-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 0
/
07_EDA_part1.html
1368 lines (1248 loc) · 59.9 KB
/
07_EDA_part1.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en"><head>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/clipboard/clipboard.min.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/tabby.min.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/popper.min.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/tippy.umd.min.js"></script>
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/tippy.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/light-border.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/quarto-html.min.css" rel="stylesheet" data-mode="light">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/quarto-html/quarto-syntax-highlighting.css" rel="stylesheet" id="quarto-text-highlighting-styles"><meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="generator" content="quarto-1.3.299">
<title>Exploratory Data Analysis I</title>
<meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes">
<meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black-translucent">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, maximum-scale=1.0, user-scalable=no, minimal-ui">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/dist/reset.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/dist/reveal.css">
<style>
code{white-space: pre-wrap;}
span.smallcaps{font-variant: small-caps;}
div.columns{display: flex; gap: min(4vw, 1.5em);}
div.column{flex: auto; overflow-x: auto;}
div.hanging-indent{margin-left: 1.5em; text-indent: -1.5em;}
ul.task-list{list-style: none;}
ul.task-list li input[type="checkbox"] {
width: 0.8em;
margin: 0 0.8em 0.2em -1em; /* quarto-specific, see https://github.com/quarto-dev/quarto-cli/issues/4556 */
vertical-align: middle;
}
/* CSS for syntax highlighting */
pre > code.sourceCode { white-space: pre; position: relative; }
pre > code.sourceCode > span { display: inline-block; line-height: 1.25; }
pre > code.sourceCode > span:empty { height: 1.2em; }
.sourceCode { overflow: visible; }
code.sourceCode > span { color: inherit; text-decoration: inherit; }
div.sourceCode { margin: 1em 0; }
pre.sourceCode { margin: 0; }
@media screen {
div.sourceCode { overflow: auto; }
}
@media print {
pre > code.sourceCode { white-space: pre-wrap; }
pre > code.sourceCode > span { text-indent: -5em; padding-left: 5em; }
}
pre.numberSource code
{ counter-reset: source-line 0; }
pre.numberSource code > span
{ position: relative; left: -4em; counter-increment: source-line; }
pre.numberSource code > span > a:first-child::before
{ content: counter(source-line);
position: relative; left: -1em; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;
border: none; display: inline-block;
-webkit-touch-callout: none; -webkit-user-select: none;
-khtml-user-select: none; -moz-user-select: none;
-ms-user-select: none; user-select: none;
padding: 0 4px; width: 4em;
}
pre.numberSource { margin-left: 3em; padding-left: 4px; }
div.sourceCode
{ color: #383a42; }
@media screen {
pre > code.sourceCode > span > a:first-child::before { text-decoration: underline; }
}
code span { color: #383a42; } /* Normal */
code span.al { color: #95da4c; background-color: #4d1f24; font-weight: bold; } /* Alert */
code span.an { color: #50a14f; } /* Annotation */
code span.at { color: #a626a4; } /* Attribute */
code span.bn { color: #986801; } /* BaseN */
code span.bu { color: #a626a4; } /* BuiltIn */
code span.cf { color: #a626a4; } /* ControlFlow */
code span.ch { color: #50a14f; } /* Char */
code span.cn { color: #986801; } /* Constant */
code span.co { color: #a0a1a7; font-style: italic; } /* Comment */
code span.cv { color: #e45649; font-style: italic; } /* CommentVar */
code span.do { color: #e45649; } /* Documentation */
code span.dt { color: #a626a4; } /* DataType */
code span.dv { color: #986801; } /* DecVal */
code span.er { color: #f44747; text-decoration: underline; } /* Error */
code span.ex { color: #4078f2; font-weight: bold; } /* Extension */
code span.fl { color: #986801; } /* Float */
code span.fu { color: #4078f2; } /* Function */
code span.im { color: #50a14f; } /* Import */
code span.in { color: #c45b00; } /* Information */
code span.kw { color: #a626a4; } /* Keyword */
code span.op { color: #a626a4; } /* Operator */
code span.ot { color: #27ae60; } /* Other */
code span.pp { color: #a626a4; } /* Preprocessor */
code span.re { color: #2980b9; background-color: #153042; } /* RegionMarker */
code span.sc { color: #0184bc; } /* SpecialChar */
code span.ss { color: #da4453; } /* SpecialString */
code span.st { color: #50a14f; } /* String */
code span.va { color: #e45649; } /* Variable */
code span.vs { color: #da4453; } /* VerbatimString */
code span.wa { color: #da4453; } /* Warning */
</style>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/dist/theme/quarto.css" id="theme">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/quarto-line-highlight/line-highlight.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/reveal-menu/menu.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/reveal-menu/quarto-menu.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/quarto-support/footer.css" rel="stylesheet">
