State Considered Excellent</span><a id="note-excellent-state"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>M. II. 265. The commentaries explain <em>upādāna-seṭṭha</em> here as ’a state
considered excellent’ (i.e. a higher realm in which to be reborn), but
the explanation above is consistent with the etymology and the context
(see MA. IV. 67).</p>
<p>The Buddha said if someone with exceptional qualities (for example he
is wealthy, famous, learned, a preacher of Dhamma, a follower of
ascetic practices, a forest dweller, a refuse-rag wearer, a tree-root
dweller, or an attainer of any of the eight jhānas) becomes arrogant
and looks down on others, then this person is an ’inferior’ person
(Sappurisa Sutta, M. III. 37-45).</p>
<p>The teaching at A. II. 27-8 states that a bhikkhu in the noble lineage
is content with his robes, almsfood, and dwelling, and delights in
meditation, but does not use his virtues to praise himself or to
intimidate others.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Liberation by wisdom (<em>paññāvimutti</em>) is decisive and is equivalent to
attaining Nibbāna. This kind of liberation transforms liberation of mind
(<em>cetovimutti</em>), which may have been achieved long before and repeatedly
accessed in the past – or else it arises simultaneously with
<em>paññāvimutti</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn43-1"><a href="#fn-fn43">43</a></sup> – into unshakeable liberation of mind
(<em>akuppā-cetovimutti</em>), since the taints have now been eliminated.</p>
<p>Awakened persons derive the maximum benefit from <em>cetovimutti</em>, without
harming themselves or others. They do not indulge in these attainments
nor do they use the fruits of concentration – the mundane psychic
powers – in a misguided way for self-gratification. Here, liberation of
mind and liberation by wisdom exist as a pair, as is frequently
mentioned in the texts: <em>The deliverance of mind and deliverance by
wisdom wherein those evil unwholesome states cease without
remainder</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn44-1"><a href="#fn-fn44">44</a></sup> {437} The Buddha said that this unshakeable liberation
of mind (<em>cetovimutti</em> combined with <em>paññāvimutti</em>) is the essence and
goal of Buddhism:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>When he is diligent, he attains permanent liberation
(asamaya-vimutti). And it is impossible for that bhikkhu to fall away
from that permanent liberation.</p>
<p>So this holy life, brahmin, does not have gain, honour, and fame for
its benefit, or the attainment of virtue for its benefit, or the
attainment of concentration for its benefit, or knowledge and vision
for its benefit. But it is this unshakeable deliverance of mind that
is the goal of this holy life, its heartwood, and its end.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn45-1"><a href="#fn-fn45">45</a></sup></p>
<p><em>M. I. 197.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>There are three factors leading to the decline of temporary liberation
of mind (<em>samaya-cetovimutti</em>). First are the defilements (<em>kilesa</em>)
which have not yet been completely eliminated. They may have been
suppressed or subdued, but they lie in wait and are aroused when the
positive conditions like faith weaken. Second are the supportive
conditions like faith, enthusiasm, contentment and determination. When
these conditions fade or weaken, liberation of mind also declines. These
supportive conditions may even fade for good reason. A person may at one
time have strong faith in something and be greatly devoted, but later
realize that the faith is not grounded in wisdom and the object of faith
is unworthy of such devotion. Third are environmental factors, which
include a person’s health and external conditions like poverty or
famine. In spiritual practice these three factors are linked. For
example, due to some difficulty a person will lose heart; confusion,
irritation and discouragement will arise and liberation of mind will
vanish.</p>
<p>There are some interesting stories in the Pali Canon of how liberation
of mind can be affected. Ven. Godhika was diligent and resolute and he
reached temporary liberation of mind (<em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>; the
mundane concentrative attainments). But due to the torment of chronic
illness he fell away from this liberation of mind. A second and a third
time he reached temporary liberation of mind and fell away from it. This
happened six times. {438} When he reached temporary liberation of mind a
seventh time, he thought that he would surely fall away from it as
before. He considered that it would be better to die while in this state
of liberation than die after falling away from it. He thus used a knife
to kill himself, but as he was lying on his bed in pain he established
mindfulness and reflected on the feelings (<em>vedanā</em>) arising. While
meditating in this way he achieved arahantship before attaining final
Nibbāna.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn46-1"><a href="#fn-fn46">46</a></sup></p>
<p>Another passage describes the ascetics and brahmins who went into the
forest, living on fruits and berries, thinking that if they were to get
caught up in sensuality they would become intoxicated and fall under the
spell of Māra. When food was scarce and they became thin and weak, their
determination and enthusiasm slackened, and they returned to the wider
world to enjoy sense pleasures.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn47-1"><a href="#fn-fn47">47</a></sup></p>
<p>The commentaries sorted the many definitions of <em>vimutti</em> into five
groups, following the same model that they used for sorting the
definitions of ’cessation’ (<em>nirodha</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn48-1"><a href="#fn-fn48">48</a></sup> These five groups act as a
useful summary, as they contain the essence of all the definitions
presented so far:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn49-1"><a href="#fn-fn49">49</a></sup></p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>1.</strong> <em>Vikkhambhana-vimutti</em>: liberation through the suppression of the
defilements. The suspension of the five hindrances through the power
of concentration. This refers to the eight ’attainments’
(<em>samāpatti</em>): the four fine-material and the four immaterial
jhānas, and sometimes includes ’access concentration’
(<em>upacāra-samādhi</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>2.</strong> <em>Tadaṅga-vimutti</em>: liberation by way of specific qualities. To be
freed from unwholesome qualities by the substitution of opposite
qualities. Technically speaking, it is the freedom from wrong views
and attachments through the application of insight or knowledge. For
example, focusing on impermanence frees one from the belief in
permanence. It can also be used, however, in reference to general
matters of virtue and ethics. For example: a devotion to generosity
frees one from stinginess and greed; a commitment to lovingkindness
frees one from ill-will and negativity; and a dedication to
compassion and non-violence frees one from violence and cruelty.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>These first two kinds of liberation cover the meaning of ’temporary
liberation’ (<em>sāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>) and are mundane. {439}</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>3.</strong> <em>Samuccheda-vimutti</em>: the cutting off of the defilements; liberation
through final knowledge; <em>vimutti</em> as the ’path’ (<em>magga</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>4.</strong> <em>Paṭipassaddhi-vimutti</em>: the utter removal and stilling of
defilements; <em>vimutti</em> as the ’fruit’ (<em>phala</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>5.</strong> <em>Nissaraṇa-vimutti</em>: the state of deliverance; complete liberation
leading to supreme joy and unhindered engagement with the world;
<em>vimutti</em> as Nibbāna.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p>These final three kinds of liberation are defined as ’permanent
liberation’ (<em>asāmāyika-cetovimutti</em>) and are transcendent. Essentially,
these five kinds of liberation are equivalent to <em>samatha</em>, <em>vipassanā</em>,
<em>magga</em>, <em>phala</em>, and Nibbāna, respectively.</p>
<h2 id="important-principles-on-the-realization-of-nibbāna"><a class="header" href="#important-principles-on-the-realization-of-nibbāna">Important Principles on the Realization of Nibbāna</a></h2>
<p>{442} The following questions are often debated among Buddhist scholars
and practitioners:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Can someone who only practises insight meditation (<em>vipassanā</em>)
attain arahantship, without practising tranquillity meditation
(<em>samatha</em>)?</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Is it necessary to attain jhāna before attaining Nibbāna?</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To achieve the six kinds of ’higher psychic attainments’
(<em>abhiññā</em>), is it sufficient to have attained the fourth jhāna or
must one have also attained the formless jhānas (i.e. the eight
<em>samāpatti</em>)?</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To attain the knowledge of the destruction of the taints
(<em>āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa</em>) and realize Nibbāna, must one have previously
attained the reminiscence of past lives (<em>pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa</em>)
and the knowledge of the decease and rebirth of beings
(<em>cutūpapāta-ñāṇa</em>)?</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>While in jhāna can one practise insight and contemplate conditioned
phenomena or must one first emerge from jhāna?</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Is it possible to develop <em>samatha</em> further and achieve
concentrative attainments (<em>jhāna-samāpatti</em>) after attaining path
and fruit (<em>magga-phala</em>)?</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Some of these questions involve key aspects of realizing Nibbāna, some
are only tangentially related, and some have already been discussed at
length, especially the question on whether a person can attain Nibbāna
by solely practising insight meditation. This section will focus on
those questions which are directly related to realization, drawing upon
evidence from the scriptures.</p>