<style type="text/css">
.callout {
margin-top: 1em;
margin-bottom: 1em;
border-radius: .25rem;
}
.callout.callout-style-simple {
padding: 0em 0.5em;
border-left: solid #acacac .3rem;
border-right: solid 1px silver;
border-top: solid 1px silver;
border-bottom: solid 1px silver;
display: flex;
}
.callout.callout-style-default {
border-left: solid #acacac .3rem;
border-right: solid 1px silver;
border-top: solid 1px silver;
border-bottom: solid 1px silver;
}
.callout .callout-body-container {
flex-grow: 1;
}
.callout.callout-style-simple .callout-body {
font-size: 1rem;
font-weight: 400;
}
.callout.callout-style-default .callout-body {
font-size: 0.9rem;
font-weight: 400;
}
.callout.callout-titled.callout-style-simple .callout-body {
margin-top: 0.2em;
}
.callout:not(.callout-titled) .callout-body {
display: flex;
}
.callout:not(.no-icon).callout-titled.callout-style-simple .callout-content {
padding-left: 1.6em;
}
.callout.callout-titled .callout-header {
padding-top: 0.2em;
margin-bottom: -0.2em;
}
.callout.callout-titled .callout-title p {
margin-top: 0.5em;
margin-bottom: 0.5em;
}
.callout.callout-titled.callout-style-simple .callout-content p {
margin-top: 0;
}
.callout.callout-titled.callout-style-default .callout-content p {
margin-top: 0.7em;
}
.callout.callout-style-simple div.callout-title {
border-bottom: none;
font-size: .9rem;
font-weight: 600;
opacity: 75%;
}
.callout.callout-style-default div.callout-title {
border-bottom: none;
font-weight: 600;
opacity: 85%;
font-size: 0.9rem;
padding-left: 0.5em;
padding-right: 0.5em;
}
.callout.callout-style-default div.callout-content {
padding-left: 0.5em;
padding-right: 0.5em;
}
.callout.callout-style-simple .callout-icon::before {
height: 1rem;
width: 1rem;
display: inline-block;
content: "";
background-repeat: no-repeat;
background-size: 1rem 1rem;
}
.callout.callout-style-default .callout-icon::before {
height: 0.9rem;
width: 0.9rem;
display: inline-block;
content: "";
background-repeat: no-repeat;
background-size: 0.9rem 0.9rem;
}
.callout-title {
display: flex
}
.callout-icon::before {
margin-top: 1rem;
padding-right: .5rem;
}
.callout.no-icon::before {
display: none !important;
}
.callout.callout-titled .callout-body > .callout-content > :last-child {
margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
}
.callout.callout-titled .callout-icon::before {
margin-top: .5rem;
padding-right: .5rem;
}
.callout:not(.callout-titled) .callout-icon::before {
margin-top: 1rem;
padding-right: .5rem;
}
/* Callout Types */
div.callout-note {
border-left-color: #4582ec !important;
}
div.callout-note .callout-icon::before {
background-image: url('data:image/png;base64,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');
}
div.callout-note.callout-style-default .callout-title {
background-color: #dae6fb
}
div.callout-important {
border-left-color: #d9534f !important;
}
div.callout-important .callout-icon::before {
background-image: url('data:image/png;base64,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');
}
div.callout-important.callout-style-default .callout-title {
background-color: #f7dddc
}
div.callout-warning {
border-left-color: #f0ad4e !important;
}
div.callout-warning .callout-icon::before {
background-image: url('data:image/png;base64,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');
}
div.callout-warning.callout-style-default .callout-title {
background-color: #fcefdc
}
div.callout-tip {
border-left-color: #02b875 !important;
}
div.callout-tip .callout-icon::before {
background-image: url('data:image/png;base64,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');
}
div.callout-tip.callout-style-default .callout-title {
background-color: #ccf1e3
}
div.callout-caution {
border-left-color: #fd7e14 !important;
}
div.callout-caution .callout-icon::before {
background-image: url('data:image/png;base64,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');
}
div.callout-caution.callout-style-default .callout-title {
background-color: #ffe5d0
}
</style>
<style type="text/css">
.reveal div.sourceCode {
margin: 0;
overflow: auto;
}
.reveal div.hanging-indent {
margin-left: 1em;
text-indent: -1em;
}
.reveal .slide:not(.center) {
height: 100%;
}
.reveal .slide.scrollable {
overflow-y: auto;
}
.reveal .footnotes {
height: 100%;
overflow-y: auto;
}
.reveal .slide .absolute {
position: absolute;
display: block;
}
.reveal .footnotes ol {
counter-reset: ol;
list-style-type: none;
margin-left: 0;
}
.reveal .footnotes ol li:before {
counter-increment: ol;
content: counter(ol) ". ";
}
.reveal .footnotes ol li > p:first-child {
display: inline-block;
}
.reveal .slide ul,
.reveal .slide ol {
margin-bottom: 0.5em;
}
.reveal .slide ul li,
.reveal .slide ol li {
margin-top: 0.4em;
margin-bottom: 0.2em;
}
.reveal .slide ul[role="tablist"] li {
margin-bottom: 0;
}
.reveal .slide ul li > *:first-child,
.reveal .slide ol li > *:first-child {
margin-block-start: 0;
}
.reveal .slide ul li > *:last-child,
.reveal .slide ol li > *:last-child {
margin-block-end: 0;
}
.reveal .slide .columns:nth-child(3) {