<h3 id="general-aspects-of-realization"><a class="header" href="#general-aspects-of-realization">General Aspects of Realization</a></h3>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>I declare, O monks, that the destruction of the taints occurs in
dependence on the first jhāna, or the second jhāna, or the third
jhāna, or the fourth jhāna; in dependence on the base of the infinity
of space, or the base of the infinity of consciousness, or the base of
nothingness, or the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, (or
in dependence on the cessation of perception and feeling).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn50-1"><a href="#fn-fn50">50</a></sup></p>
<p><em>Jhāna Sutta at A. IV. 422-3.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This sutta and three other suttas<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn51-1"><a href="#fn-fn51">51</a></sup> describe the way to use each
stage of concentrative attainment for reflection and to gain insight
into the true nature of conditioned phenomena. The above sutta
continues: {443}</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>When it is said, ’I declare, O monks, that the destruction of the
taints occurs in dependence on the first jhāna’, for what reason is
this said? Here … a monk enters and dwells in the first jhāna….
Whatever states are included there comprised by form, feeling,
perception, volitional formations or consciousness: he views those
states as impermanent, as subject to stress … as empty, as
nonself.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn52-1"><a href="#fn-fn52">52</a></sup> Having viewed them thus, his mind then turns away from
those states and focuses upon the deathless element: ’This is
peaceful, this is sublime: that is … Nibbāna.’ If he sustains (the
first jhāna),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn53-1"><a href="#fn-fn53">53</a></sup> he attains the destruction of the taints; but if he
does not attain the destruction of the taints because of delight in
the Dhamma, then … he is due to be spontaneously reborn [in the
celestial realm Suddhāvāsā] and there attain final Nibbāna, without
ever returning from that world.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn54-1"><a href="#fn-fn54">54</a></sup></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>From here the sutta describes a similar process of cultivating insight
to reach the destruction of the taints for each of the concentrative
levels all the way up to the sphere of nothingness.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn55-1"><a href="#fn-fn55">55</a></sup></p>
<p>The Mahāmāluṅkya Sutta has less detail but describes the contemplation
of the three characteristics in reference to the five aggregates, in
each of the jhānas up to the sphere of nothingness, resulting in the
destruction of the taints. The Aṭṭhakanāgara and Dasama suttas have a
slight variation:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>A monk enters and abides in the first jhāna…. He considers this and
understands it thus: ’This first jhāna is conditioned and volitionally
produced. But whatever is conditioned and volitionally produced is
impermanent, subject to cessation.’ Sustaining that [first jhāna],
he attains the destruction of the taints.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>In these suttas the liberations of mind through lovingkindness,
compassion, appreciative joy and equanimity are inserted between the
fine-material jhānas and the formless jhānas, adding four more
concentrative attainments for contemplation.</p>
<p>These four suttas contain essentially the same information; they differ
only in minor details. They describe the development of insight in
jhāna, from the first jhāna to the sphere of nothingness, ending in the
destruction of the taints. The Jhāna Sutta, however, adds a summary:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Thus, monks, there is penetration to final knowledge (aññā-paṭivedha)
as far as meditative attainments accompanied by perception
(saññā-samāpatti) reach. {444}</p>
<p><em>A. IV. 426.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This means that in jhāna, from the sphere of nothingness and below,
there is perception (along with other accompanying aggregates), which
can be applied for contemplation and supports insight for the
realization of the destruction of the taints. In the sphere of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception (<em>nevasaññānāsaññāyatana</em>),
perception is too refined and cannot be applied for contemplation. This
holds even more true in the extinction of perception and feeling
(<em>saññāvedayita-nirodha</em>). Therefore these two attainments are not
’attainments accompanied by perception’ (<em>saññā-samāpatti</em>).</p>
<p>If this is so, how is it possible to attain the destruction of the
taints while in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and
in the extinction of perception and feeling? The answer is that one must
first exit these highest levels of concentrative attainment and then
apply wisdom to contemplate conditioned phenomena and reach the
destruction of the taints. The Anupada Sutta contains a passage