margin-block-start: 0.8em;
}
.reveal blockquote {
box-shadow: none;
}
.reveal .tippy-content>* {
margin-top: 0.2em;
margin-bottom: 0.7em;
}
.reveal .tippy-content>*:last-child {
margin-bottom: 0.2em;
}
.reveal .slide > img.stretch.quarto-figure-center,
.reveal .slide > img.r-stretch.quarto-figure-center {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
}
.reveal .slide > img.stretch.quarto-figure-left,
.reveal .slide > img.r-stretch.quarto-figure-left {
display: block;
margin-left: 0;
margin-right: auto;
}
.reveal .slide > img.stretch.quarto-figure-right,
.reveal .slide > img.r-stretch.quarto-figure-right {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: 0;
}
</style>
</head>
<body class="quarto-light">
<div class="reveal">
<div class="slides">
<section id="title-slide" class="quarto-title-block center">
<h1 class="title">Exploratory Data Analysis I</h1>
<p class="subtitle">Fundamentals of Data Science for NHS using R</p>
<div class="quarto-title-authors">
</div>
</section>
<section id="todays-plan" class="slide level2">
<h2>Today’s Plan</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li>Introduction to exploratory data analysis
<ul>
<li>Distributions</li>
<li>Variance</li>
<li>Missing values</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<section id="lets-start-at-the-beginning" class="title-slide slide level1 center">
<h1>Let’s start at the beginning…</h1>
</section>
<section id="eda-will-help-you" class="slide level2">
<h2>EDA will help you…</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Generate questions about your data.</li>
<li class="fragment">Search for answers by visualising, transforming, and modelling your data.</li>
<li class="fragment">Use what you learn to refine your questions and/or generate new questions.</li>
<li class="fragment">It’s an iterative cycle…</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="why-is-eda-so-important" class="slide level2">
<h2>Why is EDA so important?</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>You always need to investigate the quality of your data.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">EDA is not a formal process with a strict set of rules.</li>
<li class="fragment">As your exploration continues, you will home in on a few particularly productive areas that you’ll eventually write up and communicate to others.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="important-definitions" class="slide level2">
<h2>Important definitions</h2>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">A <code>variable</code> is a quantity, quality, or property that you can measure.</li>
<li class="fragment">A <code>value</code> is the state of a variable when you measure it and may change from measurement to measurement.</li>
<li class="fragment">An <code>observation</code> is a set of measurements made under similar conditions; contains several values.</li>
<li class="fragment"><code>Tabular data</code> is a set of values, each associated with a variable and an observation. Tabular data is tidy if each value is placed in its own “cell”, each variable in its own column, and each observation in its own row.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="prerequisites" class="slide level2">
<h2>Prerequisites</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li>We’ll combine what you’ve learned about <code>dplyr</code> and <code>ggplot2</code> to interactively ask questions, answer them with data, and then ask new questions.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb1"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb1-1"><a href="#cb1-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(tidyverse)</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="making-discoveries-within-your-data" class="slide level2">
<h2>Making discoveries within your data</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>Two types of questions will always be useful for making discoveries within your data. You can loosely word these questions as:</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">What type of variation occurs within my variables?</li>
<li class="fragment">What type of covariation occurs between my variables?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="variance-vs-covariance" class="slide level2">
<h2>Variance v’s Covariance</h2>
<img data-src="Img/Variance-Covariance1.jpg" class="r-stretch quarto-figure-center"></section>
<section id="the-importance-of-visualisation" class="slide level2">
<h2>The importance of Visualisation</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Summary statistics indeed help us understand the data but will never reveal everything of it.</li>
<li class="fragment">Relying solely on summary statistics such as mean, variance and correlation, can make you miss the bigger picture.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="workshop-part-1-introduction-to-variance" class="slide level2">
<h2>Workshop Part 1: INTRODUCTION TO VARIANCE</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment"><code>Anscombe's quartet</code> comprises four data sets. Each dataset consists of eleven (x,y) points.</li>
<li class="fragment">When analsyed they have nearly identical simple descriptive statistics, yet have very different distributions and appear very different when graphed.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="anscombes-quartet" class="slide level2">
<h2>Anscombe’s Quartet</h2>
<img data-src="Img/Anscombe's_quartet.png" class="r-stretch quarto-figure-center"></section>
<section id="datasaurus" class="slide level2">
<h2>DatasauRus</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="cell quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb2"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb2-1"><a href="#cb2-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(datasauRus)</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">The <code>Datasaurus</code> dataset was initially created by Alberto Cairo. It is composed of 142 observations with a bivariate normal distribution.</li>
<li class="fragment">Inspired by this example, two researchers at Autodesk Research, Justin Matejka and George Fitzmaurice, created another twelve similar datasets.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="datasaurus-plots" class="slide level2">
<h2>DatasauRus Plots</h2>
<img data-src="Img/DatasauRus.png" class="r-stretch quarto-figure-center"></section>
<section id="workshop-part-2-introduction-to-eda" class="slide level2">
<h2>Workshop Part 2: INTRODUCTION TO EDA</h2>
<aside><div>
<p>Inspired from R for Data Science by Hadley Wickham and Garrett Grolemund. <a href="https://r4ds.had.co.nz/exploratory-data-analysis.html">https://r4ds.had.co.nz/exploratory-data-analysis.html</a></p>
</div></aside></section>
<section id="diamonds-data" class="slide level2">
<h2><code>diamonds</code> data</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>A dataset containing the prices and other attributes of almost 54,000 diamonds.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb3"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb3-1"><a href="#cb3-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>?diamonds</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="visualising-distributions" class="slide level2">
<h2>Visualising distributions</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>Every variable has its own pattern of variation, which can reveal interesting information. The best way to understand that pattern is to visualise the distribution of the variable’s values. To examine the distribution of a categorical variable, use a bar chart.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb4"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb4-1"><a href="#cb4-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>diamonds <span class="sc">|></span> </span>
<span id="cb4-2"><a href="#cb4-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">ggplot</span>(<span class="at">mapping =</span> <span class="fu">aes</span>(<span class="at">x =</span> cut)) <span class="sc">+</span></span>
<span id="cb4-3"><a href="#cb4-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">geom_bar</span>()</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="distribution-of-a-categorical-variable" class="slide level2">
<h2>Distribution of a categorical variable</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
</div>
<img data-src="Img/diamonds_bar.png" class="r-stretch"></section>
<section id="visualising-distributions-1" class="slide level2">
<h2>Visualising distributions</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>To examine the distribution of a continuous variable, use a histogram:</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb5"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb5-1"><a href="#cb5-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>diamonds <span class="sc">|></span> </span>
<span id="cb5-2"><a href="#cb5-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">ggplot</span>(<span class="at">mapping =</span> <span class="fu">aes</span>(<span class="at">x =</span> carat)) <span class="sc">+</span></span>
<span id="cb5-3"><a href="#cb5-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">geom_histogram</span>(<span class="at">binwidth =</span> <span class="fl">0.5</span>)</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="distribution-of-a-continuous-variable" class="slide level2">
<h2>Distribution of a continuous variable</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
</div>
<p><img data-src="Img/diamonds_hist.png" style="width:70.0%"></p>
<aside><div>
<p>You should always explore a variety of <code>binwidths</code> when working with histograms, as different <code>binwidths</code> can reveal different patterns.</p>
</div></aside></section>
<section id="exercise" class="slide level2">
<h2>EXERCISE</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">What should you look for in your plots?</li>
<li class="fragment">What follow up questions should you ask?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="exercise-1" class="slide level2">
<h2>EXERCISE</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Which values are the most common? Why?</li>