concerning the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Again, monks, by completely surmounting the base of nothingness,
Sāriputta entered upon and abided in the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. He emerged mindful from that
attainment. Having done so, he contemplated the past states, which had
ceased and changed, thus: ’So indeed, these states, not having been,
come into being; having been, they vanish.’</p>
<p><em>M. III. 28.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Compare this with the description of contemplating conditioned phenomena
while in the sphere of nothingness (and while in lower jhānas), in which
there is no mention of exiting the absorption. For example, in the above
sutta it says:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Again, bhikkhus, by completely surmounting the base of infinite
consciousness, aware that ’there is nothing,’ Sāriputta entered upon
and abided in the base of nothingness. And the states in the base of
nothingness – the perception of the base of nothingness and the
unification of mind; the contact, feeling, perception, volition, and
consciousness; the zeal, determination, energy, mindfulness,
equanimity, and attention – these states were known to him one by one
as they occurred; known to him those states arose, known they were
present, known they disappeared. He understood thus: ’So indeed, these
states, not having been, come into being; having been, they vanish.’</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Cūḷaniddesa, a secondary text, explains the contemplation of the
sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception in a similar way to the
Majjhima-Nikāya above:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>He entered upon and abided in the base of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Having emerged from that
attainment, he regarded, examined, reflected on, and investigated the
mind and the mental constituents arising in that attainment as
impermanent … subject to stress … not-self … not free.</p>
<p><em>Nd. II. 23.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>An examination of the original text (Sn. 205-6), however, reveals that
the phrase ’base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception’ here is an
error. It should read ’sphere of nothingness’, as confirmed by the
commentaries (NdA. 30; SnA. II. 593).</p>
<p>The secondary and later texts ordinarily describe the contemplation of
conditioned phenomena and the development of insight after emerging from
concentrative attainments, irrespective of how high or low these
attainments are.</p>
<p>Similar explanations are given in reference to the extinction of
perception and feeling (<em>saññāvedayita-nirodha</em>): having emerged from
this attainment, a person contemplates the fine-material qualities of
this state, contemplates the qualities in the preceding state of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception, or contemplates all conditioned
phenomena, to understand the truth and reach the destruction of the
taints.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn56-1"><a href="#fn-fn56">56</a></sup></p>
<p>In a similar fashion, one can contemplate conditioned phenomena or the
mental constituents of jhāna after emerging from each of the jhānas,
from the sphere of nothingness down to the first jhāna.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn57-1"><a href="#fn-fn57">57</a></sup> The
passages above are provided, however, to prove that it is also possible
to develop insight while abiding in these states of jhāna, without first
emerging from them. Only with the two highest concentrative attainments
– of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and the extinction of
perception and feeling – must one first exit in order to develop
insight.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn58-1"><a href="#fn-fn58">58</a></sup> {445}</p>
<p>The commentaries refer to one who practises in this way as ’one who uses
tranquillity as a vehicle’ (<em>samatha-yānika</em>): such a practitioner
practises tranquillity until reaching jhāna, at which point he or she
develops insight. This is the first way of practice in a group of four,
which is mentioned in the scriptures:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The practice of insight preceded by tranquillity<br />
(<em>samathapubbaṅgama-vipassanābhāvanā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The practice of tranquillity preceded by insight<br />
(<em>vipassanāpubbaṅgama-samathabhāvanā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The practice of tranquillity and insight in association<br />
(<em>yuganaddhasamatha-vipassanābhāvanā</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The way of practice when the mind is distorted or misled by an
excitement or agitation in regard to the Dhamma<br />
(<em>dhammuddhaccaviggahita-mānasa</em>).</p>
<p>Here one has the misapprehension that the intermediate results of
one’s practice constitute path, fruit, and Nibbāna.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn59-1"><a href="#fn-fn59">59</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These four ways of practice are a summary of the four pathways (<em>magga</em>)
described by Ven. Ānanda:</p>