<li class="fragment">Which values are rare? Why? Does that match your expectations?</li>
<li class="fragment">Can you see any unusual patterns? What might explain them?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="exercise-2" class="slide level2">
<h2>EXERCISE</h2>
<img data-src="Img/diamonds_carat.png" class="r-stretch"><div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb6"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb6-1"><a href="#cb6-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>smaller <span class="ot"><-</span> diamonds <span class="sc">|></span> </span>
<span id="cb6-2"><a href="#cb6-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">filter</span>(carat <span class="sc"><</span> <span class="dv">3</span>)</span>
<span id="cb6-3"><a href="#cb6-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb6-4"><a href="#cb6-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb6-5"><a href="#cb6-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>smaller <span class="sc">|></span> </span>
<span id="cb6-6"><a href="#cb6-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">ggplot</span>(<span class="at">mapping =</span> <span class="fu">aes</span>(<span class="at">x =</span> carat)) <span class="sc">+</span></span>
<span id="cb6-7"><a href="#cb6-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">geom_histogram</span>(<span class="at">binwidth =</span> <span class="fl">0.1</span>) <span class="sc">|></span> </span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="exercise-3" class="slide level2">
<h2>EXERCISE</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>What is the histogram telling us?</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Why are there more diamonds at whole carats and common fractions of carats?</li>
<li class="fragment">Why are there more diamonds slightly to the right of each peak than there are slightly to the left of each peak?</li>
<li class="fragment">Why are there no diamonds bigger than 3 carats?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="clusters-of-similar-values" class="slide level2">
<h2>Clusters of similar values</h2>
<p>Clusters of similar values suggest that subgroups exist in your data. To understand the subgroups, ask:</p>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">How are the observations within each cluster similar to each other?</li>
<li class="fragment">How are the observations in separate clusters different from each other?</li>
<li class="fragment">How can you explain or describe the clusters?</li>
<li class="fragment">Why might the appearance of clusters be misleading?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="unusual-values" class="slide level2">
<h2>Unusual values</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>Outliers are observations that are unusual; data points that don’t seem to fit the pattern. Sometimes outliers are data entry errors; other times outliers suggest important new science.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<img data-src="Img/unusual.png" class="r-stretch quarto-figure-center"></section>
<section id="exercise-4" class="slide level2">
<h2>EXERCISE</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Explore the distribution of each of the x, y, and z variables in diamonds. What do you learn? Think about a diamond and how you might decide which dimension is the length, width, and depth.</li>
<li class="fragment">Explore the distribution of price. Do you discover anything unusual or surprising?</li>
<li class="fragment">How many diamonds are 0.99 carat? How many are 1 carat? What do you think is the cause of the difference?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="closer-inspection" class="slide level2">
<h2>Closer inspection</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">The <code>y</code> variable measures one of the three dimensions of these diamonds, in mm.</li>
<li class="fragment">We know that diamonds can’t have a width of 0mm, so these values must be incorrect.</li>
<li class="fragment">We might also suspect that measurements of 32mm and 59mm are implausible: those diamonds are over an inch long, but don’t cost hundreds of thousands of dollars!</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="closer-inspection-1" class="slide level2">
<h2>Closer inspection</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">It’s good practice to repeat your analysis with and without the outliers.</li>
<li class="fragment">If they have minimal effect on the results, and you can’t figure out why they’re there, it’s reasonable to replace them with missing values, and move on.</li>
<li class="fragment">If they have a substantial effect on your results, you shouldn’t drop them without justification. You’ll need to figure out what caused them (e.g. a data entry error) and disclose that you removed them in your write-up.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="missing-values" class="slide level2">
<h2>Missing values</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>If you’ve encountered unusual values in your dataset, and simply want to move on to the rest of your analysis, you have two options.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Drop the entire row with the strange values</li>
<li class="fragment">Replacing the unusual values with missing values</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="drop-entire-row" class="slide level2">
<h2>Drop entire row</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">I don’t recommend this option because just because one measurement is invalid, doesn’t mean all the measurements are.</li>
<li class="fragment">Additionally, if you have low quality data, by time that you’ve applied this approach to every variable you might find that you don’t have any data left!</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="replacing-values" class="slide level2">
<h2>Replacing values</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<ul>
<li class="fragment">Instead, I recommend replacing the unusual values with missing values.</li>
<li class="fragment">The easiest way to do this is to use mutate() to replace the variable with a modified copy.</li>
<li class="fragment">You can use the ifelse() function to replace unusual values with NA.</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="what-makes-observations-missing" class="slide level2">
<h2>What makes observations missing?</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>Other times you want to understand what makes observations with missing values different to observations with recorded values.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">What happens to missing values in a histogram? What happens to missing values in a bar chart? Why is there a difference?</li>
<li class="fragment">What does na.rm = TRUE do in mean() and sum()?</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="nycflights13" class="slide level2">
<h2>nycflights13</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>On-time data for all flights that departed NYC (i.e. JFK, LGA or EWR) in 2013.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="cell">
<div class="sourceCode cell-code" id="cb7"><pre class="sourceCode r code-with-copy"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb7-1"><a href="#cb7-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(nycflights13)</span></code><button title="Copy to Clipboard" class="code-copy-button"><i class="bi"></i></button></pre></div>
</div>
</section>
<section id="nycflights13-1" class="slide level2">
<h2>nycflights13</h2>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p>For example, in <code>nycflights13::flights</code>, missing values in the <code>dep_time</code> variable indicate that the flight was cancelled?</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<ul>
<li class="fragment">So you might want to compare the scheduled departure times for cancelled and non-cancelled times.</li>
<li class="fragment">You can do this by making a new variable with is.na().</li>
</ul>
</div>
</section>
<section id="nycflights13-2" class="slide level2">
<h2>nycflights13</h2>
<img data-src="Img/departure_time.png" class="r-stretch quarto-figure-center"></section></section>
<section id="thank-you" class="title-slide slide level1 center">
<h1>Thank you!</h1>
</section>
<section id="in-the-next-episode" class="title-slide slide level1 center">
<h1>In the next episode</h1>
<div class="quarto-layout-panel">
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-figure-spacer quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-layout-row quarto-layout-valign-top">
<div class="quarto-layout-cell" style="flex-basis: 100.0%;justify-content: center;">
<p><code>EDA Part 2</code></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="footer footer-default">
<p><a href="https://filebb.github.io/NHS_intro_DS/">Fundamentals of Data Science for NHS using R</a> - Day 7</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
<script>window.backupDefine = window.define; window.define = undefined;</script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/dist/reveal.js"></script>
<!-- reveal.js plugins -->
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/quarto-line-highlight/line-highlight.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/pdf-export/pdfexport.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/reveal-menu/menu.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/reveal-menu/quarto-menu.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/quarto-support/support.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/notes/notes.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/search/search.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/zoom/zoom.js"></script>
<script src="07_EDA_part1_files/libs/revealjs/plugin/math/math.js"></script>
<script>window.define = window.backupDefine; window.backupDefine = undefined;</script>
<script>
// Full list of configuration options available at:
// https://revealjs.com/config/
Reveal.initialize({
'controlsAuto': true,
'previewLinksAuto': false,
'smaller': false,
'pdfSeparateFragments': false,
'autoAnimateEasing': "ease",
'autoAnimateDuration': 1,